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Merge branch 'master' of github.com:adambard/learnxinyminutes-docs

Browse Source
This commit is contained in:
Luis Custodio
2015-10-17 13:11:25 +02:00
parent c9348e5a82 0e6d9f6fe9
commit f5873b0890
78 changed files with 7627 additions and 1284 deletions
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2
README.markdown
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@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ commented code and explained as they go.
... to write more inline code tutorials. Just grab an existing file from
this repo and copy the formatting (don't worry, it's all very simple).
Make a new file, send a pull request, and if it passes muster I'll get it up pronto.
Make a new file, send a pull request, and if it passes master I'll get it up pronto.
Remember to fill in the "contributors" fields so you get credited
properly!

13
bash.html.markdown
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@@ -90,17 +90,26 @@ else
echo "Your name is your username"
fi
# NOTE: if $Name is empty, bash sees the above condition as:
if [ -ne $USER ]
# which is invalid syntax
# so the "safe" way to use potentially empty variables in bash is:
if [ "$Name" -ne $USER ] ...
# which, when $Name is empty, is seen by bash as:
if [ "" -ne $USER ] ...
# which works as expected
# There is also conditional execution
echo "Always executed" || echo "Only executed if first command fails"
echo "Always executed" && echo "Only executed if first command does NOT fail"
# To use && and || with if statements, you need multiple pairs of square brackets:
if [ $Name == "Steve" ] && [ $Age -eq 15 ]
if [ "$Name" == "Steve" ] && [ "$Age" -eq 15 ]
then
echo "This will run if $Name is Steve AND $Age is 15."
fi
if [ $Name == "Daniya" ] || [ $Name == "Zach" ]
if [ "$Name" == "Daniya" ] || [ "$Name" == "Zach" ]
then
echo "This will run if $Name is Daniya OR Zach."
fi

4
c++.html.markdown
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@@ -264,7 +264,7 @@ string retVal = tempObjectFun();
// What happens in the second line is actually:
// - a string object is returned from tempObjectFun
// - a new string is constructed with the returned object as arugment to the
// - a new string is constructed with the returned object as argument to the
// constructor
// - the returned object is destroyed
// The returned object is called a temporary object. Temporary objects are
@@ -404,6 +404,8 @@ int main() {
// Inheritance:
// This class inherits everything public and protected from the Dog class
// as well as private but may not directly access private members/methods
// without a public or protected method for doing so
class OwnedDog : public Dog {
void setOwner(const std::string& dogsOwner);

113
c.html.markdown
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@@ -6,7 +6,8 @@ contributors:
- ["Árpád Goretity", "http://twitter.com/H2CO3_iOS"]
- ["Jakub Trzebiatowski", "http://cbs.stgn.pl"]
- ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://marcoms.github.io"]
- ["Zachary Ferguson", "https://github.io/zfergus2"]
- ["himanshu", "https://github.com/himanshu81494"]
---
Ah, C. Still **the** language of modern high-performance computing.
@@ -27,6 +28,7 @@ Multi-line comments don't nest /* Be careful */ // comment ends on this line...
*/ // ...not this one!
// Constants: #define <keyword>
// Constants are written in all-caps out of convention, not requirement
#define DAYS_IN_YEAR 365
// Enumeration constants are also ways to declare constants.
@@ -52,10 +54,21 @@ int function_2(void);
// Must declare a 'function prototype' before main() when functions occur after
// your main() function.
int add_two_ints(int x1, int x2); // function prototype
// although `int add_two_ints(int, int);` is also valid (no need to name the args),
// it is recommended to name arguments in the prototype as well for easier inspection
// Your program's entry point is a function called
// main with an integer return type.
int main(void) {
// your program
}
// The command line arguments used to run your program are also passed to main
// argc being the number of arguments - your program's name counts as 1
// argv is an array of character arrays - containing the arguments themselves
// argv[0] = name of your program, argv[1] = first argument, etc.
int main (int argc, char** argv)
{
// print output using printf, for "print formatted"
// %d is an integer, \n is a newline
printf("%d\n", 0); // => Prints 0
@@ -64,6 +77,9 @@ int main(void) {
// Types
///////////////////////////////////////
// All variables MUST be declared at the top of the current block scope
// we declare them dynamically along the code for the sake of the tutorial
// ints are usually 4 bytes
int x_int = 0;
@@ -221,7 +237,7 @@ int main(void) {
0 || 1; // => 1 (Logical or)
0 || 0; // => 0
// Conditional expression ( ? : )
// Conditional ternary expression ( ? : )
int e = 5;
int f = 10;
int z;
@@ -291,6 +307,8 @@ int main(void) {
for (i = 0; i <= 5; i++) {
; // use semicolon to act as the body (null statement)
}
// Or
for (i = 0; i <= 5; i++);
// branching with multiple choices: switch()
switch (a) {
@@ -306,6 +324,28 @@ int main(void) {
exit(-1);
break;
}
/*
using "goto" in C
*/
typedef enum { false, true } bool;
// for C don't have bool as data type :(
bool disaster = false;
int i, j;
for(i=0;i<100;++i)
for(j=0;j<100;++j)
{
if((i + j) >= 150)
disaster = true;
if(disaster)
goto error;
}
error :
printf("Error occured at i = %d & j = %d.\n", i, j);
/*
https://ideone.com/GuPhd6
this will print out "Error occured at i = 52 & j = 99."
*/
///////////////////////////////////////
// Typecasting
@@ -472,7 +512,24 @@ char c[] = "This is a test.";
str_reverse(c);
printf("%s\n", c); // => ".tset a si sihT"
*/
/*
as we can return only one variable
to change values of more than one variables we use call by reference
*/
void swapTwoNumbers(int *a, int *b)
{
int temp = *a;
*a = *b;
*b = temp;
}
/*
int first = 10;
int second = 20;
printf("first: %d\nsecond: %d\n", first, second);
swapTwoNumbers(&first, &second);
printf("first: %d\nsecond: %d\n", first, second);
// values will be swapped
*/
// if referring to external variables outside function, must use extern keyword.
int i = 0;
void testFunc() {
@@ -628,8 +685,56 @@ typedef void (*my_fnp_type)(char *);
// , | left to right //
//---------------------------------------------------//
```
/******************************* Header Files **********************************
Header files are an important part of c as they allow for the connection of c
source files and can simplify code and definitions by seperating them into
seperate files.
Header files are syntaxtically similar to c source files but reside in ".h"
files. They can be included in your c source file by using the precompiler
command #include "example.h", given that example.h exists in the same directory
as the c file.
*/
/* A safe guard to prevent the header from being defined too many times. This */
/* happens in the case of circle dependency, the contents of the header is */
/* already defined. */
#ifndef EXAMPLE_H /* if EXAMPLE_H is not yet defined. */
#define EXAMPLE_H /* Define the macro EXAMPLE_H. */
/* Other headers can be included in headers and therefore transitively */
/* included into files that include this header. */
#include <string.h>
/* Like c source files macros can be defined in headers and used in files */
/* that include this header file. */
#define EXAMPLE_NAME "Dennis Ritchie"
/* Function macros can also be defined. */
#define ADD(a, b) (a + b)
/* Structs and typedefs can be used for consistency between files. */
typedef struct node
{
int val;
struct node *next;
} Node;
/* So can enumerations. */
enum traffic_light_state {GREEN, YELLOW, RED};
/* Function prototypes can also be defined here for use in multiple files, */
/* but it is bad practice to define the function in the header. Definitions */
/* should instead be put in a c file. */
Node createLinkedList(int *vals, int len);
/* Beyond the above elements, other definitions should be left to a c source */
/* file. Excessive includeds or definitions should, also not be contained in */
/* a header file but instead put into separate headers or a c file. */
#endif /* End of the if precompiler directive. */
```
## Further Reading
Best to find yourself a copy of [K&R, aka "The C Programming Language"](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_C_Programming_Language)

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chapel.html.markdown
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@@ -633,7 +633,7 @@ writeln( toThisArray );
// var iterArray : [1..10] int = [ i in 1..10 ] if ( i % 2 == 1 ) then j;
// exhibits a runtime error.
// Even though the domain of the array and the loop-expression are
// the same size, the body of the expression can be though of as an iterator.
// the same size, the body of the expression can be thought of as an iterator.
// Because iterators can yield nothing, that iterator yields a different number
// of things than the domain of the array or loop, which is not allowed.

6
coffeescript.html.markdown
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@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ filename: coffeescript.coffee
---
CoffeeScript is a little language that compiles one-to-one into the equivalent JavaScript, and there is no interpretation at runtime.
As one of the succeeders of JavaScript, CoffeeScript tries its best to output readable, pretty-printed and smooth-running JavaScript codes working well in every JavaScript runtime.
As one of the successors to JavaScript, CoffeeScript tries its best to output readable, pretty-printed and smooth-running JavaScript code, which works well in every JavaScript runtime.
See also [the CoffeeScript website](http://coffeescript.org/), which has a complete tutorial on CoffeeScript.
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ math =
# "root": Math.sqrt,
# "square": square,
# "cube": function(x) { return x * square(x); }
#}
# };
# Splats:
race = (winner, runners...) ->
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ race = (winner, runners...) ->
# var runners, winner;
# winner = arguments[0], runners = 2 <= arguments.length ? __slice.call(arguments, 1) : [];
# return print(winner, runners);
#};
# };
# Existence:
alert "I knew it!" if elvis?

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coldfusion.html.markdown Normal file
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@@ -0,0 +1,321 @@
---
language: ColdFusion
contributors:
- ["Wayne Boka", "http://wboka.github.io"]
filename: LearnColdFusion.cfm
---
ColdFusion is a scripting language for web development.
[Read more here.](http://www.adobe.com/products/coldfusion-family.html)
```ColdFusion
<em>HTML tags have been provided for output readability</em>
<!--- Comments start with "<!---" and end with "--->" --->
<!---
Comments can
also
span
multiple lines
--->
<!--- CFML tags have a similar format to HTML tags. --->
<h1>Simple Variables</h1>
<!--- Variable Declaration: Variables are loosely typed, similar to javascript --->
<p>Set <b>myVariable</b> to "myValue"</p>
<cfset myVariable = "myValue" />
<p>Set <b>myNumber</b> to 3.14</p>
<cfset myNumber = 3.14 />
<!--- Displaying simple data --->
<!--- Use <cfoutput> for simple values such as strings, numbers, and expressions --->
<p>Display <b>myVariable</b>: <cfoutput>#myVariable#</cfoutput></p><!--- myValue --->
<p>Display <b>myNumber</b>: <cfoutput>#myNumber#</cfoutput></p><!--- 3.14 --->
<hr />
<h1>Complex Variables</h1>
<!--- Declaring complex variables --->
<!--- Declaring an array of 1 dimension: literal or bracket notation --->
<p>Set <b>myArray1</b> to an array of 1 dimension using literal or bracket notation</p>
<cfset myArray1 = [] />
<!--- Declaring an array of 1 dimension: function notation --->
<p>Set <b>myArray2</b> to an array of 1 dimension using function notation</p>
<cfset myArray2 = ArrayNew(1) />
<!--- Outputting complex variables --->
<p>Contents of <b>myArray1</b></p>
<cfdump var="#myArray1#" /> <!--- An empty array object --->
<p>Contents of <b>myArray2</b></p>
<cfdump var="#myArray2#" /> <!--- An empty array object --->
<!--- Operators --->
<!--- Arithmetic --->
<h1>Operators</h1>
<h2>Arithmetic</h2>
<p>1 + 1 = <cfoutput>#1 + 1#</cfoutput></p>
<p>10 - 7 = <cfoutput>#10 - 7#<br /></cfoutput></p>
<p>15 * 10 = <cfoutput>#15 * 10#<br /></cfoutput></p>
<p>100 / 5 = <cfoutput>#100 / 5#<br /></cfoutput></p>
<p>120 % 5 = <cfoutput>#120 % 5#<br /></cfoutput></p>
<p>120 mod 5 = <cfoutput>#120 mod 5#<br /></cfoutput></p>
<hr />
<!--- Comparison --->
<h2>Comparison</h2>
<h3>Standard Notation</h3>
<p>Is 1 eq 1? <cfoutput>#1 eq 1#</cfoutput></p>
<p>Is 15 neq 1? <cfoutput>#15 neq 1#</cfoutput></p>
<p>Is 10 gt 8? <cfoutput>#10 gt 8#</cfoutput></p>
<p>Is 1 lt 2? <cfoutput>#1 lt 2#</cfoutput></p>
<p>Is 10 gte 5? <cfoutput>#10 gte 5#</cfoutput></p>
<p>Is 1 lte 5? <cfoutput>#1 lte 5#</cfoutput></p>
<h3>Alternative Notation</h3>
<p>Is 1 == 1? <cfoutput>#1 eq 1#</cfoutput></p>
<p>Is 15 != 1? <cfoutput>#15 neq 1#</cfoutput></p>
<p>Is 10 > 8? <cfoutput>#10 gt 8#</cfoutput></p>
<p>Is 1 < 2? <cfoutput>#1 lt 2#</cfoutput></p>
<p>Is 10 >= 5? <cfoutput>#10 gte 5#</cfoutput></p>
<p>Is 1 <= 5? <cfoutput>#1 lte 5#</cfoutput></p>
<hr />
<!--- Control Structures --->
<h1>Control Structures</h1>
<cfset myCondition = "Test" />
<p>Condition to test for: "<cfoutput>#myCondition#</cfoutput>"</p>
<cfif myCondition eq "Test">
<cfoutput>#myCondition#. We're testing.</cfoutput>
<cfelseif myCondition eq "Production">
<cfoutput>#myCondition#. Proceed Carefully!!!</cfoutput>
<cfelse>
myCondition is unknown
</cfif>
<hr />
<!--- Loops --->
<h1>Loops</h1>
<h2>For Loop</h2>
<cfloop from="0" to="10" index="i">
<p>Index equals <cfoutput>#i#</cfoutput></p>
</cfloop>
<h2>For Each Loop (Complex Variables)</h2>
<p>Set <b>myArray3</b> to [5, 15, 99, 45, 100]</p>
<cfset myArray3 = [5, 15, 99, 45, 100] />
<cfloop array="#myArray3#" index="i">
<p>Index equals <cfoutput>#i#</cfoutput></p>
</cfloop>
<p>Set <b>myArray4</b> to ["Alpha", "Bravo", "Charlie", "Delta", "Echo"]</p>
<cfset myArray4 = ["Alpha", "Bravo", "Charlie", "Delta", "Echo"] />
<cfloop array="#myArray4#" index="s">
<p>Index equals <cfoutput>#s#</cfoutput></p>
</cfloop>
<h2>Switch Statement</h2>
<p>Set <b>myArray5</b> to [5, 15, 99, 45, 100]</p>
<cfset myArray5 = [5, 15, 99, 45, 100] />
<cfloop array="#myArray5#" index="i">
<cfswitch expression="#i#">
<cfcase value="5,15,45" delimiters=",">
<p><cfoutput>#i#</cfoutput> is a multiple of 5.</p>
</cfcase>
<cfcase value="99">
<p><cfoutput>#i#</cfoutput> is ninety-nine.</p>
</cfcase>
<cfdefaultcase>
<p><cfoutput>#i#</cfoutput> is not 5, 15, 45, or 99.</p>
</cfdefaultcase>
</cfswitch>
</cfloop>
<hr />
<h1>Converting types</h1>
<style>
table.table th, table.table td {
border: 1px solid #000000;
padding: 2px;
}
table.table th {
background-color: #CCCCCC;
}
</style>
<table class="table" cellspacing="0">
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Value</th>
<th>As Boolean</th>
<th>As number</th>
<th>As date-time</th>
<th>As string</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<th>"Yes"</th>
<td>TRUE</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>Error</td>
<td>"Yes"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>"No"</th>
<td>FALSE</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>Error</td>
<td>"No"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>TRUE</th>
<td>TRUE</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>Error</td>
<td>"Yes"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>FALSE</th>
<td>FALSE</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>Error</td>
<td>"No"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Number</th>
<td>True if Number is not 0; False otherwise.</td>
<td>Number</td>
<td>See &#34;Date-time values&#34; earlier in this chapter.</td>
<td>String representation of the number (for example, &#34;8&#34;).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>String</th>
<td>If "Yes", True <br>If "No", False <br>If it can be converted to 0, False <br>If it can be converted to any other number, True</td>
<td>If it represents a number (for example, &#34;1,000&#34; or &#34;12.36E-12&#34;), it is converted to the corresponding number.</td>
<td>If it represents a date-time (see next column), it is converted to the numeric value of the corresponding date-time object. <br>If it is an ODBC date, time, or timestamp (for example &#34;{ts &#39;2001-06-14 11:30:13&#39;}&#34;, or if it is expressed in a standard U.S. date or time format, including the use of full or abbreviated month names, it is converted to the corresponding date-time value. <br>Days of the week or unusual punctuation result in an error. <br>Dashes, forward-slashes, and spaces are generally allowed.</td>
<td>String</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Date</th>
<td>Error</td>
<td>The numeric value of the date-time object.</td>
<td>Date</td>
<td>An ODBC timestamp.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<hr />
<h1>Components</h1>
<em>Code for reference (Functions must return something to support IE)</em>
<pre>
&lt;cfcomponent&gt;
&lt;cfset this.hello = "Hello" /&gt;
&lt;cfset this.world = "world" /&gt;
&lt;cffunction name="sayHello"&gt;
&lt;cfreturn this.hello & ", " & this.world & "!" /&gt;
&lt;/cffunction&gt;
&lt;cffunction name="setHello"&gt;
&lt;cfargument name="newHello" type="string" required="true" /&gt;
&lt;cfset this.hello = arguments.newHello /&gt;
&lt;cfreturn true /&gt;
&lt;/cffunction&gt;
&lt;cffunction name="setWorld"&gt;
&lt;cfargument name="newWorld" type="string" required="true" /&gt;
&lt;cfset this.world = arguments.newWorld /&gt;
&lt;cfreturn true /&gt;
&lt;/cffunction&gt;
&lt;cffunction name="getHello"&gt;
&lt;cfreturn this.hello /&gt;
&lt;/cffunction&gt;
&lt;cffunction name="getWorld"&gt;
&lt;cfreturn this.world /&gt;
&lt;/cffunction&gt;
&lt;/cfcomponent&gt;
</pre>
<cfset this.hello = "Hello" />
<cfset this.world = "world" />
<cffunction name="sayHello">
<cfreturn this.hello & ", " & this.world & "!" />
</cffunction>
<cffunction name="setHello">
<cfargument name="newHello" type="string" required="true" />
<cfset this.hello = arguments.newHello />
<cfreturn true />
</cffunction>
<cffunction name="setWorld">
<cfargument name="newWorld" type="string" required="true" />
<cfset this.world = arguments.newWorld />
<cfreturn true />
</cffunction>
<cffunction name="getHello">
<cfreturn this.hello />
</cffunction>
<cffunction name="getWorld">
<cfreturn this.world />
</cffunction>
<b>sayHello()</b>
<cfoutput><p>#sayHello()#</p></cfoutput>
<b>getHello()</b>
<cfoutput><p>#getHello()#</p></cfoutput>
<b>getWorld()</b>
<cfoutput><p>#getWorld()#</p></cfoutput>
<b>setHello("Hola")</b>
<cfoutput><p>#setHello("Hola")#</p></cfoutput>
<b>setWorld("mundo")</b>
<cfoutput><p>#setWorld("mundo")#</p></cfoutput>
<b>sayHello()</b>
<cfoutput><p>#sayHello()#</p></cfoutput>
<b>getHello()</b>
<cfoutput><p>#getHello()#</p></cfoutput>
<b>getWorld()</b>
<cfoutput><p>#getWorld()#</p></cfoutput>
```
## Further Reading
The links provided here below are just to get an understanding of the topic, feel free to Google and find specific examples.
1. [Coldfusion Reference From Adobe](https://helpx.adobe.com/coldfusion/cfml-reference/topics.html)

6
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@@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ Poznámka: Tento článek je zaměřen na Python 3. Zde se můžete [naučit sta
-5 // 3 # => -2
-5.0 // 3.0 # => -2.0
# Pokud použiteje desetinné číslo, výsledek je jím také
# Pokud použijete desetinné číslo, výsledek je jím také
3 * 2.0 # => 6.0
# Modulo
@@ -420,7 +420,7 @@ next(iterator) # Vyhodí StopIteration
## 4. Funkce
####################################################
# Pro vytvoření nové funkce použijte def
# Pro vytvoření nové funkce použijte klíčové slovo def
def secist(x, y):
print("x je {} a y je {}".format(x, y))
return x + y # Hodnoty se vrací pomocí return
@@ -520,7 +520,7 @@ class Clovek(object):
# podtržítka na začátku a na konci značí, že se jedná o atribut nebo
# objekt využívaný Pythonem ke speciálním účelům, ale můžete sami
# definovat jeho chování. Metody jako __init__, __str__, __repr__
# a další se nazývají "magické metody". Nikdy nepoužívejte toto
# a další se nazývají "magické metody". Nikdy nepoužívejte toto
# speciální pojmenování pro běžné metody.
def __init__(self, jmeno):
# Přiřazení parametru do atributu instance jmeno

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@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ contributors:
- ["Melvyn Laïly", "http://x2a.yt"]
- ["Shaun McCarthy", "http://www.shaunmccarthy.com"]
- ["Wouter Van Schandevijl", "http://github.com/laoujin"]
- ["Jo Pearce", "http://github.com/jdpearce"]
filename: LearnCSharp.cs
---
@@ -159,7 +160,7 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried";
// List<datatype> <var name> = new List<datatype>();
List<int> intList = new List<int>();
List<string> stringList = new List<string>();
List<int> z = new List<int> { 9000, 1000, 1337 }; // intialize
List<int> z = new List<int> { 9000, 1000, 1337 }; // initialize
// The <> are for generics - Check out the cool stuff section
// Lists don't default to a value;
@@ -419,11 +420,47 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried";
Console.WriteLine(item.ToString());
}
// YIELD
// Usage of the "yield" keyword indicates that the method it appears in is an Iterator
// (this means you can use it in a foreach loop)
public static IEnumerable<int> YieldCounter(int limit = 10)
{
for (var i = 0; i < limit; i++)
yield return i;
}
// which you would call like this :
public static void PrintYieldCounterToConsole()
{
foreach (var counter in YieldCounter())
Console.WriteLine(counter);
}
// you can use more than one "yield return" in a method
public static IEnumerable<int> ManyYieldCounter()
{
yield return 0;
yield return 1;
yield return 2;
yield return 3;
}
// you can also use "yield break" to stop the Iterator
// this method would only return half of the values from 0 to limit.
public static IEnumerable<int> YieldCounterWithBreak(int limit = 10)
{
for (var i = 0; i < limit; i++)
{
if (i > limit/2) yield break;
yield return i;
}
}
public static void OtherInterestingFeatures()
{
// OPTIONAL PARAMETERS
MethodSignatures(3, 1, 3, "Some", "Extra", "Strings");
MethodSignatures(3, another: 3); // explicity set a parameter, skipping optional ones
MethodSignatures(3, another: 3); // explicitly set a parameter, skipping optional ones
// BY REF AND OUT PARAMETERS
int maxCount = 0, count; // ref params must have value
@@ -444,6 +481,9 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried";
// in case variable is null
int notNullable = nullable ?? 0; // 0
// ?. is an operator for null-propagation - a shorthand way of checking for null
nullable?.Print(); // Use the Print() extension method if nullable isn't null
// IMPLICITLY TYPED VARIABLES - you can let the compiler work out what the type is:
var magic = "magic is a string, at compile time, so you still get type safety";
// magic = 9; will not work as magic is a string, not an int
@@ -610,7 +650,7 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried";
{
return _cadence;
}
set // set - define a method to set a proprety
set // set - define a method to set a property
{
_cadence = value; // Value is the value passed in to the setter
}
@@ -750,7 +790,7 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried";
// It's also possible to define custom Indexers on objects.
// All though this is not entirely useful in this example, you
// could do bicycle[0] which yields "chris" to get the first passenger or
// could do bicycle[0] which returns "chris" to get the first passenger or
// bicycle[1] = "lisa" to set the passenger. (of this apparent quattrocycle)
private string[] passengers = { "chris", "phil", "darren", "regina" };
@@ -761,7 +801,7 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried";
}
set {
return passengers[i] = value;
passengers[i] = value;
}
}
@@ -837,7 +877,8 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried";
bool Broken { get; } // interfaces can contain properties as well as methods & events
}
// Class can inherit only one other class, but can implement any amount of interfaces
// Class can inherit only one other class, but can implement any amount of interfaces, however
// the base class name must be the first in the list and all interfaces follow
class MountainBike : Bicycle, IJumpable, IBreakable
{
int damage = 0;
@@ -876,7 +917,7 @@ on a new line! ""Wow!"", the masses cried";
## Topics Not Covered
* Attributes
* async/await, yield, pragma directives
* async/await, pragma directives
* Web Development
* ASP.NET MVC & WebApi (new)
* ASP.NET Web Forms (old)

262
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@@ -5,26 +5,21 @@ contributors:
- ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"]
- ["Geoffrey Liu", "https://github.com/g-liu"]
- ["Connor Shea", "https://github.com/connorshea"]
- ["Deepanshu Utkarsh", "https://github.com/duci9y"]
filename: learncss.css
---
In the early days of the web there were no visual elements, just pure text. But with the
further development of browsers, fully visual web pages also became common.
CSS is the standard language that exists to keep the separation between
the content (HTML) and the look-and-feel of web pages.
In the early days of the web there were no visual elements, just pure text. But with further development of web browsers, fully visual web pages also became common.
In short, what CSS does is to provide a syntax that enables you to target
different elements on an HTML page and assign different visual properties to them.
CSS helps maintain separation between the content (HTML) and the look-and-feel of a web page.
Like any other languages, CSS has many versions. Here we focus on CSS2.0,
which is not the most recent version, but is the most widely supported and compatible version.
CSS lets you target different elements on an HTML page and assign different visual properties to them.
**NOTE:** Because the outcome of CSS consists of visual effects, in order to
learn it, you need try everything in a
CSS playground like [dabblet](http://dabblet.com/).
This guide has been written for CSS 2, though CSS 3 is fast becoming popular.
**NOTE:** Because CSS produces visual results, in order to learn it, you need try everything in a CSS playground like [dabblet](http://dabblet.com/).
The main focus of this article is on the syntax and some general tips.
```css
/* comments appear inside slash-asterisk, just like this line!
there are no "one-line comments"; this is the only comment style */
@@ -33,92 +28,103 @@ The main focus of this article is on the syntax and some general tips.
## SELECTORS
#################### */
/* Generally, the primary statement in CSS is very simple */
/* the selector is used to target an element on a page.
selector { property: value; /* more properties...*/ }
/* the selector is used to target an element on page.
You can target all elements on the page using asterisk! */
* { color:red; }
/*
Given an element like this on the page:
Here is an example element:
<div class='some-class class2' id='someId' attr='value' otherAttr='en-us foo bar' />
<div class='class1 class2' id='anID' attr='value' otherAttr='en-us foo bar' />
*/
/* you can target it by its name */
.some-class { }
/* You can target it using one of its CSS classes */
.class1 { }
/* or by both classes! */
.some-class.class2 { }
/* or both classes! */
.class1.class2 { }
/* or by its element name */
/* or its name */
div { }
/* or its id */
#someId { }
#anID { }
/* or by the fact that it has an attribute! */
/* or using the fact that it has an attribute! */
[attr] { font-size:smaller; }
/* or that the attribute has a specific value */
[attr='value'] { font-size:smaller; }
/* start with a value (CSS3) */
/* starts with a value (CSS 3) */
[attr^='val'] { font-size:smaller; }
/* or ends with (CSS3) */
/* or ends with a value (CSS 3) */
[attr$='ue'] { font-size:smaller; }
/* or select by one of the values from the whitespace separated list (CSS3) */
[otherAttr~='foo'] { font-size:smaller; }
/* or contains a value in a space-separated list */
[otherAttr~='foo'] { }
[otherAttr~='bar'] { }
/* or value can be exactly “value” or can begin with “value” immediately followed by “-” (U+002D) */
/* or contains a value in a dash-separated list, ie, "-" (U+002D) */
[otherAttr|='en'] { font-size:smaller; }
/* and more importantly you can combine these together -- there shouldn't be
any space between different parts because that makes it to have another
meaning. */
/* You can concatenate different selectors to create a narrower selector. Don't
put spaces between them. */
div.some-class[attr$='ue'] { }
/* you can also select an element based on its parent. */
/* You can select an element which is a child of another element */
div.some-parent > .class-name { }
/* an element which is direct child of an element (selected the same way) */
div.some-parent > .class-name {}
/* or a descendant of another element. Children are the direct descendants of
their parent element, only one level down the tree. Descendants can be any
level down the tree. */
div.some-parent .class-name { }
/* or any of its parents in the tree
the following basically means any element that has class "class-name"
and is child of a div with class name "some-parent" IN ANY DEPTH */
div.some-parent .class-name {}
/* Warning: the same selector without a space has another meaning.
Can you guess what? */
div.some-parent.class-name { }
/* warning: the same selector without space has another meaning.
can you say what? */
div.some-parent.class-name {}
/* You may also select an element based on its adjacent sibling */
.i-am-just-before + .this-element { }
/* you also might choose to select an element based on its direct
previous sibling */
.i-am-before + .this-element { }
/* or any sibling preceding it */
.i-am-any-element-before ~ .this-element { }
/* or any sibling before this */
.i-am-any-before ~ .this-element {}
/* There are some selectors called pseudo classes that can be used to select an
element when it is in a particular state */
/* There are some pseudo classes that allows you to select an element
based on its page behaviour (rather than page structure) */
/* for example, when the cursor hovers over an element */
selector:hover { }
/* for example for when an element is hovered */
selector:hover {}
/* or a link has been visited */
selector:visited { }
/* or a visited link */
selected:visited {}
/* or hasn't been visited */
selected:link { }
/* or not visited link */
selected:link {}
/* or an element in focus */
selected:focus { }
/* or an input element which is focused */
selected:focus {}
/* any element that is the first child of its parent */
selector:first-child {}
/* any element that is the last child of its parent */
selector:last-child {}
/* Just like pseudo classes, pseudo elements allow you to style certain parts of a document */
/* matches a virtual first child of the selected element */
selector::before {}
/* matches a virtual last child of the selected element */
selector::after {}
/* At appropriate places, an asterisk may be used as a wildcard to select every
element */
* { } /* all elements */
.parent * { } /* all descendants */
.parent > * { } /* all children */
/* ####################
## PROPERTIES
@@ -126,126 +132,122 @@ selected:focus {}
selector {
/* Units */
width: 50%; /* in percent */
font-size: 2em; /* times current font-size */
width: 200px; /* in pixels */
font-size: 20pt; /* in points */
width: 5cm; /* in centimeters */
min-width: 50mm; /* in millimeters */
max-width: 5in; /* in inches. max-(width|height) */
height: 0.2vh; /* times vertical height of browser viewport (CSS3) */
width: 0.4vw; /* times horizontal width of browser viewport (CSS3) */
min-height: 0.1vmin; /* the lesser of vertical, horizontal dimensions of browser viewport (CSS3) */
max-width: 0.3vmax; /* same as above, except the greater of the dimensions (CSS3) */
/* Units of length can be absolute or relative. */
/* Relative units */
width: 50%; /* percentage of parent element width */
font-size: 2em; /* multiples of element's original font-size */
font-size: 2rem; /* or the root element's font-size */
font-size: 2vw; /* multiples of 1% of the viewport's width (CSS 3) */
font-size: 2vh; /* or its height */
font-size: 2vmin; /* whichever of a vh or a vw is smaller */
font-size: 2vmax; /* or greater */
/* Absolute units */
width: 200px; /* pixels */
font-size: 20pt; /* points */
width: 5cm; /* centimeters */
min-width: 50mm; /* millimeters */
max-width: 5in; /* inches */
/* Colors */
background-color: #F6E; /* in short hex */
background-color: #F262E2; /* in long hex format */
background-color: tomato; /* can be a named color */
background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); /* in rgb */
background-color: rgb(10%, 20%, 50%); /* in rgb percent */
background-color: rgba(255, 0, 0, 0.3); /* in semi-transparent rgb (CSS3) */
background-color: transparent; /* see thru */
background-color: hsl(0, 100%, 50%); /* hsl format (CSS3). */
background-color: hsla(0, 100%, 50%, 0.3); /* Similar to RGBA, specify opacity at end (CSS3) */
color: #F6E; /* short hex format */
color: #FF66EE; /* long hex format */
color: tomato; /* a named color */
color: rgb(255, 255, 255); /* as rgb values */
color: rgb(10%, 20%, 50%); /* as rgb percentages */
color: rgba(255, 0, 0, 0.3); /* as rgba values (CSS 3) Note: 0 < a < 1 */
color: transparent; /* equivalent to setting the alpha to 0 */
color: hsl(0, 100%, 50%); /* as hsl percentages (CSS 3) */
color: hsla(0, 100%, 50%, 0.3); /* as hsla percentages with alpha */
/* Images */
background-image: url(/path-to-image/image.jpg); /* quotes inside url() optional */
/* Images as backgrounds of elements */
background-image: url(/img-path/img.jpg); /* quotes inside url() optional */
/* Fonts */
font-family: Arial;
font-family: "Courier New"; /* if name has space it appears in single or double quotes */
font-family: "Courier New", Trebuchet, Arial, sans-serif; /* if first one was not found
browser uses the second font, and so forth */
/* if the font family name has a space, it must be quoted */
font-family: "Courier New";
/* if the first one is not found, the browser uses the next, and so on */
font-family: "Courier New", Trebuchet, Arial, sans-serif;
}
```
## Usage
Save any CSS you want in a file with extension `.css`.
Save a CSS stylesheet with the extension `.css`.
```xml
<!-- you need to include the css file in your page's <head>: -->
<!-- You need to include the css file in your page's <head>. This is the
recommended method. Refer to http://stackoverflow.com/questions/8284365 -->
<link rel='stylesheet' type='text/css' href='path/to/style.css' />
<!-- you can also include some CSS inline in your markup. However it is highly
recommended to avoid this. -->
<!-- You can also include some CSS inline in your markup. -->
<style>
a { color: purple; }
</style>
<!-- or directly set CSS properties on the element.
This has to be avoided as much as you can. -->
<!-- Or directly set CSS properties on the element. -->
<div style="border: 1px solid red;">
</div>
```
## Precedence
## Precedence or Cascade
As you noticed an element may be targetted by more than one selector.
and may have a property set on it in more than one.
In these cases, one of the rules takes precedence over others.
An element may be targeted by multiple selectors and may have a property set on it in more than once. In these cases, one of the rules takes precedence over others. Generally, a rule in a more specific selector take precedence over a less specific one, and a rule occuring later in the stylesheet overwrites a previous one.
This process is called cascading, hence the name Cascading Style Sheets.
Given the following CSS:
```css
/*A*/
/* A */
p.class1[attr='value']
/*B*/
p.class1 {}
/* B */
p.class1 { }
/*C*/
p.class2 {}
/* C */
p.class2 { }
/*D*/
p {}
/* D */
p { }
/*E*/
/* E */
p { property: value !important; }
```
and the following markup:
```xml
<p style='/*F*/ property:value;' class='class1 class2' attr='value'>
</p>
<p style='/*F*/ property:value;' class='class1 class2' attr='value' />
```
The precedence of style is as followed:
Remember, the precedence is for each **property**, not for the entire block.
The precedence of style is as follows. Remember, the precedence is for each **property**, not for the entire block.
* `E` has the highest precedence because of the keyword `!important`.
It is recommended to avoid this unless it is strictly necessary to use.
* `F` is next, because it is inline style.
* `A` is next, because it is more "specific" than anything else.
more specific = more specifiers. here 3 specifiers: 1 tagname `p` +
class name `class1` + 1 attribute `attr='value'`
* `C` is next. although it has the same specificness as `B`
but it appears last.
* Then is `B`
* and lastly is `D`.
* `E` has the highest precedence because of the keyword `!important`. It is recommended that you avoid its usage.
* `F` is next, because it is an inline style.
* `A` is next, because it is more "specific" than anything else. It has 3 specifiers: The name of the element `p`, its class `class1`, an attribute `attr='value'`.
* `C` is next, even though it has the same specificity as `B`. This is because it appears after `B`.
* `B` is next.
* `D` is the last one.
## Compatibility
Most of the features in CSS2 (and gradually in CSS3) are compatible across
all browsers and devices. But it's always vital to have in mind the compatibility
of what you use in CSS with your target browsers.
Most of the features in CSS 2 (and many in CSS 3) are available across all browsers and devices. But it's always good practice to check before using a new feature.
[QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/) is one of the best sources for this.
## Resources
To run a quick compatibility check, [Can I Use...](http://caniuse.com) is a great resource.
* To run a quick compatibility check, [CanIUse](http://caniuse.com).
* CSS Playground [Dabblet](http://dabblet.com/).
* [Mozilla Developer Network's CSS documentation](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS)
* [Codrops' CSS Reference](http://tympanus.net/codrops/css_reference/)
## Further Reading
* [Mozilla Developer Network's CSS documentation](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS)
* [Codrops' CSS Reference](http://tympanus.net/codrops/css_reference/)
* [Understanding Style Precedence in CSS: Specificity, Inheritance, and the Cascade](http://www.vanseodesign.com/css/css-specificity-inheritance-cascaade/)
* [Selecting elements using attributes](https://css-tricks.com/almanac/selectors/a/attribute/)
* [QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/)
* [Z-Index - The stacking context](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/Guide/CSS/Understanding_z_index/The_stacking_context)
* [SCSS](http://sass-lang.com/) and [LESS](http://lesscss.org/) for CSS pre-processing
* [SASS](http://sass-lang.com/) and [LESS](http://lesscss.org/) for CSS pre-processing
* [CSS-Tricks](https://css-tricks.com)

