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@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@ contributors:
# Cairo
Cairo is a Turing-complete language that allows you write provable programs
(where one party can prove to another that a certain computation
was executed correctly) on StarkNet.
(where one party can prove to another that a certain computation was executed
correctly) on StarkNet.
# StarkNet
## StarkNet
StarkNet is a decentralized ZK-rollup that operates as an Ethereum layer 2
chain.
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ syntax and how you could create and deploy a Cairo smart contract on StarkNet.
want to check the [official docs](https://www.cairo-lang.org/docs) to confirm
this document is still up-to-date. Pull requests are welcome!**
# Setting Up A Development Environment
## Setting Up A Development Environment
Before we get started writing codes, we will need to setup a Cairo development
environment, for writing, compiling and deploying our contracts to StarkNet.
@@ -44,23 +44,23 @@ Protostar version displayed on the screen.
## Initializing a new project
Protostar similar to Truffle for solidity development can be installed once and
used for multiple projects.
To initialize a new Protostar project, run the following command:
used for multiple projects. To initialize a new Protostar project, run the
following command:
```
protostar init
```
2. It would then request the project's name and the library's directory name,
you'd need to fill in this, and a new project will be initialized
successfully.
It would then request the project's name and the library's directory name,
you'd need to fill in this, and a new project will be initialized successfully.
## Compiling, Declaring, Deploying and Interacting with StarkNet Contracts
# Compiling, Declaring, Deploying And Interacting With StarkNet Contracts
Within the `src` folder you'll find a boilerplate contract that comes with
initializing a new Protostar project, `main.cairo`. We are going to be
compiling, declaring and deploying this contract.
## Compiling Contracts
### Compiling Contracts
To compile a Cairo contract using Protostar, ensure a path to the contract is
specified in the `[contracts]` section of the `protostar.toml` file. Once
@@ -74,12 +74,11 @@ And you should get an output similar to what you see below, with a `main.json`
and `main_abi.json` files created in the `build` folder.
<img src="./cairo_assets/build.png" alt="building your contract">
## Declaring Contracts
### Declaring Contracts
With the recent StarkNet update to 0.10.3, the DEPLOY transaction was
deprecated and no longer works. To deploy a transaction, you must first declare
a Contract to obtain the class hash, then deploy the declared contract using
the
a Contract to obtain the class hash, then deploy the declared contract using the
[Universal Deployer Contract](https://community.starknet.io/t/universal-deployer-contract-proposal/1864).
Before declaring or deploying your contract using Protostar, you should set the
@@ -90,12 +89,14 @@ terminal. To set your private key in the terminal, run the command:
export PROTOSTAR_ACCOUNT_PRIVATE_KEY=[YOUR PRIVATE KEY HERE]
```
Then to declare our contract using Protostar run the following command:
Then to declare our contract using Protostar run the following command (for
visual clarity, the backslash sign symbolizes the continuing line):
```
protostar declare ./build/main.json --network testnet --account
0x0691622bBFD29e835bA4004e7425A4e9630840EbD11c5269DE51C16774585b16 --max-fee
auto
protostar declare ./build/main.json \
--network testnet \
--account 0x0691622bBFD29e835bA4004e7425A4e9630840EbD11c5269DE51C16774585b16 \
--max-fee auto
```
where `network` specifies the network we are deploying to, `account` specifies
@@ -104,48 +105,47 @@ be paid for the transaction. You should get the class hash outputted as seen
below:
<img src="./cairo_assets/declare.png" alt="declaring your contract">
## Deploying Contracts
### Deploying Contracts
After obtaining our class hash from declaring, we can now deploy using the
below command:
command below:
```
protostar deploy
0x02a5de1b145e18dfeb31c7cd7ff403714ededf5f3fdf75f8b0ac96f2017541bc --network
testnet --account
0x0691622bBFD29e835bA4004e7425A4e9630840EbD11c5269DE51C16774585b16 --max-fee
auto
protostar \
deploy 0x02a5de1b145e18dfeb31c7cd7ff403714ededf5f3fdf75f8b0ac96f2017541bc \
--network testnet \
--account 0x0691622bBFD29e835bA4004e7425A4e9630840EbD11c5269DE51C16774585b16 \
--max-fee auto
```
where `0x02a5de1b145e18dfeb31c7cd7ff403714ededf5f3fdf75f8b0ac96f2017541bc` is
the class hash of our contract.
