diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_dichromate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_dichromate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..91fa7592 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_dichromate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,203 @@ + +MSDS - AMMONIUM DICHROMATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: AMMONIUM DICHROMATE +FORMULA: (NH4)2CR2O7 +FORMULA WT: 252.06 +CAS NO.: 07789-09-5 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: HX7650000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: DICHROMIC ACID, DIAMMONIUM SALT; AMMONIUM BICHROMATE +PRODUCT CODES: 0688,0690 + EFFECTIVE: 08/15/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 4 EXTREME (CANCER CAUSING) + FLAMMABILITY - 1 SLIGHT + REACTIVITY - 3 SEVERE (OXIDIZER) + CONTACT - 3 SEVERE (CORROSIVE) +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + DANGER + HARMFUL IF INHALED + MAY CAUSE BURNS OR EXTERNAL ULCERS + CAUTION: CONTAINS CHROMIUM(VI),CANCER HAZARD + STRONG OXIDIZER - CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE. + USE IN CLOSED REACTION VESSELS REQUIRES STRINGENT PRECAUTIONS BECAUSE + OF EXPLOSION HAZARD. +KEEP FROM CONTACT WITH CLOTHING AND OTHER COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. DO NOT +STORE NEAR COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING VAPOR. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, USE WATER SPRAY, +ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL, OR CARBON DIOXIDE. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER +SPRAY. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +AMMONIUM DICHROMATE 90-100 7789-09-5 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 170 C ( 338 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 8.7 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.15 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: BRIGHT, ORANGE-RED ODORLESS CRYSTALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A NFPA 704M RATING: 1-1-1 OXY + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + STRONG OXIDIZER. CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE. + IN CASES OF EXCESSIVE HEAT OR CONDITIONS OF CONFINEMENT AN EXTREME + HAZARD EXISTS RESULTING IN POSSIBLE SPONTANEOUS VIOLENT THERMAL + DECOMPOSITION. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + NITROGEN + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.05 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 0.5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: YES IARC: YES Z LIST: YES OSHA REG: YES + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE SEVERE IRRITATION OR BURNS. + EXCESSIVE INHALATION OF DUST IS IRRITATING AND MAY BE SEVERELY DAMAGING + TO RESPIRATORY PASSAGES AND/OR LUNGS. + INGESTION MAY BE HARMFUL TO THE KIDNEYS, LIVER, AND GASTRO-INTESTINAL + TRACT. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE MAY INCLUDE KIDNEY AND/OR LIVER DAMAGE. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, SKIN CONTACT, EYE CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, GIVE LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG REDUCING AGENTS, COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: AMMONIA + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + KEEP COMBUSTIBLES (WOOD, PAPER, OIL, ETC.) AWAY FROM SPILLED MATERIAL. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D002, D003 (CORROSIVE, REACTIVE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: A RESPIRATOR WITH DUST/MIST FILTER IS RECOMMENDED. + IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF + RESPIRATOR, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE SEPARATELY AND AWAY FROM FLAMMABLE + AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME AMMONIUM DICHROMATE +HAZARD CLASS OXIDIZER +UN/NA UN1439 +LABELS OXIDIZER +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 1000 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME AMMONIUM DICHROMATE +HAZARD CLASS 5.1 +UN/NA UN1439 +LABELS OXIDIZING AGENT + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_nitrate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_nitrate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8633ad36 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_nitrate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,195 @@ + +MSDS - AMMONIUM NITRATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: AMMONIUM NITRATE +FORMULA: NH4NO3 +FORMULA WT: 80.04 +CAS NO.: 06484-52-2 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: BR9050000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: AMMONIUM(I)NITRATE; NITRIC ACID, AMMONIUM SALT +PRODUCT CODES: 0729,0731 + EFFECTIVE: 10/09/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 3 SEVERE (OXIDIZER) + CONTACT - 2 MODERATE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + DANGER + CAUSES IRRITATION + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED + STRONG OXIDIZER - CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE +KEEP FROM CONTACT WITH CLOTHING AND OTHER COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. DO NOT +STORE NEAR COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE +OF FIRE, SOAK WITH WATER. IN CASE OF SPILL, SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. FLUSH SPILL +AREA WITH WATER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +AMMONIUM NITRATE 90-100 6484-52-2 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 210 C ( 410 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 170 C ( 338 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 2.8 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.73 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: ODORLESS, TRANSPARENT CRYSTALS OR WHITE GRANULES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A NFPA 704M RATING: 0-0-3 OXY + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + NOTE: DECOMPOSES AT BOILING POINT. + STRONG OXIDIZER. CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + AMMONIA, NITROGEN OXIDES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST INHALATION MAY CAUSE TIGHTNESS AND PAIN IN CHEST, COUGHING, AND + DIFFICULTY IN BREATHING. + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE HEADACHE, NAUSEA, VOMITING, GASTROINTESTINAL + IRRITATION, UNCONSCIOUSNESS, CONVULSIONS. + +TARGET ORGANS + EYES, SKIN + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, INGESTION + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, SHOCK, FLAME + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG REDUCING AGENTS, COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, + STRONG ACIDS, ORGANIC MATERIALS, + CHEMICALLY ACTIVE METALS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: AMMONIA, OXIDES OF NITROGEN + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + KEEP COMBUSTIBLES (WOOD, PAPER, OIL, ETC.) AWAY FROM SPILLED MATERIAL. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D001 (IGNITABLE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, UNIFORM, BUTYL + RUBBER GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE SEPARATELY AND AWAY FROM FLAMMABLE + AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME AMMONIUM NITRATE, NO ORGANIC COATING +HAZARD CLASS OXIDIZER +UN/NA UN1942 +LABELS OXIDIZER + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME AMMONIUM NITRATE FERTILIZERS, N.O.S. (AMMONIUM NITRATE) +HAZARD CLASS 5.1 +UN/NA UN1942 +LABELS OXIDIZING AGENT + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_oxalate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_oxalate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..74ea8713 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_oxalate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,151 @@ + +MSDS - Ammonium Oxalate Monohydrate + +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: WHITE CRYSTALS OR GRANULES. ODORLESS. +Boiling Point: N/A +Melting Point: 158F,70C +Vapor Pressure (MM Hg/70 F): N/A +Vapor Density (Air=1): N/A +Specific Gravity: 1.50 +Evaporation Rate And Ref: N/A +Solubility In Water: APPRECIABLE (>10%) +Percent Volatiles By Volume: 0 +pH: 6.4 +Magnetism (Milligauss): N/P + +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: N/A +Flash Point Method: N/P +Lower Explosive Limit: N/A +Upper Explosive Limit: N/A +Extinguishing Media: USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING +FIRE. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE +EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE +OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: NONE + +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Cond To Avoid (Stability): NONE DOCUMENTED +Materials To Avoid: STRONG ACIDS. +Hazardous Decomp Products: AMMONIA, CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE. +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +Conditions To Avoid (Poly): NOT APPLICABLE + +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: UNKNOWN +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: YES +Route Of Entry - Skin: YES +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: YES +Health Haz Acute And Chronic: INHALATION: IRRITATION OF UPPER RESPIRATORY +TRACT. SKIN: SEVERE IRRITATION OR BURNS. EYES: SEVERE IRRITATION OR BURNS. +INGESTION: HARMFUL AND MAY BE FATAL. +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO +Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: NOT APPLICABLE +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: BURNS OF THE SKIN AND EYES. NAUSEA, VOMITING, +GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION, BURNS TO THE MOUTH AND THROAT UPON INGESTION. +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: NONE IDENTIFIED +Emergency/First Aid Proc: INGESTION: CALL A PHYSICIAN. DO NOT INDUCE +VOMITING. IF CONSCIOUS, GIVE LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. INHALATION: REMOVE TO +FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION. SKIN: IMMEDIATELY +FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 MINUTES WHILE REMOVING +CONTAMINATED CLOTHING AND SHOES. EYES: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF +WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 MINUTES. + +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND +FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO +CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; REMOVE REOM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH +WATER. +Neutralizing Agent: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Waste Disposal Method: DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, +STATE, AND LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. +Precautions-Handling/Storing: KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN +CORROSION-PROOF AREA. +Other Precautions: NONE + +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION +CONDITIONS EXIST. +Ventilation: NORMAL MECHANICAL VENTILATION. +Protective Gloves: RUBBER GLOVES. +Eye Protection: SAFETY GOGGLES. +Other Protective Equipment: UNIFORM OR APRON. +Work Hygienic Practices: WASH HANDS AFTER HANDLING THIS MATERIAL. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: NONE + +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Trans Data Review Date: 91311 +DOT PSN Code: LCW +DOT Proper Shipping Name: OXALATES +DOT Class: 6.1 +DOT ID Number: UN2449 +DOT Pack Group: III +DOT Label: KEEP AWAY FROM FOOD +IMO PSN Code: LBF +IMO Proper Shipping Name: OXALATES +IMO Regulations Page Number: 6216 +IMO UN Number: 2449 +IMO UN Class: 6.1 +IMO Subsidiary Risk Label: - +IATA PSN Code: UKJ +IATA UN ID Number: 2811 +IATA Proper Shipping Name: POISONOUS SOLID, N.O.S. +IATA UN Class: 6.1 +IATA Label: KEEP AWAY FROM FOOD +AFI PSN Code: UKJ +AFI Prop. Shipping Name: POISONOUS SOLIDS, N.O.S. +AFI Class: 6.1 +AFI ID Number: UN2811 +AFI Pack Group: III +AFI Label: KEEP AWAY FROM FOOD +AFI Basic Pac Ref: 10-13 +Additional Trans Data: NONE + +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== + +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Technical Review Date: 07NOV91 +Label Date: 07NOV91 +Label Status: M +Common Name: AMMONIUM OXALATE +Chronic Hazard: NO +Signal Word: DANGER! +Acute Health Hazard-Severe: X +Contact Hazard-Severe: X +Fire Hazard-None: X +Reactivity Hazard-Slight: X +Special Hazard Precautions: INHALATION: IRRITATION OF UPPER RESPIRATORY +TRACT. SKIN: SEVERE IRRITATION OR BURNS. EYES: SEVERE IRRITATION OR BURNS. +INGESTION: HARMFUL AND MAY BE FATAL. KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE +IN CORROSION-PROOF AREA. FIRST AID: INGESTION: CALL A PHYSICIAN. DO NOT +IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 MINUTES WHILE +REMOVING CONTAMINATED CLOTHING AND SHOES. EYES: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH +PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 MINUTES. +Protect Eye: Y +Protect Skin: Y +Protect Respiratory: Y + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_perchlorate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_perchlorate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..be7df51a --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_perchlorate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,165 @@ + +MSDS - AMMONIUM PERCHLORATE + +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: AMMONIUM PERCHLORATE +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +Percent: 99.5MIN +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: SC7520000 +CAS Number: 7790-98-9 +OSHA PEL: NOT ESTABLISHED +ACGIH TLV: NOT ESTABLISHED +Other Recommended Limit: 5MG/CUM,AS RESP DUST +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: ODORLESS WHITE GRANULAR CRYSTALS. +Melting Point: 842F/450C +Specific Gravity: 1.95 +Decomposition Temperature: >150F,>66C +Solubility In Water: APPRECIABLE +Magnetism (Milligauss): N/P +Corrosion Rate (IPY): UNKNOWN +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point Method: N/P +Extinguishing Media: WATER SPRAY, FOAM. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: USE NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED SCBA IN AN ENCLOSED +AREA. +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: COOL W/WATER FOR LARGE FIRE IN STORAGE AREA, +USE UNMANNED HOSE HOLDER OR WITHDRAW & LET BURN! SEE SUP +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: NO +Cond To Avoid (Stability): STABLE BELOW 150 F.DECOMP OR EXPLODES AT HIGHER +TEMP. +Materials To Avoid: COMBUSTIBLES,OXIDIZERS CREATE EXTREME FIRE/EXPL +HAZARD. +Hazardous Decomp Products: VAPORS OF CHLORINE,HYDROGEN CHLORIDES, +AMMONIA,OXIDES OF NITROGEN. +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: 4200 MG/KG(RAT) & 1900MG/KG (RABBIT) +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: YES +Route Of Entry - Skin: YES +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: YES +Health Haz Acute And Chronic: ACUTE:MILD IRRITANT TO THE SKIN,EYES,MUCOUS +MEMBRANES,RESPIRATORY OR G.I. TRACT,REDNESS OF EYES AND SKIN. CHRONIC:SKIN, +G.I. OR RESPIRATORY DISORDERS. +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO +Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: PER MSDS DATA. +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: EYE:IRRT,REDNESS.SKIN:IRRT,REDNESS.INHL:URT +IRRT.INGEST: GI TRACT IRRT,DIARR. +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: PRE-EXISTING CONDITIONS MAY BE WORSEN. +Emergency/First Aid Proc: INHAL:RMV TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BRTHNG GIVE CPR; +IF BRTHNG DIFF GIVE OXYGEN. EYE:IMMED FLUSH W/PLENTY OF WATER. SKIN: WASH +W/SOAP&WATER. RMV CONTAM CLTHG&SHOES. INGEST:INDUCE VOMIT. RPT UNTIL VOMIT +IS CLEAR. NOTHG BY MOUTH IF UNCONSC. GET MEDICAL ATTN. +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: SCOOP UP OR ABSORB WITH NONCOMBUSTIBLE +ABSORBENT(VERMICULITE). +Waste Disposal Method: EPA HAZWASTE D001. DISPOSE AS HAZWASTE IAW ALL LAWS +& REGS. +Precautions-Handling/Storing: DO NOT ALLOW CONTACT W/COMBUSTIBLE +MATERIALS.STORE IN ORIGINAL CLOSED CONTAINERS.HANDLE CONTAINERS CAREFULLY. +AVOID INHL DUST & EYE/SKN CONTACT. +Other Precautions: PROVIDE WATER FILLED JUMP TANK OR SAFETY SHOWER.WASH +CONTAM CLOTHING PROMPTLY +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: USE NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED RESPIRATOR FOR DUST IF +ABOVE PEL/TLV. +Ventilation: LOCAL OR GENERAL AS REQD. +Protective Gloves: IMPERVIOUS +Eye Protection: SAFETY GLASSES OR GOGGLES +Other Protective Equipment: WEAR PROTECTIVE CLOTHING, RUBBER BOOTS. DO NOT +WEAR LEATHER. +Work Hygienic Practices: AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES AND SKIN;DO NOT BREATHE +DUST/MIST;KEEP FROM CONTACT WITH CLOTHING & OTHER COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: . +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Trans Data Review Date: 87075 +DOT PSN Code: ASD +DOT Proper Shipping Name: AMMONIUM PERCHLORATE +DOT Class: 5.1 +DOT ID Number: UN1442 +DOT Pack Group: II +DOT Label: OXIDIZER +IMO PSN Code: AZZ +IMO Proper Shipping Name: AMMONIUM PERCHLORATE +IMO Regulations Page Number: 5126 +IMO UN Number: 1442 +IMO UN Class: 5.1 +IMO Subsidiary Risk Label: - +IATA PSN Code: BQC +IATA UN ID Number: 1442 +IATA Proper Shipping Name: AMMONIUM PERCHLORATE +IATA UN Class: 5.1 +IATA Label: OXIDIZER +AFI PSN Code: BQC +AFI Prop. Shipping Name: AMMONIUM PERCHLORATE +AFI Class: 5.1 +AFI ID Number: UN1442 +AFI Pack Group: II +AFI Label: OXIDIZER +AFI Special Prov: A9 +AFI Basic Pac Ref: 9-10 +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +Disposal Data Review Date: 88229 +Rec # For This Disp Entry: 01 +Tot Disp Entries Per NSN: 002 +Landfill Ban Item: YES +Disposal Supplemental Data: MSDS DTD JUN85.FIRE(CONT):EVACUATE AREA,DENY +ENTRY.USE SCBA PP MODE, FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. IN CASE OF ACCIDENTAL +EXPOSURE OR DISCHARGE, CONSULT HEALTH AND SAFETY FILE FOR PRECAUTIONS. +1st EPA Haz Wst Code New: D001 +1st EPA Haz Wst Name New: IGNITIBLE +1st EPA Haz Wst Char New: IGNITABILITY +1st EPA Acute Hazard New: NO +2nd EPA Haz Wst Code New: D003 +2nd EPA Haz Wst Name New: REACTIVE +2nd EPA Haz Wst Char New: REACTIVITY +2nd EPA Acute Hazard New: NO +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Technical Review Date: 10JAN91 +Label Date: 01JUN85 +MFR Label Number: UNKNOWN +Label Status: M +Common Name: AMMONIUM PERCHLORATE +Chronic Hazard: YES +Signal Word: DANGER! +Acute Health Hazard-Slight: X +Contact Hazard-Slight: X +Fire Hazard-None: X +Reactivity Hazard-Severe: X +Special Hazard Precautions: ACUTE-MINOR IRRITANT TO EYE,SKIN,RESPIRATORY & +GI TRACT.CHRONIC-SKIN,GI OR RESPIRATORY DISORDERS.STORAGE-DANGER!STRONG +OXIDIZER-CONTACT WITH COMBUSTIBLE OR OXIDIZABLE MATERIAL CONSTITUTES AN +EXTREME FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARD.CONTAMINATED CLOTHING & ORGANIC METERIALS +ARE DANGEROUSLY FLAMMABLE.ALWAYS HAVE A WATER FILLED JUMP TANK OR DELUGE +SHOWER NEARBY.IF YOUR CLOTHING CATCHES FIRE,DON'T USE A FIRE BLANKET.USE +THE JUMP TANK OR DELUGE SHOWER.DON'T WEAR LEATHER MATERIALS.STORE +CONTAINERS TIGHTLY CLOSED.FIRST AID-CALL A DOCTOR.EYE:FLUSH W/WATER FOR 15 +INDUCE VOMITING.GIVE WATER. +Protect Eye: Y +Protect Skin: Y +Protect Respiratory: Y diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_permanganate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_permanganate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3d90e954 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_permanganate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,198 @@ + +Common Name: AMMONIUM PERMANGANATE +CAS Number: 13446-10-1 +DOT Number: NA 9190 +------------------------------------------------------------ +Substance number: 0110 +Date: February 1988 +------------------------------------------------------------ +HAZARD SUMMARY +* Ammonium Permanganate can affect you when breathed in. +* Exposure to Ammonium Permanganate can cause irritation of the +eyes, nose, throat and lungs. * Contact can irritate the skin +and eyes. +* Ammonium Permanganate is a HIGHLY REACTIVE CHEMICAL and is a +DANGEROUS EXPLOSION HAZARD. + + +IDENTIFICATION +Ammonium Permanganate is a violet-brown or dark purple, +crystalline (sugar or sand-like) solid. + + +REASON FOR CITATION +* Ammonium Permanganate is on the Hazardous Substance List +because it is cited by DOT. * This chemical is on the Special +Health Hazard Substance List because it is REACTIVE. + + +HOW TO DETERMINE IF YOU ARE BEING EXPOSED +* Exposure to hazardous substances should be routinely evaluated. +This may include collecting personal and area