67
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@@ -23,8 +23,10 @@ about [D](http://dlang.org/). The D programming language is a modern, general-pu
multi-paradigm language with support for everything from low-level features to
expressive high-level abstractions.
D is actively developed by Walter Bright and Andrei Alexandrescu, two super smart, really cool
dudes. With all that out of the way, let's look at some examples!
D is actively developed by a large group of super-smart people and is spearheaded by
[Walter Bright](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Bright) and
[Andrei Alexandrescu](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Alexandrescu).
With all that out of the way, let's look at some examples!
```c
import std.stdio;
@@ -36,9 +38,10 @@ void main() {
writeln(i);
}
auto n = 1; // use auto for type inferred variables
// 'auto' can be used for inferring types.
auto n = 1;
// Numeric literals can use _ as a digit seperator for clarity
// Numeric literals can use '_' as a digit separator for clarity.
while(n < 10_000) {
n += n;
}
@@ -47,13 +50,15 @@ void main() {
n -= (n / 2);
} while(n > 0);
// For and while are nice, but in D-land we prefer foreach
// The .. creates a continuous range, excluding the end
// For and while are nice, but in D-land we prefer 'foreach' loops.
// The '..' creates a continuous range, including the first value
// but excluding the last.
foreach(i; 1..1_000_000) {
if(n % 2 == 0)
writeln(i);
}
// There's also 'foreach_reverse' when you want to loop backwards.
foreach_reverse(i; 1..int.max) {
if(n % 2 == 1) {
writeln(i);
@@ -69,16 +74,18 @@ are passed to functions by value (i.e. copied) and classes are passed by referen
we can use templates to parameterize all of these on both types and values!
```c
// Here, T is a type parameter. Think <T> from C++/C#/Java
// Here, 'T' is a type parameter. Think '<T>' from C++/C#/Java.
struct LinkedList(T) {
T data = null;
LinkedList!(T)* next; // The ! is used to instaniate a parameterized type. Again, think <T>
// Use '!' to instantiate a parameterized type. Again, think '<T>'.
LinkedList!(T)* next;
}
class BinTree(T) {
T data = null;
// If there is only one template parameter, we can omit parens
// If there is only one template parameter, we can omit the parentheses.
BinTree!T left;
BinTree!T right;
}
@@ -93,13 +100,11 @@ enum Day {
Saturday,
}
// Use alias to create abbreviations for types
// Use alias to create abbreviations for types.
alias IntList = LinkedList!int;
alias NumTree = BinTree!double;
// We can create function templates as well!
T max(T)(T a, T b) {
if(a < b)
return b;
@@ -107,9 +112,8 @@ T max(T)(T a, T b) {
return a;
}
// Use the ref keyword to ensure pass by referece.
// That is, even if a and b are value types, they
// will always be passed by reference to swap
// Use the ref keyword to ensure pass by reference. That is, even if 'a' and 'b'
// are value types, they will always be passed by reference to 'swap()'.
void swap(T)(ref T a, ref T b) {
auto temp = a;
@@ -117,13 +121,13 @@ void swap(T)(ref T a, ref T b) {
b = temp;
}
// With templates, we can also parameterize on values, not just types
// With templates, we can also parameterize on values, not just types.
class Matrix(uint m, uint n, T = int) {
T[m] rows;
T[n] columns;
}
auto mat = new Matrix!(3, 3); // We've defaulted type T to int
auto mat = new Matrix!(3, 3); // We've defaulted type 'T' to 'int'.
```
@@ -133,21 +137,20 @@ have the syntax of POD structures (`structure.x = 7`) with the semantics of
getter and setter methods (`object.setX(7)`)!
```c
// Consider a class parameterized on a types T, U
// Consider a class parameterized on types 'T' & 'U'.
class MyClass(T, U) {
T _data;
U _other;
}
// And "getter" and "setter" methods like so
// And "getter" and "setter" methods like so:
class MyClass(T, U) {
T _data;
U _other;
// Constructors are always named `this`
// Constructors are always named 'this'.
this(T t, U u) {
// This will call the setter methods below.
data = t;
other = u;
}
@@ -170,16 +173,24 @@ class MyClass(T, U) {
_other = u;
}
}
// And we use them in this manner
// And we use them in this manner:
void main() {
auto mc = MyClass!(int, string);
auto mc = new MyClass!(int, string)(7, "seven");
mc.data = 7;
mc.other = "seven";
// Import the 'stdio' module from the standard library for writing to
// console (imports can be local to a scope).
import std.stdio;
writeln(mc.data);
writeln(mc.other);
// Call the getters to fetch the values.
writefln("Earlier: data = %d, str = %s", mc.data, mc.other);
// Call the setters to assign new values.
mc.data = 8;
mc.other = "eight";
// Call the getters again to fetch the new values.
writefln("Later: data = %d, str = %s", mc.data, mc.other);
}
```

2
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@@ -883,7 +883,7 @@ zur nächsten Zeile, ""Wahnsinn!"", die Massen waren kaum zu bändigen";
* [LINQ](http://shop.oreilly.com/product/9780596519254.do)
* [MSDN Library](http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/618ayhy6.aspx)
* [ASP.NET MVC Tutorials](http://www.asp.net/mvc/tutorials)
* [ASP.NET Web Matrix Tutorials](http://www.asp.net/web-pages/tutorials)
* [ASP.NET Web Matrix Tutorials](http://www.asp.net/web-pages/overview/exploring-webmatrix)
* [ASP.NET Web Forms Tutorials](http://www.asp.net/web-forms/tutorials)
* [Windows Forms Programming in C#](http://www.amazon.com/Windows-Forms-Programming-Chris-Sells/dp/0321116208)

243
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@@ -0,0 +1,243 @@
---
language: css
contributors:
- ["Kostas Bariotis", "http://kostasbariotis.com"]
filename: css-gr.html.markdown
lang: el-gr
---
Η αρχική μορφή του Παγκόσμιου Ιστού αποτελούταν απο καθαρό κείμενο, χωρίς οπτικά αντικείμενα. Με το πέρας
του χρόνου και την εξέλιξη των Φυλλομετρητών, οι πλούσιες σελίδες, σε οπτικά και πολυμεσικά αντικείμενα,
γίναν καθημερινότητα.
Η CSS μας βοηθάει να διαχωρήσουμε το περιεχόμενο της σελίδας μας (HTML) απο την οπτική της περιγραφή.
Με την CSS ορίζουμε οπτικές ιδιότητες (χρώμα, μέγεθος, κλπ) σε HTML αντικείμενα (H1, div, κλπ).
```css
/* Σχόλια εμφανίζονται εντός καθέτου-αστερίσκου, όπως εδώ.
Δεν υπάρχουν σχόλια μια γραμμής και πολλών. */
/* ####################
## ΚΑΝΟΝΕΣ
#################### */
/* ένας κανόνας χρησιμοποιείτε για να στοχεύσουμε ένα αντικείμενο (selector).
selector { property: value; /* περισσότερες ιδιότητες...*/ }
/*
Αυτό είναι ενα παράδειγμα αντικειμένου¨
<div class='class1 class2' id='anID' attr='value' otherAttr='en-us foo bar' />
*/
/* Μπορούμε να το στοχεύσουμε με την χρήση CSS κλάσεων */
.class1 { }
/* Ή και με τις δύο κλάσεις! */
.class1.class2 { }
/* Και με το όνομα του */
div { }
/* Ή με το id του */
#anID { }
/* Ή με το γεγονός ότι περιέχει ενα attribute */
[attr] { font-size:smaller; }
/* Ή οτι το attribute αυτό έχει μια συγκεκριμένη τιμή */
[attr='value'] { font-size:smaller; }
/* Ξεκινάει απο το λεκτικό (CSS 3) */
[attr^='val'] { font-size:smaller; }
/* Καταλήγει σε αυτο το λεκτικό (CSS 3) */
[attr$='ue'] { font-size:smaller; }
/* Περιέχει κάποιο λεκτικό */
[otherAttr~='foo'] { }
[otherAttr~='bar'] { }
/* περιέχει το λεκτικό σε λίστα χωρισμένη με παύλες, δηλαδή: "-" (U+002D) */
[otherAttr|='en'] { font-size:smaller; }
/* Μπορούμε να προσθέσουμε μεταξύ τους selectors για να δημιουργήσουμε πιο αυστηρούς.
Δεν βάζουμε κενά ανάμεσα. */
div.some-class[attr$='ue'] { }
/* Μπορούμε να επιλέξουμε αντικείμενα που βρίσκονται μέσα σε άλλα. */
div.some-parent > .class-name { }
/* Ή κάποιο αντικείμενο απόγονο ανεξαρτήτου του βάθους της σχέσης τους. */
div.some-parent .class-name { }
/* ΠΡΟΣΟΧΗ: ο ίδιος selector χωρίς κενά έχει άλλο νόημα. (Άσκηση προς τον αναγνώστη) */
div.some-parent.class-name { }
/* Μπορούμε να επιλέξουμε αντικείμενα με βάση το αμέσως επόμενο αντικείμενο στο ίδιο επίπεδο. */
.i-am-just-before + .this-element { }
/* Ή οποιοδήποτε αντικείμενο που προηγείται */
.i-am-any-element-before ~ .this-element { }
/* Με την βοήθεια των ψευδο-κλάσεων μπορούμε να επιλέξουμε αντικείμενα που βρίσκονται σε μια
ορισμένη κατάασταση. */
/* π.χ. όταν ο κέρσορας είναι πάνω απο ένα αντικείμενο */
selector:hover { }
/* ή ένας υπερσύνδεσμος που πατήθηκε */
selector:visited { }
/* ή που δεν πατήθηκε */
selected:link { }
/* ή ένα αντικείμενο που επιλέχθηκε */
selected:focus { }
/* οποιοδήποτε αντικείμενο είναι το πρώτο παιδί των γονέων του */
selector:first-child {}
/* οποιοδήποτε αντικείμενο είναι το πρώτοτελευταίο παιδί των γονέων του */
selector:last-child {}
/* Όπως και με τις ψευδο-κλάσεις, τα ψευδο-αντικείμενα μας επιτρέπουν τα τροποοιήσουμε συγκεκριμένα
κομμάτια της σελίδας */
/* επιλέγει το ψευδο-αντικείμενο ακριβώς πριν απο το αντικείμενο */
selector::before {}
/* επιλέγει το ψευδο-αντικείμενο ακριβώς μετά απο τον αντικείμενο */
selector::after {}
/* Σε σωστά σημεία (όχι πολύ ψηλά στην ιεραρχία) ο αστερίσκος μπορείς να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να
επιλέξουμε όλα τα αντικείμενα */
* { } /* όλα τα αντικείμενα της σελίδας */
.parent * { } /* όλους τους απόγονους */
.parent > * { } /* όλους τους απόγονους πρώτου επιπέδου */
/* ####################
## Ιδιότητες
#################### */
selector {
/* Οι μονάδες μπορούν να είναι είτε απόλυτες είτε σχετικές */
/* Σχετικές μονάδες */
width: 50%; /* ποσοστό επί του πλάτους του γονέα */
font-size: 2em; /* πολλαπλασιαστής της αρχικής τιμής του αντικειμένου */
font-size: 2rem; /* ή της τιμής του πρώτου αντικειμένου στην ιεραρχία */
font-size: 2vw; /* πολλαπλαστιαστής του 1% του οπτικού πλάτους */
font-size: 2vh; /* ή τους ύψους */
font-size: 2vmin; /* οποιοδήποτε απο αυτα τα δύο είναι το μικρότερο */
font-size: 2vmax; /* ή το μεγαλύτερο */
/* Απόλυτες μονάδες */
width: 200px; /* pixels */
font-size: 20pt; /* στιγμες */
width: 5cm; /* εκατοστά */
min-width: 50mm; /* χιλιοστά */
max-width: 5in; /* ίντσες */
/* Χρώματα */
color: #F6E; /* σύντομη δεκαεξαδική μορφή */
color: #FF66EE; /* δεκαεξαδική μορφή */
color: tomato; /* χρώμα με το όνομα του (συγκεκριμένα χρώματα) */
color: rgb(255, 255, 255); /* τιμή RGB */
color: rgb(10%, 20%, 50%); /* τιμή RGB με ποσοστά */
color: rgba(255, 0, 0, 0.3); /* τιμή RGBA (CSS3) σσ. 0 < a < 1 */
color: transparent; /* όπως και το παραπάνω με a = 0 */
color: hsl(0, 100%, 50%); /* τιμή hsl με ποσοστά (CSS 3) */
color: hsla(0, 100%, 50%, 0.3); /* τιμή hsla με ποσοστά και a */
/* Εικόνες μπορούν να τοποθετηθούν στον φόντο ενός αντικειμένου */
background-image: url(/img-path/img.jpg);
/* Γραμματοσειρές */
font-family: Arial;
/* εάν η γραμματοσειρα περιέχει κενά */
font-family: "Courier New";
/* εάν η πρώτη γραμματοσειρα δε βρεθεί εγκατεστημένη στο Λειτουργικό Σύστυμα, αυτόματα
επιλέγετε η δεύτερη, κ.κ.ε. */
font-family: "Courier New", Trebuchet, Arial, sans-serif;
}
```
## Χρήση
Αποθηκεύουμε ένα αρχείο CSS με την επέκταση `.css`.
```xml
<!-- Πρέπει να συμπεριλάβουμε το αρχείο στην επικεφαλίδα(head) ενος HTML αρχείου.
σσ. http://stackoverflow.com/questions/8284365 -->
<link rel='stylesheet' type='text/css' href='path/to/style.css' />
<!-- Μπορούμε να το ενσωματώσουμε -->
<style>
a { color: purple; }
</style>
<!-- Ή απευθείας σε κάποιο αντικείμενο (inline) -->
<div style="border: 1px solid red;">
</div>
```
## Ειδικότητα των κανόνων (Cascading απο το αγγλικό τίτλο Cascading Style Sheets)
Ένα αντικείμενο μπορεί να στοχευθεί απο πολλούς κανόνες και μπορεί η ίδια ιδιότητα να
περιλαμβάνετε σε πολλούς κανόνες. Σε αυτές της περιπτώσεις υπερισχύει πάντα ο πιο ειδικός
κανόνας και απο αυτούς, αυτός που εμφανίζεται τελευταίος.
```css
/* A */
p.class1[attr='value']
/* B */
p.class1 { }
/* C */
p.class2 { }
/* D */
p { }
/* E */
p { property: value !important; }
```
```xml
<p style='/*F*/ property:value;' class='class1 class2' attr='value' />
```
Η σειρά θα είναι:
* `E` έχει μεγαλύτερο βάρος λόγω του `!important`. Κάλες πρακτικές λένε να το αποφεύγουμε.
* `F` επόμενο λόγω του inline κανόνα.
* `A` επόμενο λόγω του το οτι είναι πιο ειδικό. Περιέχει τρεις selectors.
* `C` επόμενο, λόγω του οτι εμφανίζεται μετα το Β και ας έχει την ίδια ειδικότητα.
* `B` επόμενο.
* `D` τελευταίο.
## Συμβατότητα
Τα περισσότερα απο τα παραπάνω ήδη υποστηρίζονται απο τους γνωστούς φυλλομετρητές. Άλλα θα πρέπει
πάντα να ελέγχουμε πρωτου τους χρησιμοποιήσουμε.
## Περισσότερα
* Έλεγχος συμβατότητας, [CanIUse](http://caniuse.com).
* CSS Playground [Dabblet](http://dabblet.com/).
* [Mozilla Developer Network's CSS documentation](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS)
* [Codrops' CSS Reference](http://tympanus.net/codrops/css_reference/)
## Μελέτη
* [Understanding Style Precedence in CSS: Specificity, Inheritance, and the Cascade](http://www.vanseodesign.com/css/css-specificity-inheritance-cascaade/)
* [Selecting elements using attributes](https://css-tricks.com/almanac/selectors/a/attribute/)
* [QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/)
* [Z-Index - The stacking context](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/Guide/CSS/Understanding_z_index/The_stacking_context)
* [SASS](http://sass-lang.com/) and [LESS](http://lesscss.org/) for CSS pre-processing
* [CSS-Tricks](https://css-tricks.com)

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@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ con Java para aplicaciones más complejas. Debido a su integracion estrecha con
web y soporte por defecto de los navegadores modernos se ha vuelto mucho más común
para front-end que Java.
JavaScript no sólo se limita a los navegadores web, aunque: Node.js, Un proyecto que proporciona un entorno de ejecución independiente para el motor V8 de Google Chrome, se está volviendo más y más popular.
Aunque JavaScript no sólo se limita a los navegadores web: Node.js, Un proyecto que proporciona un entorno de ejecución independiente para el motor V8 de Google Chrome, se está volviendo más y más popular.
¡La retroalimentación es bienvenida! Puedes encontrarme en:
[@adambrenecki](https://twitter.com/adambrenecki), o
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ undefined; // usado para indicar que un valor no está presente actualmente
// (aunque undefined es un valor en sí mismo)
// false, null, undefined, NaN, 0 y "" es false; todo lo demás es true.
// Note que 0 is false y "0" es true, a pesar de que 0 == "0".
// Note que 0 es false y "0" es true, a pesar de que 0 == "0".
// Aunque 0 === "0" sí es false.
///////////////////////////////////

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@@ -0,0 +1,286 @@
---
language: Visual Basic
contributors:
- ["Brian Martin", "http://brianmartin.biz"]
translators:
- ["Adolfo Jayme Barrientos", "https://github.com/fitojb"]
author: Brian Martin
author_url: https://github.com/fitojb
filename: learnvisualbasic-es.vb
lang: es-es
---
```vb
Module Module1
Sub Main()
' Un vistazo rápido a las aplicaciones de consola de Visual Basic antes
' de que profundicemos en el tema.
' El apóstrofo inicia una línea de comentario.
' Para explorar este tutorial dentro del Compilador de Visual Basic,
' he creado un sistema de navegación.
' Dicho sistema se explicará a medida que avancemos en este
' tutorial; gradualmente entenderás lo que significa todo.
Console.Title = ("Aprende X en Y minutos")
Console.WriteLine("NAVEGACIÓN") 'Mostrar
Console.WriteLine("")
Console.ForegroundColor = ConsoleColor.Green
Console.WriteLine("1. Salida «Hola, mundo»")
Console.WriteLine("2. Entrada «Hola, mundo»")
Console.WriteLine("3. Calcular números enteros")
Console.WriteLine("4. Calcular números decimales")
Console.WriteLine("5. Una calculadora funcional")
Console.WriteLine("6. Uso de bucles «Do While»")
Console.WriteLine("7. Uso de bucles «For While»")
Console.WriteLine("8. Declaraciones condicionales")
Console.WriteLine("9. Selecciona una bebida")
Console.WriteLine("50. Acerca de")
Console.WriteLine("Elige un número de la lista anterior")
Dim selection As String = Console.ReadLine
Select Case selection
Case "1" 'Salida «hola, mundo»
Console.Clear() 'Limpia la consola y abre la subrutina privada
SalidaHolaMundo() 'Abre la subrutina privada nombrada
Case "2" 'Entrada «hola, mundo»
Console.Clear()
EntradaHolaMundo()
Case "3" 'Calcular números enteros
Console.Clear()
CalcularNumerosEnteros()
Case "4" 'Calcular números decimales
Console.Clear()
CalcularNumerosDecimales()
Case "5" 'Una calculadora funcional
Console.Clear()
CalculadoraFuncional()
Case "6" 'Uso de bucles «Do While»
Console.Clear()
UsoBuclesDoWhile()
Case "7" 'Uso de bucles «For While»
Console.Clear()
UsoBuclesFor()
Case "8" 'Declaraciones condicionales
Console.Clear()
DeclaracionCondicional()
Case "9" 'Declaración «If/Else»
Console.Clear()
DeclaracionIfElse() 'Selecciona una bebida
Case "50" 'Cuadro de mensaje «Acerca de»
Console.Clear()
Console.Title = ("Aprende X en Y minutos :: Acerca de")
MsgBox("Tutorial escrito por Brian Martin (@BrianMartinn")
Console.Clear()
Main()
Console.ReadLine()
End Select
End Sub
'Uno - He usado números para guiarme por el sistema de navegación anterior
'cuando regrese posteriormente a implementarlo.
'Usamos subrutinas privadas para separar distintas secciones del programa.
Private Sub SalidaHolaMundo()
'Título de la aplicación de consola
Console.Title = "Salida «Hola, mundo» | Aprende X en Y minutos"
'Usa Console.Write("") o Console.WriteLine("") para mostrar salidas.
'Seguido por Console.Read(), o bien, Console.Readline()
'Console.ReadLine() muestra la salida en la consola.
Console.WriteLine("Hola, mundo")
Console.ReadLine()
End Sub
'Dos
Private Sub EntradaHolaMundo()
Console.Title = "«Hola, mundo, soy...» | Aprende X en Y minutos"
' Variables
' Los datos que introduzca un usuario deben almacenarse.
' Las variables también empiezan por Dim y terminan por As VariableType.
' En este tutorial queremos conocer tu nombre y hacer que el programa
' responda a este.
Dim nombredeusuario As String
'Usamos «string» porque es una variable basada en texto.
Console.WriteLine("Hola, ¿cómo te llamas? ") 'Preguntar nombre de usuario.
nombredeusuario = Console.ReadLine() 'Almacenar nombre del usuario.
Console.WriteLine("Hola, " + nombredeusuario) 'La salida es Hola, nombre
Console.ReadLine() 'Muestra lo anterior.
'El código anterior te hará una pregunta y mostrará la respuesta.
'Entre otras variables está Integer, la cual usaremos para números enteros.
End Sub
'Tres
Private Sub CalcularNumerosEnteros()
Console.Title = "Calcular números enteros | Aprende X en Y minutos"
Console.Write("Primer número: ") 'Escribe un núm. entero, 1, 2, 104, etc
Dim a As Integer = Console.ReadLine()
Console.Write("Segundo número: ") 'Escribe otro número entero.
Dim b As Integer = Console.ReadLine()
Dim c As Integer = a + b
Console.WriteLine(c)
Console.ReadLine()
'Lo anterior es una calculadora sencilla
End Sub
'Cuatro
Private Sub CalcularNumerosDecimales()
Console.Title = "Calcular con tipo doble | Aprende X en Y minutos"
'Por supuesto, nos gustaría sumar decimales.
'Por ello podríamos cambiar del tipo Integer al Double.
'Escribe un número fraccionario, 1.2, 2.4, 50.1, 104.9 etc
Console.Write("Primer número: ")
Dim a As Double = Console.ReadLine
Console.Write("Segundo número: ") 'Escribe el segundo número.
Dim b As Double = Console.ReadLine
Dim c As Double = a + b
Console.WriteLine(c)
Console.ReadLine()
'Este programa puede sumar 1.1 y 2.2
End Sub
'Cinco
Private Sub CalculadoraFuncional()
Console.Title = "La calculadora funcional | Aprende X en Y minutos"
'Pero si quieres que la calculadora reste, divida, multiplique y
'sume.
'Copia y pega lo anterior.
Console.Write("Primer número: ")
Dim a As Double = Console.ReadLine
Console.Write("Segundo número: ")
Dim b As Integer = Console.ReadLine
Dim c As Integer = a + b
Dim d As Integer = a * b
Dim e As Integer = a - b
Dim f As Integer = a / b
'Mediante las líneas siguientes podremos restar,
'multiplicar y dividir los valores a y b
Console.Write(a.ToString() + " + " + b.ToString())
'Queremos dar un margen izquierdo de 3 espacios a los resultados.
Console.WriteLine(" = " + c.ToString.PadLeft(3))
Console.Write(a.ToString() + " * " + b.ToString())
Console.WriteLine(" = " + d.ToString.PadLeft(3))
Console.Write(a.ToString() + " - " + b.ToString())
Console.WriteLine(" = " + e.ToString.PadLeft(3))
Console.Write(a.ToString() + " / " + b.ToString())
Console.WriteLine(" = " + f.ToString.PadLeft(3))
Console.ReadLine()
End Sub
'Seis
Private Sub UsoBuclesDoWhile()
'Igual que la subrutina privada anterior
'Esta vez preguntaremos al usuario si quiere continuar (¿sí o no?)
'Usamos el bucle Do While porque no sabemos si el usuario quiere
'usar el programa más de una vez.
Console.Title = "Uso de bucles «Do While» | Aprende X en Y minutos"
Dim respuesta As String 'Usamos la variable «String» porque la resp. es texto
Do 'Comenzamos el programa con
Console.Write("Primer número: ")
Dim a As Double = Console.ReadLine
Console.Write("Segundo número: ")
Dim b As Integer = Console.ReadLine
Dim c As Integer = a + b
Dim d As Integer = a * b
Dim e As Integer = a - b
Dim f As Integer = a / b
Console.Write(a.ToString() + " + " + b.ToString())
Console.WriteLine(" = " + c.ToString.PadLeft(3))
Console.Write(a.ToString() + " * " + b.ToString())
Console.WriteLine(" = " + d.ToString.PadLeft(3))
Console.Write(a.ToString() + " - " + b.ToString())
Console.WriteLine(" = " + e.ToString.PadLeft(3))
Console.Write(a.ToString() + " / " + b.ToString())
Console.WriteLine(" = " + f.ToString.PadLeft(3))
Console.ReadLine()
'Preguntar si el usuario quiere continuar. Desafortunadamente,
'distingue entre mayúsculas y minúsculas.
Console.Write("¿Quieres continuar? (s / n)")
'El programa toma la variable, la muestra y comienza de nuevo.
respuesta = Console.ReadLine
'La orden que hará funcionar esta variable es en este caso «s»
Loop While respuesta = "s"
End Sub
'Siete
Private Sub UsoBuclesFor()
'A veces el programa debe ejecutarse solo una vez.
'En este programa contaremos a partir de 10.
Console.Title = "Uso de bucles «For» | Aprende X en Y minutos"
'Declarar Variable y desde qué número debe contar en Step -1,
'Step -2, Step -3, etc.
For i As Integer = 10 To 0 Step -1
Console.WriteLine(i.ToString) 'Muestra el valor del contador
Next i 'Calcular el valor nuevo
Console.WriteLine("Iniciar") '¡¡Comencemos el programa, nene!!
Console.ReadLine() '¡¡ZAS!! - Quizá me he emocionado bastante :)
End Sub
'Ocho
Private Sub DeclaracionCondicional()
Console.Title = "Declaraciones condicionales | Aprende X en Y minutos"
Dim nombredeUsuario As String = Console.ReadLine
Console.WriteLine("Hola, ¿cómo te llamas? ") 'Preguntar nombre de usuario.
nombredeUsuario = Console.ReadLine() 'Almacena el nombre de usuario.
If nombredeUsuario = "Adam" Then
Console.WriteLine("Hola, Adam")
Console.WriteLine("Gracias por crear este útil sitio web")
Console.ReadLine()
Else
Console.WriteLine("Hola, " + nombredeUsuario)
Console.WriteLine("¿Has visitado www.learnxinyminutes.com?")
Console.ReadLine() 'Termina y muestra la declaración anterior.
End If
End Sub
'Nueve
Private Sub DeclaracionIfElse()
Console.Title = "Declaración «If / Else» | Aprende X en Y minutos"
'A veces es importante considerar más de dos alternativas.
'A veces, algunas de estas son mejores.
'Cuando esto sucede, necesitaríamos más de una declaración «if».
'Una declaración «if» es adecuada para máquinas expendedoras.
'En las que el usuario escribe un código (A1, A2, A3) para elegir.
'Pueden combinarse todas las elecciones en una sola declaración «if».
Dim seleccion As String = Console.ReadLine 'Valor de la selección
Console.WriteLine("A1. para 7Up")
Console.WriteLine("A2. para Fanta")
Console.WriteLine("A3. para Dr. Pepper")
Console.WriteLine("A4. para Coca-Cola")
Console.ReadLine()
If selection = "A1" Then
Console.WriteLine("7up")
Console.ReadLine()
ElseIf selection = "A2" Then
Console.WriteLine("fanta")
Console.ReadLine()
ElseIf selection = "A3" Then
Console.WriteLine("dr. pepper")
Console.ReadLine()
ElseIf selection = "A4" Then
Console.WriteLine("coca-cola")
Console.ReadLine()
Else
Console.WriteLine("Selecciona un producto")
Console.ReadLine()
End If
End Sub
End Module
```
## Referencias
Aprendí Visual Basic en la aplicación de consola. Esta me permitió entender los principios de la programación para, posteriormente, aprender otros lenguajes con facilidad.
He creado un <a href="http://www.vbbootcamp.co.uk/" Title="Tutorial de Visual Basic">tutorial de Visual Basic</a> más exhaustivo para quienes quieran saber más.
Toda la sintaxis es válida. Copia el código y pégalo en el compilador de Visual Basic y ejecuta (F5) el programa.

4
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@@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ one-to-12 \ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ok
: threes ( n n -- ) ?do i . 3 +loop ; \ ok
15 0 threes \ 0 3 6 9 12 ok
\ Indefinite loops with `begin` <stuff to do> <flag> `unil`:
\ Indefinite loops with `begin` <stuff to do> <flag> `until`:
: death ( -- ) begin ." Are we there yet?" 0 until ; \ ok
\ ---------------------------- Variables and Memory ----------------------------
@@ -133,7 +133,7 @@ variable age \ ok
age @ . \ 21 ok
age ? \ 21 ok
\ Constants are quite simiar, except we don't bother with memory addresses:
\ Constants are quite similar, except we don't bother with memory addresses:
100 constant WATER-BOILING-POINT \ ok
WATER-BOILING-POINT . \ 100 ok

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@@ -0,0 +1,157 @@
---
language: haml
filename: learnhaml.haml
contributors:
- ["Simon Neveu", "https://github.com/sneveu"]
- ["Thibault", "https://github.com/iTech-"]
lang: fr-fr
---
Haml est un langage de balisage utilisé majoritairement avec Ruby, qui décrit de manière simple et propre le HTML de n'importe quelle page web sans l'utilisation des traditionnelles lignes de code. Le langage est une alternative très populaire au langage de templates Rails (.erb) et permet d'intégrer du code en Ruby dans votre balisage.
Son but est de réduire le nombre de répétitions dans le balisage en fermant des balises pour vous en se basant sur l'indentation de votre code. Finalement, le balisage est bien structuré, ne contient pas de répétition, est logique et facile à lire.
Vous pouvez aussi utiliser Haml sur un projet indépendant de Ruby, en installant les gems de Haml et en le convertissant en html grâce aux commandes.
$ haml fichier_entree.haml fichier_sortie.html
```haml
/ -------------------------------------------
/ Indentation
/ -------------------------------------------
/
A cause de l'importance de l'indentation sur la manière dont votre code sera
converti, l'indentation doit être constante à travers votre document. Un
simple changement d'indentation entrainera une erreur. En général, on utilise
deux espaces, mais ce genre de décision sur l'indentation vous appartient, du
moment que vous vous y tenez.
/ -------------------------------------------
/ Commentaires
/ -------------------------------------------
/ Ceci est un commentaire en Haml.
/
Pour écrire un commentaire sur plusieurs lignes, indentez votre code
commenté en le commençant par un slash
-# Ceci est un commentaire silencieux, qui n'apparaîtra pas dans le fichier
/ -------------------------------------------
/ Eléments HTML
/ -------------------------------------------
/ Pour écrire vos balises, utilisez un pourcentage suivi du nom de votre balise
%body
%header
%nav
/ Remarquez qu'il n'y a aucunes balises fermées. Le code produira alors ceci
<body>
<header>
<nav></nav>
</header>
</body>
/ La balise div est l'élément par défaut, vous pouvez donc l'écrire comme ceci
.balise
/ Pour ajouter du contenu à votre balise, ajoutez le texte après sa déclaration
%h1 Titre contenu
/ Pour écrire du contenu sur plusieurs lignes, imbriquez le
%p
Ce paragraphe contient beaucoup de contenu qui pourrait
probablement tenir sur deux lignes séparées.
/
Vous pouvez utiliser des caractères html spéciaux en utilisant &=. Cela va
convertir les caractères comme &, /, : en leur équivalent HTML. Par exemple
%p
&= "Oui & oui"
/ Produira 'Oui &amp; oui'
/ Vous pouvez écrire du contenu html sans qu'il soit converti en utilisant !=
%p
!= "Voici comment écrire une balise de paragraphe <p></p>"
/ Cela produira 'Voici comment écrire une balise de paragraphe <p></p>'
/ Une classe CSS peut être ajouté à votre balise en chainant le nom de la classe
%div.truc.machin
/ ou en utilisant un hash de Ruby
%div{:class => 'truc machin'}
/ Des attributs pour n'importe quelles balises peuvent être ajoutés au hash
%a{:href => '#', :class => 'machin', :title => 'Titre machin'}
/ Pour affecter une valeur à un booléen, utilisez 'true'
%input{:selected => true}
/ Pour écrire des data-attributes, utilisez le :data avec la valeur d'un hash
%div{:data => {:attribute => 'machin'}}
/ -------------------------------------------
/ Insérer du Ruby
/ -------------------------------------------
/
Pour transférer une valeur de Ruby comme contenu d'une balise, utilisez le
signe égal suivi du code Ruby
%h1= livre.titre
%p
= livre.auteur
= livre.editeur
/ Pour lancer du code Ruby sans le convertir en HTML, utilisez un trait d'union
- livres = ['livre 1', 'livre 2', 'livre 3']
/ Ceci vous permet de faire des choses géniales comme des blocs Ruby
- livre.shuffle.each_with_index do |livre, index|
%h1= livre
if livre do
%p Ceci est un livre
/
Encore une fois il n'est pas nécessaire d'ajouter une balise fermante, même
pour Ruby.
L'indentation le fera pour vous.
/ -------------------------------------------
/ Ruby en-ligne / Interpolation en Ruby
/ -------------------------------------------
/ Inclure une variable Ruby dans une ligne en utilisant #{}
%p Votre meilleur score est #{record}
/ -------------------------------------------
/ Filtres
/ -------------------------------------------
/
Utilisez les deux points pour définir un filtre Haml, vous pouvez par exemple
utiliser un filtre :javascript pour écrire du contenu en-ligne js
:javascript
console.log('Ceci est la balise en-ligne <script>');
```
## Lectures complémentaires
- [Qu'est-ce que HAML ?](http://haml.info/) - Une bonne introduction qui explique très bien les avantages d'utiliser HAML.
- [Documentation officielle](http://haml.info/docs/yardoc/file.REFERENCE.html) - Si vous souhaitez en apprendre plus et aller plus loin.

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L'Objective-C est un langage de programmation orienté objet réflexif principalement utilisé par Apple pour les systèmes d'exploitations Mac OS X et iOS et leurs frameworks respectifs, Cocoa et Cocoa Touch.
```objective_c
```objective-c
// Les commentaires sur une seule ligne commencent par //
/*

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---
language: PHP
contributors:
- ["Malcolm Fell", "http://emarref.net/"]
- ["Trismegiste", "https://github.com/Trismegiste"]
translators:
- ["Pascal Boutin", "http://pboutin.net/"]
lang: fr-fr
---
This document describes PHP 5+.
```php
// Le code PHP doit être placé à l'intérieur de balises '<?php'
// Si votre fichier php ne contient que du code PHP, il est
// généralement recommandé de ne pas fermer la balise '?>'
// Deux barres obliques amorcent un commentaire simple.
# Le dièse aussi, bien que les barres obliques soient plus courantes
/*
Les barres obliques et les astérisques peuvent être utilisés
pour faire un commentaire multi-lignes.
*/
// Utilisez "echo" ou "print" afficher une sortie
print('Hello '); // Affiche "Hello " sans retour à la ligne
// Les parenthèses sont facultatives pour print et echo
echo "World\n"; // Affiche "World" avec un retour à la ligne
// toutes les instructions doivent se terminer par un point-virgule
// Tout ce qui se trouve en dehors des <?php ?> est automatiquement
// affiché en sortie
Hello World Again!
<?php
/************************************
* Types & Variables
*/
// Les noms de variables débutent par le symbole $
// Un nom de variable valide commence par une lettre ou un souligné,
// suivi de n'importe quelle lettre, nombre ou de soulignés.
// Les valeurs booléenes ne sont pas sensibles à la casse
$boolean = true; // ou TRUE ou True
$boolean = false; // ou FALSE ou False
// Entiers (integers)
$int1 = 12; // => 12
$int2 = -12; // => -12
$int3 = 012; // => 10 (un 0 devant la valeur désigne une valeur octale)
$int4 = 0x0F; // => 15 (un 0x devant la valeur désigne une valeur hexadécimale)
// Réels (floats, doubles)
$float = 1.234;
$float = 1.2e3;
$float = 7E-10;
// Suppression d'une variable
unset($int1);
// Arithmétique
$sum = 1 + 1; // 2 (addition)
$difference = 2 - 1; // 1 (soustraction)
$product = 2 * 2; // 4 (produit)
$quotient = 2 / 1; // 2 (division)
// Arithmétique (raccourcis)
$number = 0;
$number += 2; // Incrémente $number de 2
echo $number++; // Affiche 2 (incrémente après l'évaluation)
echo ++$number; // Affiche 4 (incrémente avant l'évaluation)
$number /= $float; // Divise et assigne le quotient à $number
// Les chaînes de caractères (strings) doivent être à
// l'intérieur d'une paire d'apostrophes
$sgl_quotes = '$String'; // => '$String'
// Évitez les guillemets sauf pour inclure le contenu d'une autre variable
$dbl_quotes = "This is a $sgl_quotes."; // => 'This is a $String.'
// Les caractères spéciaux sont seulement échappés avec des guillemets
$escaped = "This contains a \t tab character.";
$unescaped = 'This just contains a slash and a t: \t';
// En cas de besoin, placez la variable dans des accolades
$money = "I have $${number} in the bank.";
// Depuis PHP 5.3, Nowdoc peut être utilisé pour faire des chaînes
// multi-lignes non-interprétées
$nowdoc = <<<'END'
Multi line
string
END;
// Heredoc peut être utilisé pour faire des chaînes multi-lignes interprétées
$heredoc = <<<END
Multi line
$sgl_quotes
END;
// La concaténation de chaînes se fait avec un .
echo 'This string ' . 'is concatenated';
/********************************
* Constantes
*/
// Une constante est déclarée avec define()
// et ne peut jamais être changée durant l'exécution
// un nom valide de constante commence par une lettre ou un souligné,
// suivi de n'importe quelle lettre, nombre ou soulignés.
define("FOO", "something");
// on peut accéder à une constante en utilisant directement son nom
echo 'This outputs '.FOO;
/********************************
* Tableaux (array)
*/
// Tous les tableaux en PHP sont associatifs (hashmaps),
// Fonctionne dans toutes les versions de PHP
$associative = array('One' => 1, 'Two' => 2, 'Three' => 3);
// PHP 5.4 a introduit une nouvelle syntaxe
$associative = ['One' => 1, 'Two' => 2, 'Three' => 3];
echo $associative['One']; // affiche 1
// Dans une liste simple, l'index est automatiquement attribué en tant que clé
$array = ['One', 'Two', 'Three'];
echo $array[0]; // => "One"
// Ajoute un élément à la fin du tableau
$array[] = 'Four';
// Retrait d'un élément du tableau
unset($array[3]);
/********************************
* Affichage
*/
echo('Hello World!');
// Affiche Hello World! dans stdout.
// Stdout est la page web si on exécute depuis un navigateur.
print('Hello World!'); // Pareil à "écho"
// Pour écho, vous n'avez pas besoin des parenthèses
echo 'Hello World!';
print 'Hello World!'; // Pour print non plus
$paragraph = 'paragraph';
echo 100; // Affichez un scalaire directement
echo $paragraph; // ou des variables
// Si le raccourci de sortie est configuré, ou si votre version de PHP est
// 5.4.0+, vous pouvez utiliser ceci:
?>
<p><?= $paragraph ?></p>
<?php
$x = 1;
$y = 2;
$x = $y; // $x contient maintenant la même valeur que $y
$z = &$y;
// $z contient une référence vers $y. Changer la valeur de
// $z changerait également la valeur de $y, et vice-versa.
// $x resterait inchangé comme la valeur initiale de $y
echo $x; // => 2
echo $z; // => 2
$y = 0;
echo $x; // => 2
echo $z; // => 0
// Affiche le type et la valeur de la variable dans stdout
var_dump($z); // prints int(0)
// Affiche la variable dans stdout dans un format plus convivial
print_r($array); // prints: Array ( [0] => One [1] => Two [2] => Three )
/********************************
* Logique
*/
$a = 0;
$b = '0';
$c = '1';
$d = '1';
// assert affiche un avertissement dans son argument n'est pas vrai
// Ces comparaisons vont toujours être vraies, même si leurs
// types ne sont pas les mêmes.
assert($a == $b); // égalité
assert($c != $a); // inégalité
assert($c <> $a); // inégalité (moins courant)
assert($a < $c);
assert($c > $b);
assert($a <= $b);
assert($c >= $d);
// Ces comparaisons vont seulement être vraies si les types concordent.
assert($c === $d);
assert($a !== $d);
assert(1 === '1');
assert(1 !== '1');
// Opérateur 'spaceship' depuis PHP 7
$a = 100;
$b = 1000;
echo $a <=> $a; // 0 car ils sont égaux
echo $a <=> $b; // -1 car $a < $b
echo $b <=> $a; // 1 car $b > $a
// Les variables peuvent être transtypées dépendamment de leur usage.
$integer = 1;
echo $integer + $integer; // => 2
$string = '1';
echo $string + $string; // => 2
$string = 'one';
echo $string + $string; // => 0
// Donne 0 car l'opérateur + ne peut pas transtyper la chaîne 'one' en un nombre
// On peut également transtyper manuellement pour utiliser
// une variable dans un autre type
$boolean = (boolean) 1; // => true
$zero = 0;
$boolean = (boolean) $zero; // => false
// Il y a également des fonctions dédiées pour transtyper
$integer = 5;
$string = strval($integer);
$var = null; // Valeur nulle
/********************************
* Structures de contrôle
*/
if (true) {
print 'Je suis affiché';
}
if (false) {
print 'Je ne le suis pas';
} else {
print 'Je suis affiché';
}
if (false) {
print 'Je ne suis pas affiché';
} elseif (true) {
print 'Je le suis';
}
// Opérateur ternaire
print (false ? 'N\'est pas affiché' : 'L\'est');
// Opérateur ternaire depuis PHP 5.3
// équivalent de $x ? $x : 'Does'
$x = false;
print($x ?: 'Does');
// depuis PHP 7, on peut facilement vérifier si une valeur est nulle
$a = null;
$b = 'Hello World';
echo $a ?? 'a is not set'; // Affiche 'a is not set'
echo $b ?? 'b is not set'; // Affiche 'Hello World'
$x = 0;
if ($x === '0') {
print 'Pas affiché';
} elseif($x == '1') {
print 'Pas affiché';
} else {
print 'Affiché';
}
// Cette syntaxe alternative est particulièrement utile avec du HTML:
?>
<?php if ($x): ?>
<p>Ceci est affiché si $x est vrai</p>
<?php else: ?>
<p>Ceci est affiché si $x est faux</p>
<?php endif; ?>
<?php
// On peut également utiliser une condition multiple (switch case)
switch ($x) {
case '0':
print 'Les switch font du transtypage implicite';
break; // Il est important de déclaré un 'break', sinon les cas
// 'two' et 'three' seront évalués
case 'two':
case 'three':
// Si $x == 'two' || $x == 'three'
break;
default:
// Si aucun cas n'a été vrai
}
// Structures itératives (for, while, do while)
$i = 0;
while ($i < 5) {
echo $i++;
}; // Affiche "01234"
echo "\n";
$i = 0;
do {
echo $i++;
} while ($i < 5); // Affiche "01234"
echo "\n";
for ($x = 0; $x < 10; $x++) {
echo $x;
} // Affiche "0123456789"
echo "\n";
$wheels = ['bicycle' => 2, 'car' => 4];
// Les boucles 'foreach' sont utiles pour parcourir les tableaux
foreach ($wheels as $wheel_count) {
echo $wheel_count;
} // Affiche "24"
echo "\n";
// Il est également possible d'accéder aux clés du tableau
foreach ($wheels as $vehicle => $wheel_count) {