<img src="./cairo_assets/deploy.png" alt="deploying your contract">
## Interacting With Contracts
### Interacting with Contracts
To interact with your deployed contract, we will be using Argent X
(alternative - Braavos), and Starkscan (alternative - Voyager). To install and
setup Argent X, check out this
To interact with your deployed contract, we will be using `Argent X`
(alternative: `Braavos`), and `Starkscan` (alternative: `Voyager`). To install
and setup `Argent X`, see this
[guide](https://www.argent.xyz/learn/how-to-create-an-argent-x-wallet/).
Copy your contract address, displayed on screen from the previous step, and
head over to [Starkscan](https://testnet.starkscan.co/) to search for the
contract. Once found, you can make write calls to the contract by following the
steps below:
contract. Once found, you can make write calls to the contract in the following
sequence:
1. Click on the "connect wallet" button
+ click on the "connect wallet" button,
<img src="./cairo_assets/connect.png" alt="connect wallet">
2. Select Argent X and approve the connection
+ select `Argent X` and approve the connection
<img src="./cairo_assets/connect2.png" alt="connect to argentX">
3. You can now make read and write calls easily.
+ you can now make read and write calls easily.
# Let's learn Cairo
## Let's learn Cairo
First let's look at a default contract that comes with Protostar
First let's look at a default contract that comes with Protostar which allows
you to set balance on deployment, increase, and get the balance.
```cairo
// Allows you to set balance on deployment, increase, and get the balance.
// Language directive - instructs compiler its a StarkNet contract
%lang starknet
@@ -157,8 +157,7 @@ from starkware.cairo.common.cairo_builtins import HashBuiltin
// @storage_var is a decorator that instructs the compiler the function
// below it is a storage variable.
@storage_var
func balance() -> (res: felt) {
}
func balance() -> (res: felt){}
// @dev Constructor writes the balance variable to 0 on deployment
// Constructors sets storage variables on deployment. Can accept arguments too.
@@ -191,148 +190,142 @@ func get_balance{syscall_ptr: felt*, pedersen_ptr: HashBuiltin*,
let (res) = balance.read();
return (res,);
}
// before proceeding, try to build, deploy and interact with this contract!
// NB: Should be at main.cairo if you are using Protostar.
```
Now unto the main lessons
Before proceeding to the main lessons, try to build, deploy and interact with
this contract.
NB: You should be at `main.cairo` if you are using Protostar.
### 1. THE FELT DATA TYPE
### 1. The Felt data type
Unlike solidity, where you have access to various data types, Cairo comes with
just a single data type `..felts`. Felts stands for Field elements, and are a
252 bit integer in the range `0<=x<=P` where `P` is a prime number. You can
create a `Uint256` in Cairo by utlizing a struct of two 128 bits felts.
```cairo
// Unlike solidity, where you have access to various data types, Cairo
// comes with just a single data type..felts
// Felts stands for Field elements, and are a 252 bit integer in the range
// 0<=x<=P where P is a prime number.
// You can create a Uint256 in Cairo by utlizing a struct of two 128 bits
// felts.
struct Uint256{
low: felt, // The low 128 bits of the value.
high: felt, // The high 128 bits of the value.
}
// To avoid running into issues with divisions, it's safer to work with the
// unsigned_div_rem method from Cairo-lang's library.
```
### 2. LANG DIRECTIVE AND IMPORTS
To avoid running into issues with divisions, it's safer to work with the
`unsigned_div_rem` method from Cairo-lang's library.
### 2. Lang Directive and Imports
To get started with writing a StarkNet contract, you must specify the directive:
```cairo
// To get started with writing a StarkNet contract, you must specify the
// directive:
%lang starknet
```
// This directive informs the compiler you are writing a contract and not a
// program.
// The difference between both is contracts have access to StarkNet's
// storage, programs don't and as such are stateless.
This directive informs the compiler you are writing a contract and not a
program. The difference between both is contracts have access to StarkNet's
storage, programs don't and as such are stateless.
// There are important functions you might need to import from the official
// Cairo-lang library or Openzeppelin's. e.g.
There are important functions you might need to import from the official
Cairo-lang library or Openzeppelin's, e.g.