air samples. You +can obtain copies of sampling results from your employer. You +have a legal right to this information under OSHA 1910.20. * If +you think you are experiencing any work-related health problems, +see a doctor trained to recognize occupational diseases. Take +this Fact Sheet with you. + + +WORKPLACE EXPOSURE LIMITS +No occupational exposure limits have been established for +Ammonium Permanganate. This does not mean that this substance is +not harmful. Safe work practices should always be followed. + + +WAYS OF REDUCING EXPOSURE +* Where possible, enclose operations and use local exhaust +ventilation at the site of chemical release. If local exhaust +ventilation or enclosure is not used, respirators should be worn. +* Wear protective work clothing. +* Wash thoroughly immediately after exposure to Ammonium +Permanganate. * Post hazard and warning information in the work +area. In addition, as part of an ongoing education and training +effort, communicate all information on the health and safety +hazards of Ammonium Permanganate to potentially exposed workers. + + +HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION + +Acute Health Effects +The following acute (short-term) health effects may occur +immediately or shortly after exposure to Ammonium Permanganate: + +* Ammonium Permanganate can irritate the eyes, nose, throat and +lungs. * Contact can cause eye and skin irritation. + +Chronic Health Effects +The following chronic (long-term) health effects can occur at +some time after exposure to Ammonium Permanganate and can last +for months or years: + +Cancer Hazard +* According to the information presently available to the New +Jersey Department of Health, Ammonium Permanganate has not been +tested for its ability to cause cancer in animals. + +Reproductive Hazard +* According to the information presently available to the New +Jersey Department of Health, Ammonium Permanganate has not been +tested for ts ability to adversely affect reproduction. + +Other Long-Term Effects +* Very irritating substances may affect the lungs. It is not +known whether Ammonium Permanganate can cause lung damage. + + +MEDICAL + +Medical Testing +There is no special test for this chemical. However, if illness +occurs or overexposure is suspected, medical attention is +recommended. + +Any evaluation should include a careful history of past and +present symptoms with an exam. Medical tests that look for +damage already done are not a substitute for controlling +exposure. +Request copies of your medical testing. You have a legal right +to this information under OSHA 1910.20. + + +WORKPLACE CONTROLS AND PRACTICES +Unless a less toxic chemical can be substituted for a hazardous +substance, ENGINEERING CONTROLS are the most effective way of +reducing exposure. The best protection is to enclose operations +and/or provide local exhaust ventilation at the site of chemical +release. Isolating operations can also reduce exposure. Using +respirators or protective equipment is less effective than the +controls mentioned above, but is sometimes necessary. + +In evaluating the controls present in your workplace, consider: +(1) how hazardous the substance is, (2) how much of the substance +is released into the workplace and (3) whether harmful skin or +eye contact could occur. Special controls should be in place for +highly toxic chemicals or when significant skin, eye, or +breathing exposures are possible. + +In addition, the following controls are recommended: + +* Before entering a confined space where Ammonium Permanganate +may be present, check to make sure that an explosive +concentration does not exist. + +Good WORK PRACTICES can help to reduce hazardous exposures. The +following work practices are recommended: + +* Workers whose clothing has been contaminated by Ammonium +Permanganate should change into clean clothing promptly. * +Contaminated work clothes should be laundered by individuals who +have been informed of the hazards of exposure to Ammonium +Permanganate. * On skin contact with Ammonium Permanganate, +immediately wash or shower to remove the chemical. * Do not eat, +smoke, or drink where Ammonium Permanganate is handled, +processed, or stored, since the chemical can be swallowed. Wash +hands carefully before eating or smoking. * Use a vacuum or a wet +method to reduce dust during clean-up. Do not dry sweep. + +FIRE HAZARDS + +* Ammonium Permanganate may explode at temperatures above 140oF. +* POISONOUS GASES ARE PRODUCED IN FIRE, including Nitrogen Oxides +and Ammonia. * Use dry chemical, CO2, water spray, or foam +extinguishers. * CONTAINERS MAY EXPLODE IN FIRE. +* Use water spray to keep fire-exposed containers cool. +* If employees are expected to fight fires, they must be trained +and equipped as stated in OSHA 1910.156. + + +SPILLS AND EMERGENCIES + +If Ammonium Permanganate is spilled, take the following steps: +* Restrict persons not wearing protective equipment from area of +spill until clean-up is complete. * Collect powdered material in +the most convenient and safe manner and deposit in sealed +containers. * Keep Ammonium Permanganate out of a confined space, +such as a sewer, because of the possibility of an explosion, +unless the sewer is designed to prevent the build-up of explosive +concentrations. * It may be necessary to contain and dispose of + +Ammonium Permanganate as a HAZARDOUS WASTE. Contact your +Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) or your regional +office of the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for +specific recommendations. + + +HANDLING AND STORAGE + +* Prior to working with Ammonium Permanganate you should be +trained on its proper handling and storage. * Ammonium +Permanganate must be stored to avoid contact with Heat, Friction, +Organic and OXIDIZABLE MATERIAL, FUELS, and COMBUSTIBLES since +violent reactions occur. * Always store Ammonium Permanganate at +temperatures below 140 degrees F (60 degrees C). * Protect +containers from shock as Ammonium Permanganate may explode. + + +FIRST AID + +Eye Contact +* Immediately flush with large amounts of water for at least 15 +minutes, occasionally lifting upper and lower lids. + +Skin Contact +* Quickly remove contaminated clothing. Immediately wash +contaminated skin with large amounts of water. + +Breathing +* Remove the person from exposure. + + +PHYSICAL DATA + +Water Solubility: Soluble + + +CHEMICAL NAME + +Permanganic Acid, Ammonium Salt + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_picrate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_picrate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a8b0636a --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ammonium_picrate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,173 @@ + +MSDS - AMMONIUM PICRATE + +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: AMMONIUM PICRATE (SARA III) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +Percent: >90 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: BS3855000 +CAS Number: 131-74-8 +OSHA PEL: NOT ESTABLISHED +ACGIH TLV: NOT ESTABLISHED +Other Recommended Limit: NONE RECOMMENDED +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: WATER (CONTAMINANT) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 02 +Percent: >10 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: ZC0110000 +CAS Number: 7732-18-5 +OSHA PEL: NOT ESTABLISHED +ACGIH TLV: NOT ESTABLISHED +Other Recommended Limit: NONE RECOMMENDED + +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: CRYSTALS;YELLOW;ODOR NOT REPORTED +Boiling Point: 793F,423C +Melting Point: DECOMPOSES +Specific Gravity: 1.7 +Solubility In Water: SLIGHT +Magnetism (Milligauss): N/P +Report for NIIN: 00D002973 + +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point Method: N/P +Extinguishing Media: DRY CHEMICAL,SAND,WATER SPRAY OR FOAM. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: SUBSTANCE DOES NOT BURN READILY ITSELF.USE +FLOODING QUANTITIES OF WATER AS A FOG AND TO COOL FIRE EXPOSED CONTAINERS. +SPRAY WATER FROM AS FAR AWAY AS POSSIBLE. +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: DANGEROUS FIRE HAZARD WHEN EXPOSED TO HEAT +OR FLAME. + +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: NO +Cond To Avoid (Stability): EXPLOSION HAZARD WHEN EXPOSED TO SHOCK,HEAT, +FLAMES(ESP.WHEN CONTAMINATED WITH METALS). +Materials To Avoid: METAL PICRATES(EXPLODES),METALS(EXPLODES AT 572F), +REDUCING MATERIALS(VIGOROUS REACTION). +Hazardous Decomp Products: AMMONIA FUMES(CORROSIVE),OXIDES OF NITROGEN AND +CARBON(TOXIC). +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +Conditions To Avoid (Poly): NONE + +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: NOT REPORTED +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: YES +Route Of Entry - Skin: YES +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: YES +Health Haz Acute And Chronic: INHAL:IRRITANT.SKIN:IRRITANT/SENSITIZER.ITEM +IS DERMALLY ABSORBED,POSSIBLY TO TOXIC LEVELS.EYES:ITTITATION.INGEST:TOXIC. +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO +Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: AMMONIUM PICRATE HAS NO CARCINOGENICITY +STATUS. +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: INHAL:MUCUOUS MEMBRANE IRRITATION,RHINITIS. +SKIN:SENSITIZATION DERMATITIS.ABSORPTION(THROUGH INHAL OR INGEST)CAUSES +NAUSEA,VOMITING,DIARRHEA,ABDOM.PAIN,YELLOWING OF SKIN,SKIN ERUPTIONS, +STUPOR,CONVULSIONS,DEATH.EYES:CONJUNCTIVITIS(FROM ACUTE AND CHRONIC +EXPOSURE). +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: NOT REPORTED. +Emergency/First Aid Proc: INHAL:REMOVE FROM EXPOSURE.SUPPORT +BREATHING.CALL PHYSICIAN;TREAT SYMPTOMATICALLY.SKIN:REMOVE CONTAMINATED +CLOTHING AND SHOES;WASH WITH SOAP(OR MILD DETERGENT) FOR 15-20 MINUTES.CALL +PHYSICIAN.EYE:WASH WITH WATER OR NORMAL SALINE FOR 15-20 MINUTES.CALL +PHYSICIAN.INGEST:INDUCE VOMITING(IF CONSCIOUS);KEEP HEAD BELOW HIPS.GET +PROPMT MEDICAL HELP. +Report for NIIN: 00D002973 + +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: SHUT OF IGNITION SOURCES.DO NOT TOUCH SPILL. +SMALL SPILL:FLUSH AREA WITH WATER.LARGE SPILL:WET DOWN WITH WATER AND DIKE +FOR LATER DISPOSAL.REPORTABLE QUANTITY=10 POUNDS. +Neutralizing Agent: NOT KNOWN. +Waste Disposal Method: NOT SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER.FOLLOW FEDERAL,STATE +AND LOCAL REGULATIONS. +Precautions-Handling/Storing: THIS MATERIAL EXPLODES EASILY WHEN DRY FROM +HEAT OR SHOCK. +Other Precautions: NONE. + +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: BY INCREASING LEVELS:1-A DUST AND MIST +RESPIRATOR+FULL FACEPIECE.2-AIR-PURIFYING FULL FACEPIECE RESPIRATOR+HEPA +FILTER.3-POWERED AIR-PURIFYING RESP.