echo "The $vehicle have $wheel_count wheels";
}
echo "\n";
$i = 0;
while ($i < 5) {
if ($i === 3) {
break; // Permet d'arrêter la boucle
}
echo $i++;
} // Affiche "012"
for ($i = 0; $i < 5; $i++) {
if ($i === 3) {
continue; // Permet de passer immédiatement à l'itération suivante
}
echo $i;
} // Affiche "0124"
/********************************
* Fonctions
*/
// On peut déclarer une fonction avec le mot clé 'function'
function my_function () {
return 'Hello';
}
echo my_function(); // => "Hello"
// Les noms de fonction débutent par le symbole $
// Un nom de variable valide commence par une lettre ou un souligné,
// suivi de n'importe quelle lettre, nombre ou de soulignés.
function add ($x, $y = 1) { // $y est facultatif et sa valeur par défaut est 1
$result = $x + $y;
return $result;
}
echo add(4); // => 5
echo add(4, 2); // => 6
// $result n'est pas accessible en dehors de la fonction
// print $result; // Retourne un avertissement
// Depuis PHP 5.3 on peut déclarer des fonctions anonymes
$inc = function ($x) {
return $x + 1;
};
echo $inc(2); // => 3
function foo ($x, $y, $z) {
echo "$x - $y - $z";
}
// Une fonction peut retourner une fonction
function bar ($x, $y) {
// On peut utiliser 'use' pour passer des variables externes
return function ($z) use ($x, $y) {
foo($x, $y, $z);
};
}
$bar = bar('A', 'B');
$bar('C'); // Affiche "A - B - C"
// On peut exécuter une fonction par son nom en chaîne de caractères
$function_name = 'add';
echo $function_name(1, 2); // => 3
// Utile pour déterminer par programmation quelle fonction exécuter.
// On peut également utiliser
call_user_func(callable $callback [, $parameter [, ... ]]);
/********************************
* Insertions
*/
<?php
// Le PHP se trouvant dans un fichier inclus doit
// également commencer par une balise PHP.
include 'my-file.php';
// Le code se trouvant dans my-file.php est maintenant disponible dans
// le contexte courant. Si le fichier ne peut pas être inclus
// (ex. non trouvé), un avertissement sera émit.
include_once 'my-file.php';
// Si le code dans my-file.php a déjà été inclus ailleur, il ne va pas
// être inclus de nouveau.
require 'my-file.php';
require_once 'my-file.php';
// Même comportement que include() mais déclenche une érreur fatale si le fichier ne peux pas être inclus.
// Contenu de my-include.php:
<?php
return 'Anything you like.';
// Fin de my-include.php
// include() et require() peuvent également retourner une valeur
$value = include('my-include.php');
// Les fichiers sont inclus depuis le chemin donné ou, si aucun chemin n'est donné,
// la configuration 'include_path'. Si le fichier n'est pas trouvé dans le 'include_path',
// include va finalement vérifier dans le répertoire courant avant d'échouer.
/********************************
* Classes
*/
// Les classes sont définies avec le mot clé 'class'
class MyClass
{
const MY_CONST = 'value'; // Une constante
static $staticVar = 'static';
// Variables statiques et leur visibilité
public static $publicStaticVar = 'publicStatic';
// Accessible à l'intérieur de la classe seulement
private static $privateStaticVar = 'privateStatic';
// Accessible à l'intérieur de la classe et des classes enfants
protected static $protectedStaticVar = 'protectedStatic';
// Les attributs doivent définir leur visibilité
public $property = 'public';
public $instanceProp;
protected $prot = 'protected';
private $priv = 'private';
// Déclaration d'un constructeur avec __construct
public function __construct($instanceProp) {
// Access instance variables with $this
$this->instanceProp = $instanceProp;
}
// Les méthodes sont déclarés par des fonctions au sein de la classe
public function myMethod()
{
print 'MyClass';
}
// le mot clé 'final' rend la function impossible à surcharger
final function youCannotOverrideMe()
{
}
/*
* Les attributs et méthodes statiques peuvent être accédés sans devoir
* instancier la classe. Les attributs statiques ne sont pas accessibles depuis
* une instance, même si les méthodes statiques le sont.
*/
public static function myStaticMethod()
{
print 'I am static';
}
}
// Les constantes d'une classe peuvent toujours être utilisé de façon statique
echo MyClass::MY_CONST; // Outputs 'value';
echo MyClass::$staticVar; // Retourne 'static';
MyClass::myStaticMethod(); // Retourne 'I am static';
// On peut instancier une classe en utilisant le mot clé 'new'
$my_class = new MyClass('An instance property');
// On peut accéder aux attributs/méthodes d'une instance avec ->
echo $my_class->property; // => "public"
echo $my_class->instanceProp; // => "An instance property"
$my_class->myMethod(); // => "MyClass"
// On peut hériter d'une classe en utilisant 'extends'
class MyOtherClass extends MyClass
{
function printProtectedProperty()
{
echo $this->prot;
}
// Surcharge d'une méthode
function myMethod()
{
parent::myMethod();
print ' > MyOtherClass';
}
}
$my_other_class = new MyOtherClass('Instance prop');
$my_other_class->printProtectedProperty(); // => Retourne "protected"
$my_other_class->myMethod(); // Retourne "MyClass > MyOtherClass"
// On peut empêcher qu'une classe soit héritée
final class YouCannotExtendMe
{
}
// On peut utiliser des "méthodes magiques" pour se faire des accesseurs
class MyMapClass
{
private $property;
public function __get($key)
{
return $this->$key;
}
public function __set($key, $value)
{
$this->$key = $value;
}
}
$x = new MyMapClass();
echo $x->property; // Va utiliser la méthode __get()
$x->property = 'Something'; // Va utiliser la méthode __set()
// Les classes peuvent être abstraites (en utilisant le mot clé 'abstract'), ou
// elle peuvent implémenter une interface (en utilisant le mot clé 'implement').
// Une interface peut être déclarée avec le mot clé 'interface'
interface InterfaceOne
{
public function doSomething();
}
interface InterfaceTwo
{
public function doSomethingElse();
}
// Les interfaces peuvent hériter d'autres interfaces
interface InterfaceThree extends InterfaceTwo
{
public function doAnotherContract();
}
abstract class MyAbstractClass implements InterfaceOne
{
public $x = 'doSomething';
}
class MyConcreteClass extends MyAbstractClass implements InterfaceTwo
{
public function doSomething()
{
echo $x;
}
public function doSomethingElse()
{
echo 'doSomethingElse';
}
}
// Les classes peuvent implémenter plusieurs interfaces à la fois
class SomeOtherClass implements InterfaceOne, InterfaceTwo
{
public function doSomething()
{
echo 'doSomething';
}
public function doSomethingElse()
{
echo 'doSomethingElse';
}
}
/********************************
* Espaces de noms (namespaces)
*/
// Cette section est séparée, car une déclaration d'espace de nom doit être
// la première chose que l'on retrouve dans un fichier PHP,
// imaginons que c'est le cas
<?php
// Par défaut, les classes existent dans l'espace de nom global et peuvent
// être appelé explicitement avec un antislash.
$cls = new \MyClass();
// On peut spécifier l'espace de nom d'un fichier comme cela
namespace My\Namespace;
class MyClass
{
}
// (depuis un autre fichier...)
$cls = new My\Namespace\MyClass;
// Ou depuis un autre espace de nom
namespace My\Other\Namespace;
use My\Namespace\MyClass;
$cls = new MyClass();
// On peut également utiliser un alias sur un espace de nom
namespace My\Other\Namespace;
use My\Namespace as SomeOtherNamespace;
$cls = new SomeOtherNamespace\MyClass();
*/
```
## Pour plus d'informations
Visitez la [documentation officielle](http://www.php.net/manual/fr).
Si vous êtes intéressé par les bonnes pratiques, visitez
[PHP The Right Way](http://www.phptherightway.com/) (anglais seulement).
Si vous êtes habitué à utiliser de bons gestionaires de dépendances, regardez
[Composer](http://getcomposer.org/).
Pour consulter les standards, visitez "the PHP Framework Interoperability Groups"
[PSR standards](https://github.com/php-fig/fig-standards).

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---
language: python3
contributors:
- ["Louie Dinh", "http://pythonpracticeprojects.com"]
- ["Steven Basart", "http://github.com/xksteven"]
- ["Andre Polykanine", "https://github.com/Oire"]
- ["Zachary Ferguson", "http://github.com/zfergus2"]
translators:
- ["Gnomino", "https://github.com/Gnomino"]
filename: learnpython3-fr.py
lang: fr-fr
---
Python a été créé par Guido Van Rossum au début des années 90. C'est maintenant un des
langages les populaires. Je suis tombé amoureux de Python pour la clarté de sa syntaxe.
C'est tout simplement du pseudo-code exécutable.
L'auteur original apprécierait les retours (en anglais): vous pouvez le contacter sur Twitter à [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) ou par mail à l'adresse louiedinh [at] [google's email service]
Note : Cet article s'applique spécifiquement à Python 3. Jettez un coup d'oeil [ici](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/fr-fr/python-fr/) pour apprendre le vieux Python 2.7
```python
# Un commentaire d'une ligne commence par un dièse
""" Les chaînes de caractères peuvent être écrites
avec 3 guillemets doubles ("), et sont souvent
utilisées comme des commentaires.
"""
####################################################
## 1. Types de données primaires et opérateurs
####################################################
# On a des nombres
3 # => 3
# Les calculs sont ce à quoi on s'attend
1 + 1 # => 2
8 - 1 # => 7
10 * 2 # => 20
# Sauf pour la division qui retourne un float (nombre à virgule flottante)
35 / 5 # => 7.0
# Résultats de divisions entières tronqués pour les nombres positifs et négatifs
5 // 3 # => 1
5.0 // 3.0 # => 1.0 # works on floats too
-5 // 3 # => -2
-5.0 // 3.0 # => -2.0
# Quand on utilise un float, le résultat est un float
3 * 2.0 # => 6.0
# Modulo (reste de la division)
7 % 3 # => 1
# Exponentiation (x**y, x élevé à la puissance y)
2**4 # => 16
# Forcer la priorité de calcul avec des parenthèses
(1 + 3) * 2 # => 8
# Les valeurs booléennes sont primitives
True
False
# Négation avec not
not True # => False
not False # => True
# Opérateurs booléens
# On note que "and" et "or" sont sensibles à la casse
True and False #=> False
False or True #=> True
# Utilisation des opérations booléennes avec des entiers :
0 and 2 #=> 0
-5 or 0 #=> -5
0 == False #=> True
2 == True #=> False
1 == True #=> True
# On vérifie une égalité avec ==
1 == 1 # => True
2 == 1 # => False
# On vérifie une inégalité avec !=
1 != 1 # => False
2 != 1 # => True
# Autres opérateurs de comparaison
1 < 10 # => True
1 > 10 # => False
2 <= 2 # => True
2 >= 2 # => True
# On peut enchaîner les comparaisons
1 < 2 < 3 # => True
2 < 3 < 2 # => False
# (is vs. ==) is vérifie si deux variables pointent sur le même objet, mais == vérifie
# si les objets ont la même valeur.
a = [1, 2, 3, 4] # a pointe sur une nouvelle liste, [1, 2, 3, 4]
b = a # b pointe sur a
b is a # => True, a et b pointent sur le même objet
b == a # => True, les objets a et b sont égaux
b = [1, 2, 3, 4] # b pointe sur une nouvelle liste, [1, 2, 3, 4]
b is a # => False, a et b ne pointent pas sur le même objet
b == a # => True, les objets a et b ne pointent pas sur le même objet
# Les chaînes (ou strings) sont créées avec " ou '
"Ceci est une chaine"
'Ceci est une chaine aussi.'
# On peut additionner des chaînes aussi ! Mais essayez d'éviter de le faire.
"Hello " + "world!" # => "Hello world!"
# On peut aussi le faire sans utiliser '+'
"Hello " "world!" # => "Hello world!"
# On peut traîter une chaîne comme une liste de caractères
"This is a string"[0] # => 'T'
# .format peut être utilisé pour formatter des chaînes, comme ceci:
"{} peuvent etre {}".format("Les chaînes", "interpolées")
# On peut aussi réutiliser le même argument pour gagner du temps.
"{0} be nimble, {0} be quick, {0} jump over the {1}".format("Jack", "candle stick")
#=> "Jack be nimble, Jack be quick, Jack jump over the candle stick"
# On peut aussi utiliser des mots clés pour éviter de devoir compter.
"{name} wants to eat {food}".format(name="Bob", food="lasagna") #=> "Bob wants to eat lasagna"
# Si votre code doit aussi être compatible avec Python 2.5 et moins,
# vous pouvez encore utiliser l'ancienne syntaxe :
"Les %s peuvent être %s avec la %s méthode" % ("chaînes", "interpolées", "vieille")
# None est un objet
None # => None
# N'utilisez pas "==" pour comparer des objets à None
# Utilisez plutôt "is". Cela permet de vérifier l'égalité de l'identité des objets.
"etc" is None # => False
None is None # => True
# None, 0, and les strings/lists/dicts (chaînes/listes/dictionnaires) valent False lorsqu'ils sont convertis en booléens.
# Toutes les autres valeurs valent True
bool(0) # => False
bool("") # => False
bool([]) #=> False
bool({}) #=> False
####################################################
## 2. Variables et Collections
####################################################
# Python a une fonction print pour afficher du texte
print("I'm Python. Nice to meet you!")
# Par défaut, la fonction print affiche aussi une nouvelle ligne à la fin.
# Utilisez l'argument optionnel end pour changer ce caractère de fin.
print("Hello, World", end="!") # => Hello, World!
# Pas besoin de déclarer des variables avant de les définir.
# La convention est de nommer ses variables avec des minuscules_et_underscores
some_var = 5
some_var # => 5
# Tenter d'accéder à une variable non définie lève une exception.
# Voir Structures de contrôle pour en apprendre plus sur le traitement des exceptions.
une_variable_inconnue # Lève une NameError
# Les listes permettent de stocker des séquences
li = []
# On peut initialiser une liste pré-remplie
other_li = [4, 5, 6]
# On ajoute des objets à la fin d'une liste avec .append
li.append(1) # li vaut maintenant [1]
li.append(2) # li vaut maintenant [1, 2]
li.append(4) # li vaut maintenant [1, 2, 4]
li.append(3) # li vaut maintenant [1, 2, 4, 3]
# On enlève le dernier élément avec .pop
li.pop() # => 3 et li vaut maintenant [1, 2, 4]
# Et on le remet
li.append(3) # li vaut de nouveau [1, 2, 4, 3]
# Accès à un élément d'une liste :
li[0] # => 1
# Accès au dernier élément :
li[-1] # => 3
# Accéder à un élément en dehors des limites lève une IndexError
li[4] # Lève une IndexError
# On peut accéder à une intervalle avec la syntaxe "slice"
# (c'est un rang du type "fermé/ouvert")
li[1:3] # => [2, 4]
# Omettre les deux premiers éléments
li[2:] # => [4, 3]
# Prendre les trois premiers
li[:3] # => [1, 2, 4]
# Sélectionner un élément sur deux
li[::2] # =>[1, 4]
# Avoir une copie de la liste à l'envers
li[::-1] # => [3, 4, 2, 1]
# Pour des "slices" plus élaborées :
# li[debut:fin:pas]
# Faire une copie d'une profondeur de un avec les "slices"
li2 = li[:] # => li2 = [1, 2, 4, 3] mais (li2 is li) vaut False.
# Enlever des éléments arbitrairement d'une liste
del li[2] # li is now [1, 2, 3]
# On peut additionner des listes
# Note: les valeurs de li et other_li ne sont pas modifiées.
li + other_li # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
# Concaténer des listes avec "extend()"
li.extend(other_li) # Now li is [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
# Vérifier la présence d'un objet dans une liste avec "in"
1 in li # => True
# Examiner la longueur avec "len()"
len(li) # => 6
# Les tuples sont comme des listes mais sont immuables.
tup = (1, 2, 3)
tup[0] # => 1
tup[0] = 3 # Lève une TypeError
# Note : un tuple de taille un doit avoir une virgule après le dernier élément,
# mais ce n'est pas le cas des tuples d'autres tailles, même zéro.
type((1)) # => <class 'int'>
type((1,)) # => <class 'tuple'>
type(()) # => <class 'tuple'>
# On peut utiliser la plupart des opérations des listes sur des tuples.
len(tup) # => 3
tup + (4, 5, 6) # => (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
tup[:2] # => (1, 2)
2 in tup # => True
# Vous pouvez décomposer des tuples (ou des listes) dans des variables
a, b, c = (1, 2, 3) # a vaut 1, b vaut 2 et c vaut 3
# Les tuples sont créés par défaut sans parenthèses
d, e, f = 4, 5, 6
# Voyez comme il est facile d'intervertir deux valeurs :
e, d = d, e # d vaut maintenant 5 et e vaut maintenant 4
# Créer un dictionnaire :
empty_dict = {}
# Un dictionnaire pré-rempli :
filled_dict = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}
# Note : les clés des dictionnaires doivent être de types immuables.
# Elles doivent être convertibles en une valeur constante pour une recherche rapide.
# Les types immuables incluent les ints, floats, strings et tuples.
invalid_dict = {[1,2,3]: "123"} # => Lève une TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'
valid_dict = {(1,2,3):[1,2,3]} # Par contre, les valeurs peuvent être de tout type.
# On trouve une valeur avec []
filled_dict["one"] # => 1
# On obtient toutes les clés sous forme d'un itérable avec "keys()" Il faut l'entourer
# de list() pour avoir une liste Note: l'ordre n'est pas garanti.
list(filled_dict.keys()) # => ["three", "two", "one"]
# On obtient toutes les valeurs sous forme d'un itérable avec "values()".
# Là aussi, il faut utiliser list() pour avoir une liste.
# Note : l'ordre n'est toujours pas garanti.
list(filled_dict.values()) # => [3, 2, 1]
# On vérifie la présence d'une clé dans un dictionnaire avec "in"
"one" in filled_dict # => True
1 in filled_dict # => False
# L'accès à une clé non-existente lève une KeyError
filled_dict["four"] # KeyError
# On utilise "get()" pour éviter la KeyError
filled_dict.get("one") # => 1
filled_dict.get("four") # => None
# La méthode get accepte une valeur de retour par défaut en cas de valeur non-existante.
filled_dict.get("one", 4) # => 1
filled_dict.get("four", 4) # => 4
# "setdefault()" insère une valeur dans un dictionnaire si la clé n'est pas présente.
filled_dict.setdefault("five", 5) # filled_dict["five"] devient 5
filled_dict.setdefault("five", 6) # filled_dict["five"] est toujours 5
# Ajouter à un dictionnaire
filled_dict.update({"four":4}) #=> {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
#filled_dict["four"] = 4 # une autre méthode
# Enlever des clés d'un dictionnaire avec del
del filled_dict["one"] # Enlever la clé "one" de filled_dict.
# Les sets stockent des ensembles
empty_set = set()
# Initialiser un set avec des valeurs. Oui, ça ressemble aux dictionnaires, désolé.
some_set = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4} # some_set est maintenant {1, 2, 3, 4}
# Comme les clés d'un dictionnaire, les éléments d'un set doivent être immuables.
invalid_set = {[1], 1} # => Lève une TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'
valid_set = {(1,), 1}
# On peut changer un set :
filled_set = some_set
# Ajouter un objet au set :
filled_set.add(5) # filled_set vaut maintenant {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
# Chercher les intersections de deux sets avec &
other_set = {3, 4, 5, 6}
filled_set & other_set # => {3, 4, 5}
# On fait l'union de sets avec |
filled_set | other_set # => {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
# On fait la différence de deux sets avec -
{1, 2, 3, 4} - {2, 3, 5} # => {1, 4}
# On vérifie la présence d'un objet dans un set avec in
2 in filled_set # => True
10 in filled_set # => False
####################################################
## 3. Structures de contrôle et Itérables
####################################################
# On crée juste une variable
some_var = 5
# Voici une condition "si". L'indentation est significative en Python!
# Affiche: "some_var is smaller than 10"
if some_var > 10:
print("some_var is totally bigger than 10.")
elif some_var < 10: # La clause elif ("sinon si") est optionelle
print("some_var is smaller than 10.")
else: # La clause else ("sinon") l'est aussi.
print("some_var is indeed 10.")
"""
Les boucles "for" itèrent sur une liste
Affiche:
chien est un mammifère
chat est un mammifère
souris est un mammifère
"""
for animal in ["chien", "chat", "souris"]:
# On peut utiliser format() pour interpoler des chaînes formattées
print("{} est un mammifère".format(animal))
"""
"range(nombre)" retourne un itérable de nombres
de zéro au nombre donné
Affiche:
0
1
2
3
"""
for i in range(4):
print(i)
"""
"range(debut, fin)" retourne un itérable de nombre
de debut à fin.
Affiche:
4
5
6
7
"""
for i in range(4, 8):
print(i)
"""
"range(debut, fin, pas)" retourne un itérable de nombres
de début à fin en incrémentant de pas.
Si le pas n'est pas indiqué, la valeur par défaut est 1.
Affiche:
4
6
8
"""
for i in range(4, 8, 2):
print(i)
"""
Les boucles "while" bouclent jusqu'à ce que la condition devienne fausse.
Affiche:
0
1
2
3
"""
x = 0
while x < 4:
print(x)
x += 1 # Raccourci pour x = x + 1
# On gère les exceptions avec un bloc try/except
try:
# On utilise "raise" pour lever une erreur
raise IndexError("Ceci est une erreur d'index")
except IndexError as e:
pass # Pass signifie simplement "ne rien faire". Généralement, on gère l'erreur ici.
except (TypeError, NameError):
pass # Si besoin, on peut aussi gérer plusieurs erreurs en même temps.
else: # Clause optionelle des blocs try/except. Doit être après tous les except.
print("Tout va bien!") # Uniquement si aucune exception n'est levée.
finally: # Éxécuté dans toutes les circonstances.
print("On nettoie les ressources ici")
# Au lieu de try/finally pour nettoyer les ressources, on peut utiliser with
with open("myfile.txt") as f:
for line in f:
print(line)
# Python offre une abstraction fondamentale : l'Iterable.
# Un itérable est un objet pouvant être traîté comme une séquence.
# L'objet retourné par la fonction range() est un itérable.
filled_dict = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}
our_iterable = filled_dict.keys()
print(our_iterable) #=> range(1,10). C'est un objet qui implémente l'interface Iterable
# On peut boucler dessus
for i in our_iterable:
print(i) # Affiche one, two, three
# Cependant, on ne peut pas accéder aux éléments par leur adresse.
our_iterable[1] # Lève une TypeError
# Un itérable est un objet qui sait créer un itérateur.
our_iterator = iter(our_iterable)
# Notre itérateur est un objet qui se rappelle de notre position quand on le traverse.
# On passe à l'élément suivant avec "next()".
next(our_iterator) #=> "one"
# Il garde son état quand on itère.
next(our_iterator) #=> "two"
next(our_iterator) #=> "three"
# Après que l'itérateur a retourné toutes ses données, il lève une exception StopIterator
next(our_iterator) # Lève une StopIteration
# On peut mettre tous les éléments d'un itérateur dans une liste avec list()
list(filled_dict.keys()) #=> Returns ["one", "two", "three"]
####################################################
## 4. Fonctions
####################################################
# On utilise "def" pour créer des fonctions
def add(x, y):
print("x est {} et y est {}".format(x, y))
return x + y # On retourne une valeur avec return
# Appel d'une fonction avec des paramètres :
add(5, 6) # => affiche "x est 5 et y est 6" et retourne 11
# Une autre manière d'appeller une fonction : avec des arguments
add(y=6, x=5) # Les arguments peuvent être dans n'importe quel ordre.
# Définir une fonction qui prend un nombre variable d'arguments
def varargs(*args):
return args
varargs(1, 2, 3) # => (1, 2, 3)
# On peut aussi définir une fonction qui prend un nombre variable de paramètres.
def keyword_args(**kwargs):
return kwargs
# Appelons la pour voir ce qu'il se passe :
keyword_args(big="foot", loch="ness") # => {"big": "foot", "loch": "ness"}
# On peut aussi faire les deux à la fois :
def all_the_args(*args, **kwargs):
print(args)
print(kwargs)
"""
all_the_args(1, 2, a=3, b=4) affiche:
(1, 2)
{"a": 3, "b": 4}
"""
# En appelant des fonctions, on peut aussi faire l'inverse :
# utiliser * pour étendre un tuple de paramètres
# et ** pour étendre un dictionnaire d'arguments.
args = (1, 2, 3, 4)
kwargs = {"a": 3, "b": 4}
all_the_args(*args) # équivalent à foo(1, 2, 3, 4)
all_the_args(**kwargs) # équivalent à foo(a=3, b=4)
all_the_args(*args, **kwargs) # équivalent à foo(1, 2, 3, 4, a=3, b=4)
# Retourne plusieurs valeurs (avec un tuple)
def swap(x, y):
return y, x # Retourne plusieurs valeurs avec un tuple sans parenthèses.
# (Note: on peut aussi utiliser des parenthèses)
x = 1
y = 2
x, y = swap(x, y) # => x = 2, y = 1
# (x, y) = swap(x,y) # Là aussi, rien ne nous empêche d'ajouter des parenthèses
# Portée des fonctions :
x = 5
def setX(num):
# La variable locale x n'est pas la même que la variable globale x
x = num # => 43
print (x) # => 43
def setGlobalX(num):
global x
print (x) # => 5
x = num # la variable globale x est maintenant 6
print (x) # => 6
setX(43)
setGlobalX(6)
# Python a des fonctions de première classe
def create_adder(x):
def adder(y):
return x + y
return adder
add_10 = create_adder(10)
add_10(3) # => 13
# Mais aussi des fonctions anonymes
(lambda x: x > 2)(3) # => True
(lambda x, y: x ** 2 + y ** 2)(2, 1) # => 5
# TODO - Fix for iterables
# Il y a aussi des fonctions de base
map(add_10, [1, 2, 3]) # => [11, 12, 13]
map(max, [1, 2, 3], [4, 2, 1]) # => [4, 2, 3]
filter(lambda x: x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) # => [6, 7]
# On peut utiliser les compréhensions de listes pour de jolies maps et filtres.
# Une compréhension de liste stocke la sortie comme une liste qui peut elle même être une liste imbriquée.
[add_10(i) for i in [1, 2, 3]] # => [11, 12, 13]
[x for x in [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] if x > 5] # => [6, 7]
####################################################
## 5. Classes
####################################################
# On utilise l'opérateur "classe" pour définir une classe
class Human:
# Un attribut de la classe. Il est partagé par toutes les instances de la classe.
species = "H. sapiens"
# L'initialiseur de base. Il est appelé quand la classe est instanciée.
# Note : les doubles underscores au début et à la fin sont utilisés pour
# les fonctions et attributs utilisés par Python mais contrôlés par l'utilisateur.
# Les méthodes (ou objets ou attributs) comme: __init__, __str__,
# __repr__ etc. sont appelés méthodes magiques.
# Vous ne devriez pas inventer de noms de ce style.
def __init__(self, name):
# Assigner l'argument à l'attribut de l'instance
self.name = name
# Une méthode de l'instance. Toutes prennent "self" comme premier argument.
def say(self, msg):
return "{name}: {message}".format(name=self.name, message=msg)
# Une méthode de classe est partagée avec entre les instances
# Ils sont appelés avec la classe comme premier argument
@classmethod
def get_species(cls):
return cls.species
# Une méthode statique est appelée sans référence à une instance ni à une classe.
@staticmethod
def grunt():
return "*grunt*"
# Instantier une classe
i = Human(name="Ian")
print(i.say("hi")) # affiche "Ian: hi"
j = Human("Joel")
print(j.say("hello")) # affiche "Joel: hello"
# Appeller notre méthode de classe
i.get_species() # => "H. sapiens"
# Changer les attributs partagés
Human.species = "H. neanderthalensis"
i.get_species() # => "H. neanderthalensis"
j.get_species() # => "H. neanderthalensis"
# Appeller la méthode statique
Human.grunt() # => "*grunt*"
####################################################
## 6. Modules
####################################################
# On peut importer des modules
import math
print(math.sqrt(16)) # => 4
# On peut importer des fonctions spécifiques d'un module
from math import ceil, floor
print(ceil(3.7)) # => 4.0
print(floor(3.7)) # => 3.0
# On peut importer toutes les fonctions d'un module
# Attention: ce n'est pas recommandé.
from math import *
# On peut raccourcir un nom de module
import math as m
math.sqrt(16) == m.sqrt(16) # => True
# Les modules Python sont juste des fichiers Python.
# Vous pouvez écrire les vôtres et les importer. Le nom du module
# est le nom du fichier.
# On peut voir quels fonctions et objets un module définit
import math
dir(math)
####################################################
## 7. Avancé
####################################################
# Les générateurs aident à faire du code paresseux (lazy)
def double_numbers(iterable):
for i in iterable:
yield i + i
# Un générateur crée des valeurs à la volée.
# Au lieu de générer et retourner toutes les valeurs en une fois, il en crée une à chaque
# itération. Cela signifie que les valeurs supérieures à 15 ne seront pas traîtées par
# double_numbers.
# Note : range est un générateur aussi.
# Créer une liste 1-900000000 prendrait beaucoup de temps
# On met un underscore à la fin d'un nom de variable normalement réservé par Python.
range_ = range(1, 900000000)
# Double tous les nombres jusqu'à ce qu'un nombre >=30 soit trouvé
for i in double_numbers(range_):
print(i)
if i >= 30:
break
# Decorateurs
# Dans cet exemple, beg enveloppe say
# Beg appellera say. Si say_please vaut True le message retourné sera changé
from functools import wraps
def beg(target_function):
@wraps(target_function)
def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
msg, say_please = target_function(*args, **kwargs)
if say_please:
return "{} {}".format(msg, "Please! I am poor :(")
return msg
return wrapper
@beg
def say(say_please=False):
msg = "Can you buy me a beer?"
return msg, say_please
print(say()) # affiche Can you buy me a beer?
print(say(say_please=True)) # affiche Can you buy me a beer? Please! I am poor :(
```
## Prêt pour encore plus ?
### En ligne et gratuit (en anglais)
* [Automate the Boring Stuff with Python](https://automatetheboringstuff.com)
* [Learn Python The Hard Way](http://learnpythonthehardway.org/book/)
* [Dive Into Python](http://www.diveintopython.net/)
* [Ideas for Python Projects](http://pythonpracticeprojects.com)
* [The Official Docs](http://docs.python.org/3/)
* [Hitchhiker's Guide to Python](http://docs.python-guide.org/en/latest/)
* [A Crash Course in Python for Scientists](http://nbviewer.ipython.org/5920182)
* [Python Course](http://www.python-course.eu/index.php)
* [First Steps With Python](https://realpython.com/learn/python-first-steps/)
### Livres (en anglais)
* [Programming Python](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0596158106/ref=as_li_qf_sp_asin_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0596158106&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20)
* [Dive Into Python](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1441413022/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=1441413022&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20)
* [Python Essential Reference](http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0672329786/ref=as_li_tf_tl?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&creativeASIN=0672329786&linkCode=as2&tag=homebits04-20)

9
fr-fr/scala.html.markdown
View File

@@ -208,6 +208,7 @@ sSquared.reduce (_+_)
// La fonction filter prend un prédicat (une fonction de type A -> Booléen) et
// sélectionne tous les éléments qui satisfont ce prédicat
List(1, 2, 3) filter (_ > 2) // List(3)
case class Person(name: String, age: Int)
List(
Person(name = "Dom", age = 23),
Person(name = "Bob", age = 30)
@@ -217,6 +218,7 @@ List(
// Scala a une méthode foreach définie pour certaines collections
// qui prend en argument une fonction renvoyant Unit (une méthode void)
val aListOfNumbers = List(1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 20, 100)
aListOfNumbers foreach (x => println(x))
aListOfNumbers foreach println
@@ -271,11 +273,12 @@ i // Montre la valeur de i. Notez que while est une boucle au sens classique.
// mais utiliser des combinateurs et des compréhensions comme ci-dessus est plus
// facile pour comprendre et pour faire la parallélisation
i = 0
// La boucle do while
do {
println("x is still less then 10");
x += 1
} while (x < 10)
i += 1
} while (i < 10)
// La récursivité est un moyen idiomatique de faire une chose répétitive en Scala.
@@ -370,7 +373,7 @@ val email(user, domain) = "henry@zkpr.com"
"Les chaînes de caractères Scala sont entourées de doubles guillements"
'a' // Un caractère de Scala
'Les simples guillemets n'existent pas en Scala // Erreur
// 'Les simples guillemets n'existent pas en Scala' // Erreur
"Les chaînes de caractères possèdent les méthodes usuelles de Java".length
"Il y a aussi quelques méthodes extra de Scala.".reverse

82
fr-fr/yaml-fr.html.markdown
View File

@@ -8,86 +8,90 @@ lang: fr-fr
Proposé à l'origine par Clark Evans en Mai 2001, YAML est un un format de
représentation de données par sérialisation, conçu pour être aisément
éditable et lisible par nous même, les humains.
modifiable et lisible par nous-mêmes, les humains.
YAML est plus concis que le XML auquel il est parfois comparé par ceux qui le découvre, plus lisible et clair que le CSV, et emprunte beaucoup au JSON dont il est un parent naturel. Toutefois, YAML emprunte également des idées et concepts de chez Python, et s'intègre bien avec bon nombre de langages.
YAML est plus concis que le XML auquel il est parfois comparé par ceux qui le
découvre, plus lisible et clair que le CSV, et emprunte beaucoup au JSON dont
il est un parent naturel. Toutefois, YAML emprunte également des idées et
concepts de Python, et s'intègre bien avec bon nombre de langages.
Contrairement à ce dernier, YAML interdit l'utilisation des tabulations.
```yaml
# les Commentaires sont précédés d'un signe "#", comme cette ligne.
# Les commentaires sont précédés d'un signe "#", comme cette ligne.
#############
# SCALAIRES #
#############
# Les scalaires sont l'ensemble des types YAML qui ne sont pas des collections
# ( listes ou tableaux associatifs ).
# (listes ou tableaux associatifs).
# Notre objet root ( racine ), sera une map ( carte ) et englobera
# Notre objet root (racine), sera une map (carte) et englobera
# l'intégralité du document. Cette map est l'équivalent d'un dictionnaire,
# hash ou objet dans d'autres langages.
clé: valeur
aurtre_clé: une autre valeur
autre_clé: une autre valeur
valeur_numérique: 100
notation_scientifique: 1e+12
boolean: true
booléen: true
valeur_null: null
clé avec espaces: valeur
# Bien qu'il ne soit pas nécessaire d'enfermer les chaînes de caractères
# Bien qu'il ne soit pas nécessaire de mettre les chaînes de caractères
# entre guillemets, cela reste possible, et parfois utile.
toutefois: "Une chaîne, peut être contenue entre guillemets."
"Une clé entre guillemets.": "Utile si on veut utiliser ':' dans la clé."
"Une clé entre guillemets.": "Utile si l'on veut utiliser ':' dans la clé."
# Les chaînes couvrant plusieurs lignes, peuvent être écrites au choix,
# comme un 'bloc littéral' ( avec | ) ou bien 'bloc replié' avec ( > ).
# comme un "bloc littéral" (avec '|') ou bien un "bloc replié" (avec '>').
bloc_littéral: |
Tout ce bloc de texte sera la valeur de la clé 'bloc_littéral',
avec préservation des retours à la ligne. ( chaque ligne vide à
l'intérieur du même bloc, sera remplacée par "\n\n" )
Tout ce bloc de texte sera la valeur de la clé "bloc_littéral",
avec préservation des retours à la ligne.
Le littéral continue jusqu'à ce que l'indentation soit annulée.
Toutes lignes qui serait "d'avantage indentées" conservent leur
Toutes lignes qui seraient "davantage indentées" conservent leur
indentation, constituée de 4 espaces.
bloc_replié: >
Tout ce bloc de texte sera la valeur de la clé 'bloc_replié', mais
cette fois ci, toutes les nouvelles lignes deviendront un simple espace.
Tout ce bloc de texte sera la valeur de la clé "bloc_replié", mais
cette fois-ci, toutes les nouvelles lignes deviendront un simple espace.
Les lignes vides, comme ci-dessus, seront converties en caractère "\n".
Les lignes vides, comme ci-dessus, seront converties en caractère de
nouvelle ligne.
Les lignes 'plus-indentées' gardent leurs retours à la ligne -
Les lignes "plus-indentées" gardent leurs retours à la ligne -
ce texte apparaîtra sur deux lignes.
###############
# COLLECTIONS #
###############
# l'Imbrication est créée par indentation.
# L'imbrication est créée par indentation.
une_map_imbriquée:
clé: valeur
autre_clé: autre valeur
autre_map_imbriquée:
bonjour: bonjour
# les Clés des Maps ne sont pas nécessairement des chaînes de caractères.
0.25: une clé de type float
# Les clés des maps ne sont pas nécessairement des chaînes de caractères.
0.25: une clé de type flottant
# les Clés peuvent également être des objets s'étendant sur plusieurs lignes,
# Les clés peuvent également être des objets s'étendant sur plusieurs lignes,
# en utilisant le signe "?" pour indiquer le début de la clé.
? |
ceci est une Clé
ceci est une clé
sur de multiples lignes
: et ceci est sa Valeur
: et ceci est sa valeur
# YAML autorise aussi l'usage des collections à l'intérieur des clés,
# mais certains langages de programmation ne le tolère pas si bien.
# les Séquences (équivalent des listes ou tableaux) ressemblent à cela:
# Les séquences (équivalent des listes ou tableaux) ressemblent à cela :
une_séquence:
- Item 1
- Item 2
- Objet 1
- Objet 2
- 0.5 # les séquences peuvent contenir des types variés.
- Item 4
- Objet 4
- clé: valeur
autre_clé: autre_valeur
-
@@ -99,22 +103,22 @@ une_séquence:
json_map: {"clé": "valeur"}
json_seq: [1, 2, 3, "soleil"]
#################################
################################
# AUTRES FONCTIONNALITÉES YAML #
#################################
################################
# YAML possède une fonctionnalité fort utile nommée 'ancres'. Celle-ci
# YAML possède une fonctionnalité fort utile nommée "ancres". Celle-ci
# vous permet de dupliquer aisément du contenu au sein de votre document.
# Les deux clés suivantes auront la même valeur:
# Les deux clés suivantes auront la même valeur :
contenu_ancré: &nom_ancre Cette chaîne sera la valeur des deux clés.
autre_ancre: *nom_ancre
# Avec les Tags YAML, vous pouvez explicitement déclarer des types de données.
# Avec les tags YAML, vous pouvez explicitement déclarer des types de données.
chaine_explicite: !!str 0.5
# Certains parsers implémentent des tags spécifiques à d'autres langages,
# comme par exemple le "complex number" de Python.
# Certains analyseurs syntaxiques (parsers) implémentent des tags spécifiques à
# d'autres langages, comme par exemple celui des nombres complexes de Python.
python_complex_number: !!python/complex 1+2j
#####################
@@ -135,14 +139,14 @@ fichier_gif: !!binary |
+f/++f/++f/++f/++f/++SH+Dk1hZGUgd2l0aCBHSU1QACwAAAAADAAMAAAFLC
AgjoEwnuNAFOhpEMTRiggcz4BNJHrv/zCFcLiwMWYNG84BwwEeECcgggoBADs=
# YAML a de même un type "set", qui ressemble à cela:
# YAML a de même un type "set", semblable à ceci :
set:
? item1
? item2
? item3
# Comme dans Python, les sets ne sont que des maps contenant des valeurs null ;
# le set précédent est l'équivalent du suivant:
# le set précédent est l'équivalent du suivant :
set2:
item1: null
item2: null
@@ -152,6 +156,6 @@ set2:
Quelques références et outils :
- Doc officielle [YAML 1.2](http://www.yaml.org/spec/1.2/spec.html) *anglais*,
- Documentation officielle [YAML 1.2](http://www.yaml.org/spec/1.2/spec.html) *anglais*,
- Une [Introduction à YAML](http://sweetohm.net/html/introduction-yaml.html) très bien construite et claire,
- Un outil pour tester [live](http://yaml-online-parser.appspot.com/) la syntaxe YAML, avec des exemples.
- Un outil pour tester [en ligne](http://yaml-online-parser.appspot.com/) la syntaxe YAML, avec des exemples.