```cairo
from starkware.cairo.common.cairo_builtins import HashBuiltin
from cairo_contracts.src.openzeppelin.token.erc20.library import ERC20
from starkware.cairo.common.uint256 import Uint256
from starkware.cairo.common.bool import TRUE
```
### 3. DATA STRUCTURES
### 3. Data Structures
+ Storage variables: Cairo's storage is a map with `2^251` slots, where each
slot is a felt which is initialized to `0`. You create one using the
`@storage_var` decorator
```cairo
// A. STORAGE VARIABLES
// Cairo's storage is a map with 2^251 slots, where each slot is a felt
// which is initialized to 0.
// You create one using the @storage_var decorator
@storage_var
func names() -> (name: felt){
}
func names() -> (name: felt){}
```
// B. STORAGE MAPPINGS
// Unlike soldity where mappings have a separate keyword, in Cairo you
// create mappings using storage variables.
+ Storage mappings: Unlike soldity where mappings have a separate keyword, in
Cairo you create mappings using storage variables.
```cairo
@storage_var
func names(address: felt) -> (name: felt){
}
func names(address: felt) -> (name: felt){}
```
// C. STRUCTS
// Structs are a means to create custom data types in Cairo.
// A Struct has a size, which is the sum of the sizes of its members. The
// size can be retrieved using MyStruct.SIZE.
// You create a struct in Cairo using the `struct` keyword.
+ Structs: are a means to create custom data types in Cairo. A `struct` has a
size, which is the sum of the sizes of its members. The size can be
retrieved using `MyStruct.SIZE`. You create a struct in Cairo using the
`struct` keyword.
```cairo
struct Person {
name: felt,
age: felt,
address: felt,
}
```
// D. CONSTANTS
// Constants are fixed and as such can't be altered after being set.
// They evaluate to an integer (field element) at compile time.
// To create a constant in Cairo, you use the `const` keyword.
// Its proper practice to capitalize constant names.
+ Constants: Constants are fixed and as such can't be altered after being set.
They evaluate to an integer (field element) at compile time. To create a
constant in Cairo, you use the `const` keyword. Its proper practice to
capitalize constant names.
const USER =
0x01C6cfC1DB2ae90dACEA243F0a8C2F4e32560F7cDD398e4dA2Cc56B733774E9b
```cairo
const USER = 0x01C6cfC1DB2ae90dACEA243F0a8C2F4e32560F7cDD398e4dA2Cc56B733774E9b
```
// E. ARRAYS
// Arrays can be defined as a pointer(felt*) to the first element of the
//array.
// As an array is populated, its elements take up contigous memory cells.
// The `alloc` keyword can be used to dynamically allocate a new memory
// segment, which can be used to store an array
+ Arrays: Arrays can be defined as a `pointer(felt*)` to the first element of
the array. As an array is populated, its elements take up contigous memory
cells. The `alloc` keyword can be used to dynamically allocate a new memory
segment, which can be used to store an array:
```cairo
let (myArray: felt*) = alloc ();
assert myArray[0] = 1;
assert myArray[1] = 2;
assert myArray[3] = 3;
```
// You can also use the `new` operator to create fixed-size arrays using
//tuples
// The new operator is useful as it enables you allocate memory and
// initialize the object in one instruction
You can also use the `new` operator to create fixed-size arrays using
tuples. The new operator is useful as it enables you allocate memory and
initialize the object in one instruction
```cairo
func foo() {
tempvar arr: felt* = new (1, 1, 2, 3, 5);
assert arr[4] = 5;
return ();
}
```
// F. TUPLES
// A tuple is a finite, ordered, unchangeable list of elements
// It is represented as a comma-separated list of elements enclosed by
// parentheses
// Their elements may be of any combination of valid types.
+ Tuples: A tuple is a finite, ordered, unchangeable list of elements. It is
represented as a comma-separated list of elements enclosed by parentheses.
Their elements may be of any combination of valid types.
```cairo
local tuple0: (felt, felt, felt) = (7, 9, 13);
```
// G. EVENTS
// Events allows a contract emit information during the course of its
// execution, that can be used outside of StarkNet.
// To create an event:
+ Events: Events allows a contract emit information during the course of its
execution, that can be used outside of StarkNet. An event can be created,
subsequently emitted:
```cairo
@event
func name_stored(address, name) {
}
// To emit an event:
func name_stored(address, name) {}
name_stored.emit(address, name);
```
### 4. CONSTRUCTORS, EXTERNAL AND VIEW FUNCTIONS
### 4. Constructors, External and View functions
+ Constructors: Constructors are a way to intialize state variables on
contract deployment. You create a constructor using the `@constructor`
decorator.