+HEPA FILTER.4-TYPE C,AIR SUPPLIED +RESP.4-SCBA IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. +Ventilation: PROVIDE LOCAL EXHAUST OR PROCESS ENCLOSURE VENTILATION. +MECHANICALS SHOULD BE EXPLOSION-PROOF. +Protective Gloves: CHEMICALLY RESISTANT. +Eye Protection: SPLASH AND DUST RESISTANT GOGGLES. +Other Protective Equipment: USE IMPERVIOUS CLOTHING TO PREVENT SKIN +CONTACT.AN EYE WASH STATION AND QUICK DRENCH SHOWER SHOULD BE AVAILABLE. +Work Hygienic Practices: USE PRUDENT HYGENIC AND SANITARY PRACTICES.WASH +HANDS.KEEP FOOD AOUT OF THE WORK AREA. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: NONE. + +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Trans Data Review Date: 93061 +DOT PSN Code: AST +DOT Proper Shipping Name: AMMONIUM PICRATE +DOT Class: 1.1D +DOT ID Number: UN0004 +DOT Pack Group: II +DOT Label: EXPLOSIVE 1.1D +IMO PSN Code: BAL +IMO Proper Shipping Name: AMMONIUM PICRATE +IMO Regulations Page Number: 1104 +IMO UN Number: 0004 +IMO UN Class: 1.1 D +IMO Subsidiary Risk Label: - +IATA PSN Code: BQR +IATA UN ID Number: 0004 +IATA UN Class: 1.1D +Report for NIIN: 00D002973 +AFI Prop. Shipping Name: UNDER REVIEW +Additional Trans Data: REPORTABLE QUANTITY=10 LBS.MFR SUGGESTS DOT- +EXPLOSIVE A;UN 0004. + +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== + +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Technical Review Date: 02MAR93 +MFR Label Number: UNKNOWN +Label Status: F +Common Name: AMMONIUM PICRATE +Chronic Hazard: YES +Signal Word: DANGER! +Acute Health Hazard-Severe: X +Report for NIIN: 00D002973 +Contact Hazard-Severe: X +Fire Hazard-Severe: X +Reactivity Hazard-Severe: X +Special Hazard Precautions: INHAL:IRRITANT.SKIN:IRRITANT/SENSITIZER.ITEM +IS DERMALLY ABSORBED,POSSIBLY TO TOXIC LEVELS.EYES:IRRITATION.INGEST:TOXIC. +INHAL:REMOVE FROM EXPOSURE.SUPPORT BREATHING.CALL PHYSICIAN;TREAT +SYMPTOMATICALLY.SKIN:REMOVE CONTAMINATED CLOTHING AND SHOES;WASH WITH +SOAP(OR MILD DETERGENT) FOR 15-20 MINUTES.CALL PHYSICIAN.EYE:WASH WITH +WATER OR NORMAL SALINE FOR 15-20 MINUTES.CALL PHYSICIAN.INGEST:INDUCE +VOMITING(IF CONSCIOUS);KEEP HEAD BELOW HIPS.GET PROPMT MEDICAL HELP. +Protect Eye: Y +Protect Skin: Y +Protect Respiratory: Y + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/anthracene.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/anthracene.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..415ecb5e --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/anthracene.txt @@ -0,0 +1,169 @@ + +MSDS - ANTHRACENE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: ANTHRACENE +FORMULA: C14H10 +FORMULA WT: 178.24 +CAS NO.: 00120-12-7 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: CA9350000 +PRODUCT CODES: B490 + EFFECTIVE: 03/11/86 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 1 SLIGHT + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + MAY CAUSE IRRITATION +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + NOT APPLICABLE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 342 C ( 648 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 214 C ( 417 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 6.2 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.25 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: OFF-WHITE TO PALE GREEN-YELLOW CRYSTALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: 121 C ( 250 F) NFPA 704M RATING: 0-1- + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - .6 % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + +TOXICITY: LD50 (IPR-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 430 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY BE IRRITATING TO EYES, NOSE, THROAT, OR LUNGS. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, FLUORINE +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME ANTHRACENE +HAZARD CLASS ORM-E +LABELS NONE +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 5000 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/antimony.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/antimony.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8c63efac --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/antimony.txt @@ -0,0 +1,181 @@ + +MSDS - ANTIMONY + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: ANTIMONY +FORMULA: SB +FORMULA WT: 121.75 +CAS NO.: 07440-36-0 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: CC4025000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: STIBIUM, C.I. 77050 +PRODUCT CODES: 0848 + EFFECTIVE: 08/27/86 + REVISION #03 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 3 SEVERE (POISON) + FLAMMABILITY - 1 SLIGHT + REACTIVITY - 2 MODERATE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + POISON DANGER + MAY BE FATAL IF INHALED + CAUSES IRRITATION +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +DO NOT BREATHE DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +ANTIMONY 90-100 7440-36-0 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 1635 C ( 2975 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 630 C ( 1166 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 4.2 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 6.68 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: SILVER-WHITE, HARD, BRITTLE METAL. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + CAN BE AN EXPLOSION HAZARD, ESPECIALLY WHEN HEATED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 0.5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INHALATION MAY BE HARMFUL OR FATAL. + PROLONGED EXPOSURE MAY CAUSE DERMATITIS. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE MAY INCLUDE KIDNEY AND/OR LIVER DAMAGE. + NOTE: PRODUCT IS A SOLID MASS; HOWEVER, WARNINGS ARE BASED ON INHALATION + DUST, MIST OR FUME EMISSIONS THAT ARE POSSIBLE DURING MANUFACTURING OR + CHEMICAL REACTIONS. + +TARGET ORGANS + RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM, EYES, SKIN + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, LIGHT + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, STRONG ACIDS, HALOGEN ACIDS, + CHLORINE, FLUORINE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS UP + TO 1 PPM, A DUST/MIST RESPIRATOR IS + RECOMMENDED. ABOVE THIS LEVEL, A SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN SECURE POISON AREA. + KEEP PRODUCT OUT OF LIGHT. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME ANTIMONY, POWDER +HAZARD CLASS ORM-E +LABELS NONE +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 5000 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME ANTIMONY, POWDER +HAZARD CLASS 6.1 +UN/NA UN2871 +LABELS HARMFUL - STOW AWAY FROM FOOD STUFFS + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/antimony_trisulfide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/antimony_trisulfide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..1cedc0ab --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/antimony_trisulfide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,117 @@ + + MSDS - ANTIMONY SULFIDE + + =========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information + =========================================================================== + Proprietary: NO + Ingredient: ANTIMONY TRISULFIDE;(ANTIMONY SULFIDE) (MFR CAS# 12627-52-0) + Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 + Percent: 97.5 + NIOSH (RTECS) Number: CC9450000 + CAS Number: 1345-04-6 + OSHA PEL: 0.5 MG/M3 (SB) + ACGIH TLV: 0.5 MG/M3 (SB) + =========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics + =========================================================================== + Appearance And Odor: ODORLESS BLACK POWDER OR GRAY, LUSTROUS, CRYSTALS. * + Boiling Point: 60.0F,15.6C * + Melting Point: N/K * + Vapor Pressure (MM Hg/70 F): N/K * + Vapor Density (Air=1): N/K * + Specific Gravity: 4.64 * + Decomposition Temperature: N/K * + Evaporation Rate And Ref: N/K * + Solubility In Water: INSOLUBLE * + Percent Volatiles By Volume: 0 * + pH: N/K * + Corrosion Rate (IPY): N/K * + =========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data + =========================================================================== + Flash Point: NONE * + Flash Point Method: N/P * + Lower Explosive Limit: N/A * + Upper Explosive Limit: N/A * + Extinguishing Media: MEDIA SUITABLE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE (FP N). * + Special Fire Fighting Proc: WEAR NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED SCBA AND FULL + PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (FP N). * + Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: NONE. * + =========================================================================== + Reactivity Data + =========================================================================== + Stability: YES * + Cond To Avoid (Stability): HIGH TEMPERATURES, MODERATE EXPLOSION AND FIRE + CONTACT WITH STRONG OXIDIZERS. * + Materials To Avoid: WITH STRONG ACIDS, MAY GIVE OFF H2S. * + Hazardous Decomp Products: TOXIC FUMES OF OXIDES OF SULFUR AND ANTIMONY. * + Hazardous Poly Occur: NO * + Conditions To Avoid (Poly): NOT RELEVANT. * + =========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data + =========================================================================== + LD50-LC50 Mixture: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. * + Route Of Entry - Inhalation: YES * + Route Of Entry - Skin: YES * + Route Of Entry - Ingestion: YES * + Health Haz Acute And Chronic: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. * + Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO * + Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO * + Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO * + Explanation Carcinogenicity: NOT RELEVANT. * + Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. * + Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. * + Emergency/First Aid Proc: INGEST: IF SWALLOWED, INDUCE VOMIT. SEE PHYS. + EYES: FLUSH WITH WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 MIN. SKIN: WASH WITH SOAP AND WATER. + INHAL: REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. SUPPORT BRTHG.