2
fsharp.html.markdown
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@@ -119,7 +119,7 @@ printfn "A string %s, and something generic %A" "hello" [1;2;3;4]
// ================================================
// F# is a true functional language -- functions are first
// class entities and can be combined easy to make powerful
// class entities and can be combined easily to make powerful
// constructs
// Modules are used to group functions together

30
git.html.markdown
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@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ contributors:
- ["Jake Prather", "http://github.com/JakeHP"]
- ["Leo Rudberg" , "http://github.com/LOZORD"]
- ["Betsy Lorton" , "http://github.com/schbetsy"]
- ["Bruno Volcov", "http://github.com/volcov"]
filename: LearnGit.txt
---
@@ -76,6 +77,11 @@ other repositories, or not!
A branch is essentially a pointer to the last commit you made. As you go on
committing, this pointer will automatically update to point the latest commit.
### Tag
A tag is a mark on specific point in history. Typically people use this
functionality to mark release points (v1.0, and so on)
### HEAD and head (component of .git dir)
HEAD is a pointer that points to the current branch. A repository only has 1 *active* HEAD.
@@ -206,6 +212,28 @@ $ git branch -m myBranchName myNewBranchName
$ git branch myBranchName --edit-description
```
### tag
Manage your tags
```bash
# List tags
$ git tag
# Create a annotated tag
# The -m specifies a tagging message,which is stored with the tag.
# If you don’t specify a message for an annotated tag,
# Git launches your editor so you can type it in.
$ git tag -a v2.0 -m 'my version 2.0'
# Show info about tag
# That shows the tagger information, the date the commit was tagged,
# and the annotation message before showing the commit information.
$ git show v2.0
# Push a single tag to remote
$ git push origin v2.0
# Push a lot of tags to remote
$ git push origin --tags
```
### checkout
Updates all files in the working tree to match the version in the index, or specified tree.
@@ -484,6 +512,8 @@ $ git rm /pather/to/the/file/HelloWorld.c
* [Udemy Git Tutorial: A Comprehensive Guide](https://blog.udemy.com/git-tutorial-a-comprehensive-guide/)
* [Git Immersion - A Guided tour that walks through the fundamentals of git](http://gitimmersion.com/)
* [git-scm - Video Tutorials](http://git-scm.com/videos)
* [git-scm - Documentation](http://git-scm.com/docs)

11
go.html.markdown
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@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ contributors:
- ["Quint Guvernator", "https://github.com/qguv"]
- ["Jose Donizetti", "https://github.com/josedonizetti"]
- ["Alexej Friesen", "https://github.com/heyalexej"]
- ["Clayton Walker", "https://github.com/cwalk"]
---
Go was created out of the need to get work done. It's not the latest trend
@@ -115,7 +116,7 @@ can include line breaks.` // Same string type.
fmt.Println(s) // Updated slice is now [1 2 3 4 5 6]
// To append another slice, instead of list of atomic elements we can
// pass a reference to a slice or a slice literal like this, with a
// trailing elipsis, meaning take a slice and unpack its elements,
// trailing ellipsis, meaning take a slice and unpack its elements,
// appending them to slice s.
s = append(s, []int{7, 8, 9}...) // Second argument is a slice literal.
fmt.Println(s) // Updated slice is now [1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9]
@@ -129,7 +130,7 @@ can include line breaks.` // Same string type.
m["one"] = 1
// Unused variables are an error in Go.
// The underbar lets you "use" a variable but discard its value.
// The underscore lets you "use" a variable but discard its value.
_, _, _, _, _, _, _, _, _, _ = str, s2, g, f, u, pi, n, a3, s4, bs
// Output of course counts as using a variable.
fmt.Println(s, c, a4, s3, d2, m)
@@ -164,7 +165,7 @@ func expensiveComputation() float64 {
}
func learnFlowControl() {
// If statements require brace brackets, and do not require parens.
// If statements require brace brackets, and do not require parentheses.
if true {
fmt.Println("told ya")
}
@@ -407,6 +408,8 @@ func requestServer() {
The root of all things Go is the [official Go web site](http://golang.org/).
There you can follow the tutorial, play interactively, and read lots.
Aside from a tour, [the docs](https://golang.org/doc/) contain information on
how to write clean and effective Go code, package and command docs, and release history.
The language definition itself is highly recommended. It's easy to read
and amazingly short (as language definitions go these days.)
@@ -420,3 +423,5 @@ idioms. Or you can click on a function name in [the
documentation](http://golang.org/pkg/) and the source code comes up!
Another great resource to learn Go is [Go by example](https://gobyexample.com/).
Go Mobile adds support for mobile platforms (Android and iOS). You can write all-Go native mobile apps or write a library that contains bindings from a Go package, which can be invoked via Java (Android) and Objective-C (iOS). Check out the [Go Mobile page](https://github.com/golang/go/wiki/Mobile) for more information.

13
groovy.html.markdown
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@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ technologies.sort()
// To sort without mutating original, you can do:
sortedTechnologies = technologies.sort( false )
/*** Manipulating Lists ***/
/*** Manipulating Lists ***/e
//Replace all elements in the list
Collections.replaceAll(technologies, 'Gradle', 'gradle')
@@ -200,6 +200,14 @@ def y = 10
def x = (y > 1) ? "worked" : "failed"
assert x == "worked"
//Groovy supports 'The Elvis Operator' too!
//Instead of using the ternary operator:
displayName = user.name ? user.name : 'Anonymous'
//We can write it:
displayName = user.name ?: 'Anonymous'
//For loop
//Iterate over a range
def x = 0
@@ -422,6 +430,3 @@ Join a [Groovy user group](http://www.groovy-lang.org/usergroups.html)
[1] http://roshandawrani.wordpress.com/2010/10/18/groovy-new-feature-closures-can-now-memorize-their-results/
[2] http://www.solutionsiq.com/resources/agileiq-blog/bid/72880/Programming-with-Groovy-Trampoline-and-Memoize
[3] http://mrhaki.blogspot.mx/2011/05/groovy-goodness-cache-closure-results.html

25
haml.html.markdown
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@@ -123,10 +123,35 @@ $ haml input_file.haml output_file.html
if book do
%p This is a book
/ Adding ordered / unordered list
%ul
%li
=item1
=item2
/
Again, no need to add the closing tags to the block, even for the Ruby.
Indentation will take care of that for you.
/ -------------------------------------------
/ Inserting Table with bootstrap classes
/ -------------------------------------------
%table.table.table-hover
%thead
%tr
%th Header 1
%th Header 2
%tr
%td Value1
%td value2
%tfoot
%tr
%td
Foot value
/ -------------------------------------------
/ Inline Ruby / Ruby interpolation

555
hu-hu/ruby.html.markdown Normal file
View File

@@ -0,0 +1,555 @@
---
language: ruby
lang: hu-hu
filenev: learnruby.rb
contributors:
- ["David Underwood", "http://theflyingdeveloper.com"]
- ["Joel Walden", "http://joelwalden.net"]
- ["Luke Holder", "http://twitter.com/lukeholder"]
- ["Tristan Hume", "http://thume.ca/"]
- ["Nick LaMuro", "https://github.com/NickLaMuro"]
- ["Marcos Brizeno", "http://www.about.me/marcosbrizeno"]
- ["Ariel Krakowski", "http://www.learneroo.com"]
- ["Dzianis Dashkevich", "https://github.com/dskecse"]
- ["Levi Bostian", "https://github.com/levibostian"]
- ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"]
translators:
- ["Zsolt Prontvai", "https://github.com/prozsolt"]
---
```ruby
# Ez egy komment
=begin
Ez egy többsoros komment
Senki sem használja
Neked sem kellene
=end
# Először is: Minden objektum
# A számok objektumok
3.class #=> Fixnum
3.to_s #=> "3"
# Néhány alapvető számtani művelet
1 + 1 #=> 2
8 - 1 #=> 7
10 * 2 #=> 20
35 / 5 #=> 7
2**5 #=> 32
# A számtani művelet csak szintaktikus cukor
# az objektumon történő függvény hívásra
1.+(3) #=> 4
10.* 5 #=> 50
# A speciális értékek objektumok
nil # Nincs itt semmi látnivaló
true # igaz
false # hamis
nil.class #=> NilClass
true.class #=> TrueClass
false.class #=> FalseClass
# Egyenlőség
1 == 1 #=> true
2 == 1 #=> false
# Egyenlőtlenség
1 != 1 #=> false
2 != 1 #=> true
# A false-on kívül, nil az egyetlen hamis érték
!nil #=> true
!false #=> true
!0 #=> false
# Még több összehasonlítás
1 < 10 #=> true
1 > 10 #=> false
2 <= 2 #=> true
2 >= 2 #=> true
# Logikai operátorok
true && false #=> false
true || false #=> true
!true #=> false
# A logikai operátoroknak alternatív verziójuk is van sokkal kisebb
# precedenciával. Ezeket arra szánták, hogy több állítást összeláncoljanak
# amíg egyikük igaz vagy hamis értékkel nem tér vissza.
# `csinalj_valami_mast` csak akkor fut le, ha `csinalj_valamit` igaz értékkel
# tért vissza.
csinalj_valamit() and csinalj_valami_mast()
# `log_error` csak akkor fut le, ha `csinalj_valamit` hamis értékkel
# tért vissza.
csinalj_valamit() or log_error()
# A sztringek objektumok
'Én egy sztring vagyok'.class #=> String
"Én is egy sztring vagyok".class #=> String
helykitolto = 'interpolációt használhatok'
"Sztring #{helykitolto}, ha dupla időzőjelben van a sztringem"
#=> "Sztring interpolációt használhatok, ha dupla időzőjelben van a sztringem"
# A szimpla idézőjelet preferáljuk, ahol csak lehet,
# mert a dupla idézőjel extra számításokat végez.
# Kombinálhatunk sztringeket, de nem számokkal
'hello ' + 'world' #=> "hello world"
'hello ' + 3 #=> TypeError: can't convert Fixnum into String
'hello ' + 3.to_s #=> "hello 3"
# kiírás a kimenetre
puts "Írok"
# Változók
x = 25 #=> 25
x #=> 25
# Értékadás az adott értékkel tér vissza
# Ez azt jelenti, hogy használhatunk többszörös értékadást:
x = y = 10 #=> 10
x #=> 10
y #=> 10
# Konvencióból, snake_case változó neveket használj
snake_case = true
# Leíró változó neveket használj
ut_a_projekt_gyokerehez = '/jo/nev/'
ut = '/rossz/nev/'
# A szimbólumok (objektumok)
# A szimbólumok megváltoztathatatlan, újra felhasználható konstans,
# mely belsőleg egész számként reprezentált. Sokszor sztring helyett használják,
# hogy effektíven közvetítsünk konkrét, értelmes értékeket
:fuggoben.class #=> Symbol
statusz = :fuggoben
statusz == :fuggoben #=> true
statusz == 'fuggoben' #=> false
statusz == :jovahagyott #=> false
# Tömbök
# Ez egy tömb
tomb = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
# A tömmbök különböző tipusú dolgokat tartalmazhat
[1, 'hello', false] #=> [1, "hello", false]
# Tömbök indexelhetőek
# Az elejéről
tomb[0] #=> 1
tomb[12] #=> nil
# Akárcsak a számtani műveletek [var] hozzáférés
# is csak szintaktikus cukor
# a [] függvény hívására az objektumon
tomb.[] 0 #=> 1
tomb.[] 12 #=> nil
# A végéről
tomb[-1] #=> 5
# Kezdőértékkel és hosszal
tomb[2, 3] #=> [3, 4, 5]
# Tömb megfordítása
a=[1,2,3]
a.reverse! #=> [3,2,1]
# Vagy tartománnyal
tomb[1..3] #=> [2, 3, 4]
# Így adhatunk a tömbhöz
tomb << 6 #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
# Vagy így
tomb.push(6) #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
# Ellenőrízük, hogy a tömb tartalmaz egy elemet
tomb.include?(1) #=> true
# Hash-ek a ruby elsődleges szótárjai kulcs/érték párokkal
# Hash-eket kapcsos zárójellel jelöljük
hash = { 'szin' => 'zold', 'szam' => 5 }
hash.keys #=> ['szin', 'szam']
# Hash-ekben könnyen kreshetünk a kulcs segítségével:
hash['szin'] #=> 'zold'
hash['szam'] #=> 5
# Nem létező kulcsra keresve nil-t kapunk:
hash['nincs itt semmi'] #=> nil
# Ruby 1.9-től, egy külnleges szintaxist is használhatunk a szimbólumot
# használunk kulcsnak
uj_hash = { defcon: 3, action: true }
uj_hash.keys #=> [:defcon, :action]
# Ellenőrizzük, hogy az adott kulcs és érték bene-e van a hash-ben
uj_hash.has_key?(:defcon) #=> true
uj_hash.has_value?(3) #=> true
# Tip: A tömbök és hash-ek is felsorolhatóak
# Sok közös függvényük van, akár az each, map, count, és több
# Kontroll Struktúrák
if true
'ha állítás'
elsif false
'különben ha, opcionális'
else
'különben, szintén opcionális'
end
for szamlalo in 1..5
puts "iteracio #{szamlalo}"
end
#=> iteracio 1
#=> iteracio 2
#=> iteracio 3
#=> iteracio 4
#=> iteracio 5
# HOWEVER, No-one uses for loops.
# Instead you should use the "each" method and pass it a block.
# A block is a bunch of code that you can pass to a method like "each".
# It is analogous to lambdas, anonymous functions or closures in other
# programming languages.
#
# The "each" method of a range runs the block once for each element of the range.
# The block is passed a counter as a parameter.
# Calling the "each" method with a block looks like this:
(1..5).each do |counter|
puts "iteration #{counter}"
end
#=> iteration 1
#=> iteration 2
#=> iteration 3
#=> iteration 4
#=> iteration 5
# You can also surround blocks in curly brackets:
(1..5).each { |counter| puts "iteration #{counter}" }
# The contents of data structures can also be iterated using each.
array.each do |element|
puts "#{element} is part of the array"
end
hash.each do |key, value|
puts "#{key} is #{value}"
end
counter = 1
while counter <= 5 do
puts "iteration #{counter}"
counter += 1
end
#=> iteration 1
#=> iteration 2
#=> iteration 3
#=> iteration 4
#=> iteration 5
jegy = '4'
case jegy
when '5'
puts 'Kitünő'
when '4'
puts 'Jó'
when '3'
puts 'Közepes'
when '2'
puts 'Elégsége'
when '1'
puts 'Elégtelen'
else
puts 'Alternatív értékelés, hm?'
end
#=> "Jó"
# case-ek tartományokat is használhatnak
jegy = 82
case jegy
when 90..100
puts 'Hurrá!'
when 80...90
puts 'Jó munka'
else
puts 'Megbuktál!'
end
#=> "Jó munka"
# kivétel kezelés:
begin
# kód ami kivételt dobhat
raise NoMemoryError, 'Megtelt a memória'
rescue NoMemoryError => kivetel_valtozo
puts 'NoMemoryError-t dobott', kivetel_valtozo
rescue RuntimeError => mas_kivetel_valtozo
puts 'RuntimeError dobott most'
else
puts 'Ez akkor fut ha nem dob kivételt'
ensure
puts 'Ez a kód mindenképpen lefut'
end
# Függvények
def ketszeres(x)
x * 2
end
# Függvények (és egyébb blokkok) implicit viszatértnek az utolsó értékkel
ketszeres(2) #=> 4
# Zárójelezés opcionális, ha az eredmény félreérthetetlen
ketszeres 3 #=> 6
ketszeres ketszeres 3 #=> 12
def osszeg(x, y)
x + y
end
# Függvény argumentumait vesszővel választjuk el.
osszeg 3, 4 #=> 7
osszeg osszeg(3, 4), 5 #=> 12
# yield
# Minden függvénynek van egy implicit, opcionális block paramétere
# 'yield' kulcsszóval hívhatjuk
def korulvesz
puts '{'
yield
puts '}'
end
korulvesz { puts 'hello world' }
# {
# hello world
# }
# Fuggvénynek átadhatunk blokkot
# "&" jelöli az átadott blokk referenciáját
def vendegek(&block)
block.call 'valami_argumentum'
end
# Argumentum lisát is átadhatunk, ami tömbé lesz konvertálva
# Erre való a splat operátor ("*")
def vendegek(*array)
array.each { |vendeg| puts vendeg }
end
# Osztályt a class kulcsszóval definiálhatunk
class Ember
# Az osztály változó. Az osztály minden példánnyával megvan osztva
@@faj = 'H. sapiens'
# Alap inicializáló
def initialize(nev, kor = 0)
# Hozzárendeli az argumentumot a "nev" példány változóhoz
@nev = nev
# Ha nem adtunk meg kort akkor az alapértemezet értéket fogja használni
@kor = kor
end
# Alap setter függvény
def nev=(nev)
@nev = nev
end
# Alap getter függvény
def nev
@nev
end
# A fönti funkcionalítást az attr_accessor függvénnyel is elérhetjük
attr_accessor :nev
# Getter/setter függvények egyenként is kreálhatóak
attr_reader :nev
attr_writer :nev
# Az osztály függvények "self"-et hasznalnak, hogy megkülönböztessék magukat a
# példány függvényektől
# Az osztályn hívhatóak, nem a példányon
def self.mond(uzenet)
puts uzenet
end
def faj
@@faj
end
end
# Példányosítsuk az osztályt
jim = Ember.new('Jim Halpert')
dwight = Ember.new('Dwight K. Schrute')
# Hívjunk meg pár függvényt
jim.faj #=> "H. sapiens"
jim.nev #=> "Jim Halpert"
jim.nev = "Jim Halpert II" #=> "Jim Halpert II"
jim.nev #=> "Jim Halpert II"
dwight.faj #=> "H. sapiens"
dwight.nev #=> "Dwight K. Schrute"
# Hívjuk meg az osztály függvényt
Ember.mond('Hi') #=> "Hi"
# Változók szókjait az elnevezésük definiálja
# $ kezdetű változók globálisak
$var = "Én egy globális változó vagyok"
defined? $var #=> "global-variable"
# Változók amik @-al kezdődnek példány szkópjuk van
@var = "Én egy példány változó vagyok"
defined? @var #=> "instance-variable"
# Változók amik @@-al kezdődnek példány szkópjuk van
@@var = "Én egy osztály változó vagyok"
defined? @@var #=> "class variable"
# Változók amik nagy betűvel kezdődnek a konstansok
Var = "Konstans vagyok"
defined? Var #=> "constant"
# Az osztály is objetum. Tehát az osztálynak lehet példány változója
# Az osztályváltozón osztozik minden pédány és leszármazott
# Ős osztály
class Ember
@@foo = 0
def self.foo
@@foo
end
def self.foo=(ertek)
@@foo = ertek
end
end
# Leszarmazott osztály
class Dolgozo < Ember
end
Ember.foo # 0
Dolgozo.foo # 0
Ember.foo = 2 # 2
Dolgozo.foo # 2
# Az osztálynak példány változóját nem látja az osztály leszármazottja.
class Ember
@bar = 0
def self.bar
@bar
end
def self.bar=(ertek)
@bar = ertek
end
end
class Doctor < Ember
end
Ember.bar # 0
Doctor.bar # nil
module ModulePelda
def foo
'foo'
end
end
# Modulok include-olása a fügvényeiket az osztály példányaihoz köti.
# Modulok extend-elésa a fügvényeiket magához az osztályhoz köti.
class Szemely
include ModulePelda
end
class Konyv
extend ModulePelda
end
Szemely.foo # => NoMethodError: undefined method `foo' for Szemely:Class
Szemely.new.foo # => 'foo'
Konyv.foo # => 'foo'
Konyv.new.foo # => NoMethodError: undefined method `foo'
# Callback-ek végrehajtódnak amikor include-olunk és extend-elünk egy modult
module ConcernPelda
def self.included(base)
base.extend(ClassMethods)
base.send(:include, InstanceMethods)
end
module ClassMethods
def bar
'bar'
end
end
module InstanceMethods
def qux
'qux'
end
end
end
class Valami
include ConcernPelda
end
Valami.bar # => 'bar'
Valami.qux # => NoMethodError: undefined method `qux'
Valami.new.bar # => NoMethodError: undefined method `bar'
Valami.new.qux # => 'qux'
```
## Egyéb források
- [Learn Ruby by Example with Challenges](http://www.learneroo.com/modules/61/nodes/338)
- [Official Documentation](http://www.ruby-doc.org/core-2.1.1/)
- [Ruby from other languages](https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/documentation/ruby-from-other-languages/)
- [Programming Ruby](http://www.amazon.com/Programming-Ruby-1-9-2-0-Programmers/dp/1937785491/) - A régebbi [ingyenes változat](http://ruby-doc.com/docs/ProgrammingRuby/) elérhető online.
- [Ruby Style Guide](https://github.com/bbatsov/ruby-style-guide)

159
java.html.markdown
View File

@@ -5,6 +5,8 @@ contributors:
- ["Jakukyo Friel", "http://weakish.github.io"]
- ["Madison Dickson", "http://github.com/mix3d"]
- ["Simon Morgan", "http://sjm.io/"]
- ["Zachary Ferguson", "http://github.com/zfergus2"]
- ["Cameron Schermerhorn", "http://github.com/cschermerhorn"]
filename: LearnJava.java
---
@@ -31,7 +33,7 @@ import java.security.*;
// the file.
public class LearnJava {
// A program must have a main method as an entry point.
// In order to run a java program, it must have a main method as an entry point.
public static void main (String[] args) {
// Use System.out.println() to print lines.
@@ -45,6 +47,8 @@ public class LearnJava {
System.out.print("Hello ");
System.out.print("World");
// Use System.out.printf() for easy formatted printing.
System.out.printf("pi = %.5f", Math.PI); // => pi = 3.14159
///////////////////////////////////////
// Variables
@@ -92,11 +96,13 @@ public class LearnJava {
// Note: Java has no unsigned types.
// Float - Single-precision 32-bit IEEE 754 Floating Point
// 2^-149 <= float <= (2-2^-23) * 2^127
float fooFloat = 234.5f;
// f is used to denote that this variable value is of type float;
// f or F is used to denote that this variable value is of type float;
// otherwise it is treated as double.
// Double - Double-precision 64-bit IEEE 754 Floating Point
// 2^-1074 <= x <= (2-2^-52) * 2^1023
double fooDouble = 123.4;
// Boolean - true & false
@@ -106,8 +112,39 @@ public class LearnJava {
// Char - A single 16-bit Unicode character
char fooChar = 'A';
// final variables can't be reassigned to another object.
// final variables can't be reassigned to another object,
final int HOURS_I_WORK_PER_WEEK = 9001;
// but they can be initialized later.
final double E;
E = 2.71828;
// BigInteger - Immutable arbitrary-precision integers
//
// BigInteger is a data type that allows programmers to manipulate
// integers longer than 64-bits. Integers are stored as an array of
// of bytes and are manipulated using functions built into BigInteger
//
// BigInteger can be initialized using an array of bytes or a string.
BigInteger fooBigInteger = new BigDecimal(fooByteArray);
// BigDecimal - Immutable, arbitrary-precision signed decimal number
//
// A BigDecimal takes two parts: an arbitrary precision integer
// unscaled value and a 32-bit integer scale
//
// BigDecimal allows the programmer complete control over decimal
// rounding. It is recommended to use BigDecimal with currency values
// and where exact decimal percision is required.
//
// BigDecimal can be initialized with an int, long, double or String
// or by initializing the unscaled value (BigInteger) and scale (int).
BigDecimal fooBigDecimal = new BigDecimal(fooBigInteger, fooInt);
// Strings
String fooString = "My String Is Here!";
@@ -166,6 +203,7 @@ public class LearnJava {
System.out.println("2-1 = " + (i2 - i1)); // => 1
System.out.println("2*1 = " + (i2 * i1)); // => 2
System.out.println("1/2 = " + (i1 / i2)); // => 0 (0.5 truncated down)
System.out.println("1/2 = " + (i1 / (i2*1.0))); // => 0.5
// Modulo
System.out.println("11%3 = "+(11 % 3)); // => 2
@@ -178,12 +216,17 @@ public class LearnJava {
System.out.println("2 <= 2? " + (2 <= 2)); // => true
System.out.println("2 >= 2? " + (2 >= 2)); // => true
// Boolean operators
System.out.println("3 > 2 && 2 > 3? " + ((3 > 2) && (2 > 3))); // => false
System.out.println("3 > 2 || 2 > 3? " + ((3 > 2) || (2 > 3))); // => true
System.out.println("!(3 == 2)? " + (!(3 == 2))); // => true
// Bitwise operators!
/*
~ Unary bitwise complement
<< Signed left shift
>> Signed right shift
>>> Unsigned right shift
>> Signed/Arithmetic right shift
>>> Unsigned/Logical right shift
& Bitwise AND
^ Bitwise exclusive OR
| Bitwise inclusive OR
@@ -207,7 +250,7 @@ public class LearnJava {
// If statements are c-like
int j = 10;
if (j == 10){
if (j == 10) {
System.out.println("I get printed");
} else if (j > 10) {
System.out.println("I don't");
@@ -236,14 +279,24 @@ public class LearnJava {
System.out.println("fooDoWhile Value: " + fooDoWhile);
// For Loop
int fooFor;
// for loop structure => for(<start_statement>; <conditional>; <step>)
for (fooFor = 0; fooFor < 10; fooFor++) {
for (int fooFor = 0; fooFor < 10; fooFor++) {
System.out.println(fooFor);
// Iterated 10 times, fooFor 0->9
}
System.out.println("fooFor Value: " + fooFor);
// Nested For Loop Exit with Label
outer:
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < 10; j++) {
if (i == 5 && j ==5) {
break outer;
// breaks out of outer loop instead of only the inner one
}
}
}
// For Each Loop
// The for loop is also able to iterate over arrays as well as objects
// that implement the Iterable interface.
@@ -276,6 +329,23 @@ public class LearnJava {
}
System.out.println("Switch Case Result: " + monthString);
// Starting in Java 7 and above, switching Strings works like this:
String myAnswer = "maybe";
switch(myAnswer){
case "yes":
System.out.println("You answered yes.");
break;
case "no":
System.out.println("You answered no.");
break;
case "maybe":
System.out.println("You answered maybe.");
break;
default:
System.out.println("You answered " + myAnswer);
break;
}
// Conditional Shorthand
// You can use the '?' operator for quick assignments or logic forks.
// Reads as "If (statement) is true, use <first value>, otherwise, use
@@ -337,7 +407,7 @@ public class LearnJava {
validCodes.add("FINLAND");
}
// But there's a nifty way to achive the same thing in an
// But there's a nifty way to achieve the same thing in an
// easier way, by using something that is called Double Brace
// Initialization.
@@ -347,9 +417,9 @@ public class LearnJava {
add("FINLAND");
}}
// The first brace is creating an new AnonymousInnerClass and the
// second one declares and instance initializer block. This block
// is called with the anonymous inner class is created.
// The first brace is creating a new AnonymousInnerClass and the
// second one declares an instance initializer block. This block
// is called when the anonymous inner class is created.
// This does not only work for Collections, it works for all
// non-final classes.
@@ -357,7 +427,8 @@ public class LearnJava {
} // End LearnJava class
// You can include other, non-public outer-level classes in a .java file
// You can include other, non-public outer-level classes in a .java file,
// but it is good practice. Instead split classes into separate files.
// Class Declaration Syntax:
@@ -377,6 +448,8 @@ class Bicycle {
// Constructors are a way of creating classes
// This is a constructor
public Bicycle() {
// You can also call another constructor:
// this(1, 50, 5, "Bontrager");
gear = 1;
cadence = 50;
speed = 5;
@@ -392,13 +465,13 @@ class Bicycle {
this.name = name;
}
// Function Syntax:
// Method Syntax:
// <public/private/protected> <return type> <function name>(<args>)
// Java classes often implement getters and setters for their fields
// Method declaration syntax:
// <scope> <return type> <method name>(<args>)
// <access modifier> <return type> <method name>(<args>)
public int getCadence() {
return cadence;
}
@@ -429,7 +502,7 @@ class Bicycle {
}
//Method to display the attribute values of this Object.
@Override
@Override // Inherited from the Object class.
public String toString() {
return "gear: " + gear + " cadence: " + cadence + " speed: " + speed +
" name: " + name;
@@ -475,6 +548,7 @@ public interface Digestible {
// We can now create a class that implements both of these interfaces.
public class Fruit implements Edible, Digestible {
@Override
public void eat() {
// ...
@@ -490,6 +564,7 @@ public class Fruit implements Edible, Digestible {
// interfaces. For example:
public class ExampleClass extends ExampleClassParent implements InterfaceOne,
InterfaceTwo {
@Override
public void InterfaceOneMethod() {
}
@@ -497,20 +572,24 @@ public class ExampleClass extends ExampleClassParent implements InterfaceOne,
@Override
public void InterfaceTwoMethod() {
}
}
// Abstract Classes
// Abstract Class declaration syntax
// <access-level> abstract <abstract-class-name> extends <super-abstract-classes> {
// // Constants and variables
// // Method declarations
// }
// Methods can't have bodies in an interface, unless the method is
// static. Also variables are NOT final by default, unlike an interface.
// Also abstract classes CAN have the "main" method.
// Abstract classes solve these problems.
// Marking a class as abstract means that it contains abstract methods that must
// be defined in a child class. Similar to interfaces, abstract classes cannot
// be instantiated, but instead must be extended and the abstract methods
// defined. Different from interfaces, abstract classes can contain a mixture of
// concrete and abstract methods. Methods in an interface cannot have a body,
// unless the method is static, and variables are final by default, unlike an
// abstract class. Also abstract classes CAN have the "main" method.
public abstract class Animal
{
@@ -527,7 +606,7 @@ public abstract class Animal
// No need to initialize, however in an interface
// a variable is implicitly final and hence has
// to be initialized.
private int age;
protected int age;
public void printAge()
{
@@ -566,6 +645,42 @@ class Dog extends Animal
}
}
// Final Classes
// Final Class declaration syntax
// <access-level> final <final-class-name> {
// // Constants and variables
// // Method declarations
// }
// Final classes are classes that cannot be inherited from and are therefore a
// final child. In a way, final classes are the opposite of abstract classes
// because abstract classes must be extended, but final classes cannot be
// extended.
public final class SaberToothedCat extends Animal
{
// Note still have to override the abstract methods in the
// abstract class.
@Override
public void makeSound()
{
System.out.println("Roar");
}
}
// Final Methods
public abstract class Mammal()
{
// Final Method Syntax:
// <access modifier> final <return type> <function name>(<args>)
// Final methods, like, final classes cannot be overridden by a child class,
// and are therefore the final implementation of the method.
public final boolean isWarmBlooded()
{
return true;
}
}
```
## Further Reading