```cairo
// A. CONSTRUCTORS
// Constructors are a way to intialize state variables on contract
// deployment
// You create a constructor using the @constructor decorator
@constructor
func constructor{syscall_ptr: felt*, pedersen_ptr: HashBuiltin*,
range_check_ptr}(_name: felt) {
@@ -340,11 +333,13 @@ Now unto the main lessons
names.write(caller, _name);
return ();
}
```
// B. EXTERNAL FUNCTIONS
// External functions are functions that modifies the state of the network
// You create an external function using the @external decorator
+ External functions: External functions are functions that modifies the state
of the network. You create an external function using the `@external`
decorator:
```cairo
@external
func store_name{syscall_ptr: felt*, pedersen_ptr: HashBuiltin*,
range_check_ptr}(_name: felt){
@@ -353,88 +348,80 @@ Now unto the main lessons
stored_name.emit(caller, _name);
return ();
}
```
// C. VIEW FUNCTIONS
// View functions do not modify the state of the blockchain
// You can create a view function using the @view decorator
+ View functions: View functions do not modify the state of the blockchain.
You can create a view function using the `@view` decorator.
```cairo
@view
func get_name{syscall_ptr: felt*, pedersen_ptr: HashBuiltin*,
range_check_ptr}(_address: felt) -> (name: felt){
let (name) = names.read(_address);
return (name,);
}
// NB: Unlike Solidity, Cairo supports just External and View function
// types.
// You can alternatively also create an internal function by not adding any
// decorator to the function.
```
### 5. DECORATORS
NB: Unlike Solidity, Cairo supports just External and View function types.
You can alternatively also create an internal function by not adding any
decorator to the function.
### 5. Decorators
All functions in Cairo are specified by the `func` keyword, which can be
confusing. Decorators are used by the compiler to distinguish between these
functions.
Here are the most common decorators you'll encounter in Cairo:
+ `@storage_var` — used for specifying state variables.
+ `@constructor` — used for specifying constructors.
+ `@external` — used for specifying functions that write to a state variable.
+ `@event` — used for specifying events
+ `@view` — used to specify functions reading from a state variable
+ `@contract_interface` — used for specifying function interfaces.
+ `@l1_handler` — used for specifying functions that processes message sent from
an L1 contract in a messaging bridge.
### 6. BUILTINS, HINTS & IMPLICIT Arguments
+ `BUILTINS` are predefined optimized low-level execution units, which are
added to Cairo’s CPU board. They help perform predefined computations like
pedersen hashing, bitwise operations etc, which are expensive to perform in
Vanilla Cairo. Each builtin in Cairo is assigned a separate memory location,
accessible through regular Cairo memory calls using implicit parameters. You
specify them using the `%builtins` directive
Here is a list of available builtins in Cairo:
+ `output` — the output builtin is used for writing program outputs
+ `pedersen` — the pedersen builtin is used for pedersen hashing
computations
+ `range_check` — This builtin is mostly used for integer comparisons,
and facilitates check to confirm that a field element is within a range
`[0, 2^128)`
+ `ecdsa` — the ecdsa builtin is used for verifying ECDSA signatures
+ `bitwise` — the bitwise builtin is used for carrying out bitwise
operations on felts
+ `HINTS` are pieces of Python codes, which contains instructions that only
the prover sees and executes. From the point of view of the verifier these
hints do not exist. To specify a hint in Cairo, you need to encapsulate it
within `%{` and `%}`. It is good practice to avoid using hints as much as
you can in your contracts, as hints are not added to the bytecode, and thus
do not count in the total number of execution steps.
```cairo
// All functions in Cairo are specified by the `func` keyword, which can be
// confusing.
// Decorators are used by the compiler to distinguish between these
// functions.
// Here are the most common decorators you'll encounter in Cairo:
// 1. @storage_var — used for specifying state variables.
// 2. @constructor — used for specifying constructors.
// 3. @external — used for specifying functions that write to a state
// variable.
// 4. @event — used for specifying events
// 5. @view — used for specifying functions that reads from a state
// variable.
// 6. @contract_interface - used for specifying function interfaces.