(GIVE O2/ARTF RESP) (FP N) . * + =========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use + =========================================================================== + Steps If Matl Released/Spill: SWEEP OR VACUUM UP. * + Neutralizing Agent: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. * + Waste Disposal Method: BURY MATERIAL IN HAZARDOUS LANDFILL - FOLLOW ALL + LOCAL, STATE AND FEDERAL REGULATIONS. * + Precautions-Handling/Storing: NORMAL HANDLING AND STORAGE. * + Other Precautions: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. * + =========================================================================== + Control Measures + =========================================================================== + Respiratory Protection: USE NIOSH/MSHSA APPROVED DUST MASK. * + Ventilation: LOCAL EXHAUST: NORMAL. * + Protective Gloves: IMPERVIOUS GLOVES (FP N). * + Eye Protection: CHEMICAL WORKERS GOGGLES (FP N). * + Other Protective Equipment: PROTECTIVE RUBBER GLOVES. * + Work Hygienic Practices: NORMAL HANDLING AND STORAGE. * + Suppl. Safety & Health Data: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. * + =========================================================================== + Transportation Data + =========================================================================== + Trans Data Review Date: 92065 + DOT PSN Code: ZZZ + DOT Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION + IMO PSN Code: ZZZ + IMO Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED FOR THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION + IATA PSN Code: ZZZ + IATA Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION + AFI PSN Code: ZZZ + AFI Prop. Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION + Additional Trans Data: NOT REGULATED FOR TRANSPORTATION + =========================================================================== + Disposal Data + =========================================================================== + =========================================================================== + Label Data + =========================================================================== + Label Required: YES + Technical Review Date: 06SEP91 + Label Date: 26AUG91 + Label Status: M + Common Name: ANTIMONY SULFIDE + Chronic Hazard: NO + Signal Word: CAUTION! + Acute Health Hazard-Slight: X + Contact Hazard-None: X + Fire Hazard-None: X + Reactivity Hazard-None: X + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/arsenic_oxide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/arsenic_oxide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3cc21e07 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/arsenic_oxide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,188 @@ + +MSDS - ARSENIC TRIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: ARSENIC TRIOXIDE +FORMULA: AS2O3 +FORMULA WT: 197.84 +CAS NO.: 1327-53-3 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: CG3325000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: ARSENIC OXIDE; ARSENIC(III)OXIDE; ARSENOUS TRIOXIDE; + ARSENOUS ACID +PRODUCT CODES: 0062,0061 + EFFECTIVE: 08/15/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 4 EXTREME (CANCER CAUSING) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + POISON DANGER + CAUSES IRRITATION + MAY BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED + HARMFUL IF INHALED OR ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN + CAUTION: CONTAINS INORGANIC ARSENIC, CANCER HAZARD +DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +DO NOT BREATHE DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +ARSENIC TRIOXIDE 90-100 1327-53-3 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 457 C ( 855 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 315 C ( 599 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 3.87 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): SLIGHT (0.1 TO 1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE ODORLESS POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THIS SUBSTANCE IS LISTED AS ACGIH SUSPECT HUMAN CARCINOGEN, NTP HUMAN +CARCINOGEN, AND IARC HUMAN CARCINOGEN (GROUP 1). + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.2 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 0.5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 15.1 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: YES IARC: YES Z LIST: YES OSHA REG: YES + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INGESTION IS HARMFUL AND MAY BE FATAL. + INHALATION OF VAPORS MAY CAUSE HEADACHE, NAUSEA, VOMITING, DIZZINESS, + DROWSINESS, IRRITATION OF RESPIRATORY TRACT, AND LOSS OF CONSCIOUSNESS. + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, PARALYSIS. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION. + +TARGET ORGANS + LIVER, KIDNEYS, SKIN, LUNGS, LYMPHATIC SYSTEM + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, ABSORPTION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT, INGESTION + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, CHEMICALLY ACTIVE METALS, + ALUMINUM + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: P012 (ACUTE HAZARDOUS WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS TLV, A DUST/MIST RESPIRATOR IS + RECOMMENDED. IF CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF + RESPIRATOR, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN SECURE POISON AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME ARSENIC TRIOXIDE, SOLID +HAZARD CLASS POISON B +UN/NA UN1561 +LABELS POISON +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 5000 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME ARSENIC TRIOXIDE +HAZARD CLASS 6.1 +UN/NA UN1561 +LABELS POISON + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/asphaltum.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/asphaltum.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..9c281cb4 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/asphaltum.txt @@ -0,0 +1,64 @@ + +MSDS - ASPHALTUM + +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: NON-HAZARDOUS FOR INGREDIENTS +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 1000314NH +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point Method: N/P +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Report for NIIN: 00F033053 +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: NO +Route Of Entry - Skin: NO +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: NO +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO +Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: NONE +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: CLEAN UP W/CLOTH OR PAPER TOWELS. +Waste Disposal Method: DISPOSE AS NORMAL HOUSEHOLD TRASH +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Report for NIIN: 00F033053 +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Technical Review Date: 24FEB94 +Label Date: 18FEB94 +Label Status: F +Common Name: 2765 ASPHALTUM +Report for NIIN: 00F033053 +Chronic Hazard: NO +Signal Word: NONE +Acute Health Hazard-None: X +Contact Hazard-None: X +Fire Hazard-None: X +Reactivity Hazard-None: X + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/auramine_o.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/auramine_o.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..022b32aa --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/auramine_o.txt @@ -0,0 +1,182 @@ + +MSDS - AURAMINE O + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: AURAMINE O +FORMULA: C17H21N3 HCL +FORMULA WT: 303.84 +CAS NO.: 02465-27-2 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: BY3675000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: BASIC YELLOW 2; + ANILINE,4,4'-(IMIDOCARBONYL)BIS(N,N-DIMETHYL;HYDROCHLORIDE) +PRODUCT CODES: B604 + EFFECTIVE: 01/22/87 + REVISION #03 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 4 EXTREME (CANCER CAUSING) + FLAMMABILITY - 1 SLIGHT + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + HARMFUL IF INHALED + CAUTION: CANCER HAZARD + EXCEPTIONAL HEALTH HAZARD - READ MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +AURAMINE O 90-100 2465-27-2 +AURAMINE O 90-100 2465-27-2 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 267 C ( 513 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: N/A EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): SLIGHT (0.1 TO 1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: YELLOW POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + NITROGEN OXIDES, HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THIS SUBSTANCE IS LISTED AS AN NTP HUMAN CARCINOGEN AND AND IARC HUMAN +CARCINOGEN (GROUP 1). + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 480 + LD50 (SKIN-MOUSE) (G/KG) - 0.3 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: YES IARC: YES Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + DUST MAY CAUSE HEADACHE, COUGHING, DIZZINESS OR DIFFICULT BREATHING. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, SKIN CONTACT, EYE CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES OF NITROGEN, HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: U014 (TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: A RESPIRATOR WITH DUST/MIST FILTER IS RECOMMENDED. + IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF + RESPIRATOR, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME AURAMINE +HAZARD CLASS ORM-E +LABELS NONE +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 1 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_carbonate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_carbonate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..88c886b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_carbonate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,184 @@ + +MSDS - BARIUM CARBONATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: BARIUM CARBONATE +FORMULA: BACO3 +FORMULA WT: 197.35 +CAS NO.: 513-77-9 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: CQ8750000 +PRODUCT CODES: 5181,0952,0950,5313,5095,5142 + EFFECTIVE: 05/12/86 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED OR INHALED + CAUSES IRRITATION +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + NOT APPLICABLE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 1300 C ( 2372 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 4.28 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE TO CREAM-COLORED POWDER WITHOUT AN ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 630 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY IRRITATE SKIN OR EYES. + INHALATION OF DUST MAY CAUSE IRRITATION TO UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA AND VOMITING. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE GASTROINTESTINAL PAIN. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF BARIUM COMPOUNDS MAY INCLUDE BRONCHIAL IRRITATION, + DEGENERATION OF CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, AND DAMAGE TO SPLEEN, + LIVER, AND BONE MARROW. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, GIVE LARGE AMOUNT OF MILK, MILK OF MAGNESIA, + OR WHITES OF EGGS BEATEN WITH WATER. INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG ACIDS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D005 (EP TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME BARIUM COMPOUNDS, N.O.S. (BARIUM CARBONATE) +HAZARD CLASS 6.1 +UN/NA UN1564 +LABELS HARMFUL - STOW AWAY FROM FOOD STUFFS + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_chlorate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_chlorate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..f3415741 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_chlorate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,152 @@ + +MSDS- BARIUM CHLORATE + +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: CHLORIC ACID, BARIUM SALT; (BARIUM CHLORATE) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +Percent: 100 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: FN9770000 +CAS Number: 13477-00-4 +OSHA PEL: 0.5MG/M3(AS BA)(MFR) +ACGIH TLV: 0.5MG/M3(AS BA)(MFR) +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: BARIUM CHLORATE +Ingredient Sequence Number: 02 +SUPDAT: HEART STOPPAGE. +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 9999999ZZ +OSHA PEL: NOT APPLICABLE +ACGIH TLV: NOT APPLICABLE +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: SPILL PROC:HAZARDS, & ARE FRICTION & SHOCK SENSITIVE. +Ingredient Sequence Number: 03 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 9999999ZZ +OSHA PEL: NOT APPLICABLE +ACGIH TLV: NOT APPLICABLE +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: COLORLESS CRYSTAL, WHITE POWDER. +Melting Point: 777F,414C +Vapor Pressure (MM Hg/70 F): N/A +Specific Gravity: 3.18 +Evaporation Rate And Ref: NOT APPLICABLE +Solubility In Water: SOLUBLE +Percent Volatiles By Volume: N/A +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: NOT APPLICABLE +Flash Point Method: N/P +Extinguishing Media: USE DRY CHEMICAL, CO*2. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: USE NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED SCBA & FULL PROTECTIVE +EQUIPMENT (FP N). +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: POWERFUL OXIDIZER; CAN INITIATE/ACCELERATE +COMBUST. USED IN EXPLO INDUSTRY. HEAT, FRICTION, SHOCK & REDUCING MATLS CAN +EXPLODE BARIUM CHLORATE. SMALL (SUPDAT) +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: NO +Cond To Avoid (Stability): HEAT. +Materials To Avoid: AL, AS, C, CHARCOAL, CU, MNO*2, METAL SULFIDES, +S*4N*4, ORGANIC MATTER, P, S, REDUCING MATLS. +Hazardous Decomp Products: BAO, CL. +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +Conditions To Avoid (Poly): HEAT, FRICTION, SHOCK, IMPURITIES & +INCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS. +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: YES +Route Of Entry - Skin: NO +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: YES +Health Haz Acute And Chronic: INHAL:ACUTE POIS BY INHAL HAS PROGRESSIVE +SYMPS OF IRRIT OF NOSE & EYES, MUSCULAR TWITCHING, TENDENCY TO FATG, ABDOM +CRAMPS, COLD SWEAT, SLOW HEART RATE & DEATH FROM HEART STOPPING. IRRIT TO +MUC MEMBS. SKIN/EYE:IRRITATING. CAUSES WATERING & BURNING SENSATION IN EYES +W/INFLAMM OF EYELIDS. PRLNG CONT OF (EFTS OF OVEREXP) +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO +Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: NOT RELEVANT +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: HLTH HAZ:DUSTS W/MOIST SKIN CAUSES ULCERATION. +OTHER:CHLORATES PRDCE METHEMOGLOBIN IN BLOOD & DESTROYS RED BLOOD CELLS, +LEADING TO IRRIT OF KIDNEYS & MAY DMG HEART MUSCLE. ACUTE POIS THRU INGEST +HAS PROGRESSIVE SYMPS OF DISAGREEABLE TASTE, MUSCULAR TWITCHING, NAUS & +VOMIT, STOM PAINS & DIARR, ANXIETY, SLOW (SUPP DATA) +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: RESPIRATORY DISORDERS. +Emergency/First Aid Proc: INGEST:ADMINISTER IPERAC FOLLOWED BY CUP OF +WATER TO INDUCE VOMITING. AFTER VOMITING, ADMINISTER 1 T OF MAGNESIUM +SULFATE & 8 OZ WATER TO DRINK. SEEK MED ATTN IMMED. INHAL:REMOVE VICTIM TO +FRESH AIR; ADMINISTER OXYGEN IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT. SEEK MED ATTN. +FLUSH W/LUKEWARM WATER FOR AT LST 15 MINS & SEEK MED ATTN. +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: WEAR NIOSH/MSHA APPRVD SCBA & FULL PROT +CLTHG. ISOLATE AREA WHERE SPILL OCCURRED & INSURE PROPER VENT IS AVAIL. +VACUUM UP SPILL USING HIGH EFFICIENCY UNIT & PLACE IN CNTNR FOR PROPER +DISP. TAKE CARE NOT TO RAISE DUST. SPILLS ARE EXTREME EXPLO (ING 3) +Neutralizing Agent: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Waste Disposal Method: DISPOSE OF I/A/W APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE & LOCAL +REGULATIONS. +Precautions-Handling/Storing: SHOULD HAVE ISOLATED STORAGE IN A COOL, +VENTILATED PLACE AWAY FROM ACUTE FIRE HAZARDS. STORE IN TIGHTLY CLOSED +CONTAINERS IN A COOL, DRY PLACE. +Other Precautions: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: WEAR NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED DUST-MIST-FUME CARTRIDGE +RESPIRATOR. +Ventilation: ALWAYS MAINTAIN EXPOS BELOW PELS. LOC EXHST:MAINTAIN BELOW +TLV FOR BA. MECH(GEN):REC. HANDLE IN CONTROLLED, INERT ATM. +Protective Gloves: NEOPRENE GLOVES. +Eye Protection: ANSI APRV CHEMICAL SAFETY GOGGLES (FP N) +Other Protective Equipment: WEAR PROTECTIVE CLOTHING TO PREVENT +CONTAMINATION OF SKIN & CLOTHES. +Work Hygienic Practices: WASH HANDS & FACE THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING & +BEFORE MEALS. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: EXPLO HAZ:IMPURITIES CAN GREATLY INCR +SENSITIVITY OF EXPLO. EFTS OF OVEREXP:HEART RATE, CONVLS, BLUISH FACE & +LIPS, STATE OF SHOCK (WEAK & RAPID PULSE, COLD SWEAT, PALE COMPLEXION, LT +HEAD, COLD HANDS & FEET), PARAL OF LOWER LIMBS SPREADING TO UPPER LIMBS, +DFCLTY IN BRTHG, DEATH BY RESP PARAL, RESP FAILURE/ (ING 2) +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Technical Review Date: 29SEP93 +Label Date: 16SEP93 +Label Status: M +Common Name: BARIUM CHLORATE +Chronic Hazard: YES +Signal Word: DANGER! +Acute Health Hazard-Severe: X +Contact Hazard-Moderate: X +Fire Hazard-None: X +Reactivity Hazard-None: X +Special Hazard Precautions: POISON! OXIDIZER! ISOLATED STORAGE IN COOL, +VENTILATED PLACE AWAY FROM FIRE HAZARDS. ACUTE:INHAL:ACUTE POISONING BY +INHALATION HAS PROGRESSIVE SYMPTOMS OF IRRITATION OF NOSE & EYES, MUSCULAR +TWITCHING, TENDENCY TO FATIGUE, ABDOMINAL CRAMPS, COLD SWEAT, SLOW HEART +IRRITATING. CAUSES WATERING & BURNING SENSATION IN EYES W/INFLAMMATION OF +EYELIDS. PROLONGED CONTACT OF DUSTS W/MOIST SKIN CAUSES ULCERATION. +CHRONIC:CHLORATES PRODUCE METHEMOGLOBIN IN BLOOD & DESTROY RED BLOOD CELLS, +LEADING TO IRRITATION OF KIDNEYS & MAY DAMAGE HEART MUSCLE. +Protect Eye: Y +Protect Skin: Y +Protect Respiratory: Y + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_chloride.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_chloride.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..9aedd751 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_chloride.txt @@ -0,0 +1,178 @@ + +MSDS - BARIUM CHLORIDE, ANHYDROUS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: BARIUM CHLORIDE, ANHYDROUS +FORMULA: BACL2 +FORMULA WT: 208.25 +CAS NO.: 10361-37-2 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: CQ8750000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: BARIUM DICHLORIDE +PRODUCT CODES: 0980 + EFFECTIVE: 10/21/85 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 3 SEVERE (POISON) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + POISON DANGER + MAY BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED + CAUSES IRRITATION +DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +BARIUM CHLORIDE, ANHYDROUS 90-100 10361-37-2 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 1560 C ( 2840 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 963 C ( 1765 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 3.10 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: FINE, WHITE, CRYSTALLINE OR GRANULAR POWDER, WITH NO ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 118 + LD50 (SCU-RAT)(MG/KG) - 178 + LD50 (IPR-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 54 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + INGESTION MAY BE FATAL. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF BARIUM COMPOUNDS MAY INCLUDE BRONCHIAL IRRITATION, + DEGENERATION OF CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, AND DAMAGE TO SPLEEN, + LIVER, AND BONE MARROW. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D005 (EP TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS UP + TO 3 PPM, A HIGH-EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE + RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. ABOVE THIS LEVEL, A + SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, RUBBER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN SECURE POISON AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME BARIUM COMPOUNDS, N.O.S. (BARIUM CHLORIDE, ANHYDROUS) +HAZARD CLASS 6.1 +UN/NA UN1564 +LABELS POISON + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_chromate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_chromate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a480c984 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_chromate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,140 @@ + +MSDS - BARIUM CHROMATE + +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: BARIUM CHROMATE (VI) (BACRO*4) +ELEMENTAL CHROMIUM. PEL/TLV AS CHROMATES: 0.1 (ING 2) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: CQ8760000 +CAS Number: 10294-40-3 +OSHA PEL: 0.5 MG/M3 (BA) +ACGIH TLV: 0.5 MG/M3 (BA) +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: ING 1: MG/M3 PEL; 0.05 MG/M3 TLV; 0.001 MG/M3 C. +Ingredient Sequence Number: 02 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 9999999ZZ +OSHA PEL: NOT APPLICABLE +ACGIH TLV: NOT APPLICABLE +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: YELLOW POWDER - NO ODOR. +Boiling Point: DECOMPOSES +Melting Point: DECOMPOSES +Vapor Pressure (MM Hg/70 F): NEGLIGIBLE +Vapor Density (Air=1): N/A +Specific Gravity: 4.5 (H*2O=1) +Evaporation Rate And Ref: NOT APPLICABLE +Solubility In Water: INSOLUBLE +Report for NIIN: 00N012831 +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: NOT APPLICABLE +Flash Point Method: N/P +Lower Explosive Limit: NON-FLAMM +Upper Explosive Limit: NON-FLAMM +Extinguishing Media: DRY CHEMICAL, CARBON DIOXIDE OR WATER SPRAY. FOR +LARGE FIRES - FOG. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: IN STORAGE AREA - USE UNMANNED HOSE HOLDER AND +WITHDRAW FROM AREA UNTIL FIRE IS OUT. WEAR NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED SCBA AND +FULL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (FP N). +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: NOT APPLICABLE +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Cond To Avoid (Stability): NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Materials To Avoid: REDUCING AGENTS MAY REACT VIGOROUSLY. +Hazardous Decomp Products: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +Conditions To Avoid (Poly): NOT RELEVANT +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: YES +Route Of Entry - Skin: NO +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: NO +Health Haz Acute And Chronic: WORKERS MAY EXPERIENCE AN INCREASED +INCIDENCE OF LUNG CANCER. POISONING MAY AFFECT THE BLOOD, CNS, LIVER AND +KIDNEYS. BARIUM COMPOUNDS ARE SKIN, EYE AND MUCOUS MEMBRANE IRRITANTS. +Carcinogenicity - NTP: YES +Carcinogenicity - IARC: YES +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: BARIUM CHROMATE (VI):IARC MONOGRAPHS, +SUPPLEMENT, VOL 49, PG 49, 1990: GROUP 1. NTP 7TH ANNUAL REPORT ON (SUPP +DATA) +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: VOMITING, VIOLENT DIARRHEA, ABDOMINAL PAIN, +DIFFICULTY IN BREATHING, SLOW PULSE AND IRREGULAR HEARTBEAT. MAY CAUSE +BLEEDING AND ULCERATION OF NASAL SEPTUM. SORE THROAT, COUGHING AND POSSIBLE +LIVER DAMAGE. SKIN RASHES, LARGE DOSES MAY CAUSE CARDIAC AND RESPIRATORY +FAILURE AND HEMORRHAGES IN THE GI TRACT AND KIDNEYS. +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Emergency/First Aid Proc: INHAL: REMOVE FROM EXPOSURE AREA. SKIN: REMOVE +CONTAMINATED CLOTHING AND SHOES. WASH AFFECTED AREA WITH SOAP AND WATER. +EYES: FLUSH WITH LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 MIN. GET MEDICAL +ATTENTION. INGEST: MEDICAL PERSONNEL SHOULD REMOVE CHROMATES BY GASTRIC +LAVAGE. +Report for NIIN: 00N012831 +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: KEEP COMBUSTIBLES AWAY FROM SPILLED +MATERIAL. SHOVEL MATERIAL INTO CLEAN DRY CONTAINER AND COVER. MOVE +CONTAINERS FROM SPILL AREA. +Neutralizing Agent: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Waste Disposal Method: CONTAMINATED RESIDUE AND SWEEPINGS ARE CONSIDERED A +TOXIC WASTE. MUST BE DISPOSED OF IN A LICENSED TOXIC WASTE DUMP. DISPOSAL +MUST BE IN ACCORDANCE WITH FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL REGULATIONS (FP N). +Precautions-Handling/Storing: KEEP AWAY FROM COMBUSTIBLES. STORE IN DRY +AREA. KEEP CONTAINERS CLOSED. +Other Precautions: KEEP AWAY FROM REDUCING AGENTS. +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED HIGH EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE +RESPIRATOR WITH FULL FACE PIECE. +Ventilation: LOCAL EXHAUST: SUFFICIENT TO ELIMINATE DUSTS. +Protective Gloves: IMPERVIOUS GLOVES (FP N). +Eye Protection: ANSI APPRVD CHEM WORKER GOGGLES (FP N). +Other Protective Equipment: IMPERVIOUS CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT TO PREVENT +ANY POSSIBILITY OF SKIN CONTACT WITH SUBSTANCE. +Work Hygienic Practices: WASH CLOTHING BEFORE REUSE. WORKERS SHOULD TAKE +HOT SHOWERS AFTER WORK IS FINISHED. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: CARCIN: CARCINOGENS, 1992: KNOWN TO BE +CARCINOGENIC. +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Report for NIIN: 00N012831 +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Technical Review Date: 19AUG93 +Label Date: 05AUG93 +Label Status: M +Common Name: BARIUM CHROMATE +Chronic Hazard: YES +Signal Word: DANGER! +Acute Health Hazard-Severe: X +Contact Hazard-Slight: X +Report for NIIN: 00N012831 +Fire Hazard-None: X +Reactivity Hazard-None: X +Special Hazard Precautions: KEEP AWAY FROM COMBUSTIBLES. STORE IN A DRY +AREA. ACUTE: IRRITATION OF SKIN, EYES AND MUCOUS MEMBRANES. AVOID BREATHING +DUST. DO NOT INGEST. CHRONIC: BARIUM CHROMATE IS A CARCINOGEN. WORKERS MAY +EXPERIENCE AN INCREASED INCIDENCE OF LUNG CANCER. +Protect Eye: Y +Protect Skin: Y +Protect Respiratory: Y + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_nitrate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_nitrate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..f98e2e66 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_nitrate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,194 @@ + +MSDS - BARIUM NITRATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: BARIUM NITRATE +FORMULA: BA(NO3)2 +FORMULA WT: 261.35 +CAS NO.: 10022-31-8 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: CQ9625000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: BARIUM(II)NITRATE; BARIUM DINITRATE +PRODUCT CODES: 1018 + EFFECTIVE: 10/11/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 3 SEVERE (LIFE) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 3 SEVERE (OXIDIZER) + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + POISON DANGER + EXCEPTIONAL HEALTH HAZARD - READ MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET + STRONG OXIDIZER - CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE + MAY BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED +KEEP FROM CONTACT WITH CLOTHING AND OTHER COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. DO NOT +STORE NEAR COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE +OF FIRE, SOAK WITH WATER. IN CASE OF SPILL, SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. FLUSH SPILL +AREA WITH WATER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +BARIUM NITRATE 90-100 10022-31-8 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 592 C ( 1098 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 9.0 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 3.24 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): MODERATE (1 TO 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: CRYSTALS OR CRYSTALLINE POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A NFPA 704M RATING: 0-0-0 + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + STRONG OXIDIZER. CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + NITROGEN OXIDES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 355 + LD50 (IV-MOUSE) (MG/KG) - 8.5 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF BARIUM COMPOUNDS MAY INCLUDE BRONCHIAL IRRITATION, + DEGENERATION OF CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, AND DAMAGE TO SPLEEN, + LIVER, AND BONE MARROW. + DUST MAY IRRITATE NOSE AND THROAT. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION + +INCOMPATIBLES: COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, STRONG REDUCING AGENTS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES OF NITROGEN + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + KEEP COMBUSTIBLES (WOOD, PAPER, OIL, ETC.) AWAY FROM SPILLED MATERIAL. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D003 (REACTIVE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS TLV, A DUST/MIST RESPIRATOR IS + RECOMMENDED. IF CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF + RESPIRATOR, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, BUTYL RUBBER + GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE SEPARATELY AND AWAY FROM FLAMMABLE + AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME BARIUM NITRATE +HAZARD CLASS OXIDIZER +UN/NA UN1446 +LABELS OXIDIZER + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME BARIUM NITRATE +HAZARD CLASS 5.1, 6.1 +UN/NA UN1446 +LABELS OXIDIZING AGENT, POISON + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_sulfate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_sulfate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..af658436 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/barium_sulfate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,166 @@ + +MSDS - BARIUM SULFATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: BARIUM SULFATE +FORMULA: BASO4 +FORMULA WT: 233.40 +CAS NO.: 07727-43-7 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: CR0600000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: BARITE +PRODUCT CODES: 1030,1040 + EFFECTIVE: 03/11/86 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 0 NONE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + NOT APPLICABLE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 1580 C ( 2876 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 4.25 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: HEAVY WHITE POWDER WITHOUT AN ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + SULFUR DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + NO EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE WERE DOCUMENTED. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +INCOMPATIBLES: ALUMINUM, PHOSPHORUS +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES OF SULFUR + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D005 (EP TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/bentonite.