24
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@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ doStuff()
// There are three special not-a-real-number values:
Infinity; // result of e.g. 1/0
-Infinity; // result of e.g. -1/0
NaN; // result of e.g. 0/0
NaN; // result of e.g. 0/0, stands for 'Not a Number'
// There's also a boolean type.
true;
@@ -218,6 +218,26 @@ for (var i = 0; i < 5; i++){
// will run 5 times
}
//The For/In statement loops iterates over every property across the entire prototype chain
var description = "";
var person = {fname:"Paul", lname:"Ken", age:18};
for (var x in person){
description += person[x] + " ";
}
//If only want to consider properties attached to the object itself,
//and not its prototypes use hasOwnProperty() check
var description = "";
var person = {fname:"Paul", lname:"Ken", age:18};
for (var x in person){
if (person.hasOwnProperty(x)){
description += person[x] + " ";
}
}
//for/in should not be used to iterate over an Array where the index order is important.
//There is no guarantee that for/in will return the indexes in any particular order
// && is logical and, || is logical or
if (house.size == "big" && house.colour == "blue"){
house.contains = "bear";
@@ -393,7 +413,7 @@ var doubler = product.bind(this, 2);
doubler(8); // = 16
// When you call a function with the `new` keyword, a new object is created, and
// made available to the function via the this keyword. Functions designed to be
// made available to the function via the `this` keyword. Functions designed to be
// called like that are called constructors.
var MyConstructor = function(){

15
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@@ -4,14 +4,23 @@ filename: learnjson.json
contributors:
- ["Anna Harren", "https://github.com/iirelu"]
- ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"]
- ["himanshu", "https://github.com/himanshu81494"]
---
As JSON is an extremely simple data-interchange format, this is most likely going
to be the simplest Learn X in Y Minutes ever.
JSON in its purest form has no actual comments, but most parsers will accept
C-style (`//`, `/* */`) comments. For the purposes of this, however, everything is
going to be 100% valid JSON. Luckily, it kind of speaks for itself.
C-style (`//`, `/* */`) comments. Some parsers also tolerate a trailing comma
(i.e. a comma after the last element of an array or the after the last property of an object),
but they should be avoided for better compatibility.
For the purposes of this, however, everything is going to be 100% valid JSON. Luckily, it kind of speaks for itself.
Data types supported by JSON includes: numbers, string, boolean, array, object and null.
Supporting browsers are: Firefox(Mozilla) 3.5, Internet Explorer 8, Chrome, Opera 10, Safari 4.
JSON file type for JSON files is ".json". The MIME type for JSON text is "application/json"
Drawbacks of JSON include lack of type definition and some sort of DTD.
```json
{
@@ -49,7 +58,7 @@ going to be 100% valid JSON. Luckily, it kind of speaks for itself.
"alternative style": {
"comment": "check this out!"
, "comma position": "doesn't matter - as long as it's before the value, then it's valid"
, "comma position": "doesn't matter - as long as it's before the next key, then it's valid"
, "another comment": "how nice"
},

26
julia.html.markdown
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@@ -81,10 +81,13 @@ false
# Strings are created with "
"This is a string."
# Julia has several types of strings, including ASCIIString and UTF8String.
# More on this in the Types section.
# Character literals are written with '
'a'
# A string can be indexed like an array of characters
# Some strings can be indexed like an array of characters
"This is a string"[1] # => 'T' # Julia indexes from 1
# However, this is will not work well for UTF8 strings,
# so iterating over strings is recommended (map, for loops, etc).
@@ -314,7 +317,7 @@ end
# For loops iterate over iterables.
# Iterable types include Range, Array, Set, Dict, and String.
# Iterable types include Range, Array, Set, Dict, and AbstractString.
for animal=["dog", "cat", "mouse"]
println("$animal is a mammal")
# You can use $ to interpolate variables or expression into strings
@@ -537,6 +540,17 @@ subtypes(Number) # => 6-element Array{Any,1}:
# Real
subtypes(Cat) # => 0-element Array{Any,1}
# AbstractString, as the name implies, is also an abstract type
subtypes(AbstractString) # 8-element Array{Any,1}:
# Base.SubstitutionString{T<:AbstractString}
# DirectIndexString
# RepString
# RevString{T<:AbstractString}
# RopeString
# SubString{T<:AbstractString}
# UTF16String
# UTF8String
# Every type has a super type; use the `super` function to get it.
typeof(5) # => Int64
super(Int64) # => Signed
@@ -546,17 +560,21 @@ super(Number) # => Any
super(super(Signed)) # => Number
super(Any) # => Any
# All of these type, except for Int64, are abstract.
typeof("fire") # => ASCIIString
super(ASCIIString) # => DirectIndexString
super(DirectIndexString) # => AbstractString
# Likewise here with ASCIIString
# <: is the subtyping operator
type Lion <: Cat # Lion is a subtype of Cat
mane_color
roar::String
roar::AbstractString
end
# You can define more constructors for your type
# Just define a function of the same name as the type
# and call an existing constructor to get a value of the correct type
Lion(roar::String) = Lion("green",roar)
Lion(roar::AbstractString) = Lion("green",roar)
# This is an outer constructor because it's outside the type definition
type Panther <: Cat # Panther is also a subtype of Cat

231
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@@ -0,0 +1,231 @@
---
language: latex
contributors:
- ["Chaitanya Krishna Ande", "http://icymist.github.io"]
- ["Colton Kohnke", "http://github.com/voltnor"]
- ["Sricharan Chiruvolu", "http://sricharan.xyz"]
filename: learn-latex.tex
---
% All comment lines start with %
% There are no multi-line comments
% LaTeX is NOT a "What You See Is What You Get" word processing software like
% MS Word, or OpenOffice Writer
% Every LaTeX command starts with a backslash (\)
% LaTeX documents start with a defining the type of document it's compiling
% Other document types include book, report, presentations, etc.
% The options for the document appear in the [] brackets. In this case
% it specifies we want to use 12pt font.
\documentclass[12pt]{article}
% Next we define the packages the document uses.
% If you want to include graphics, colored text, or
% source code from another language file into your document,
% you need to enhance the capabilities of LaTeX. This is done by adding packages.
% I'm going to include the float and caption packages for figures.
\usepackage{caption}
\usepackage{float}
% We can define some other document properties too!
\author{Chaitanya Krishna Ande, Colton Kohnke \& Sricharan Chiruvolu}
\date{\today}
\title{Learn LaTeX in Y Minutes!}
% Now we're ready to begin the document
% Everything before this line is called "The Preamble"
\begin{document}
% if we set the author, date, title fields, we can have LaTeX
% create a title page for us.
\maketitle
% Most research papers have abstract, you can use the predefined commands for this.
% This should appear in its logical order, therefore, after the top matter,
% but before the main sections of the body.
% This command is available in the document classes article and report.
\begin{abstract}
LaTeX documentation written as LaTeX! How novel and totally not my idea!
\end{abstract}
% Section commands are intuitive.
% All the titles of the sections are added automatically to the table of contents.
\section{Introduction}
Hello, my name is Colton and together we're going to explore LaTeX!
\section{Another section}
This is the text for another section. I think it needs a subsection.
\subsection{This is a subsection} % Subsections are also intuitive.
I think we need another one
\subsubsection{Pythagoras}
Much better now.
\label{subsec:pythagoras}
% By using the asterisk we can suppress LaTeX's inbuilt numbering.
% This works for other LaTeX commands as well.
\section*{This is an unnumbered section}
However not all sections have to be numbered!
\section{Some Text notes}
LaTeX is generally pretty good about placing text where it should go. If
a line \\ needs \\ to \\ break \\ you add \textbackslash\textbackslash to
the source code. \\
\section{Lists}
Lists are one of the easiest things to create in LaTeX! I need to go shopping
tomorrow, so let's make a grocery list.
\begin{enumerate} % This creates an "enumerate" environment.
% \item tells the enumerate to increment
\item Salad.
\item 27 watermelon.
\item A single jackrabbit.
% we can even override the item number by using []
\item[how many?] Medium sized squirt guns.
Not a list item, but still part of the enumerate.
\end{enumerate} % All environments must have an end.
\section{Math}
One of the primary uses for LaTeX is to produce academic articles or
technical papers. Usually in the realm of math and science. As such,
we need to be able to add special symbols to our paper! \\
Math has many symbols, far beyond what you can find on a keyboard;
Set and relation symbols, arrows, operators, and Greek letters to name a few.\\
Sets and relations play a vital role in many mathematical research papers.
Here's how you state all y that belong to X, $\forall$ x $\in$ X. \\
% Notice how I needed to add $ signs before and after the symbols. This is
% because when writing, we are in text-mode.
% However, the math symbols only exist in math-mode.
% We can enter math-mode from text mode with the $ signs.
% The opposite also holds true. Variable can also be rendered in math-mode.
My favorite Greek letter is $\xi$. I also like $\beta$, $\gamma$ and $\sigma$.
I haven't found a Greek letter that yet that LaTeX doesn't know about!
Operators are essential parts of a mathematical document:
trigonometric functions ($\sin$, $\cos$, $\tan$),
logarithms and exponentials ($\log$, $\exp$),
limits ($\lim$), etc.
have per-defined LaTeX commands.
Let's write an equation to see how it's done: \\
$\cos(2\theta) = \cos^{2}(\theta) - \sin^{2}(\theta)$
Fractions(Numerator-denominators) can be written in these forms:
% 10 / 7
$^{10}/_{7}$
% Relatively complex fractions can be written as
% \frac{numerator}{denominator}
$\frac{n!}{k!(n - k)!}$ \\
We can also insert equations in an "equation environment".
% Display math with the equation 'environment'
\begin{equation} % enters math-mode
c^2 = a^2 + b^2.
\label{eq:pythagoras} % for referencing
\end{equation} % all \begin statements must have an end statement
We can then reference our new equation!
Eqn.~\ref{eq:pythagoras} is also known as the Pythagoras Theorem which is also
the subject of Sec.~\ref{subsec:pythagoras}. A lot of things can be labeled:
figures, equations, sections, etc.
Summations and Integrals are written with sum and int commands:
% Some LaTeX compilers will complain if there are blank lines
% In an equation environment.
\begin{equation}
\sum_{i=0}^{5} f_{i}
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\int_{0}^{\infty} \mathrm{e}^{-x} \mathrm{d}x
\end{equation}
\section{Figures}
Let's insert a Figure. Figure placement can get a little tricky.
I definitely have to lookup the placement options each time.
\begin{figure}[H] % H here denoted the placement option.
\centering % centers the figure on the page
% Inserts a figure scaled to 0.8 the width of the page.
%\includegraphics[width=0.8\linewidth]{right-triangle.png}
% Commented out for compilation purposes. Please use your imagination.
\caption{Right triangle with sides $a$, $b$, $c$}
\label{fig:right-triangle}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Table}
We can also insert Tables in the same way as figures.
\begin{table}[H]
\caption{Caption for the Table.}
% the {} arguments below describe how each row of the table is drawn.
% Again, I have to look these up. Each. And. Every. Time.
\begin{tabular}{c|cc}
Number & Last Name & First Name \\ % Column rows are separated by $
\hline % a horizontal line
1 & Biggus & Dickus \\
2 & Monty & Python
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
% \section{Hyperlinks} % Coming soon
\section{Getting LaTeX to not compile something (i.e. Source Code)}
Let's say we want to include some code into our LaTeX document,
we would then need LaTeX to not try and interpret that text and
instead just print it to the document. We do this we a verbatim
environment.
% There are other packages that exist (i.e. minty, lstlisting, etc.)
% but verbatim is the bare-bones basic one.
\begin{verbatim}
print("Hello World!")
a%b; % look! We can use % signs in verbatim.
random = 4; #decided by fair random dice roll
\end{verbatim}
\section{Compiling}
By now you're probably wondering how to compile this fabulous document
and look at the glorious glory that is a LaTeX pdf.
(yes, this document actually does compiles). \\
Getting to the final document using LaTeX consists of the following steps:
\begin{enumerate}
\item Write the document in plain text (the "source code").
\item Compile source code to produce a pdf.
The compilation step looks something like this (in Linux): \\
\begin{verbatim}
$pdflatex learn-latex.tex learn-latex.pdf
\end{verbatim}
\end{enumerate}
A number of LaTeX editors combine both Step 1 and Step 2 in the same piece of
software. So, you get to see Step 1, but not Step 2 completely.
Step 2 is still happening behind the scenes.
You write all your formatting information in plain text in Step 1.
The compilation part in Step 2 takes care of producing the document in the
format you defined in Step 1.
\section{End}
That's all for now!
% end the document
\end{document}
```
## More on LaTeX
* The amazing LaTeX wikibook: [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LaTeX)
* An actual tutorial: [http://www.latex-tutorial.com/](http://www.latex-tutorial.com/)

54
matlab.html.markdown
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@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ language: Matlab
contributors:
- ["mendozao", "http://github.com/mendozao"]
- ["jamesscottbrown", "http://jamesscottbrown.com"]
- ["Colton Kohnke", "http://github.com/voltnor"]
---
@@ -464,6 +465,59 @@ mean % mean value
std % standard deviation
perms(x) % list all permutations of elements of x
% Classes
% Matlab can support object-oriented programming.
% Classes must be put in a file of the class name with a .m extension.
% To begin, we create a simple class to store GPS waypoints.
% Begin WaypointClass.m
classdef WaypointClass % The class name.
properties % The properties of the class behave like Structures
latitude
longitude
end
methods
% This method that has the same name of the class is the constructor.
function obj = WaypointClass(lat, lon)
obj.latitude = lat;
obj.longitude = lon;
end
% Other functions that use the Waypoint object
function r = multiplyLatBy(obj, n)
r = n*[obj.latitude];
end
% If we want to add two Waypoint objects together without calling
% a special function we can overload Matlab's arithmetic like so:
function r = plus(o1,o2)
r = WaypointClass([o1.latitude] +[o2.latitude], ...
[o1.longitude]+[o2.longitude]);
end
end
end
% End WaypointClass.m
% We can create an object of the class using the constructor
a = WaypointClass(45.0, 45.0)
% Class properties behave exactly like Matlab Structures.
a.latitude = 70.0
a.longitude = 25.0
% Methods can be called in the same way as functions
ans = multiplyLatBy(a,3)
% The method can also be called using dot notation. In this case, the object
% does not need to be passed to the method.
ans = a.multiplyLatBy(a,1/3)
% Matlab functions can be overloaded to handle objects.
% In the method above, we have overloaded how Matlab handles
% the addition of two Waypoint objects.
b = WaypointClass(15.0, 32.0)
c = a + b
```
## More on Matlab

2
nim.html.markdown
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@@ -235,7 +235,7 @@ proc ask(question: string): Answer =
else: echo("Please be clear: yes or no")
proc addSugar(amount: int = 2) = # Default amount is 2, returns nothing
assert(amount > 0 or amount < 9000, "Crazy Sugar")
assert(amount > 0 and amount < 9000, "Crazy Sugar")
for a in 1..amount:
echo(a, " sugar...")

2
nl-nl/brainfuck-nl.html.markdown
View File

@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ minimalistische Turing-complete programmeertaal met maar acht commando's.
```
Elk karakter behalve "><+-.,[]" (en de quotes) wordt genegeerd.
Brainfuck wordt gerepresenteerd door een array met 30,000 cellen die initieel
Brainfuck wordt gerepresenteerd door een array met 30.000 cellen die initieel
gevuld is met nullen en een pointer die wijst naar de huidige cel.
Dit zijn de acht commando's:

7
objective-c.html.markdown
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@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ contributors:
- ["Eugene Yagrushkin", "www.about.me/yagrushkin"]
- ["Yannick Loriot", "https://github.com/YannickL"]
- ["Levi Bostian", "https://github.com/levibostian"]
- ["Clayton Walker", "https://github.com/cwalk"]
filename: LearnObjectiveC.m
---
@@ -12,7 +13,7 @@ filename: LearnObjectiveC.m
Objective-C is the main programming language used by Apple for the OS X and iOS operating systems and their respective frameworks, Cocoa and Cocoa Touch.
It is a general-purpose, object-oriented programming language that adds Smalltalk-style messaging to the C programming language.
```objective_c
```objective-c
// Single-line comments start with //
/*
@@ -747,4 +748,8 @@ __unsafe_unretained NSArray *unsafeArray; // Like __weak, but unsafeArray not se
[Programming with Objective-C. Apple PDF book](https://developer.apple.com/library/ios/documentation/cocoa/conceptual/ProgrammingWithObjectiveC/ProgrammingWithObjectiveC.pdf)
[Programming with Objective-C for iOS](https://developer.apple.com/library/ios/documentation/General/Conceptual/DevPedia-CocoaCore/ObjectiveC.html)
[Programming with Objective-C for Mac OSX](https://developer.apple.com/library/mac/documentation/Cocoa/Conceptual/ProgrammingWithObjectiveC/Introduction/Introduction.html)
[iOS For High School Students: Getting Started](http://www.raywenderlich.com/5600/ios-for-high-school-students-getting-started)

2
perl.html.markdown
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@@ -102,6 +102,8 @@ for (@elements) {
print;
}
# the Perlish post-condition way again
print for @elements;
#### Regular expressions

104
perl6.html.markdown
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@@ -11,9 +11,7 @@ Perl 6 is a highly capable, feature-rich programming language made for at
least the next hundred years.
The primary Perl 6 compiler is called [Rakudo](http://rakudo.org), which runs on
the JVM and [the MoarVM](http://moarvm.com) and
[prior to March 2015](http://pmthium.com/2015/02/suspending-rakudo-parrot/),
[the Parrot VM](http://parrot.org/).
the JVM and [the MoarVM](http://moarvm.com).
Meta-note : the triple pound signs are here to denote headlines,
double paragraphs, and single notes.
@@ -75,7 +73,7 @@ say @array; #=> a 6 b
# except they get "flattened" (hash context), removing duplicated keys.
my %hash = 1 => 2,
3 => 4;
my %hash = autoquoted => "key", # keys get auto-quoted
my %hash = foo => "bar", # keys get auto-quoted
"some other" => "value", # trailing commas are okay
;
my %hash = <key1 value1 key2 value2>; # you can also create a hash
@@ -96,7 +94,6 @@ say %hash<key2>; # If it's a string, you can actually use <>
# (`{key1}` doesn't work, as Perl6 doesn't have barewords)
## * Subs (subroutines, or functions in most other languages).
# Stored in variable, they use `&`.
sub say-hello { say "Hello, world" }
sub say-hello-to(Str $name) { # You can provide the type of an argument
@@ -107,8 +104,8 @@ sub say-hello-to(Str $name) { # You can provide the type of an argument
## It can also have optional arguments:
sub with-optional($arg?) { # the "?" marks the argument optional
say "I might return `(Any)` if I don't have an argument passed,
or I'll return my argument";
say "I might return `(Any)` (Perl's "null"-like value) if I don't have
an argument passed, or I'll return my argument";
$arg;
}
with-optional; # returns Any
@@ -125,14 +122,14 @@ hello-to('You'); #=> Hello, You !
## You can also, by using a syntax akin to the one of hashes (yay unified syntax !),
## pass *named* arguments to a `sub`.
# They're optional, and will default to "Any" (Perl's "null"-like value).
# They're optional, and will default to "Any".
sub with-named($normal-arg, :$named) {
say $normal-arg + $named;
}
with-named(1, named => 6); #=> 7
# There's one gotcha to be aware of, here:
# If you quote your key, Perl 6 won't be able to see it at compile time,
# and you'll have a single Pair object as a positional paramater,
# and you'll have a single Pair object as a positional parameter,
# which means this fails:
with-named(1, 'named' => 6);
@@ -162,7 +159,7 @@ named-def; #=> 5
named-def(def => 15); #=> 15
# Since you can omit parenthesis to call a function with no arguments,
# you need "&" in the name to capture `say-hello`.
# you need "&" in the name to store `say-hello` in a variable.
my &s = &say-hello;
my &other-s = sub { say "Anonymous function !" }
@@ -173,8 +170,8 @@ sub as-many($head, *@rest) { # `*@` (slurpy) will basically "take everything els
say @rest.join(' / ') ~ " !";
}
say as-many('Happy', 'Happy', 'Birthday'); #=> Happy / Birthday !
# Note that the splat did not consume
# the parameter before.
# Note that the splat (the *) did not
# consume the parameter before.
## You can call a function with an array using the
# "argument list flattening" operator `|`
@@ -197,7 +194,7 @@ sub mutate($n is rw) {
say "\$n is now $n !";
}
# If what you want is a copy instead, use `is copy`.
# If what you want a copy instead, use `is copy`.
# A sub itself returns a container, which means it can be marked as rw:
my $x = 42;
@@ -234,7 +231,7 @@ say "Quite truthy" if True;
# - Ternary conditional, "?? !!" (like `x ? y : z` in some other languages)
my $a = $condition ?? $value-if-true !! $value-if-false;
# - `given`-`when` looks like other languages `switch`, but much more
# - `given`-`when` looks like other languages' `switch`, but much more
# powerful thanks to smart matching and thanks to Perl 6's "topic variable", $_.
#
# This variable contains the default argument of a block,
@@ -380,7 +377,9 @@ say join(' ', @array[-> $n { 15..$n }]);
# You can use that in most places you'd expect, even assigning to an array
my @numbers = ^20;
my @seq = 3, 9 ... * > 95; # 3 9 15 21 27 [...] 81 87 93 99
# Here numbers increase by "6"; more on `...` operator later.
my @seq = 3, 9 ... * > 95; # 3 9 15 21 27 [...] 81 87 93 99;
@numbers[5..*] = 3, 9 ... *; # even though the sequence is infinite,
# only the 15 needed values will be calculated.
say @numbers; #=> 0 1 2 3 4 3 9 15 21 [...] 81 87
@@ -525,7 +524,7 @@ map(sub ($a, $b) { $a + $b + 3 }, @array); # (here with `sub`)
# The constructs for declaring types are "class", "role",
# which you'll see later.
# For now, let us examinate "subset":
# For now, let us examine "subset":
# a "subset" is a "sub-type" with additional checks.
# For example: "a very big integer is an Int that's greater than 500"
# You can specify the type you're subtyping (by default, Any),
@@ -608,27 +607,26 @@ sub foo {
bar(); # call `bar` in-place
}
sub bar {
say $*foo; # `$*a` will be looked in the call stack, and find `foo`'s,
say $*foo; # `$*foo` will be looked in the call stack, and find `foo`'s,
# even though the blocks aren't nested (they're call-nested).
#=> 1
}
### Object Model
## Perl 6 has a quite comprehensive object model
# You declare a class with the keyword `class`, fields with `has`,
# methods with `method`. Every field to private, and is named `$!attr`,
# but you have `$.` to get a public (immutable) accessor along with it.
# (using `$.` is like using `$!` plus a `method` with the same name)
# methods with `method`. Every attribute that is private is named `$!attr`.
# Immutable public attributes are named `$.attr`
# (you can make them mutable with `is rw`)
# (Perl 6's object model ("SixModel") is very flexible,
# Perl 6's object model ("SixModel") is very flexible,
# and allows you to dynamically add methods, change semantics, etc ...
# (this will not be covered here, and you should refer to the Synopsis).
class A {
has $.field; # `$.field` is immutable.
# From inside the class, use `$!field` to modify it.
has $.other-field is rw; # You can obviously mark a public field `rw`.
has $.other-field is rw; # You can mark a public attribute `rw`.
has Int $!private-field = 10;
method get-value {
@@ -656,7 +654,6 @@ $a.other-field = 10; # This, however, works, because the public field
# is mutable (`rw`).
## Perl 6 also has inheritance (along with multiple inheritance)
# (though considered a misfeature by many)
class A {
has $.val;
@@ -751,7 +748,7 @@ fail "foo"; # We're not trying to access the value, so no problem.
try {
fail "foo";
CATCH {
default { say "It threw because we try to get the fail's value!" }
default { say "It threw because we tried to get the fail's value!" }
}
}
@@ -763,7 +760,7 @@ try {
### Packages
# Packages are a way to reuse code. Packages are like "namespaces", and any
# element of the six model (`module`, `role`, `class`, `grammar`, `subset`
# and `enum`) are actually packages. (Packages are the lowest common denomitor)
# and `enum`) are actually packages. (Packages are the lowest common denominator)
# Packages are important - especially as Perl is well-known for CPAN,
# the Comprehensive Perl Archive Network.
# You usually don't use packages directly: you use `class Package::Name::Here;`,
@@ -773,7 +770,7 @@ module Hello::World { # Bracketed form
# that can be redeclared as something else later.
# ... declarations here ...
}
module Parse::Text; # file-scoped form
unit module Parse::Text; # file-scoped form
grammar Parse::Text::Grammar { # A grammar is a package, which you could `use`
}
@@ -797,10 +794,8 @@ my $actions = JSON::Tiny::Actions.new;
# You've already seen `my` and `has`, we'll now explore the others.
## * `our` (happens at `INIT` time -- see "Phasers" below)
# Along with `my`, there are several others declarators you can use.
# The first one you'll want for the previous part is `our`.
# It's like `my`, but it also creates a package variable.
# (All packagish things (`class`, `role`, etc) are `our` by default)
# it's like `my`, but it also creates a package variable:
module Foo::Bar {
our $n = 1; # note: you can't put a type constraint on an `our` variable
our sub inc {
@@ -829,7 +824,7 @@ constant why-not = 5, 15 ... *;
say why-not[^5]; #=> 5 15 25 35 45
## * `state` (happens at run time, but only once)
# State variables are only executed one time
# State variables are only initialized one time
# (they exist in other langages such as C as `static`)
sub fixed-rand {
state $val = rand;
@@ -862,7 +857,7 @@ for ^5 -> $a {
## * Compile-time phasers
BEGIN { say "[*] Runs at compile time, as soon as possible, only once" }
CHECK { say "[*] Runs at compile time, instead as late as possible, only once" }
CHECK { say "[*] Runs at compile time, as late as possible, only once" }
## * Run-time phasers
INIT { say "[*] Runs at run time, as soon as possible, only once" }
@@ -870,10 +865,13 @@ END { say "Runs at run time, as late as possible, only once" }
## * Block phasers
ENTER { say "[*] Runs everytime you enter a block, repeats on loop blocks" }
LEAVE { say "Runs everytime you leave a block, even when an exception happened. Repeats on loop blocks." }
LEAVE { say "Runs everytime you leave a block, even when an exception
happened. Repeats on loop blocks." }
PRE { say "Asserts a precondition at every block entry, before ENTER (especially useful for loops)" }
POST { say "Asserts a postcondition at every block exit, after LEAVE (especially useful for loops)" }
PRE { say "Asserts a precondition at every block entry,
before ENTER (especially useful for loops)" }
POST { say "Asserts a postcondition at every block exit,
after LEAVE (especially useful for loops)" }
## * Block/exceptions phasers
sub {
@@ -891,12 +889,12 @@ for ^5 {
## * Role/class phasers
COMPOSE { "When a role is composed into a class. /!\ NOT YET IMPLEMENTED" }
# They allow for cute trick or clever code ...:
say "This code took " ~ (time - CHECK time) ~ "s to run";
# They allow for cute tricks or clever code ...:
say "This code took " ~ (time - CHECK time) ~ "s to compile";
# ... or clever organization:
sub do-db-stuff {
ENTER $db.start-transaction; # New transaction everytime we enter the sub
$db.start-transaction; # start a new transaction
KEEP $db.commit; # commit the transaction if all went well
UNDO $db.rollback; # or rollback if all hell broke loose
}
@@ -1020,7 +1018,7 @@ sub circumfix:<[ ]>(Int $n) {
$n ** $n
}
say [5]; #=> 3125
# circumfix is around. Again, not whitespace.
# circumfix is around. Again, no whitespace.
sub postcircumfix:<{ }>(Str $s, Int $idx) {
# post-circumfix is
@@ -1052,9 +1050,9 @@ postcircumfix:<{ }>(%h, $key, :delete); # (you can call operators like that)
# Basically, they're operators that apply another operator.
## * Reduce meta-operator
# It's a prefix meta-operator that takes a binary functions and
# It's a prefix meta-operator that takes a binary function and
# one or many lists. If it doesn't get passed any argument,
# it either return a "default value" for this operator
# it either returns a "default value" for this operator
# (a meaningless value) or `Any` if there's none (examples below).
#
# Otherwise, it pops an element from the list(s) one at a time, and applies
@@ -1089,7 +1087,7 @@ say [[&add]] 1, 2, 3; #=> 6
# This one is an infix meta-operator than also can be used as a "normal" operator.
# It takes an optional binary function (by default, it just creates a pair),
# and will pop one value off of each array and call its binary function on these
# until it runs out of elements. It runs the an array with all these new elements.
# until it runs out of elements. It returns an array with all of these new elements.
(1, 2) Z (3, 4); # ((1, 3), (2, 4)), since by default, the function makes an array
1..3 Z+ 4..6; # (5, 7, 9), using the custom infix:<+> function
@@ -1109,8 +1107,7 @@ say [[&add]] 1, 2, 3; #=> 6
# (and might include a closure), and on the right, a value or the predicate
# that says when to stop (or Whatever for a lazy infinite list).
my @list = 1, 2, 3 ... 10; # basic deducing
#my @list = 1, 3, 6 ... 10; # this throws you into an infinite loop,
# because Perl 6 can't figure out the end
#my @list = 1, 3, 6 ... 10; # this dies because Perl 6 can't figure out the end
my @list = 1, 2, 3 ...^ 10; # as with ranges, you can exclude the last element
# (the iteration when the predicate matches).
my @list = 1, 3, 9 ... * > 30; # you can use a predicate
@@ -1222,7 +1219,7 @@ so 'abbbbbbc' ~~ / a b ** 3..* c /; # `True` (infinite ranges are okay)
# they use a more perl6-ish syntax:
say 'fooa' ~~ / f <[ o a ]>+ /; #=> 'fooa'
# You can use ranges:
say 'aeiou' ~~ / a <[ e..w ]> /; #=> 'aeiou'
say 'aeiou' ~~ / a <[ e..w ]> /; #=> 'ae'
# Just like in normal regexes, if you want to use a special character, escape it
# (the last one is escaping a space)
say 'he-he !' ~~ / 'he-' <[ a..z \! \ ]> + /; #=> 'he-he !'
@@ -1244,7 +1241,7 @@ so 'foo!' ~~ / <-[ a..z ] + [ f o ]> + /; # True (the + doesn't replace the left
so 'abc' ~~ / a [ b ] c /; # `True`. The grouping does pretty much nothing
so 'fooABCABCbar' ~~ / foo [ A B C ] + bar /;
# The previous line returns `True`.
# We match the "abc" 1 or more time (the `+` was applied to the group).
# We match the "ABC" 1 or more time (the `+` was applied to the group).
# But this does not go far enough, because we can't actually get back what
# we matched.
@@ -1287,10 +1284,12 @@ say $/[0][0].Str; #=> ~
# This stems from a very simple fact: `$/` does not contain strings, integers or arrays,
# it only contains match objects. These contain the `.list`, `.hash` and `.Str` methods.
# (but you can also just use `match<key>` for hash access and `match[idx]` for array access)
# (but you can also just use `match<key>` for hash access
# and `match[idx]` for array access)
say $/[0].list.perl; #=> (Match.new(...),).list
# We can see it's a list of Match objects. Those contain a bunch of infos:
# where the match started/ended, the "ast" (see actions later), etc.
# We can see it's a list of Match objects. Those contain
# a bunch of infos: where the match started/ended,
# the "ast" (see actions later), etc.
# You'll see named capture below with grammars.
## Alternatives - the `or` of regexps
@@ -1328,7 +1327,7 @@ so 'ayc' ~~ / a [ b | y ] c /; # `True`. Obviously enough ...
### Extra: the MAIN subroutime
# The `MAIN` subroutine is called when you run a Perl 6 file directly.
# It's very powerful, because Perl 6 actually parses the argument
# It's very powerful, because Perl 6 actually parses the arguments
# and pass them as such to the sub. It also handles named argument (`--foo`)
# and will even go as far as to autogenerate a `--help`
sub MAIN($name) { say "Hello, $name !" }
@@ -1346,7 +1345,7 @@ multi MAIN('add', $key, $value, Bool :$replace) { ... }
multi MAIN('remove', $key) { ... }
multi MAIN('import', File, Str :$as) { ... } # omitting parameter name
# This produces:
# $ perl 6 cli.pl
# $ perl6 cli.pl
# Usage:
# t.pl [--replace] add <key> <value>
# t.pl remove <key>
@@ -1429,7 +1428,7 @@ for <well met young hero we shall meet later> {
# A flip-flop can change state as many times as needed:
for <test start print it stop not printing start print again stop not anymore> {
.say if $_ eq 'start' ^ff^ $_ eq 'stop'; # exclude both "start" and "stop",
#=> "print this printing again"
#=> "print it print again"
}
# you might also use a Whatever Star,
@@ -1461,4 +1460,3 @@ If you want to go further, you can:
- Come along on `#perl6` at `irc.freenode.net`. The folks here are always helpful.
- Check the [source of Perl 6's functions and classes](https://github.com/rakudo/rakudo/tree/nom/src/core). Rakudo is mainly written in Perl 6 (with a lot of NQP, "Not Quite Perl", a Perl 6 subset easier to implement and optimize).
- Read [the language design documents](http://design.perl6.org). They explain P6 from an implementor point-of-view, but it's still very interesting.