// 7. @l1_handler — used for specifying functions that processes message
// sent from an L1 contract in a messaging bridge.
```
### 6. BUILTINS, HINTS & IMPLICIT ARGUMENTS
```cairo
// A. BUILTINS
// Builtins are predefined optimized low-level execution units, which are
// added to Cairo’s CPU board.
// They help perform predefined computations like pedersen hashing, bitwise
// operations etc, which are expensive to perform in Vanilla Cairo.
// Each builtin in Cairo, is assigned a separate memory location,
// accessible through regular Cairo memory calls using implicit parameters.
// You specify them using the %builtins directive
// Here is a list of available builtins in Cairo:
// 1. output — the output builtin is used for writing program outputs
// 2. pedersen — the pedersen builtin is used for pedersen hashing
// computations
// 3. range_check — This builtin is mostly used for integer comparisons,
// and facilitates check to confirm that a field element is within a range [0,
// 2^128)
// 4. ecdsa — the ecdsa builtin is used for verifying ECDSA signatures
// 5. bitwise — the bitwise builtin is used for carrying out bitwise
// operations on felts
// B. HINTS
// Hints are pieces of Python codes, which contains instructions that only
// the prover sees and executes
// From the point of view of the verifier these hints do not exist
// To specify a hint in Cairo, you need to encapsulate it within %{ and%}
// Its good practice to avoid using hints as much as you can in your
// contracts, as hints are not added to the bytecode, and thus do not count in the
// total number of execution steps.
%{
# Python hint goes here
%}
```
// C. IMPLICIT ARGUMENTS
// Implicit arguments are not restricted to the function body, but can be
// inherited by other functions calls that require them.
// Implicit arguments are passed in between curly bracelets, like you can
// see below:
+ `IMPLICIT ARGUMENTS` are not restricted to the function body, but can be
inherited by other functions calls that require them. Implicit arguments are
passed in between curly bracelets, like you can see below:
```cairo
func store_name{syscall_ptr: felt*, pedersen_ptr: HashBuiltin*,
range_check_ptr}(_name: felt){
let (caller) = get_caller_address();
@@ -444,21 +431,19 @@ Now unto the main lessons
}
```
### 7. ERROR MESSAGES & ACCESS CONTROLS
### 7. Error Messages and Access Controls
You can create custom errors in Cairo which is outputted to the user upon failed
execution. This can be very useful for implementing checks and proper access
control mechanisms. An example is preventing a user to call a function except
user is `admin`.
```cairo
// You can create custom errors in Cairo which is outputted to the user
// upon failed execution.
// This can be very useful for implementing checks and proper access
// control mechanisms.
// An example is preventing a user to call a function except user is admin.
// imports
from starkware.starknet.common.syscalls import get_caller_address
// create an admin constant
const ADMIN =
0x01C6cfC1DB2ae90dACEA243F0a8C2F4e32560F7cDD398e4dA2Cc56B733774E9b
const ADMIN = 0x01C6cfC1DB2ae90dACEA243F0a8C2F4e32560F7cDD398e4dA2Cc56B733774E9b
// implement access control
with_attr error_message("You do not have access to make this action!"){
@@ -470,13 +455,13 @@ Now unto the main lessons
// returning the specified error.
```
### 8. CONTRACT INTERFACES
### 8. Contract Interfaces
Contract interfaces provide a means for one contract to invoke or call the
external function of another contract. To create a contract interface, you use
the `@contract_interface` keyword:
```cairo
// Contract interfaces provide a means for one contract to invoke or call
// the external function of another contract.
// To create a contract interface, you use the @contract_interface keyword
@contract_interface
namespace IENS {
func store_name(_name: felt) {
@@ -485,27 +470,28 @@ Now unto the main lessons
func get_name(_address: felt) -> (name: felt) {
}
}
// Once a contract interface is specified, any contract can make calls to
// that contract passing in the contract address as the first parameter like this:
IENS.store_name(contract_address, _name);
// Note that Interfaces excludes the function body/logic and the implicit
// arguments.
```
### 9. RECURSIONS
Once a contract interface is specified, any contract can make calls to that
contract passing in the contract address as the first parameter like this:
```cairo
// Due to the unavailability of loops, Recursions are the go-to for similar
// operations.
// In simple terms, a recursive function is one which calls itself
// repeatedly.