35
php.html.markdown
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@@ -693,8 +693,43 @@ use My\Namespace as SomeOtherNamespace;
$cls = new SomeOtherNamespace\MyClass();
/**********************
* Error Handling
*
*/
// Simple error handling can be done with try catch block
try {
// Do something
} catch ( Exception $e) {
// Handle exception
}
// When using try catch blocks in a namespaced enviroment use the following
try {
// Do something
} catch (\Exception $e) {
// Handle exception
}
// Custom exceptions
class MyException extends Exception {}
try {
$condition = true;
if ($condition) {
throw new MyException('Something just happend');
}
} catch (MyException $e) {
// Handle my exception
}
```
## More Information

17
pt-br/c-pt.html.markdown
View File

@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ contributors:
- ["Árpád Goretity", "http://twitter.com/H2CO3_iOS"]
translators:
- ["João Farias", "https://github.com/JoaoGFarias"]
- ["Elton Viana", "https://github.com/eltonvs"]
lang: pt-br
filename: c-pt.el
---
@@ -139,13 +140,13 @@ int main() {
int var_length_array[size]; // declara o VLA
printf("sizeof array = %zu\n", sizeof var_length_array);
//Uma possível saída para esse programa seria:
// > Entre o tamanho do array:: 10
// Uma possível saída para esse programa seria:
// > Entre o tamanho do array: 10
// > sizeof array = 40
// String são apenas arrays de caracteres terminados por um
// byte NUL (0x00), representado em string pelo caracter especial '\0'.
// (Não precisamos incluir o byte NUL em literais de string; o compilador
// byte nulo (0x00), representado em string pelo caracter especial '\0'.
// (Não precisamos incluir o byte nulo em literais de string; o compilador
// o insere ao final do array para nós.)
char uma_string[20] = "Isto é uma string";
// Observe que 'é' não está na tabela ASCII
@@ -153,8 +154,8 @@ int main() {
// Porém, comentários podem conter acentos
printf("%s\n", uma_string); // %s formata a string
printf("%d\n", uma_string[16]); // => 0
// i.e., byte #17 é 0 (assim como 18, 19, e 20)
printf("%d\n", uma_string[17]); // => 0
// i.e., byte #18 é 0 (assim como o 19°, 20°, 21°...)
// Se temos caracteres entre aspas simples, temos um caracter literal.
// Seu tipo é `int`, *não* `char` (por razões históricas).
@@ -220,7 +221,7 @@ int main() {
0 || 1; // => 1 (Ou lógico)
0 || 0; // => 0
//Expressão condicional ( ? : )
//Expressão condicional ternária ( ? : )
int a = 5;
int b = 10;
int z;
@@ -290,6 +291,8 @@ int main() {
for (i = 0; i <= 5; i++) {
; // Use ponto e vírgula para agir como um corpo (declaração nula)
}
// Ou
for (i = 0; i <= 5; i++);
// Criando branchs com escolhas múltiplas: switch()
switch (alguma_expressao_integral) {

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---
language: clojure
filename: learnclojure-pt.clj
contributors:
- ["Adam Bard", "http://adambard.com/"]
translators:
- ["Raphael Bezerra do Nascimento"]
lang: pt-br
---
Como todas as Lisps, a inerente [homoiconicity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoiconic)
do Clojure lhe dá acesso a toda a extensão da linguagem
para escrever rotinas de geração de código chamados "macros". Macros fornecem uma poderosa forma de adequar a linguagem
às suas necessidades.
Pórem Tenha cuidado. É considerado má pratica escrever uma macro quando uma função vai fazer. Use uma macro apenas
quando você precisar do controle sobre quando ou se os argumentos para um formulário será avaliado.
Você vai querer estar familiarizado com Clojure. Certifique-se de entender tudo em
[Clojure em Y Minutos](/docs/clojure/).
```clojure
;; Defina uma macro utilizando defmacro. Sua macro deve ter como saida uma lista que possa
;; ser avaliada como codigo Clojure.
;;
;; Essa macro é a mesma coisa que se você escrever (reverse "Hello World")
(defmacro my-first-macro []
(list reverse "Hello World"))
;; Inspecione o resultado de uma macro utilizando macroexpand or macroexpand-1.
;;
;; Note que a chamada deve utilizar aspas simples.
(macroexpand '(my-first-macro))
;; -> (#<core$reverse clojure.core$reverse@xxxxxxxx> "Hello World")
;; Você pode avaliar o resultad de macroexpand diretamente:
(eval (macroexpand '(my-first-macro)))
; -> (\d \l \o \r \W \space \o \l \l \e \H)
;; mas você deve usar esse mais suscinto, sintax como de função:
(my-first-macro) ; -> (\d \l \o \r \W \space \o \l \l \e \H)
;; Você pode tornar as coisas mais faceis pra você, utilizando a sintaxe de citação mais suscinta
;; para criar listas nas suas macros:
(defmacro my-first-quoted-macro []
'(reverse "Hello World"))
(macroexpand '(my-first-quoted-macro))
;; -> (reverse "Hello World")
;; Note que reverse não é mais uma função objeto, mas um simbolo.
;; Macros podem ter argumentos.
(defmacro inc2 [arg]
(list + 2 arg))
(inc2 2) ; -> 4
;; Mas se você tentar fazer isso com uma lista entre aspas simples, você vai receber um erro, por que o
;; argumento irá entra aspas simples também. Para contornar isso, Clojure prover uma maneira de utilizar aspas simples
;; em macros: `. Dentro `, você pode usar ~ para chegar ao escopo externo.
(defmacro inc2-quoted [arg]
`(+ 2 ~arg))
(inc2-quoted 2)
;; Você pode usar os argumentos de destruturação habituais. Expandir lista de variaveis usando ~@
(defmacro unless [arg & body]
`(if (not ~arg)
(do ~@body))) ; Lembrar o do!
(macroexpand '(unless true (reverse "Hello World")))
;; ->
;; (if (clojure.core/not true) (do (reverse "Hello World")))
;; (unless) avalia e retorna seu corpo, se o primeiro argumento é falso.
;; caso contrario, retorna nil
(unless true "Hello") ; -> nil
(unless false "Hello") ; -> "Hello"
;; Usado sem cuidados, macros podem fazer muito mal por sobreporem suas variaveis
(defmacro define-x []
'(do
(def x 2)
(list x)))
(def x 4)
(define-x) ; -> (2)
(list x) ; -> (2)
;;s Para evitar isso, use gensym para receber um identificador unico
(gensym 'x) ; -> x1281 (ou outra coisa)
(defmacro define-x-safely []
(let [sym (gensym 'x)]
`(do
(def ~sym 2)
(list ~sym))))
(def x 4)
(define-x-safely) ; -> (2)
(list x) ; -> (4)
;; Você pode usar # dentro de ` para produzir uma gensym para cada simbolo automaticamente
(defmacro define-x-hygenically []
`(do
(def x# 2)
(list x#)))
(def x 4)
(define-x-hygenically) ; -> (2)
(list x) ; -> (4)
;; É típico o uso de funções de auxilio com macros. Vamos criar um pouco
;; Vamos criar um pouco para nos ajudar a suportar uma sintaxe aritmética inline (estupida)
(declare inline-2-helper)
(defn clean-arg [arg]
(if (seq? arg)
(inline-2-helper arg)
arg))
(defn apply-arg
"Given args [x (+ y)], return (+ x y)"
[val [op arg]]
(list op val (clean-arg arg)))
(defn inline-2-helper
[[arg1 & ops-and-args]]
(let [ops (partition 2 ops-and-args)]
(reduce apply-arg (clean-arg arg1) ops)))
;; Podemos testar isso imediatamente, sem criar uma macro
(inline-2-helper '(a + (b - 2) - (c * 5))) ; -> (- (+ a (- b 2)) (* c 5))
; Entretanto, temos que tornar isso uma macro caso quisermos que isso seja rodado em tempo de compilação
(defmacro inline-2 [form]
(inline-2-helper form)))
(macroexpand '(inline-2 (1 + (3 / 2) - (1 / 2) + 1)))
; -> (+ (- (+ 1 (/ 3 2)) (/ 1 2)) 1)
(inline-2 (1 + (3 / 2) - (1 / 2) + 1))
; -> 3 (Na verdade, 3N, desde que o numero ficou convertido em uma fração racional com /
### Leitura adicional
Escrevendo Macros de [Clojure para o Brave e True](http://www.braveclojure.com/)
[http://www.braveclojure.com/writing-macros/](http://www.braveclojure.com/writing-macros/)
Documentos oficiais
[http://clojure.org/macros](http://clojure.org/macros)
Quando utilizar macros?
[http://dunsmor.com/lisp/onlisp/onlisp_12.html](http://dunsmor.com/lisp/onlisp/onlisp_12.html)

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---
language: css
filename: learncss-pt.css
contributors:
- ["Mohammad Valipour", "https://github.com/mvalipour"]
- ["Marco Scannadinari", "https://github.com/marcoms"]
- ["Geoffrey Liu", "https://github.com/g-liu"]
- ["Connor Shea", "https://github.com/connorshea"]
- ["Deepanshu Utkarsh", "https://github.com/duci9y"]
translators:
- ["Gabriel Gomes", "https://github.com/gabrielgomesferraz"]
lang: pt-br
---
Nos primeiros dias da web não havia elementos visuais, apenas texto puro. Mas com maior desenvolvimento de navegadores da web, páginas web totalmente visuais também se tornou comum.
CSS ajuda a manter a separação entre o conteúdo (HTML) e o look-and-feel de uma página web.
CSS permite atingir diferentes elementos em uma página HTML e atribuir diferentes propriedades visuais para eles.
Este guia foi escrito para CSS2, embora CSS3 está rapidamente se tornando popular.
**NOTA:** Porque CSS produz resultados visuais, a fim de aprender, você precisa tentar de tudo em um playground CSS como [dabblet](http://dabblet.com/).
O foco principal deste artigo é sobre a sintaxe e algumas dicas gerais.
```css
/* Comentários aparecem dentro do slash-asterisk, tal como esta linha!
não há "comentários de uma linha"; este é o único estilo de comentário * /
/* ####################
## SELETORES
#################### */
/* O seletor é usado para direcionar um elemento em uma página.
seletor { propriedade: valor; / * Mais propriedades ... * / }
/*
Abaixo um elemento de exemplo:
<div class='class1 class2' id='anID' attr='value' otherAttr='pt-br foo bar' />
*/
/* Você pode direciona-lo usando uma das suas classes CSS */
.class1 { }
/* ou ambas as classes! */
.class1.class2 { }
/* ou o seu nome */
div { }
/* ou o seu id */
#anID { }
/* ou utilizando o fator de que tem um atributo!*/
[attr] { font-size:smaller; }
/* ou que o atributo tem um valor específico */
[attr='value'] { font-size:smaller; }
/* começa com um valor (CSS 3) */
[attr^='val'] { font-size:smaller; }
/* ou terminando com um valor (CSS 3) */
[attr$='ue'] { font-size:smaller; }
/* Ou contém um valor em uma lista separada por espaços */
[otherAttr ~ = 'foo'] {}
[otherAttr ~ = 'bar'] {}
/* Ou contém um valor em uma lista separada por hífen, ou seja, "-" (U + 002D) */
[otherAttr | = 'en'] {font-size: smaller; }
/* Você pode concatenar diferentes seletores para criar um seletor mais estreito. Não
   colocar espaços entre eles. */
classe div.some [attr $ = 'ue'] {}
/* Você pode selecionar um elemento que é filho de outro elemento */
div.some-parent> .class-name {}
/* Ou um descendente de um outro elemento. As crianças são os descendentes diretos de
   seu elemento pai, apenas um nível abaixo da árvore. Pode ser qualquer descendentes
   nivelar por baixo da árvore. */
div.some-parent class-name {}
/* Atenção: o mesmo seletor sem espaço tem um outro significado.
   Você consegue adivinhar o que? */
div.some-parent.class-name {}
/* Você também pode selecionar um elemento com base em seu irmão adjacente */
.i am just-antes + .Este elemento {}
/* Ou qualquer irmão que o precede */
.i am-qualquer-elemento antes ~ .Este elemento {}
/* Existem alguns selectores chamado pseudo classes que podem ser usados para selecionar um
   elemento quando ele está em um determinado estado */
/* Por exemplo, quando o cursor passa sobre um elemento */
seletor:hover {}
/* Ou um link foi visitado */
seletor:visited {}
/* Ou não tenha sido visitado */
seletor:link {}
/* Ou um elemento em foco */
seletor:focus {}
/* Qualquer elemento que é o primeiro filho de seu pai */
seletor:first-child {}
/* Qualquer elemento que é o último filho de seu pai */
seletor:last-child {}
/* Assim como pseudo classes, pseudo elementos permitem que você estilo certas partes de um documento */
/* Corresponde a um primeiro filho virtual do elemento selecionado */
seletor::before {}
/* Corresponde a um último filho virtual do elemento selecionado */
seletor::after {}
/* Nos locais apropriados, um asterisco pode ser utilizado como um curinga para selecionar todos
   elemento */
* {} /* */ Todos os elementos
.parent * {} /* */ todos os descendentes
.parent> * {} /* */ todas as crianças
/* ####################
   ## PROPRIEDADES
   #################### */
seletor {
    /* Unidades de comprimento pode ser absoluta ou relativa. */
    /* Unidades relativas */
    width: 50%; /* Percentagem de largura elemento pai */
    font-size: 2em; /* Múltiplos de font-size original de elemento */
    font-size: 2rem; /* Ou do elemento raiz font-size */
    font-size: 2vw; /* Múltiplos de 1% da largura da janela de exibição (CSS 3) */
    font-size: 2vh; /* Ou a sua altura */
    font-size: 2vmin; /* Qualquer um de VH ou um VW é menor */
    font-size: 2vmax; /* Ou superior */
    /* Unidades absolutas */
    width: 200px; /* píxeis */
    font-size: 20pt; /* Pontos */
    width: 5cm; /* Centímetros */
    min-width: 50mm; /* Milímetros */
    max-width: 5 polegadas; /* Polegadas */
    /* Cores */
    color: # F6E; /* Formato hexadecimal curto */
    color: # FF66EE; /* Formato hexadecimal longo */
    color: tomato; /* Uma cor nomeada */
    color: rgb (255, 255, 255); /* Como valores rgb */
    cor: RGB (10%, 20%, 50%); /* Como porcentagens rgb */
    cor: rgba (255, 0, 0, 0,3); /* Como valores RGBA (CSS 3) NOTA: 0 <a <1 */
    color: transparent; /* Equivale a definir o alfa a 0 */
    cor: HSL (0, 100%, 50%); /* Como porcentagens HSL (CSS 3) */
    cor: HSLA (0, 100%, 50%, 0,3); /* Como porcentagens HSLA com alfa */
    /* Imagens como fundos de elementos */
    background-image: url (/img-path/img.jpg); /* Citações dentro url () opcional */
    /* Fontes */
    font-family: Arial;
    /* Se o nome da família de fonte tem um espaço, deve ser citado */
    font-family: "Courier New";
    /* Se o primeiro não for encontrada, o navegador usa o próximo, e assim por diante */
    font-family: "Courier New", Trebuchet, Arial, sans-serif;
}
```
## Uso
Guardar uma folha de estilo CSS com a extensão `.css`.
```xml
<!-- Você precisa incluir o arquivo css no da sua página <head>. Isto é o
     método recomendado. Consulte http://stackoverflow.com/questions/8284365 -->
<link rel='stylesheet' type='text/css' href='path/to/style.css' />
<!-- Você também pode incluir alguns CSS inline na sua marcação. -->
<style>
   a { color: purple; }
</style>
<!-- Ou diretamente definir propriedades CSS no elemento. -->
<div style="border: 1px solid red;">
</div>
```
## Precedência ou Cascata
Um elemento pode ser alvo de vários seletores e pode ter um conjunto de propriedades em que mais de uma vez. Nestes casos, uma das regras tem precedência sobre os outros. Geralmente, uma regra em um seletor mais específico têm precedência sobre um menos específico, e uma regra que ocorre mais tarde na folha de estilo substitui uma anterior.
Este processo é chamado de cascata, portanto, as Fichas de nome de estilo em cascata.
Dado o seguinte CSS:
```css
/* UMA */
p.class1[attr="value"]
/* B */
p.class1 {}
/* C */
p.class2 {}
/* D */
p { }
/* E */
p { property: value !important; }
```
e a seguinte marcação:
```xml
<p style='/*F*/ property:value;' class='class1 class2' attr='value' />
```
A precedência de estilo é a seguinte. Lembre-se, a precedência é para cada **propriedade**, não para todo o bloco.
* `E` tem a precedência mais alta por causa de uma palavra-chave`!important`. É recomendável que você evitar seu uso.
* `F` é a próxima, porque é um estilo interno.
* `A` é a próxima, porque é mais" específico "do que qualquer outra coisa. Tem 3 especificadores: O nome do elemento `p`, o seu `class1` classe, um atributo `attr='value'`.
* `C` está próximo, mesmo que ele tenha a mesma especificidade que `B`. Isso é porque ele aparece depois de `B`.
* `B` é o próximo.
* `D` é a última.
## Compatibilidade
A maior parte dos recursos do CSS 2 (e muitos em CSS 3) estão disponíveis em todos os navegadores e dispositivos. Mas é sempre boa prática para verificar antes de usar um novo recurso.
## Recursos
* Para executar uma verificação de compatibilidade rápida, [CanIUse](http://caniuse.com).
* CSS Playground [Dabblet](http://dabblet.com/).
* [Documentação CSS Mozilla Developer Rede](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS)
* [Codrops 'Referência CSS](http://tympanus.net/codrops/css_reference/)
## Leitura adicional
* [Entendendo Estilo Precedência em CSS: Especificidade, Herança, eo Cascade](http://www.vanseodesign.com/css/css-specificity-inheritance-cascaade/)
* [Selecionando elementos usando atributos](https://css-tricks.com/almanac/selectors/a/attribute/)
* [QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/)
* [Z-Index - O empilhamento context](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/Guide/CSS/Understanding_z_index/The_stacking_context)
* [SASS](http://sass-lang.com/) e [menos](http://lesscss.org/) para CSS pré-processamento
* [CSS-Tricks](https://css-tricks.com)

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---
language: sass
filename: learnsass-pt.scss
contributors:
- ["Laura Kyle", "https://github.com/LauraNK"]
- ["Sean Corrales", "https://github.com/droidenator"]
translators:
- ["Gabriel Gomes", "https://github.com/gabrielgomesferraz"]
lang: pt-br
---
Sass é uma linguagem de extensão CSS que adiciona recursos, como variáveis, aninhamento, mixins e muito mais.
Sass (e outros pré-processadores, como [Less](http://lesscss.org/)) ajudam os desenvolvedores a escrever código de fácil manutenção e DRY (Do not Repeat Yourself).
Sass tem duas opções de sintaxe diferentes para escolher. SCSS, que tem a mesma sintaxe de CSS, mas com os recursos adicionais de Sass. Ou Sass (a sintaxe original), que usa o recuo, em vez de chaves e ponto e vírgula.
Este tutorial é escrito usando SCSS.
Se você já está familiarizado com CSS3, você será capaz de pegar Sass de forma relativamente rápida. Ele não fornece quaisquer novas opções de estilo, mas sim as ferramentas para escrever sua CSS de forma mais eficiente e fazer a manutenção mais fácilmente.
```scss
// Comentários de linha única são removidos quando Sass é compilado para CSS.
/* Comentários multi-line são preservados. */
/*Variáveis
==============================*/
/* É possível armazenar um valor CSS (tais como a cor) de uma variável.
Use o símbolo "$" para criar uma variável. */
$primary-color: #A3A4FF;
$secondary-color: #51527F;
$body-font: 'Roboto', sans-serif;
/* Você pode usar as variáveis em toda a sua folha de estilo.
Agora, se você quer mudar a cor, você só tem que fazer a mudança uma vez. */
body {
background-color: $primary-color;
color: $secondary-color;
font-family: $body-font;
}
/* Quando compilar ficaria assim: */
body {
background-color: #A3A4FF;
color: #51527F;
font-family: 'Roboto', sans-serif;
}
/ * Este é muito mais fácil de manter do que ter de mudar a cor
cada vez que aparece em toda a sua folha de estilo. * /
/*Mixins
==============================*/
/* Se você achar que você está escrevendo o mesmo código para mais de um
elemento, você pode querer armazenar esse código em um mixin.
Use a diretiva '@mixin', além de um nome para o seu mixin. */
@mixin center {
display: block;
margin-left: auto;
margin-right: auto;
left: 0;
right: 0;
}
/* Você pode usar o mixin com '@include' e o nome mixin. */
div {
@include center;
background-color: $primary-color;
}
/* Apoś compilar ficaria assim: */
div {
display: block;
margin-left: auto;
margin-right: auto;
left: 0;
right: 0;
background-color: #A3A4FF;
}
/* Você pode usar mixins para criar uma propriedade estenográfica. */
@mixin size($width, $height) {
width: $width;
height: $height;
}
/* O que você pode invocar passando argumentos de largura e altura. */
.rectangle {
@include size(100px, 60px);
}
.square {
@include size(40px, 40px);
}
/* Isso compilado ficará assim: */
.rectangle {
width: 100px;
height: 60px;
}
.square {
width: 40px;
height: 40px;
}
/*Funções
==============================*/
/* Sass fornece funções que podem ser utilizados para realizar uma variedade de
    tarefas. Considere o seguinte */
/* Funções pode ser chamado usando seu nome e passando o
    argumentos necessários */
body {
width: round(10.25px);
}
.footer {
background-color: fade_out(#000000, 0.25)
}
/* Compiles to: */
body {
width: 10px;
}
.footer {
background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.75);
}
/* You may also define your own functions. Functions are very similar to
mixins. When trying to choose between a function or a mixin, remember
that mixins are best for generating CSS while functions are better for
logic that might be used throughout your Sass code. The examples in
the Math Operators' section are ideal candidates for becoming a reusable
function. */
/* This function will take a target size and the parent size and calculate
and return the percentage */
/* Você também pode definir suas próprias funções. As funções são muito semelhantes aos
   mixins. Ao tentar escolher entre uma função ou um mixin, lembre-
   que mixins são os melhores para gerar CSS enquanto as funções são melhores para
   lógica que pode ser usado em todo o seu código Sass. Os exemplos
   seção Operadores Math 'são candidatos ideais para se tornar um reutilizável
   função. */
/* Esta função terá um tamanho de destino eo tamanho do pai e calcular
   e voltar a percentagem */
@function calculate-percentage($target-size, $parent-size) {
@return $target-size / $parent-size * 100%;
}
$main-content: calculate-percentage(600px, 960px);
.main-content {
width: $main-content;
}
.sidebar {
width: calculate-percentage(300px, 960px);
}
/* Compila para: */
.main-content {
width: 62.5%;
}
.sidebar {
width: 31.25%;
}
/* Extend (Herança)
============================== */
/*Extend é uma maneira de compartilhar as propriedades de um seletor com outro. */
.display {
@include size(5em, 5em);
border: 5px solid $secondary-color;
}
.display-success {
@extend .display;
border-color: #22df56;
}
/* Compiles to: */
.display, .display-success {
width: 5em;
height: 5em;
border: 5px solid #51527F;
}
.display-success {
border-color: #22df56;
}
/* Ampliando uma declaração CSS é preferível a criação de um mixin
   por causa da maneira agrupa as classes que todos compartilham
   o mesmo estilo base. Se isso for feito com um mixin, a largura,
   altura, e a borda seria duplicado para cada instrução que
   o chamado mixin. Enquanto isso não irá afetar o seu fluxo de trabalho, será
   adicionar inchaço desnecessário para os arquivos criados pelo compilador Sass. */
/*Assentamento
==============================*/
/ * Sass permite seletores ninhos dentro seletores * /
ul {
list-style-type: none;
margin-top: 2em;
li {
background-color: #FF0000;
}
}
/* '&' será substituído pelo selector pai. */
/* Você também pode aninhar pseudo-classes. */
/* Tenha em mente que o excesso de nidificação vai fazer seu código menos sustentável.
Essas práticas também recomendam não vai mais de 3 níveis de profundidade quando nidificação.
Por exemplo: */
ul {
list-style-type: none;
margin-top: 2em;
li {
background-color: red;
&:hover {
background-color: blue;
}
a {
color: white;
}
}
}
/* Compila para: */
ul {
list-style-type: none;
margin-top: 2em;
}
ul li {
background-color: red;
}
ul li:hover {
background-color: blue;
}
ul li a {
color: white;
}
/*Parciais e Importações
==============================*/
/* Sass permite criar arquivos parciais. Isso pode ajudar a manter seu Sass
   código modularizado. Arquivos parciais deve começar com um '_', por exemplo, _reset.css.
   Parciais não são geradas em CSS. */
/* Considere o seguinte CSS que nós vamos colocar em um arquivo chamado _reset.css */
html,
body,
ul,
ol {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
}
/* Sass offers @import which can be used to import partials into a file.
This differs from the traditional CSS @import statement which makes
another HTTP request to fetch the imported file. Sass takes the
imported file and combines it with the compiled code. */
/* Sass oferece @import que pode ser usado para importar parciais em um arquivo.
   Isso difere da declaração CSS @import tradicional, que faz
   outra solicitação HTTP para buscar o arquivo importado. Sass converte os
   importadas arquivo e combina com o código compilado. */
@import 'reset';
body {
font-size: 16px;
font-family: Helvetica, Arial, Sans-serif;
}
/* Compiles to: */
html, body, ul, ol {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
}
body {
font-size: 16px;
font-family: Helvetica, Arial, Sans-serif;
}
/*Placeholder Selectors
==============================*/
/* Placeholders are useful when creating a CSS statement to extend. If you
wanted to create a CSS statement that was exclusively used with @extend,
you can do so using a placeholder. Placeholders begin with a '%' instead
of '.' or '#'. Placeholders will not appear in the compiled CSS. */
/* Os espaços reservados são úteis na criação de uma declaração CSS para ampliar. Se você
   queria criar uma instrução CSS que foi usado exclusivamente com @extend,
   Você pode fazer isso usando um espaço reservado. Espaços reservados começar com um '%' em vez
   de '.' ou '#'. Espaços reservados não aparece no CSS compilado. * /
%content-window {
font-size: 14px;
padding: 10px;
color: #000;
border-radius: 4px;
}
.message-window {
@extend %content-window;
background-color: #0000ff;
}
/* Compilado para: */
.message-window {
font-size: 14px;
padding: 10px;
color: #000;
border-radius: 4px;
}
.message-window {
background-color: #0000ff;
}
/*Operações Math
============================== * /
/* Sass provides the following operators: +, -, *, /, and %. These can
be useful for calculating values directly in your Sass files instead
of using values that you've already calculated by hand. Below is an example
of a setting up a simple two column design. */
/* Sass fornece os seguintes operadores: +, -, *, /, e %. estes podem
   ser úteis para calcular os valores diretamente no seu Sass arquivos em vez
   de usar valores que você já calculados pela mão. Abaixo está um exemplo
   de uma criação de um projeto simples de duas colunas. * /
$content-area: 960px;
$main-content: 600px;
$sidebar-content: 300px;
$main-size: $main-content / $content-area * 100%;
$sidebar-size: $sidebar-content / $content-area * 100%;
$gutter: 100% - ($main-size + $sidebar-size);
body {
width: 100%;
}
.main-content {
width: $main-size;
}
.sidebar {
width: $sidebar-size;
}
.gutter {
width: $gutter;
}
/* Compiles to: */
body {
width: 100%;
}
.main-content {
width: 62.5%;
}
.sidebar {
width: 31.25%;
}
.gutter {
width: 6.25%;
}
```
## SASS ou Sass?
Alguma vez você já se perguntou se Sass é um acrônimo ou não? Você provavelmente não tem, mas vou dizer-lhe de qualquer maneira. O nome do idioma é uma palavra, "Sass", e não uma sigla.
Porque as pessoas estavam constantemente a escrevê-lo como "SASS", o criador da linguagem de brincadeira chamou de "StyleSheets Sintaticamente Incríveis".
## Prática Sass
Se você quiser jogar com Sass em seu navegador, vá para [SassMeister](http://sassmeister.com/).
Você pode usar uma sintaxe, basta ir para as configurações e selecionar Sass ou SCSS.
## Compatibilidade
Sass pode ser usado em qualquer projeto, desde que você tenha um programa para compilá-lo
em CSS. Você vai querer verificar se o CSS que você está usando é compatível
com os seus navegadores de destino.
[QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/) e [CanIUse](http://caniuse.com) são ótimos recursos para verificação de compatibilidade.
## Leitura
* [Official Documentation](http://sass-lang.com/documentation/file.SASS_REFERENCE.html)
* [The Sass Way](http://thesassway.com/) fornece tutoriais (iniciante avançados) e artigos.

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---
language: Scala
filename: learnscala-pt.scala
contributors:
- ["George Petrov", "http://github.com/petrovg"]
- ["Dominic Bou-Samra", "http://dbousamra.github.com"]
- ["Geoff Liu", "http://geoffliu.me"]
- ["Ha-Duong Nguyen", "http://reference-error.org"]
translators:
- ["João Costa", "http://joaocosta.eu"]
lang: pt-pt
---
Scala - a linguagem escalável
```scala
/*
Prepare tudo:
1) Faça Download do Scala - http://www.scala-lang.org/downloads
2) Faça unzip/untar para onde preferir e coloque o subdirectório `bin` na
variável de ambiente `PATH`
3) Inicie a REPL de Scala correndo o comando `scala`. Deve aparecer:
scala>
Isto é chamado de REPL (Read-Eval-Print Loop / Lê-Avalia-Imprime Repete).
Pode escrever qualquer expressão de Scala e o resultado será imprimido.
Vamos mostrar ficheiros de Scala mais à frente neste tutorial mas, para já,
vamos começar com os básicos.
*/
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
// 1. Basicos
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
// Uma linha de comentários é marcada com duas barras
/*
Comentários de multiplas linhas, como se pode ver neste exemplo, são assim.
*/
// Imprimir, forçando uma nova linha no final
println("Hello world!")
println(10)
// Imprimir, sem forçar uma nova linha no final
print("Hello world")
// Valores são declarados com var ou val.
// As declarações val são imutáveis, enquanto que vars são mutáveis.
// A immutabilidade é uma propriedade geralmente vantajosa.
val x = 10 // x é agora 10
x = 20 // erro: reatribuição de um val
var y = 10
y = 20 // y é agora 12
/*
Scala é uma linguagem estaticamente tipada, no entanto, nas declarações acima
não especificamos um tipo. Isto é devido a uma funcionalidade chamada
inferência de tipos. Na maior parte dos casos, o compilador de scala consegue
inferir qual o tipo de uma variável, pelo que não o temos de o declarar sempre.
Podemos declarar o tipo de uma variável da seguinte forma:
*/
val z: Int = 10
val a: Double = 1.0
// Note a conversão automática de Int para Double: o resultado é 10.0, não 10
val b: Double = 10
// Valores booleanos
true
false
// Operações booleanas
!true // false
!false // true
true == false // false
10 > 5 // true
// A matemática funciona da maneira habitual
1 + 1 // 2
2 - 1 // 1
5 * 3 // 15
6 / 2 // 3
6 / 4 // 1
6.0 / 4 // 1.5
// Avaliar expressões na REPL dá o tipo e valor do resultado
1 + 7
/* A linha acima resulta em:
scala> 1 + 7
res29: Int = 8
Isto significa que o resultado de avaliar 1 + 7 é um objecto do tipo Int com
o valor 8.
Note que "res29" é um nome de uma variavel gerado sequencialmente para
armazenar os resultados das expressões que escreveu, por isso o resultado
pode ser ligeiramente diferente.
*/
"Strings em scala são rodeadas por aspas"
'a' // Um caracter de Scala
// 'Strings entre plicas não existem' <= Isto causa um erro
// Strings tem os métodos de Java habituais definidos
"olá mundo".length
"olá mundo".substring(2, 6)
"olá mundo".replace("á", "é")
// Para além disso, também possuem métodos de Scala.
// Ver: scala.collection.immutable.StringOps
"olá mundo".take(5)
"olá mundo".drop(5)
// Interpolação de Strings: repare no prefixo "s"
val n = 45
s"Temos $n maçãs" // => "Temos 45 maçãs"
// Expressões dentro de Strings interpoladas também são possíveis
val a = Array(11, 9, 6)
s"A minha segunda filha tem ${a(0) - a(2)} anos." // => "A minha segunda filha tem 5 anos."
s"Temos o dobro de ${n / 2.0} em maçãs." // => "Temos o dobro de 22.5 em maçãs."
s"Potência de 2: ${math.pow(2, 2)}" // => "Potência de 2: 4"
// Strings interpoladas são formatadas com o prefixo "f"
f"Potência de 5: ${math.pow(5, 2)}%1.0f" // "Potência de 5: 25"
f"Raíz quadrada 122: ${math.sqrt(122)}%1.4f" // "Raíz quadrada de 122: 11.0454"
// Strings prefixadas com "raw" ignoram caracteres especiais
raw"Nova linha: \n. Retorno: \r." // => "Nova Linha: \n. Retorno: \r."
// Alguns caracteres tem de ser "escapados", e.g. uma aspa dentro de uma string:
"Esperaram fora do \"Rose and Crown\"" // => "Esperaram fora do "Rose and Crown""
// Strings rodeadas por três aspas podem-se estender por varias linhas e conter aspas
val html = """<form id="daform">
<p>Carrega aqui, Zé</p>
<input type="submit">
</form>"""
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
// 2. Funções
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
// Funções são definidas como:
//
// def nomeDaFuncao(args...): TipoDeRetorno = { corpo... }
//
// Se vem de linugagens mais tradicionais, repare na omissão da palavra
// return keyword. Em Scala, a ultima expressão de um bloco é o seu
// valor de retorno
def somaQuadrados(x: Int, y: Int): Int = {
val x2 = x * x
val y2 = y * y
x2 + y2
}
// As { } podem ser omitidas se o corpo da função for apenas uma expressão:
def somaQuadradosCurto(x: Int, y: Int): Int = x * x + y * y
// A sintaxe para chamar funções deve ser familiar:
somaQuadrados(3, 4) // => 25
// Na maior parte dos casos (sendo funções recursivas a principal excepção), o
// tipo de retorno da função pode ser omitido, sendo que a inferencia de tipos
// é aplicada aos valores de retorno
def quadrado(x: Int) = x * x // O compilador infere o tipo de retorno Int
// Funções podem ter parâmetros por omissão:
def somaComOmissão(x: Int, y: Int = 5) = x + y
somaComOmissão(1, 2) // => 3
somaComOmissão(1) // => 6
// Funções anónimas são definidas da seguinte forma:
(x: Int) => x * x
// Ao contrário de defs, o tipo de input de funções anónimas pode ser omitido
// se o contexto o tornar óbvio. Note que o tipo "Int => Int" representa uma
// funão que recebe Int e retorna Int.
val quadrado: Int => Int = x => x * x
// Funcões anónimas são chamadas como funções normais:
quadrado(10) // => 100
// Se cada argumento de uma função anónima for usado apenas uma vez, existe
// uma forma ainda mais curta de os definir. Estas funções anónumas são
// extremamente comuns, como será visto na secção sobre estruturas de dados.
val somaUm: Int => Int = _ + 1
val somaEstranha: (Int, Int) => Int = (_ * 2 + _ * 3)
somaUm(5) // => 6
somaEstranha(2, 4) // => 16
// O código return existe em Scala, mas apenas retorna do def mais interior
// que o rodeia.
// AVISO: Usar return em Scala deve ser evitado, pois facilmente leva a erros.
// Não tem qualquer efeito em funções anónimas, por exemplo:
def foo(x: Int): Int = {
val funcAnon: Int => Int = { z =>
if (z > 5)
return z // Esta linha faz com que z seja o retorno de foo!
else
z + 2 // Esta linha define o retorno de funcAnon
}
funcAnon(x) // Esta linha define o valor de retorno de foo
}
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
// 3. Controlo de fluxo
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
1 to 5
val r = 1 to 5
r.foreach(println)
r foreach println
// NB: Scala é bastante brando no que toca a pontos e parentisis - estude as
// regras separadamente. Isto permite escrever APIs e DSLs bastante legiveis
(5 to 1 by -1) foreach (println)
// Ciclos while
var i = 0
while (i < 10) { println("i " + i); i += 1 }
while (i < 10) { println("i " + i); i += 1 } // Sim, outra vez. O que aconteceu? Porquê?
i // Mostra o valor de i. Note que o while é um ciclo no sentido clássico -
// executa sequencialmente enquanto muda uma variável. Ciclos while são
// rápidos, por vezes até mais que ciclos de Java, mas combinadores e
// compreensões (usados anteriormente) são mais fáceis de entender e
// paralelizar
// Um ciclo do while
i = 0
do {
println("i ainda é menor que 10")
i += 1
} while (i < 10)
// A forma idiomática em Scala de definir acções recorrentes é através de
// recursão em cauda.
// Funções recursivas necessitam de um tipo de retorno definido explicitamente.
// Neste caso, é Unit.
def mostraNumerosEntre(a: Int, b: Int): Unit = {
print(a)
if (a < b)
mostraNumerosEntre(a + 1, b)
}
mostraNumerosEntre(1, 14)
// Condicionais
val x = 10
if (x == 1) println("yeah")
if (x == 10) println("yeah")
if (x == 11) println("yeah")
if (x == 11) println ("yeah") else println("nay")
println(if (x == 10) "yeah" else "nope")
val text = if (x == 10) "yeah" else "nope"
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
// 4. Estruturas de dados
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
val a = Array(1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13)
a(0)
a(3)
a(21) // Lança uma excepção
val m = Map("fork" -> "tenedor", "spoon" -> "cuchara", "knife" -> "cuchillo")
m("fork")
m("spoon")
m("bottle") // Lança uma excepção
val safeM = m.withDefaultValue("no lo se")
safeM("bottle")
val s = Set(1, 3, 7)
s(0)
s(1)
/* Veja a documentação de mapas de scala em -
* http://www.scala-lang.org/api/current/index.html#scala.collection.immutable.Map
* e verifique que a consegue aceder
*/
// Tuplos
(1, 2)
(4, 3, 2)
(1, 2, "três")
(a, 2, "três")
// Porquê ter isto?
val divideInts = (x: Int, y: Int) => (x / y, x % y)
divideInts(10, 3) // A função divideInts returna o resultado e o resto
// Para aceder aos elementos de um tuplo, pode-se usar _._n, onde n é o indice
// (começado em 1) do elemento
val d = divideInts(10, 3)
d._1
d._2
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
// 5. Programação Orientada a Objectos
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
/*
Aparte: Até agora tudo o que fizemos neste tutorial foram expressões simples
(valores, funções, etc). Estas expressões são suficientes para executar no
interpretador da linha de comandos para testes rápidos, mas não podem existir
isoladas num ficheiro de Scala. Por exemplo, não é possivel correr um
ficheiro scala que apenas contenha "val x = 5". Em vez disso, as únicas
construções de topo permitidas são:
- object
- class
- case class
- trait
Vamos agora explicar o que são:
*/
// Classes são semelhantes a classes noutras linguagens. Os argumentos do
// construtor são declarados após o nome da classe, sendo a inicialização feita
// no corpo da classe.
class Cão(rc: String) {
// Código de construção
var raça: String = rc
// Define um método chamado "ladra", que retorna uma String
def ladra = "Woof, woof!"
// Valores e métodos são assumidos como públicos, mas é possivel usar
// os códigos "protected" and "private".
private def dormir(horas: Int) =
println(s"Vou dormir por $horas horas")
// Métodos abstractos são métodos sem corpo. Se descomentarmos a próxima
// linha, a classe Cão é declarada como abstracta
// abstract class Cão(...) { ... }
// def persegue(oQue: String): String
}
val oMeuCão = new Cão("greyhound")
println(oMeuCão.raça) // => "greyhound"
println(oMeuCão.ladra) // => "Woof, woof!"
// O termo "object" cria um tipo e uma instancia singleton desse tipo. É comum
// que classes de Scala possuam um "objecto companheiro", onde o comportamento
// por instância é capturado nas classes, equanto que o comportamento
// relacionado com todas as instancias dessa classe ficam no objecto.
// A diferença é semelhante a métodos de classes e métodos estáticos noutras
// linguagens. Note que objectos e classes podem ter o mesmo nome.
object Cão {
def raçasConhecidas = List("pitbull", "shepherd", "retriever")
def criarCão(raça: String) = new Cão(raça)
}
// Case classes são classes com funcionalidades extra incluidas. Uma questão
// comum de iniciantes de scala é quando devem usar classes e quando devem usar
// case classes. A linha é difusa mas, em geral, classes tendem a concentrar-se
// em encapsulamento, polimorfismo e comportamento. Os valores nestas classes
// tendem a ser privados, sendo apenas exposotos métodos. O propósito principal
// das case classes é armazenarem dados imutáveis. Geralmente possuem poucos
// métods, sendo que estes raramente possuem efeitos secundários.
case class Pessoa(nome: String, telefone: String)
// Cria uma nova instancia. De notar que case classes não precisam de "new"
val jorge = Pessoa("Jorge", "1234")
val cátia = Pessoa("Cátia", "4567")
// Case classes trazem algumas vantagens de borla, como acessores:
jorge.telefone // => "1234"
// Igualdade por campo (não é preciso fazer override do .equals)
Pessoa("Jorge", "1234") == Pessoa("Cátia", "1236") // => false
// Cópia simples
// outroJorge == Person("jorge", "9876")
val outroJorge = jorge.copy(telefone = "9876")
// Entre outras. Case classes também suportam correspondência de padrões de
// borla, como pode ser visto de seguida.
// Traits em breve!
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
// 6. Correspondência de Padrões
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
// A correspondência de padrões é uma funcionalidade poderosa e bastante
// utilizada em Scala. Eis como fazer correspondência de padrões numa case class:
// Nota: Ao contrário de outras linguagens, cases em scala não necessitam de
// breaks, a computação termina no primeiro sucesso.
def reconhecePessoa(pessoa: Pessoa): String = pessoa match {
// Agora, especifique os padrões:
case Pessoa("Jorge", tel) => "Encontramos o Jorge! O seu número é " + tel
case Pessoa("Cátia", tel) => "Encontramos a Cátia! O seu número é " + tel
case Pessoa(nome, tel) => "Econtramos alguém : " + nome + ", telefone : " + tel
}
val email = "(.*)@(.*)".r // Define uma regex para o próximo exemplo.
// A correspondência de padrões pode parecer familiar aos switches em linguagens
// derivadas de C, mas é muto mais poderoso. Em Scala, é possível fazer
// correspondências com muito mais:
def correspondeTudo(obj: Any): String = obj match {
// Pode-se corresponder valores:
case "Olá mundo" => "Recebi uma string Olá mundo."
// Corresponder por tipo:
case x: Double => "Recebi um Double: " + x
// Corresponder tendo em conta condições especificas:
case x: Int if x > 10000 => "Recebi um número bem grande!"
// Fazer correspondências com case classes (visto anteriormente):
case Pessoa(nome, tel) => s"Recebi o contacto para $nome!"
// Fazer correspondência com expressões regulares:
case email(nome, dominio) => s"Recebi o endereço de email $nome@$dominio"
// Corresponder tuplos:
case (a: Int, b: Double, c: String) => s"Recebi o tuplo: $a, $b, $c"
// Corresponder estruturas de dados:
case List(1, b, c) => s"Recebi uma lista de 3 elementos começada em 1: 1, $b, $c"
// Combinar padrões:
case List(List((1, 2, "YAY"))) => "Recebi uma lista de lista de triplo"
}
// Na realidade, é possível fazer correspondência com qualquer objecto que
// defina o método "unapply". Esta funcionalidade é tão poderosa que permite
// definir funções sob a forma de padrões:
val funcPaddrao: Pessoa => String = {
case Pessoa("Jorge", tel) => s"Número do Jorge: $tel"
case Pessoa(nome, tel) => s"Número de alguém: $tel"
}
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
// 7. Programação Funcional
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
// Scala permite que funções e métodos retornem, ou recebam como parámetros,
// outras funções ou métodos
val soma10: Int => Int = _ + 10 // Função que recebe um Int e retorna um Int
List(1, 2, 3) map soma10 // List(11, 12, 13) - soma10 é aplicado a cada elemento
// Funções anónimas também podem ser usadas
List(1, 2, 3) map (x => x + 10)
// Sendo que o símbolo _ também pode ser usado se a função anónima só receber
// um argumento. Este fica com o valor da variável
List(1, 2, 3) map (_ + 10)
// Se tanto o bloco como a função apenas receberem um argumento, o próprio
// _ pode ser omitido
List("Dom", "Bob", "Natalia") foreach println
// Combinadores
s.map(quadrado)
val sQuadrado = s.map(quadrado)
sQuadrado.filter(_ < 10)
sQuadrado.reduce (_+_)
// O método filter recebe um predicado (uma função de A => Boolean) e escolhe
// todos os elementos que satisfazem o predicado
List(1, 2, 3) filter (_ > 2) // List(3)
case class Pessoa(nome: String, idade: Int)
List(
Pessoa(nome = "Dom", idade = 23),
Pessoa(nome = "Bob", idade = 30)
).filter(_.idade > 25) // List(Pessoa("Bob", 30))
// O método foreach recebe uma função de A => Unit, executando essa função em
// cada elemento da colecção
val aListOfNumbers = List(1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 20, 100)
aListOfNumbers foreach (x => println(x))
aListOfNumbers foreach println
// Compreensões For
for { n <- s } yield quadrado(n)
val nQuadrado2 = for { n <- s } yield quadrado(n)
for { n <- nQuadrado2 if n < 10 } yield n
for { n <- s; nQuadrado = n * n if nQuadrado < 10} yield nQuadrado
/* Nota: isto não são ciclos for: A semântica de um ciclo é 'repetir', enquanto
que uma compreensão define a relação entre dois conjuntos de dados. */
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
// 8. Implicitos
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
/* AVISO IMPORTANTE: Implicitos são um conjunto de funcionalidades muito
* poderosas em Scala, que podem ser fácilmente abusadas. Iniciantes devem
* resistir a tentação de usá-los até que compreendam não só como funcionam,
* mas também as melhores práticas. Apenas incluimos esta secção no tutorial
* devido a estes serem tão comuns em bibliotecas de Scala que muitas delas
* se tornam impossíveis de usar sem conhecer implicitos. Este capítulo serve
* para compreender como trabalhar com implicitos, não como declará-los.
*/
// Qualquer valor (vals, funções, objectos, etc) pode ser declarado como
// implicito usando a palavra "implicit". Vamos usar a classe Cão da secção 5
// nestes exemplos
implicit val oMeuIntImplicito = 100
implicit def aMinhaFunçãoImplicita(raça: String) = new Cão("Golden " + raça)
// Por si só, a palavra implicit não altera o comportamento de um valor, sendo
// que estes podem ser usados da forma habitual.
oMeuIntImplicito + 2 // => 102
aMinhaFunçãoImplicita("Pitbull").raça // => "Golden Pitbull"
// A diferença é que estes valores podem ser utilizados quando outro pedaço de
// código "necessite" de uma valor implicito. Um exemplo são argumentos
// implicitos de funções:
def enviaCumprimentos(aQuem: String)(implicit quantos: Int) =
s"Olá $aQuem, $quantos cumprimentos para ti e para os teus!"
// Se dermos um valor a "quantos", a função comporta-se normalmente
enviaCumprimentos("João")(1000) // => "Olá João, 1000 cumprimentos para ti e para os teus!"
// Mas, se omitirmos o parâmetro implicito, um valor implicito do mesmo tipo é
// usado, neste caso, "oMeuInteiroImplicito"
enviaCumprimentos("Joana") // => "Olá Joana, 100 cumprimentos para ti e para os teus!"
// Parâmentros implicitos de funções permitem-nos simular classes de tipos de
// outras linguagens funcionais. Isto é tão comum que tem a sua própria notação.
// As seguintes linhas representam a mesma coisa
// def foo[T](implicit c: C[T]) = ...
// def foo[T : C] = ...
// Outra situação em que o compilador prouca um implicito é se encontrar uma
// expressão
// obj.método(...)
// mas "obj" não possuir um método chamado "método". Neste cso, se houver uma
// conversão implicita A => B, onde A é o tipo de obj, e B possui um método
// chamado "método", a conversão é aplicada. Ou seja, tendo
// aMinhaFunçãoImplicita definida, podemos dizer
"Retriever".raça // => "Golden Retriever"
"Sheperd".ladra // => "Woof, woof!"
// Neste caso, a String é primeiro convertida para Cão usando a nossa funão,
// sendo depois chamado o método apropriado. Esta é uma funcionalidade
// incrivelmente poderosa, sendo que deve ser usada com cautela. Na verdade,
// ao definir a função implicita, o compilador deve lançar um aviso a insisitir
// que só deve definir a função se souber o que está a fazer.
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
// 9. Misc
/////////////////////////////////////////////////
// Importar coisas
import scala.collection.immutable.List
// Importar todos os "sub pacotes"
import scala.collection.immutable._
// Importar multiplas classes numa linha
import scala.collection.immutable.{List, Map}
// Renomear uma classe importada usando '=>'
import scala.collection.immutable.{List => ImmutableList}
// Importar todas as classes excepto algumas. Set e Map são excluidos:
import scala.collection.immutable.{Map => _, Set => _, _}
// O ponto de entrada de um programa em Scala é definido por un ficheiro .scala
// com um método main:
object Aplicação {
def main(args: Array[String]): Unit = {
// código aqui.
}
}
// Ficheiros podem conter várias classes o objectos. Compilar com scalac
// Input e output
// Ler um ficheiro linha a linha
import scala.io.Source
for(linha <- Source.fromFile("ficheiro.txt").getLines())
println(linha)
// Escrever um ficheiro usando o PrintWriter de Java
val writer = new PrintWriter("ficheiro.txt")
writer.write("Escrevendo linha por linha" + util.Properties.lineSeparator)
writer.write("Outra linha aqui" + util.Properties.lineSeparator)
writer.close()
```
## Mais recursos
* [Scala for the impatient](http://horstmann.com/scala/)
* [Twitter Scala school](http://twitter.github.io/scala_school/)
* [The scala documentation](http://docs.scala-lang.org/)
* [Try Scala in your browser](http://scalatutorials.com/tour/)
* Join the [Scala user group](https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/scala-user)

122
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@@ -2,40 +2,49 @@
language: purescript
contributors:
- ["Fredrik Dyrkell", "http://www.lexicallyscoped.com"]
- ["Thimoteus", "https://github.com/Thimoteus"]
---
PureScript is a small strongly, statically typed language compiling to Javascript.
* Learn more at [http://www.purescript.org/](http://www.purescript.org/)
* Documentation: [http://docs.purescript.org/en/latest/](http://docs.purescript.org/en/latest/)
* Documentation: [http://pursuit.purescript.org/](http://pursuit.purescript.org/)
* Book: Purescript by Example, [https://leanpub.com/purescript/](https://leanpub.com/purescript/)
All the noncommented lines of code can be run in the PSCI REPL, though some will
require the `--multi-line-mode` flag.
```haskell
--
-- 1. Primitive datatypes that corresponds to their Javascript
-- equivalents at runtime.
import Prelude
-- Numbers
1 + 7*5 :: Number -- 36
1.0 + 7.2*5.5 :: Number -- 40.6
-- Ints
1 + 2*5 :: Int -- 11
-- Types are inferred, so the following works fine
9 / 2.5 + 4.4 -- 8
9.0/2.5 + 4.4 -- 8.0
-- But Ints and Numbers don't mix, so the following won't
5/2 + 2.5 -- Expression 2.5 does not have type Int
-- Hexadecimal literals
0xff + 1 -- 256
-- Unary negation
6 * -3 -- -18
6 * negate 3 -- -18
-- Modulus
3 % 2 -- 1
4 % 2 -- 0
-- Modulus, from purescript-math (Math)
3.0 % 2.0 -- 1.0
4.0 % 2.0 -- 0.0
-- Inspect the type of an expression in psci
:t 9 / 2.5 + 4.4 -- Prim.Number
:t 9.5/2.5 + 4.4 -- Prim.Number
-- Booleans
true :: Boolean -- true
false :: Boolean -- false
-- Negation
not true --false
not true -- false
23 == 23 -- true
1 /= 4 -- true
1 >= 4 -- false
@@ -49,19 +58,22 @@ true && (9 >= 19 || 1 < 2) -- true
-- Strings
"Hellow" :: String -- "Hellow"
-- Multiline string
-- Multiline string without newlines, to run in psci use the --multi-line-mode flag
"Hellow\
\orld" -- "Helloworld"
-- Multiline string with newlines
"""Hello
world""" -- "Hello\nworld"
-- Concatenate
"such " ++ "amaze" -- "such amaze"
--
-- 2. Arrays are Javascript arrays, but must be homogeneous
[1,1,2,3,5,8] :: [Number] -- [1,1,2,3,5,8]
[true, true, false] :: [Boolean] -- [true,true,false]
[1,1,2,3,5,8] :: Array Number -- [1,1,2,3,5,8]
[true, true, false] :: Array Boolean -- [true,true,false]
-- [1,2, true, "false"] won't work
-- `Cannot unify Prim.Number with Prim.Boolean`
-- `Cannot unify Prim.Int with Prim.Boolean`
-- Cons (prepend)
1 : [2,4,3] -- [1,2,4,3]
@@ -84,91 +96,95 @@ append [1,2,3] [4,5,6] -- [1,2,3,4,5,6]
--
-- 3. Records are Javascript objects, with zero or more fields, which
-- can have different types
-- can have different types.
-- In psci you have to write `let` in front of the function to get a
-- top level binding.
let book = {title: "Foucault's pendulum", author: "Umberto Eco"}
-- Access properties
book.title -- "Foucault's pendulum"
getTitle b = b.title
let getTitle b = b.title
-- Works on all records with a title (but doesn't require any other field)
getTitle book -- "Foucault's pendulum"
getTitle {title: "Weekend in Monaco", artist: "The Rippingtons"} -- "Weekend in Monaco"
-- Can use underscores as shorthand
_.title book -- "Foucault's pendulum"
-- Update a record
changeTitle b t = b {title = t}
changeTitle book "Ill nome della rosa" -- {title: "Ill nome della
-- rosa", author: "Umberto Eco"}
let changeTitle b t = b {title = t}
getTitle (changeTitle book "Ill nome della rosa") -- "Ill nome della rosa"
--
-- 4. Functions
sumOfSquares x y = x*x+y*y
-- In psci's multiline mode
let sumOfSquares :: Int -> Int -> Int
sumOfSquares x y = x*x + y*y
sumOfSquares 3 4 -- 25
-- In psci you have to write `let` in front of the function to get a
-- top level binding
mod x y = x % y
mod 3 2 -- 1
let myMod x y = x % y
myMod 3.0 2.0 -- 1.0
-- Infix application of function
3 `mod` 2 -- 1
-- function application have higher precedence than all other
-- function application has higher precedence than all other
-- operators
sumOfSquares 3 4 * sumOfSquares 4 5 -- 1025
-- Conditional
abs' n = if n>=0 then n else -n
let abs' n = if n>=0 then n else -n
abs' (-3) -- 3
-- Guarded equations
abs n | n >= 0 = n
let abs'' n | n >= 0 = n
| otherwise = -n
-- Pattern matching
-- Note the type signature, input is an array of numbers The pattern
-- matching destructures and binds the array into parts
first :: [Number] -> Number
first (x:_) = x
first [3,4,5] -- 3
second :: [Number] -> Number
second (_:y:_) = y
second [3,4,5] -- 4
sumTwo :: [Number] -> [Number]
sumTwo (x:y:rest) = (x+y) : rest
sumTwo [2,3,4,5,6] -- [5,4,5,6]
-- Note the type signature, input is a list of numbers. The pattern matching
-- destructures and binds the list into parts.
-- Requires purescript-lists (Data.List)
let first :: forall a. List a -> a
first (Cons x _) = x
first (toList [3,4,5]) -- 3
let second :: forall a. List a -> a
second (Cons _ (Cons y _)) = y
second (toList [3,4,5]) -- 4
let sumTwo :: List Int -> List Int
sumTwo (Cons x (Cons y rest)) = x + y : rest
fromList (sumTwo (toList [2,3,4,5,6])) :: Array Int -- [5,4,5,6]
-- sumTwo doesn't handle when the array is empty or just have one
-- element in which case you get an error
-- sumTwo doesn't handle when the list is empty or there's only one element in
-- which case you get an error.
sumTwo [1] -- Failed pattern match
-- Complementing patterns to match
-- Good ol' Fibonacci
fib 1 = 1
fib 2 = 2
fib x = fib (x-1) + fib (x-2)
let fib 1 = 1
fib 2 = 2
fib x = fib (x-1) + fib (x-2)
fib 10 -- 89
-- Use underscore to match any, where you don't care about the binding name
isZero 0 = true
isZero _ = false
let isZero 0 = true
isZero _ = false
-- Pattern matching on records
ecoTitle {author = "Umberto Eco", title = t} = Just t
ecoTitle _ = Nothing
let ecoTitle {author = "Umberto Eco", title = t} = Just t
ecoTitle _ = Nothing
ecoTitle book -- Just ("Foucault's pendulum")
ecoTitle {title: "The Quantum Thief", author: "Hannu Rajaniemi"} -- Nothing
-- ecoTitle requires both field to type check:
ecoTitle {title: "The Quantum Thief"} -- Object does not have property author
ecoTitle {title: "The Quantum Thief"} -- Object lacks required property "author"
-- Lambda expressions
(\x -> x*x) 3 -- 9
(\x y -> x*x + y*y) 4 5 -- 41
sqr = \x -> x*x
let sqr = \x -> x*x
-- Currying
add x y = x + y -- is equivalent with
add = \x -> (\y -> x+y)
add3 = add 3
:t add3 -- Prim.Number -> Prim.Number
let myAdd x y = x + y -- is equivalent with
let myAdd' = \x -> \y -> x + y
let add3 = myAdd 3
:t add3 -- Prim.Int -> Prim.Int
-- Forward and backward function composition
-- drop 3 followed by taking 5
@@ -177,9 +193,9 @@ add3 = add 3
(drop 3 <<< take 5) (1..20) -- [4,5]
-- Operations using higher order functions
even x = x % 2 == 0
let even x = x `mod` 2 == 0
filter even (1..10) -- [2,4,6,8,10]
map (\x -> x+11) (1..5) -- [12,13,14,15,16]
map (\x -> x + 11) (1..5) -- [12,13,14,15,16]
-- Requires purescript-foldable-traversabe (Data.Foldable)

19
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@@ -14,7 +14,13 @@ executable pseudocode.
Feedback would be highly appreciated! You can reach me at [@louiedinh](http://twitter.com/louiedinh) or louiedinh [at] [google's email service]
Note: This article applies to Python 2.7 specifically, but should be applicable
to Python 2.x. For Python 3.x, take a look at the [Python 3 tutorial](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/python3/).
to Python 2.x. Python 2.7 is reachong end of life and will stop beeign maintained in 2020,
it is though recommended to start learnign Python with Python 3.
For Python 3.x, take a look at the [Python 3 tutorial](http://learnxinyminutes.com/docs/python3/).
It is also possible to write Python code which is compatible with Python 2.7 and 3.x at the same time,
using Python [`__future__` imports](https://docs.python.org/2/library/__future__.html). `__future__` imports
allow you to write Python 3 code that will run on Python 2, so check out the Python 3 tutorial.
```python
@@ -142,7 +148,13 @@ bool("") # => False
####################################################
# Python has a print statement
print "I'm Python. Nice to meet you!"
print "I'm Python. Nice to meet you!" # => I'm Python. Nice to meet you!
# Simple way to get input data from console
input_string_var = raw_input("Enter some data: ") # Returns the data as a string
input_var = input("Enter some data: ") # Evaluates the data as python code
# Warning: Caution is recommended for input() method usage
# Note: In python 3, input() is deprecated and raw_input() is renamed to input()
# No need to declare variables before assigning to them.
some_var = 5 # Convention is to use lower_case_with_underscores
@@ -473,9 +485,12 @@ add_10(3) # => 13
# There are also anonymous functions
(lambda x: x > 2)(3) # => True
(lambda x, y: x ** 2 + y ** 2)(2, 1) # => 5
# There are built-in higher order functions
map(add_10, [1, 2, 3]) # => [11, 12, 13]
map(max, [1, 2, 3], [4, 2, 1]) # => [4, 2, 3]
filter(lambda x: x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) # => [6, 7]
# We can use list comprehensions for nice maps and filters

56
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@@ -68,15 +68,15 @@ not False # => True
# Boolean Operators
# Note "and" and "or" are case-sensitive
True and False #=> False
False or True #=> True
True and False # => False
False or True # => True
# Note using Bool operators with ints
0 and 2 #=> 0
-5 or 0 #=> -5
0 == False #=> True
2 == True #=> False
1 == True #=> True
0 and 2 # => 0
-5 or 0 # => -5
0 == False # => True
2 == True # => False
1 == True # => True
# Equality is ==
1 == 1 # => True
@@ -119,18 +119,18 @@ b == a # => True, a's and b's objects are equal
"This is a string"[0] # => 'T'
# .format can be used to format strings, like this:
"{} can be {}".format("strings", "interpolated")
"{} can be {}".format("Strings", "interpolated") # => "Strings can be interpolated"
# You can repeat the formatting arguments to save some typing.
"{0} be nimble, {0} be quick, {0} jump over the {1}".format("Jack", "candle stick")
#=> "Jack be nimble, Jack be quick, Jack jump over the candle stick"
# => "Jack be nimble, Jack be quick, Jack jump over the candle stick"
# You can use keywords if you don't want to count.
"{name} wants to eat {food}".format(name="Bob", food="lasagna") #=> "Bob wants to eat lasagna"
"{name} wants to eat {food}".format(name="Bob", food="lasagna") # => "Bob wants to eat lasagna"
# If your Python 3 code also needs to run on Python 2.5 and below, you can also
# still use the old style of formatting:
"%s can be %s the %s way" % ("strings", "interpolated", "old")
"%s can be %s the %s way" % ("Strings", "interpolated", "old") # => "Strings can be interpolated the old way"
# None is an object
@@ -145,8 +145,8 @@ None is None # => True
# All other values are True
bool(0) # => False
bool("") # => False
bool([]) #=> False
bool({}) #=> False
bool([]) # => False
bool({}) # => False
####################################################
@@ -154,12 +154,16 @@ bool({}) #=> False
####################################################
# Python has a print function
print("I'm Python. Nice to meet you!")
print("I'm Python. Nice to meet you!") # => I'm Python. Nice to meet you!
# By default the print function also prints out a newline at the end.
# Use the optional argument end to change the end character.
print("Hello, World", end="!") # => Hello, World!
# Simple way to get input data from console
input_string_var = input("Enter some data: ") # Returns the data as a string
# Note: In earlier versions of Python, input() method was named as raw_input()
# No need to declare variables before assigning to them.
# Convention is to use lower_case_with_underscores
some_var = 5
@@ -296,7 +300,7 @@ filled_dict.setdefault("five", 5) # filled_dict["five"] is set to 5
filled_dict.setdefault("five", 6) # filled_dict["five"] is still 5
# Adding to a dictionary
filled_dict.update({"four":4}) #=> {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
filled_dict.update({"four":4}) # => {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
#filled_dict["four"] = 4 #another way to add to dict
# Remove keys from a dictionary with del
@@ -435,7 +439,7 @@ with open("myfile.txt") as f:
filled_dict = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}
our_iterable = filled_dict.keys()
print(our_iterable) #=> range(1,10). This is an object that implements our Iterable interface
print(our_iterable) # => range(1,10). This is an object that implements our Iterable interface
# We can loop over it.
for i in our_iterable:
@@ -449,17 +453,17 @@ our_iterator = iter(our_iterable)
# Our iterator is an object that can remember the state as we traverse through it.
# We get the next object with "next()".
next(our_iterator) #=> "one"
next(our_iterator) # => "one"
# It maintains state as we iterate.
next(our_iterator) #=> "two"
next(our_iterator) #=> "three"
next(our_iterator) # => "two"
next(our_iterator) # => "three"
# After the iterator has returned all of its data, it gives you a StopIterator Exception
next(our_iterator) # Raises StopIteration
# You can grab all the elements of an iterator by calling list() on it.
list(filled_dict.keys()) #=> Returns ["one", "two", "three"]
list(filled_dict.keys()) # => Returns ["one", "two", "three"]
####################################################
@@ -550,10 +554,13 @@ add_10(3) # => 13
# There are also anonymous functions
(lambda x: x > 2)(3) # => True
(lambda x, y: x ** 2 + y ** 2)(2, 1) # => 5
# TODO - Fix for iterables
# There are built-in higher order functions
map(add_10, [1, 2, 3]) # => [11, 12, 13]
map(max, [1, 2, 3], [4, 2, 1]) # => [4, 2, 3]
filter(lambda x: x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) # => [6, 7]
# We can use list comprehensions for nice maps and filters
@@ -566,8 +573,8 @@ filter(lambda x: x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]) # => [6, 7]
####################################################
# We subclass from object to get a class.
class Human(object):
# We use the "class" operator to get a class
class Human:
# A class attribute. It is shared by all instances of this class
species = "H. sapiens"
@@ -661,8 +668,6 @@ def double_numbers(iterable):
# Instead of generating and returning all values at once it creates one in each
# iteration. This means values bigger than 15 wont be processed in
# double_numbers.
# Note range is a generator too. Creating a list 1-900000000 would take lot of
# time to be made
# We use a trailing underscore in variable names when we want to use a name that
# would normally collide with a python keyword
range_ = range(1, 900000000)
@@ -714,6 +719,9 @@ print(say(say_please=True)) # Can you buy me a beer? Please! I am poor :(
* [A Crash Course in Python for Scientists](http://nbviewer.ipython.org/5920182)
* [Python Course](http://www.python-course.eu/index.php)
* [First Steps With Python](https://realpython.com/learn/python-first-steps/)
* [A curated list of awesome Python frameworks, libraries and software](https://github.com/vinta/awesome-python)
* [30 Python Language Features and Tricks You May Not Know About](http://sahandsaba.com/thirty-python-language-features-and-tricks-you-may-not-know.html)
* [Official Style Guide for Python](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/)
### Dead Tree

2
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@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ Cocoa Touch.
Он является объектно-ориентированным языком программирования общего назначения,
который добавляет обмен сообщениями в Smalltalk-стиле к языку программирования C.
```objective_c
```objective-c
// Однострочные комментарии начинаются с //
/*