IENS.store_name(contract_address, _name);
```
// A good example to demonstrate this is writing a function for getting the
// nth fibonacci number:
Note that Interfaces excludes the function body/logic and the implicit
arguments.
### 9. Recursions
Due to the unavailability of loops, Recursions are the go-to for similar
operations. In simple terms, a recursive function is one which calls itself
repeatedly.
A good example to demonstrate this is writing a function for getting the nth
fibonacci number:
```cairo
@external
func fibonacci{syscall_ptr: felt*, pedersen_ptr: HashBuiltin*,
range_check_ptr}(n : felt) -> (result : felt){
@@ -520,41 +506,38 @@ Now unto the main lessons
let (local y) = fibonacci(n - 2);
return (result=(x + y));
}
// The nth fibonacci term is the sum of the nth - 1 and the nth - 2
// numbers, that's why we get these two as (x, y) using recursion.
// NB: when implementing recursive functions, always remember to implement
// a base case (n==0, n==1 in our case), to prevent stack overflow.
```
Some low-level stuffs
The nth fibonacci term is the sum of the `nth - 1` and the `nth - 2` numbers,
that's why we get these two as `(x,y)` using recursion.
### 10. REGISTERS
NB: when implementing recursive functions, always remember to implement a base
case (`n==0`, `n==1` in our case), to prevent stack overflow.
### 10. Registers
Registers holds values that may change over time. There are 3 major types of
registers:
+ `ap` (allocation pointer) points to a yet unused memory. Temporary variables
created using `let`, `tempvar` are held here, and thus susceptible to being
revoked.
+ `fp` (frame pointer) points to the frame of the current function. The address
of all the function arguments and local variables are relative to this
register and as such can never be revoked.
+ `pc` (program counter) points to the current instruction.
### 11. Revoked References
Revoked references occurs when there is a call instruction to another function,
between the definition of a reference variable that depends on `ap`(temp
variables) and its usage. This occurs as the compiler may not be able to compute
the change of `ap` (as one may jump to the label from another place in the
program, or call a function that might change ap in an unknown way).
Here is an example to demonstrate what I mean:
```cairo
// Registers holds values that may change over time.
// There are 3 major types of Registers:
// 1. ap (allocation pointer) points to a yet unused memory. Temporary
// variables created using `let`, `tempvar` are held here, and thus susceptible to
// being revoked
// 2. fp (frame pointer) points to the frame of the current function. The
// address of all the function arguments and local variables are relative to this
// register and as such can never be revoked
// 3. pc (program counter) points to the current instruction
```
### 11. REVOKED REFERENCES
```cairo
// Revoked references occurs when there is a call instruction to another
// function, between the definition of a reference variable that depends on
// `ap`(temp variables) and its usage. This occurs as the compiler may not be able
// to compute the change of `ap` (as one may jump to the label from another place
// in the program, or call a function that might change ap in an unknown way).
// Here is an example to demonstrate what I mean:
@external
func get_balance{syscall_ptr: felt*, pedersen_ptr: HashBuiltin*,
range_check_ptr}() -> (res: felt) {
@@ -569,15 +552,17 @@ Some low-level stuffs
let new_balance = balance * multiplier;
return (res=new_balance);
}
```
// If you run that code, you'll run into the revoked reference error as we
// are trying to access the `multiplier` variable after calling the get_balance
// function;
If you run that code, you'll run into the revoked reference error as we are
trying to access the `multiplier` variable after calling the `get_balance`
function.
// To solve revoked references, In simple cases you can resolve this issue,
// by adding the keyword, `alloc_locals` within function scopes, but in most
// complex cases you might need to create a local variable to resolve it.
In simple cases you can resolve revoked references by adding the keyword
`alloc_locals` within function scopes. In most complex cases you might need to
create a local variable to resolve it.
```cairo
// resolving the `double_balance` function:
@external
func double_balance{syscall_ptr: felt*, pedersen_ptr: HashBuiltin*,
@@ -590,36 +575,25 @@ Some low-level stuffs
}
```
Miscellaneous
### 12. Understanding Cairo's Punctuations
### 12. Understanding Cairo's punctuations
+ `;` (semicolon). Used at the end of each instruction
+ `()` (parentheses). Used in a function declaration, if statements, and in a
tuple declaration
+ `{}` (curly braces). Used in a declaration of implicit arguments and to define
code blocks.