61
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@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ contributors:
- ["Trismegiste", "https://github.com/Trismegiste"]
translators:
- ["SlaF", "https://github.com/SlaF"]
- ["Corpsee", "https://github.com/corpsee"]
lang: ru-ru
filename: learnphp-ru.php
---
@@ -14,8 +15,8 @@ filename: learnphp-ru.php
```php
<?php // PHP код должен быть заключен в теги <?php
// Если ваш файл содержит только PHP код, то можно
// пропустить закрывающийся ?>
// Если ваш файл содержит только PHP-код, то можно
пропустить закрывающий ?>
// А так начинаются комментарии
@@ -30,10 +31,10 @@ filename: learnphp-ru.php
print('Hello '); // Напечатать "Hello " без перевода строки
// () необязательно применять для print и echo
echo "World\n"; // Печатать "World" и перейти на новую строку.
echo "World\n"; // Напечатать "World" и перейти на новую строку.
// (все утверждения должны заканчиваться ;)
// Любые символы за пределами закрывающегося тега выводятся автоматически:
// Любые символы за пределами закрывающего тега выводятся автоматически:
?>
Hello World Again!
<?php
@@ -46,7 +47,7 @@ Hello World Again!
// Переменные начинаются с символа $.
// Правильное имя переменной начинается с буквы или знака подчеркивания,
// и может содержать любые цифры, буквы, или знаки подчеркивания.
// Не рекомендуется использовать кирилические символы в именах (прим. пер.)
// Не рекомендуется использовать кириллические символы в именах (прим. пер.)
// Логические значения нечувствительны к регистру
$boolean = true; // или TRUE или True
@@ -56,7 +57,7 @@ $boolean = false; // или FALSE или False
$int1 = 12; // => 12
$int2 = -12; // => -12-
$int3 = 012; // => 10 (ведущий 0 обозначает восьмеричное число)
$int4 = 0x0F; // => 15 (ведущие символы 0x означает шестнадцатеричное число)
$int4 = 0x0F; // => 15 (ведущие символы 0x означают шестнадцатеричное число)
// Дробные числа
$float = 1.234;
@@ -126,7 +127,7 @@ echo 'This outputs '.FOO;
// Все массивы в PHP - это ассоциативные массивы или хеши,
// Ассоциативные массивы, известные в других языках как хеш-карты.
// Ассоциативные массивы, известные в других языках как HashMap.
// Работает во всех версиях РHP
$associative = array('One' => 1, 'Two' => 2, 'Three' => 3);
@@ -199,13 +200,13 @@ assert($c > $b); // больше
assert($a <= $b); // меньше или равно
assert($c >= $d); // больше или равно
// Следующие утверждения истинны если переменные имеют одинаковый тип.
// Следующие утверждения истинны, если переменные имеют одинаковый тип.
assert($c === $d);
assert($a !== $d);
assert(1 == '1');
assert(1 !== '1');
// Переменные могут изменять тип, в зависимости от их использования.
// Переменные могут изменять тип в зависимости от их использования.
$integer = 1;
echo $integer + $integer; // => 2
@@ -235,7 +236,7 @@ $var = null; // Null
$integer = 10;
$boolen = settype($integer, "string") // теперь $integer имеет строковый тип
// settype возвращает true - если преобразование удалось и false в противном случае
// settype возвращает true, если преобразование удалось и false в противном случае
/********************************
* Управляющие структуры
@@ -311,7 +312,7 @@ echo "\n";
for ($x = 0; $x < 10; $x++) {
echo $x;
} // Prints "0123456789"
} // Напечатает "0123456789"
echo "\n";
@@ -320,7 +321,7 @@ $wheels = ['bicycle' => 2, 'car' => 4];
// Циклы foreach могут обходить массивы
foreach ($wheels as $wheel_count) {
echo $wheel_count;
} // Prints "24"
} // Напечатает "24"
echo "\n";
@@ -337,14 +338,14 @@ while ($i < 5) {
break; // Exit out of the while loop
}
echo $i++;
} // Prints "012"
} // Напечатает "012"
for ($i = 0; $i < 5; $i++) {
if ($i === 3) {
continue; // Skip this iteration of the loop
}
echo $i;
} // Prints "0124"
} // Напечатает "0124"
/********************************
@@ -369,7 +370,7 @@ function add ($x, $y = 1) { // $y по умолчанию равно 1
echo add(4); // => 5
echo add(4, 2); // => 6
// $result недоступна за пределами функции
// $result недоступен за пределами функции
// print $result; // Выдает предупреждение
// Начиная с PHP 5.3 вы можете объявлять анонимные функции:
@@ -402,19 +403,19 @@ echo $function_name(1, 2); // => 3
/********************************
* Includes
* Включения
*/
<?php
// PHP код внутри включаемого файла должен начинаться с тега PHP.
include 'my-file.php';
// Код в файле my-file.php теперь доступен в текущем в текущем пространстве имен.
// Если файл не удалось включить, будет выдано предупреждение.
// Код в файле my-file.php теперь доступен в текущем пространстве имен.
// Если файл не удалось подключить, то будет выдано предупреждение.
include_once 'my-file.php';
// Если код в файле my-file.php уже был включен, он не будет включен повторно.
// Это предотвращает ошибку повторного включения файла.
// Если код в файле my-file.php уже был подключен, он не будет подключен повторно.
// Это предотвращает ошибку повторного подключения файла.
require 'my-file.php';
require_once 'my-file.php';
@@ -422,7 +423,7 @@ require_once 'my-file.php';
// Same as include(), except require() will cause a fatal error if the
// file cannot be included.
// Действует также как и include(), но если файл не удалось подключить,
// функция выдает неисправимую ошибку
// функция выдает фатальную ошибку
// Содержимое файла my-include.php:
<?php
@@ -452,19 +453,19 @@ class MyClass
static $staticVar = 'static';
// Properties must declare their visibility
// Свойства объявляются с указанием их видимости
public $property = 'public';
public $instanceProp;
protected $prot = 'protected'; // Accessible from the class and subclasses
private $priv = 'private'; // Accessible within the class only
protected $prot = 'protected'; // Свойство доступно только потомкам и самому классу
private $priv = 'private'; // Свойство доступно только самому классу
// Create a constructor with __construct
// Конструктор описывается с помощью __construct
public function __construct($instanceProp) {
// Access instance variables with $this
// Доступ к эземпляру класса с помощью $this
$this->instanceProp = $instanceProp;
}
// Methods are declared as functions inside a class
// Методы объявляются как функции принадлежащие классу
public function myMethod()
{
print 'MyClass';
@@ -502,7 +503,7 @@ class MyOtherClass extends MyClass
echo $this->prot;
}
// Override a method
// Переопределение родительского метода
function myMethod()
{
parent::myMethod();
@@ -595,7 +596,7 @@ class SomeOtherClass implements InterfaceOne, InterfaceTwo
* Трейты
*/
// Трейты появились в PHP 5.4.0 и объявляются при помощи ключевого слова trait
// Трейты появились в PHP 5.4 и объявляются при помощи ключевого слова trait
trait MyTrait
{
@@ -611,7 +612,7 @@ class MyTraitfulClass
}
$cls = new MyTraitfulClass();
$cls->myTraitMethod(); // Prints "I have MyTrait"
$cls->myTraitMethod(); // Напечатает "I have MyTrait"
/********************************

32
ruby.html.markdown
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@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ contributors:
- ["Dzianis Dashkevich", "https://github.com/dskecse"]
- ["Levi Bostian", "https://github.com/levibostian"]
- ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"]
- ["Gabriel Halley", https://github.com/ghalley"]
---
```ruby
@@ -39,6 +39,7 @@ You shouldn't either
10 * 2 #=> 20
35 / 5 #=> 7
2**5 #=> 32
5 % 3 #=> 2
# Arithmetic is just syntactic sugar
# for calling a method on an object
@@ -106,8 +107,14 @@ placeholder = 'use string interpolation'
'hello ' + 3 #=> TypeError: can't convert Fixnum into String
'hello ' + 3.to_s #=> "hello 3"
# print to the output
# print to the output with a newline at the end
puts "I'm printing!"
#=> I'm printing!
#=> nil
# print to the output without a newline
print "I'm printing!"
#=> I'm printing! => nill
# Variables
x = 25 #=> 25
@@ -154,6 +161,7 @@ array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
# Arrays can be indexed
# From the front
array[0] #=> 1
array.first #=> 1
array[12] #=> nil
# Like arithmetic, [var] access
@@ -164,6 +172,7 @@ array.[] 12 #=> nil
# From the end
array[-1] #=> 5
array.last #=> 5
# With a start index and length
array[2, 3] #=> [3, 4, 5]
@@ -258,6 +267,12 @@ hash.each do |key, value|
puts "#{key} is #{value}"
end
# If you still need and index you can use "each_with_index" and define an index
# variable
array.each_with_index do |element, index|
puts "#{element} is number #{index} in the array"
end
counter = 1
while counter <= 5 do
puts "iteration #{counter}"
@@ -269,6 +284,19 @@ end
#=> iteration 4
#=> iteration 5
# There are a bunch of other helpful looping functions in Ruby,
# for example "map", "reduce", "inject", the list goes on. Map,
# for instance, takes the array it's looping over, does something
# to it as defined in your block, and returns an entirely new array.
array = [1,2,3,4,5]
doubled = array.map do |element|
element * 2
end
puts doubled
#=> [2,4,6,8,10]
puts array
#=> [1,2,3,4,5]
grade = 'B'
case grade

4
rust.html.markdown
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@@ -287,9 +287,9 @@ fn main() {
// While a value is mutably borrowed, it cannot be accessed at all.
let mut var2 = 4;
let ref_var2: &mut i32 = &mut var2;
*ref_var2 += 2;
*ref_var2 += 2; // '*' is used to point to the mutably borrowed var2
println!("{}", *ref_var2); // 6
println!("{}", *ref_var2); // 6 , //var2 would not compile. //ref_var2 is of type &mut i32, so //stores a reference to an i32 not the value.
// var2 = 2; // this would not compile because `var2` is borrowed
}
```

447
sass.html.markdown Normal file
View File

@@ -0,0 +1,447 @@
---
language: sass
filename: learnsass.scss
contributors:
- ["Laura Kyle", "https://github.com/LauraNK"]
- ["Sean Corrales", "https://github.com/droidenator"]
---
Sass is a CSS extension language that adds features such as variables, nesting, mixins and more.
Sass (and other preprocessors, such as [Less](http://lesscss.org/)) help developers to write maintainable and DRY (Don't Repeat Yourself) code.
Sass has two different syntax options to choose from. SCSS, which has the same syntax as CSS but with the added features of Sass. Or Sass (the original syntax), which uses indentation rather than curly braces and semicolons.
This tutorial is written using SCSS.
If you're already familiar with CSS3, you'll be able to pick up Sass relatively quickly. It does not provide any new styling options but rather the tools to write your CSS more efficiently and make maintenance much easier.
```scss
//Single line comments are removed when Sass is compiled to CSS.
/*Multi line comments are preserved. */
/*Variables
==============================*/
/* You can store a CSS value (such as a color) in a variable.
Use the '$' symbol to create a variable. */
$primary-color: #A3A4FF;
$secondary-color: #51527F;
$body-font: 'Roboto', sans-serif;
/* You can use the variables throughout your stylesheet.
Now if you want to change a color, you only have to make the change once.*/
body {
background-color: $primary-color;
color: $secondary-color;
font-family: $body-font;
}
/* This would compile to: */
body {
background-color: #A3A4FF;
color: #51527F;
font-family: 'Roboto', sans-serif;
}
/* This is much more maintainable than having to change the color
each time it appears throughout your stylesheet. */
/*Mixins
==============================*/
/* If you find you are writing the same code for more than one
element, you might want to store that code in a mixin.
Use the '@mixin' directive, plus a name for your mixin.*/
@mixin center {
display: block;
margin-left: auto;
margin-right: auto;
left: 0;
right: 0;
}
/* You can use the mixin with '@include' and the mixin name. */
div {
@include center;
background-color: $primary-color;
}
/*Which would compile to: */
div {
display: block;
margin-left: auto;
margin-right: auto;
left: 0;
right: 0;
background-color: #A3A4FF;
}
/* You can use mixins to create a shorthand property. */
@mixin size($width, $height) {
width: $width;
height: $height;
}
/*Which you can invoke by passing width and height arguments. */
.rectangle {
@include size(100px, 60px);
}
.square {
@include size(40px, 40px);
}
/* This compiles to: */
.rectangle {
width: 100px;
height: 60px;
}
.square {
width: 40px;
height: 40px;
}
/*Functions
==============================*/
/* Sass provides functions that can be used to accomplish a variety of
tasks. Consider the following */
/* Functions can be invoked by using their name and passing in the
required arguments */
body {
width: round(10.25px);
}
.footer {
background-color: fade_out(#000000, 0.25)
}
/* Compiles to: */
body {
width: 10px;
}
.footer {
background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.75);
}
/* You may also define your own functions. Functions are very similar to
mixins. When trying to choose between a function or a mixin, remember
that mixins are best for generating CSS while functions are better for
logic that might be used throughout your Sass code. The examples in
the Math Operators' section are ideal candidates for becoming a reusable
function. */
/* This function will take a target size and the parent size and calculate
and return the percentage */
@function calculate-percentage($target-size, $parent-size) {
@return $target-size / $parent-size * 100%;
}
$main-content: calculate-percentage(600px, 960px);
.main-content {
width: $main-content;
}
.sidebar {
width: calculate-percentage(300px, 960px);
}
/* Compiles to: */
.main-content {
width: 62.5%;
}
.sidebar {
width: 31.25%;
}
/*Extend (Inheritance)
==============================*/
/*Extend is a way to share the properties of one selector with another. */
.display {
@include size(5em, 5em);
border: 5px solid $secondary-color;
}
.display-success {
@extend .display;
border-color: #22df56;
}
/* Compiles to: */
.display, .display-success {
width: 5em;
height: 5em;
border: 5px solid #51527F;
}
.display-success {
border-color: #22df56;
}
/* Extending a CSS statement is preferable to creating a mixin
because of the way it groups together the classes that all share
the same base styling. If this was done with a mixin, the width,
height, and border would be duplicated for each statement that
called the mixin. While it won't affect your workflow, it will
add unnecessary bloat to the files created by the Sass compiler. */
/*Nesting
==============================*/
/*Sass allows you to nest selectors within selectors */
ul {
list-style-type: none;
margin-top: 2em;
li {
background-color: #FF0000;
}
}
/* '&' will be replaced by the parent selector. */
/* You can also nest pseudo-classes. */
/* Keep in mind that over-nesting will make your code less maintainable.
Best practices recommend going no more than 3 levels deep when nesting.
For example: */
ul {
list-style-type: none;
margin-top: 2em;
li {
background-color: red;
&:hover {
background-color: blue;
}
a {
color: white;
}
}
}
/* Compiles to: */
ul {
list-style-type: none;
margin-top: 2em;
}
ul li {
background-color: red;
}
ul li:hover {
background-color: blue;
}
ul li a {
color: white;
}
/*Partials and Imports
==============================*/
/* Sass allows you to create partial files. This can help keep your Sass
code modularized. Partial files should begin with an '_', e.g. _reset.css.
Partials are not generated into CSS. */
/* Consider the following CSS which we'll put in a file called _reset.css */
html,
body,
ul,
ol {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
}
/* Sass offers @import which can be used to import partials into a file.
This differs from the traditional CSS @import statement which makes
another HTTP request to fetch the imported file. Sass takes the
imported file and combines it with the compiled code. */
@import 'reset';
body {
font-size: 16px;
font-family: Helvetica, Arial, Sans-serif;
}
/* Compiles to: */
html, body, ul, ol {
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
}
body {
font-size: 16px;
font-family: Helvetica, Arial, Sans-serif;
}
/*Placeholder Selectors
==============================*/
/* Placeholders are useful when creating a CSS statement to extend. If you
wanted to create a CSS statement that was exclusively used with @extend,
you can do so using a placeholder. Placeholders begin with a '%' instead
of '.' or '#'. Placeholders will not appear in the compiled CSS. */
%content-window {
font-size: 14px;
padding: 10px;
color: #000;
border-radius: 4px;
}
.message-window {
@extend %content-window;
background-color: #0000ff;
}
/* Compiles to: */
.message-window {
font-size: 14px;
padding: 10px;
color: #000;
border-radius: 4px;
}
.message-window {
background-color: #0000ff;
}
/*Math Operations
==============================*/
/* Sass provides the following operators: +, -, *, /, and %. These can
be useful for calculating values directly in your Sass files instead
of using values that you've already calculated by hand. Below is an example
of a setting up a simple two column design. */
$content-area: 960px;
$main-content: 600px;
$sidebar-content: 300px;
$main-size: $main-content / $content-area * 100%;
$sidebar-size: $sidebar-content / $content-area * 100%;
$gutter: 100% - ($main-size + $sidebar-size);
body {
width: 100%;
}
.main-content {
width: $main-size;
}
.sidebar {
width: $sidebar-size;
}
.gutter {
width: $gutter;
}
/* Compiles to: */
body {
width: 100%;
}
.main-content {
width: 62.5%;
}
.sidebar {
width: 31.25%;
}
.gutter {
width: 6.25%;
}
```
## SASS or Sass?
Have you ever wondered whether Sass is an acronym or not? You probably haven't, but I'll tell you anyway. The name of the language is a word, "Sass", and not an acronym.
Because people were constantly writing it as "SASS", the creator of the language jokingly called it "Syntactically Awesome StyleSheets".
## Practice Sass
If you want to play with Sass in your browser, check out [SassMeister](http://sassmeister.com/).
You can use either syntax, just go into the settings and select either Sass or SCSS.
## Compatibility
Sass can be used in any project as long as you have a program to compile it
into CSS. You'll want to verify that the CSS you're using is compatible
with your target browsers.
[QuirksMode CSS](http://www.quirksmode.org/css/) and [CanIUse](http://caniuse.com) are great resources for checking compatibility.
## Further reading
* [Official Documentation](http://sass-lang.com/documentation/file.SASS_REFERENCE.html)
* [The Sass Way](http://thesassway.com/) provides tutorials (beginner-advanced) and articles.

16
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@@ -6,7 +6,6 @@ contributors:
- ["Dominic Bou-Samra", "http://dbousamra.github.com"]
- ["Geoff Liu", "http://geoffliu.me"]
- ["Ha-Duong Nguyen", "http://reference-error.org"]
filename: learn.scala
---
Scala - the scalable language
@@ -43,9 +42,13 @@ Scala - the scalable language
// Printing, and forcing a new line on the next print
println("Hello world!")
println(10)
// Hello world!
// 10
// Printing, without forcing a new line on next print
print("Hello world")
print(10)
// Hello world!10
// Declaring values is done using either var or val.
// val declarations are immutable, whereas vars are mutable. Immutability is
@@ -240,10 +243,11 @@ i // Show the value of i. Note that while is a loop in the classical sense -
// comprehensions above is easier to understand and parallelize
// A do while loop
i = 0
do {
println("x is still less than 10")
x += 1
} while (x < 10)
println("i is still less than 10")
i += 1
} while (i < 10)
// Tail recursion is an idiomatic way of doing recurring things in Scala.
// Recursive functions need an explicit return type, the compiler can't infer it.
@@ -562,8 +566,8 @@ sendGreetings("Jane") // => "Hello Jane, 100 blessings to you and yours!"
// Implicit function parameters enable us to simulate type classes in other
// functional languages. It is so often used that it gets its own shorthand. The
// following two lines mean the same thing:
def foo[T](implicit c: C[T]) = ...
def foo[T : C] = ...
// def foo[T](implicit c: C[T]) = ...
// def foo[T : C] = ...
// Another situation in which the compiler looks for an implicit is if you have

32
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@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ contributors:
- ["Christopher Bess", "http://github.com/cbess"]
- ["Joey Huang", "http://github.com/kamidox"]
- ["Anthony Nguyen", "http://github.com/anthonyn60"]
- ["Clayton Walker", "https://github.com/cwalk"]
filename: learnswift.swift
---
@@ -12,7 +13,7 @@ Swift is a programming language for iOS and OS X development created by Apple. D
The official [Swift Programming Language](https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/swift-programming-language/id881256329) book from Apple is now available via iBooks.
See also Apple's [getting started guide](https://developer.apple.com/library/prerelease/ios/referencelibrary/GettingStarted/RoadMapiOS/index.html), which has a complete tutorial on Swift.
See also Apple's [getting started guide](https://developer.apple.com/library/prerelease/ios/referencelibrary/GettingStarted/DevelopiOSAppsSwift/), which has a complete tutorial on Swift.
```swift
// import a module
@@ -57,8 +58,9 @@ let piText = "Pi = \(π), Pi 2 = \(π * 2)" // String interpolation
print("Build value: \(buildValue)") // Build value: 7
/*
Optionals are a Swift language feature that allows you to store a `Some` or
`None` value.
Optionals are a Swift language feature that either contains a value,
or contains nil (no value) to indicate that a value is missing.
A question mark (?) after the type marks the value as optional.
Because Swift requires every property to have a value, even nil must be
explicitly stored as an Optional value.
@@ -79,6 +81,12 @@ if someOptionalString != nil {
}
someOptionalString = nil
/*
Trying to use ! to access a non-existent optional value triggers a runtime
error. Always make sure that an optional contains a non-nil value before
using ! to force-unwrap its value.
*/
// implicitly unwrapped optional
var unwrappedString: String! = "Value is expected."
// same as above, but ! is a postfix operator (more syntax candy)
@@ -93,7 +101,7 @@ if let someOptionalStringConstant = someOptionalString {
// Swift has support for storing a value of any type.
// AnyObject == id
// Unlike Objective-C `id`, AnyObject works with any value (Class, Int, struct, etc)
// Unlike Objective-C `id`, AnyObject works with any value (Class, Int, struct, etc.)
var anyObjectVar: AnyObject = 7
anyObjectVar = "Changed value to a string, not good practice, but possible."
@@ -295,7 +303,7 @@ print(numbers) // [3, 6, 18]
// MARK: Structures
//
// Structures and classes have very similar capabilites
// Structures and classes have very similar capabilities
struct NamesTable {
let names = [String]()
@@ -574,4 +582,18 @@ print(mySquare.sideLength) // 4
// change side length using custom !!! operator, increases size by 3
!!!mySquare
print(mySquare.sideLength) // 12
// Operators can also be generics
infix operator <-> {}
func <-><T: Equatable> (inout a: T, inout b: T) {
let c = a
a = b
b = c
}
var foo: Float = 10
var bar: Float = 20
foo <-> bar
print("foo is \(foo), bar is \(bar)") // "foo is 20.0, bar is 10.0"
```

2
tr-tr/objective-c-tr.html.markdown
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@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ kendi çatıları olan Cocoa ve Cocoa Touch için kullanılan bir programlama di
Genel açamlı, object-oriented bir yapıya sahip programlama dilidir. C
programlama diline Smalltalk stilinde mesajlaşma ekler.
```objective_c
```objective-c
// Tek satır yorum // işaretleri ile başlar
/*

2
vi-vn/objective-c-vi.html.markdown
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@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ filename: LearnObjectiveC-vi.m
Objective-C là ngôn ngữ lập trình chính được sử dụng bởi Apple cho các hệ điều hành OS X, iOS và các framework tương ứng của họ, Cocoa và Cocoa Touch.
Nó là một ngôn ngữ lập trình mục đích tổng quát, hướng đối tượng có bổ sung thêm kiểu truyền thông điệp giống Smalltalk vào ngôn ngữ lập trình C.
```objective_c
```objective-c
// Chú thích dòng đơn bắt đầu với //
/*

549
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@@ -0,0 +1,549 @@
---
language: ruby
filename: learnruby.rb
contributors:
- ["David Underwood", "http://theflyingdeveloper.com"]
- ["Joel Walden", "http://joelwalden.net"]
- ["Luke Holder", "http://twitter.com/lukeholder"]
- ["Tristan Hume", "http://thume.ca/"]
- ["Nick LaMuro", "https://github.com/NickLaMuro"]
- ["Marcos Brizeno", "http://www.about.me/marcosbrizeno"]
- ["Ariel Krakowski", "http://www.learneroo.com"]
- ["Dzianis Dashkevich", "https://github.com/dskecse"]
- ["Levi Bostian", "https://github.com/levibostian"]
- ["Rahil Momin", "https://github.com/iamrahil"]
- ["Vinh Nguyen", "http://rubydaily.net"]
lang: vi-vn
---
```ruby
# Đây là một comment
=begin
Đây là một comment nhiều dòng
Không ai dùng cách này
Bạn không nên dùng
=end
# Đầu tiên và quan trọng nhất: Mọi thứ là đối tượng.
# Các con số là các đối tượng.
3.class #=> Fixnum
3.to_s #=> "3"
# Một vài bài toán số học căn bản
1 + 1 #=> 2
8 - 1 #=> 7
10 * 2 #=> 20
35 / 5 #=> 7
2**5 #=> 32
# Số học vừa là các cú pháp thân thiện cho việc gọi
# một hàm trên một đối tượng
1.+(3) #=> 4
10.* 5 #=> 50
# Các giá trị đặc biệt là các đối tượng
nil # Ở đây không có gì để xem
true # luôn đúng
false # luôn sai
nil.class #=> Lớp Nil
true.class #=> Lớp True
false.class #=> Lớp False
# So sánh bằng
1 == 1 #=> true
2 == 1 #=> false
# So sánh không bằng
1 != 1 #=> false
2 != 1 #=> true
# Ngoài chính false, thì nil là một giá trị khác của false
!nil #=> true
!false #=> true
!0 #=> false
# Các loại so sánh khác
1 < 10 #=> true
1 > 10 #=> false
2 <= 2 #=> true
2 >= 2 #=> true
# Các toán tử logic
true && false #=> false
true || false #=> true
!true #=> false
# Có các cách khác của các toán tử logic với mức thấp hơn
# Chúng được sử dụng như các cấu trúc điều khiển luồng nối các mệnh đề
# với nhau cho đến khi một trong số chúng trả về đúng hoặc sai.
# `do_something_else` chỉ được gọi nếu như hàm `do_something` thành công.
do_something() and do_something_else()
# `log_error` chỉ được gọi nếu hàm `do_something` không thành công.
do_something() or log_error()
# Các chuỗi là các đối tượng
'I am a string'.class #=> String
"I am a string too".class #=> String
placeholder = 'use string interpolation'
"I can #{placeholder} when using double quoted strings"
#=> "I can use string interpolation when using double quoted strings"
# Nên đưa các chuỗi vào trong dấu nháy đơn
# Ngoài ra dấu nháy kép được sử dụng trong tính toán.
# Nối các chuỗi, nhưng không nối với các số.
'hello ' + 'world' #=> "hello world"
'hello ' + 3 #=> TypeError: can't convert Fixnum into String
'hello ' + 3.to_s #=> "hello 3"
# Xuất ra ngoài màn hình
puts "I'm printing!"
# Các biến
x = 25 #=> 25
x #=> 25
# Chú ý về việc gán các giá trị được trả về vào biến.
# Điều này có nghĩa là bạn có thể gán nhiều biến.
x = y = 10 #=> 10
x #=> 10
y #=> 10
# Theo quy ước, dùng snake_case cho các tên của biến.
snake_case = true
# Dùng để mô tả tên các biến
path_to_project_root = '/good/name/'
path = '/bad/name/'
# Ký tự (là các đối tượng)
# Các ký tự là bất biến, như các biến hằng số chỉ đến các số nguyên.
# Chúng thường xuyên được sử dụng thay cho các chuỗi để chuyển đổi các giá
# trị hiệu quả.
:pending.class #=> Symbol
status = :pending
status == :pending #=> true
status == 'pending' #=> false
status == :approved #=> false
# Các mảng
# Đây là một mảng
array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
# Các mảng có thể chứa nhiều phần tử khác nhau
[1, 'hello', false] #=> [1, "hello", false]
# Có thể truy cập các giá trị của mảng thông qua các chỉ mục
array[0] #=> 1
array[12] #=> nil
# Giống như số học, sử dụng [biến] là một cú pháp thông dụng
array.[] 0 #=> 1
array.[] 12 #=> nil
# Lấy phần tử cuối cùng
array[-1] #=> 5
# Bắt đầu từ chỉ mục và số phần tử cần lấy
array[2, 3] #=> [3, 4, 5]
# Đảo ngược một mảng
a=[1,2,3]
a.reverse! #=> [3,2,1]
# Lấy một khoảng
array[1..3] #=> [2, 3, 4]
# Thêm phần tử vào mảng bằng cách này
array << 6 #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
# Hoặc cách này
array.push(6) #=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
# Kiểm tra phần tử có tồn tại trong mảng
array.include?(1) #=> true
# Băm là phần chính của Ruby với các cặp khoá/giá trị
# Băm được biểu thị bằng dấu ngoặc nhọn:
hash = { 'color' => 'green', 'number' => 5 }
hash.keys #=> ['color', 'number']
# Băm có thể được truy cập nhanh chóng thông qua khoá
hash['color'] #=> 'green'
hash['number'] #=> 5
# Khoá không tồn tại sẽ trả về nil
hash['nothing here'] #=> nil
# Kể từ Ruby bản 1.9, đây là một cú pháp đặc biệt, sử dụng symbol như khoá
new_hash = { defcon: 3, action: true }
new_hash.keys #=> [:defcon, :action]
# Kiểm tra khoá hoặc giá trị có tồn tại hay không
new_hash.has_key?(:defcon) #=> true
new_hash.has_value?(3) #=> true
# Mẹo: Cả Mảng và Băm đều là Enumberable
# Chúng cùng chia sẻ rất nhiều phương thức hữu ích như each, map, count...
# Cấu trúc điều khiển
if true
'if statement'
elsif false
'else if, optional'
else
'else, also optional'
end
for counter in 1..5
puts "iteration #{counter}"
end
#=> iteration 1
#=> iteration 2
#=> iteration 3
#=> iteration 4
#=> iteration 5
# TUY NHIÊN, không ai sử dụng vòng lặp for.
# Thay vào đó, ban nên dùng phương thức "each" và truyền vào đó một khối.
# Một khối là một loạt các mã mà bạn có thể truyền
# cho một phương thức giống như each.
# Nó tương tự với lambda, các hàm ẩn danh hoặc closures trong các ngôn ngữ
# lập trình khác.
#
# Phương thức "each" cho một khoản sẽ chạy qua từng phần tử của khoảng đó.
# Khối được truyền vào là một số đếm như là tham số.
# Gọi một method "each" với một khối sẽ trông như thế này:
(1..5).each do |counter|
puts "iteration #{counter}"
end
#=> iteration 1
#=> iteration 2
#=> iteration 3
#=> iteration 4
#=> iteration 5
# Bạn cũng có thể bao khối trong các dấu ngoặc nhọn.
(1..5).each { |counter| puts "iteration #{counter}" }
# Các nội dung của cấu trúc dữ liệu cũng có thể được lặp bằng each.
array.each do |element|
puts "#{element} is part of the array"
end
hash.each do |key, value|
puts "#{key} is #{value}"
end
counter = 1
while counter <= 5 do
puts "iteration #{counter}"
counter += 1
end
#=> iteration 1
#=> iteration 2
#=> iteration 3
#=> iteration 4
#=> iteration 5
grade = 'B'
case grade
when 'A'
puts 'Way to go kiddo'
when 'B'
puts 'Better luck next time'
when 'C'
puts 'You can do better'
when 'D'
puts 'Scraping through'
when 'F'
puts 'You failed!'
else
puts 'Alternative grading system, eh?'
end
#=> "Better luck next time"
# Cases cũng được dùng cho các dãy
grade = 82
case grade
when 90..100
puts 'Hooray!'
when 80...90
puts 'OK job'
else
puts 'You failed!'
end
#=> "OK job"
# Xử lý ngoại lệ:
begin
# Code ở đây có thể sẽ đưa ra một ngoại lệ.
raise NoMemoryError, 'You ran out of memory.'
rescue NoMemoryError => exception_variable
puts 'NoMemoryError was raised', exception_variable
rescue RuntimeError => other_exception_variable
puts 'RuntimeError was raised now'
else
puts 'This runs if no exceptions were thrown at all'
ensure
puts 'This code always runs no matter what'
end
# Hàm
def double(x)
x * 2
end
# Hàm (và tất cả các khối) được mặc định giá trị trả về ở mệnh đề cuối.
double(2) #=> 4
# Dấu ngoặc là một tuỳ chọn cho một kết quả rõ ràng.
double 3 #=> 6
double double 3 #=> 12
def sum(x, y)
x + y
end
# Các đối số được chia cắt bởi dấu phẩy.
sum 3, 4 #=> 7
sum sum(3, 4), 5 #=> 12
# yield
# Tất cả các hàm có thể có một tham số tuỳ chọn.
# Nó có thể được gọi với từ khóa "yield".
def surround
puts '{'
yield
puts '}'
end
surround { puts 'hello world' }
# {
# hello world
# }
# Bạn có thể truyền một khối đến một hàm
# Dấu "&" được đánh dấu đến một khối
def guests(&block)
block.call 'some_argument'
end
# Bạn có thể truyền một danh sách các tham số, nó sẽ được chuyển thành mảng.
# Thông qua việc sử dụng dấu *.
def guests(*array)
array.each { |guest| puts guest }
end
# Định nghĩ một lớp thông qua từ khoá class.
class Human
# Một biến class. Nó được chia sẽ cho tất cả các instance của lớp này.
@@species = 'H. sapiens'
# Các khởi tạo căn bản
def initialize(name, age = 0)
# Gán đối số đến biến instance "name"
@name = name
# Nếu không có age, sẽ lấy giá trị mặc định trong danh sách đối số.
@age = age
end
# Hàm nhập giá trị căn bản
def name=(name)
@name = name
end
# Hàm lấy giá trị căn bản
def name
@name
end
# Các hàm trên có thể được gọn lại bằng cách dùng hàm attr_accessor
attr_accessor :name
# Các hàm nhận/lấy cũng có thể được tạo riêng như sau:
attr_reader :name
attr_writer :name
# Một hàm lớp dùng self để phân biệt với hàm instance.
# Nó chỉ có thể được gọi trên lớp.
def self.say(msg)
puts msg
end
def species
@@species
end
end
# Khởi tạo một lớp
jim = Human.new('Jim Halpert')
dwight = Human.new('Dwight K. Schrute')
# Hãy gọi một cặp các hàm.
jim.species #=> "H. sapiens"
jim.name #=> "Jim Halpert"
jim.name = "Jim Halpert II" #=> "Jim Halpert II"
jim.name #=> "Jim Halpert II"
dwight.species #=> "H. sapiens"
dwight.name #=> "Dwight K. Schrute"
# Gọi một hàm lớp
Human.say('Hi') #=> "Hi"
# Phạm vi của biến được định nghĩa bởi cách chúng ta đặt tên cho chúng.
# Các biến bắt đầu với dấu $ là biến toàn cục.
$var = "I'm a global var"
defined? $var #=> "global-variable"
# Các biến bắt đầu với dấu @ là biến phạm vi.
@var = "I'm an instance var"
defined? @var #=> "instance-variable"
# Các biến bắt đầu với dấu @@ có pham vi là trong một lớp.
@@var = "I'm a class var"
defined? @@var #=> "class variable"
# Các biến bắt đầu với ký tự viết hoa là biến hằng.
Var = "I'm a constant"
defined? Var #=> "constant"
# Lớp cũng là một đối tượng trong Ruby. Bởi vậy lớp có các biến instance.
# Biến lớp được chia sẽ trong lớp và các lớp kế thừa nó.
# Lớp cơ sở
class Human
@@foo = 0
def self.foo
@@foo
end
def self.foo=(value)
@@foo = value
end
end
# Lớp kế thừa
class Worker < Human
end
Human.foo # 0
Worker.foo # 0
Human.foo = 2 # 2
Worker.foo # 2
# Các biến lớp instance không được chia sẽ trong lớp kế thừa.
class Human
@bar = 0
def self.bar
@bar
end
def self.bar=(value)
@bar = value
end
end
class Doctor < Human
end
Human.bar # 0
Doctor.bar # nil
module ModuleExample
def foo
'foo'
end
end
# Include một module sẽ đưa các hàm của module thành instances của lớp.
# Extend một module sẽ đưa các hàm của module thành các biến của lớp.
class Person
include ModuleExample
end
class Book
extend ModuleExample
end
Person.foo # => NoMethodError: undefined method `foo' for Person:Class
Person.new.foo # => 'foo'
Book.foo # => 'foo'
Book.new.foo # => NoMethodError: undefined method `foo'
# Hàm hồi quy được thực hiện khi include và extend một module.
module ConcernExample
def self.included(base)
base.extend(ClassMethods)
base.send(:include, InstanceMethods)
end
module ClassMethods
def bar
'bar'
end
end
module InstanceMethods
def qux
'qux'
end
end
end
class Something
include ConcernExample
end
Something.bar # => 'bar'
Something.qux # => NoMethodError: undefined method `qux'
Something.new.bar # => NoMethodError: undefined method `bar'
Something.new.qux # => 'qux'
```
## Các nguồn tham khảo thêm.
- [Learn Ruby by Example with Challenges](http://www.learneroo.com/modules/61/nodes/338) - A variant of this reference with in-browser challenges.
- [Official Documentation](http://www.ruby-doc.org/core-2.1.1/)
- [Ruby from other languages](https://www.ruby-lang.org/en/documentation/ruby-from-other-languages/)
- [Programming Ruby](http://www.amazon.com/Programming-Ruby-1-9-2-0-Programmers/dp/1937785491/) - An older [free edition](http://ruby-doc.com/docs/ProgrammingRuby/) is available online.
- [Ruby Style Guide](https://github.com/bbatsov/ruby-style-guide) - A community-driven Ruby coding style guide.

13
xml.html.markdown
View File

@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ contributors:
XML is a markup language designed to store and transport data.
Unlike HTML, XML does not specify how to display or to format data, just carry it.
Unlike HTML, XML does not specify how to display or to format data, it just carries it.
* XML Syntax
@@ -40,13 +40,14 @@ Unlike HTML, XML does not specify how to display or to format data, just carry i
It starts with a declaration, informing some metadata (optional).
XML uses a tree structure. Above, the root node is 'bookstore', which has
three child nodes, all 'books'. Those nodes has more child nodes, and so on...
three child nodes, all 'books'. Those nodes have more child nodes (or
children), and so on...
Nodes are created using open/close tags, and childs are just nodes between
Nodes are created using open/close tags, and children are just nodes between
the open and close tags.-->
<!-- XML carries two kind of data:
<!-- XML carries two kinds of data:
1 - Attributes -> That's metadata about a node.
Usually, the XML parser uses this information to store the data properly.
It is characterized by appearing with the format name="value" within the opening
@@ -82,7 +83,7 @@ With this tool, you can check the XML data outside the application logic.
<!DOCTYPE note SYSTEM "Bookstore.dtd">
<bookstore>
<book category="COOKING">
<title >Everyday Italian</title>
<title>Everyday Italian</title>
<price>30.00</price>
</book>
</bookstore>
@@ -120,7 +121,7 @@ With this tool, you can check the XML data outside the application logic.
<bookstore>
<book category="COOKING">
<title >Everyday Italian</title>
<title>Everyday Italian</title>
<price>30.00</price>
</book>
</bookstore>