+ `[]` (square brackets). Standalone brackets represent the value at a
particular address location (such as the allocation pointer, `[ap]`). Brackets
following a pointer or a tuple act as a subscript operator, where `x[2]`
represents the element with index `2` in `x`.
+ `*` (single asterisk). Refers to the pointer of an expression.
+ `%` (percent sign). Appears at the start of a directive, such as `%builtins`
or `%lang`.
+ `%{` and `%}` represent Python hints.
+ `_` (underscore). A placeholder to handle values that are not used, such as an
unused function return value.
```cairo
// ; (semicolon). Used at the end of each instruction
// ( ) (parentheses). Used in a function declaration, if statements, and in
// a tuple declaration
// { } (curly brackets). Used in a declaration of implicit arguments and to
// define code blocks.
// [ ] (square brackets). Standalone brackets represent the value at a
// particular address location (such as the allocation pointer, [ap]). Brackets
// following a pointer or a tuple act as a subscript operator, where x[2]
// represents the element with index 2 in x.
// * Single asterisk. Refers to the pointer of an expression.
// % Percent sign. Appears at the start of a directive, such as %builtins
// or %lang.
// %{ %} Represents Python hints.
// _ (underscore). A placeholder to handle values that are not used, such
// as an unused function return value.
```
# FULL CONTRACT EXAMPLE
## Full Contract Example
Below is a simple automated market maker contract example that implements most
of what we just learnt! Re-write, deploy, have fun!
@@ -635,11 +609,9 @@ of what we just learnt! Re-write, deploy, have fun!
from starkware.starknet.common.syscalls import (get_caller_address,
storage_read, storage_write)
//
// CONSTANTS
//
// @dev the maximum amount of each token that belongs to the AMM
const BALANCE_UPPER_BOUND = 2 ** 64;
@@ -650,24 +622,20 @@ of what we just learnt! Re-write, deploy, have fun!
const POOL_UPPER_BOUND = 2 ** 30;
const ACCOUNT_BALANCE_BOUND = 1073741; // (2 ** 30 / 1000)
//
// STORAGE VARIABLES
//
// @dev A map from account and token type to corresponding balance
@storage_var
func account_balance(account_id: felt, token_type: felt) -> (balance: felt){
}
func account_balance(account_id: felt, token_type: felt) -> (balance: felt){}
// @dev a map from token type to corresponding pool balance
@storage_var
func pool_balance(token_type: felt) -> (balance: felt) {
}
func pool_balance(token_type: felt) -> (balance: felt) {}
//
// GETTERS
//
// @dev returns account balance for a given token
// @param account_id Account to be queried
// @param token_type Token to be queried
@@ -689,10 +657,9 @@ of what we just learnt! Re-write, deploy, have fun!
return pool_balance.read(token_type);
}
//
// EXTERNALS
//
// @dev set pool balance for a given token
// @param token_type Token whose balance is to be set
// @param balance Amount to be set as balance
@@ -784,10 +751,8 @@ of what we just learnt! Re-write, deploy, have fun!
}
//
// INTERNALS
//
// @dev internal function that updates account balance for a given token
// @param account_id Account whose balance is to be modified
// @param token_type Token type to be modified
@@ -823,8 +788,7 @@ of what we just learnt! Re-write, deploy, have fun!
// get pool balance
let (local amm_from_balance) = get_pool_token_balance(token_type =
token_from);
let (local amm_to_balance) =
get_pool_token_balance(token_type=token_to);
let (local amm_to_balance) = get_pool_token_balance(token_type=token_to);
// calculate swap amount
let (local amount_to, _) = unsigned_div_rem((amm_to_balance *
@@ -845,6 +809,7 @@ of what we just learnt! Re-write, deploy, have fun!
return (amount_to=amount_to);
}
// @dev internal function to get the opposite token type
// @param token_type Token whose opposite pair needs to be gotten
func get_opposite_token(token_type: felt) -> (t: felt) {
@@ -856,42 +821,42 @@ of what we just learnt! Re-write, deploy, have fun!
}
```
# Additional Resources
## Additional Resources
1. [Official documentation](https://www.cairo-lang.org/docs/)
2. [Starknet EDU](https://medium.com/starknet-edu)
3. [Journey through Cairo](https://medium.com/@darlingtonnnam/journey-through-cairo-i-setting-up-protostar-and-argentx-for-local-development-ba40ae6c5524)
4. [Demystifying Cairo whitepaper](https://medium.com/@pban/demystifying-cairo-white-paper-part-i-b71976ad0108)
5. [Learn about StarkNet with Argent](https://www.argent.xyz/learn/tag/starknet/)
+ [Official documentation](https://www.cairo-lang.org/docs/)
+ [Starknet EDU](https://medium.com/starknet-edu)
+ [Journey through Cairo](https://medium.com/@darlingtonnnam/journey-through-cairo-i-setting-up-protostar-and-argentx-for-local-development-ba40ae6c5524)
+ [Demystifying Cairo whitepaper](https://medium.com/@pban/demystifying-cairo-white-paper-part-i-b71976ad0108)
+ [Learn about StarkNet with Argent](https://www.argent.xyz/learn/tag/starknet/)
# Development Frameworks
## Development Frameworks
1. [Protostar](https://docs.swmansion.com/protostar/docs/tutorials/installation)
2. [Nile](https://github.com/OpenZeppelin/nile)
3. [StarkNet CLI](https://www.cairo-lang.org/docs/quickstart.html)
+ [Protostar](https://docs.swmansion.com/protostar/docs/tutorials/installation)
+ [Nile](https://github.com/OpenZeppelin/nile)
+ [StarkNet CLI](https://www.cairo-lang.org/docs/quickstart.html)
# Helpful Libraries
## Helpful Libraries
1. [Cairo-lang](https://github.com/starkware-libs/cairo-lang)
2. [Openzeppelin](https://github.com/OpenZeppelin/cairo-contracts)
+ [Cairo-lang](https://github.com/starkware-libs/cairo-lang)
+ [Openzeppelin](https://github.com/OpenZeppelin/cairo-contracts)
# Educational Repos
## Educational Repos
1. [StarkNet Cairo 101](https://github.com/starknet-edu/starknet-cairo-101)
2. [StarkNet ERC721](https://github.com/starknet-edu/starknet-erc721)
3. [StarkNet ERC20](https://github.com/starknet-edu/starknet-erc20)
4. [L1 -> L2 Messaging](https://github.com/starknet-edu/starknet-messaging-bridge)
5. [StarkNet Debug](https://github.com/starknet-edu/starknet-debug)
6. [StarkNet Accounts](https://github.com/starknet-edu/starknet-accounts)
7. [Min-Starknet](https://github.com/Darlington02/min-starknet)
+ [StarkNet Cairo 101](https://github.com/starknet-edu/starknet-cairo-101)
+ [StarkNet ERC721](https://github.com/starknet-edu/starknet-erc721)
+ [StarkNet ERC20](https://github.com/starknet-edu/starknet-erc20)
+ [L1 -> L2 Messaging](https://github.com/starknet-edu/starknet-messaging-bridge)
+ [StarkNet Debug](https://github.com/starknet-edu/starknet-debug)
+ [StarkNet Accounts](https://github.com/starknet-edu/starknet-accounts)
+ [Min-Starknet](https://github.com/Darlington02/min-starknet)
# Security
## Security
1. [Amarna static analysis for Cairo programs](https://blog.trailofbits.com/2022/04/20/amarna-static-analysis-for-cairo-programs/)
2. [Cairo and StarkNet security by Ctrl03](https://ctrlc03.github.io/)
3. [How to hack almost any Cairo smart contract](https://medium.com/ginger-security/how-to-hack-almost-any-starknet-cairo-smart-contract-67b4681ac0f6)
4. [Analyzing Cairo code using Armana](https://dic0de.substack.com/p/analyzing-cairo-code-using-amarna?sd=pf)
+ [Amarna static analysis for Cairo programs](https://blog.trailofbits.com/2022/04/20/amarna-static-analysis-for-cairo-programs/)
+ [Cairo and StarkNet security by Ctrl03](https://ctrlc03.github.io/)
+ [How to hack almost any Cairo smart contract](https://medium.com/ginger-security/how-to-hack-almost-any-starknet-cairo-smart-contract-67b4681ac0f6)
+ [Analyzing Cairo code using Armana](https://dic0de.substack.com/p/analyzing-cairo-code-using-amarna?sd=pf)
# Future TO-DOs
## Future TO-DOs
Update tutorial to fit Cairo 1.0