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/bentonite.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..68c8d837 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/bentonite.txt @@ -0,0 +1,241 @@ + +MSDS - Bentonite clay + + **** SECTION 2 - COMPOSITION, INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS **** + ++------------+------------------------------------+---------+-----------+ +| CAS# | Chemical Name | % | EINECS# | +|------------|------------------------------------|---------|-----------| +| 1318-93-0|K-10 Bentonite clay | |unlisted | ++------------+------------------------------------+---------+-----------+ + + **** SECTION 3 - HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION **** + + EMERGENCY OVERVIEW +Appearance: not available. + + + +Target Organs: None. + +Potential Health Effects + The toxicological properties of this material have not been + investigated. Use appropriate procedures to prevent opportunities + for direct contact with the skin or eyes and to prevent inhalation. + + **** SECTION 4 - FIRST AID MEASURES **** + + Eyes: + Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, + occasionally lifting the upper and lower lids. + Skin: + Flush skin with plenty of soap and water for at least 15 minutes + while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. + Ingestion: + DO NOT induce vomiting. Allow the victim to rinse his mouth and then + to drink 2-4 cupfuls of water, and seek medical advice. + Inhalation: + Remove from exposure to fresh air immediately. + Notes to Physician: + Treat symptomatically. + No specific antidote exists. + + **** SECTION 5 - FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES **** + + General Information: + As in any fire, wear a self-contained breathing apparatus in + pressure-demand, MSHA/NIOSH (approved or equivalent), and full + protective gear. During a fire, irritating and highly toxic gases + may be generated by thermal decomposition or combustion. + Extinguishing Media: + Use agent most appropriate to extinguish fire. + Autoignition Temperature: Not available. + Flash Point: Not available. + NFPA Rating: Not published. + Explosion Limits, Lower: Not available. + Upper: Not available. + + **** SECTION 6 - ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES **** + + General Information: Use proper personal protective equipment as indicated + in Section 8. + Spills/Leaks: + Clean up spills immediately, observing precautions in the Protective + Equipment section. Sweep up, then place into a suitable container for + disposal. + + **** SECTION 7 - HANDLING and STORAGE **** + + Handling: + Wash thoroughly after handling. Remove contaminated clothing and + wash before reuse. Avoid contact with eyes, skin, and clothing. Avoid + ingestion and inhalation. + Storage: + Store in a cool, dry place. Keep container closed when not in use. + + **** SECTION 8 - EXPOSURE CONTROLS, PERSONAL PROTECTION **** + + Engineering Controls: + Use adequate general or local exhaust ventilation to keep airborne + concentrations below the permissible exposure limits. Use process + enclosure, local exhaust ventilation, or other engineering controls + to control airborne levels. + + Exposure Limits ++--------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-----------------+ +| Chemical Name | ACGIH | NIOSH |OSHA - Final PELs| +|--------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-----------------| +| K-10 Bentonite clay|none listed |none listed |none listed | ++--------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-----------------+ + + OSHA Vacated PELs: + K-10 Bentonite clay: + No OSHA Vacated PELs are listed for this chemical. + + Personal Protective Equipment + + Eyes: + Wear safety glasses and chemical goggles if splashing + is possible. + Skin: + Wear appropriate protective gloves and clothing to + prevent skin exposure. + Clothing: + Wear appropriate protective clothing to minimize + contact with skin. + Respirators: + Wear a NIOSH/MSHA-approved (or equivalent) + full-facepiece airline respirator in the positive + pressure mode with emergency escape provisions. + + **** SECTION 9 - PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES **** + +Physical State: Not available. +Appearance: Not available. +Odor: None reported. +pH: Not available. +Vapor Pressure: Not available. +Vapor Density: Not available. +Evaporation Rate: Not available. +Viscosity: Not available. +Boiling Point: Not available. +Freezing/Melting Point: Not available. +Decomposition Temperature: Not available. +Solubility: Not available. +Specific Gravity/Density: Not available. +Molecular Formula: Not available. +Molecular Weight: Not available. + + **** SECTION 10 - STABILITY AND REACTIVITY **** + + Chemical Stability: + Stable under normal temperatures and pressures. + Conditions to Avoid: + Incompatible materials, strong oxidants. + Incompatibilities with Other Materials: + Not available. + Hazardous Decomposition Products: + Irritating and toxic fumes and gases. + Hazardous Polymerization: Has not been reported. + + **** SECTION 11 - TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION **** + + RTECS#: + CAS# 1318-93-0 unlisted. + LD50/LC50: + Not available. + Carcinogenicity: + K-10 Bentonite clay - + Not listed by ACGIH, IARC, NIOSH, NTP, or OSHA. + + **** SECTION 12 - ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION **** + + Ecotoxicity: + Not available. + + **** SECTION 13 - DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS **** + +Dispose of in a manner consistent with federal, state, and local regulations. +RCRA D-Series Maximum Concentration of Contaminants: Not listed. +RCRA D-Series Chronic Toxicity Reference Levels: Not listed. +RCRA F-Series: Not listed. +RCRA P-Series: Not listed. +RCRA U-Series: Not listed. +Not listed as a material banned from land disposal according to RCRA. + + **** SECTION 14 - TRANSPORT INFORMATION **** + + US DOT + No information available + IMO + Not regulated as a hazardous material. + IATA + Not regulated as a hazardous material. + RID/ADR + Not regulated as a hazardous material. + Canadian TDG + No information available. + + **** SECTION 15 - REGULATORY INFORMATION **** + +A. Federal + TSCA + CAS# 1318-93-0 is not listed on the TSCA inventory. + It is for research and development use only. + Health & Safety Reporting List + None of the chemicals are on the Health & Safety Reporting List. + Chemical Test Rules + None of the chemicals in this product are under a Chemical Test Rule. + Section 12b + None of the chemicals are listed under TSCA Section 12b. + TSCA Significant New Use Rule + None of the chemicals in this material have a SNUR under TSCA. + CERCLA/SARA + Section 302 (RQ) + None of the chemicals in this material have an RQ. + Section 302 (TPQ) + None of the chemicals in this product have a TPQ. + Section 313 + No chemicals are reportable under Section 313. + Clean Air Act: + This material does not contain any hazardous air pollutants. + This material does not contain any Class 1 Ozone depletors. + This material does not contain any Class 2 Ozone depletors. + Clean Water Act: + None of the chemicals in this product are listed as Hazardous + Substances under the CWA. + None of the chemicals in this product are listed as Priority + Pollutants under the CWA. + None of the chemicals in this product are listed as Toxic Pollutants + under the CWA. + OSHA: + None of the chemicals in this product are considered highly hazardous + by OSHA. +B. State + Not present on state lists from CA, PA, MN, MA, FL, or NJ. + California No Significant Risk Level: + None of the chemicals in this product are listed. +C. International + Canada + None of the chemicals in this product are listed on the DSL/NDSL list. + CAS# 1318-93-0 is not listed on Canada's Ingredient Disclosure List. + European Labeling in Accordance with EC Directives + Hazard Symbols: Not available. + Risk Phrases: + Safety Phrases: + Exposure Limits: + OEL-AUSTRALIA:TWA 50 ppm (150 mg/m3);Skin. OEL-AUSTRIA:TWA 100 ppm (30 + 0 mg/m3). OEL-BELGIUM:STEL 50 ppm (152 mg/m3);Skin. OEL-CZECHOSLOVAKIA + :TWA 100 mg/m3;STEL 200 mg/m3. OEL-DENMARK:STEL 50 ppm (150 mg/m3);Ski + n. OEL-FINLAND:TWA 50 ppm (150 mg/m3);STEL 75 ppm (225 mg/m3);Skin. OE + L-FRANCE:STEL 50 ppm (150 mg/m3). OEL-GERMANY:TWA 100 ppm (300 mg/m3) + + 150 mg/m3);Skin. OEL-JAPAN:STEL 50 ppm (150 mg/m3);Skin. OEL-THE NETHE + RLANDS:TWA 50 ppm (150 mg/m3);Skin. OEL-THE PHILIPPINES:TWA 100 ppm (3 + 00 mg/m3). OEL-RUSSIA:STEL 50 ppm (10 mg/m3). OEL-SWEDEN:TWA 15 ppm (4 + 5 mg/m3);STEL 30 ppm (90 mg/m3);Skin. OEL-SWITZERLAND:TWA 50 ppm (150 + mg/m3);STEL 100 ppm;Skin. OEL-TURKEY:TWA 100 ppm (300 mg/m3). OEL-UNIT + ED KINGDOM:TWA 50 ppm (150 mg/m3);STEL 50 ppm;Skin. OEL IN BULGARIA, C + OLOMBIA, JORDAN, KOREA check ACGIH TLV. OEL IN NEW ZEALAND, SINGAPORE, + VIETNAM check ACGI TLV + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/benzoic_acid.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/benzoic_acid.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ac284d92 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/benzoic_acid.txt @@ -0,0 +1,180 @@ + +MSDS - Benzoic Acid + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: BENZOIC ACID +FORMULA: C6H5COOH +FORMULA WT: 122.12 +CAS NO.: 65-85-0 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: DG0875000 +PRODUCT CODES: 5077,0080,0077,0076 + EFFECTIVE: 03/20/86 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 1 SLIGHT + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + MAY BE HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED + MAY CAUSE IRRITATION +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + NOT APPLICABLE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 249 C ( 480 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): <1 + +MELTING POINT: 122 C ( 252 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 4.2 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.32 EVAPORATION RATE: <1 + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): SLIGHT (0.1 TO 1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE CRYSTALS WITH A FAINT, PLEASANT ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: 121 C ( 250 F) NFPA 704M RATING: 2-1- + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL OR CARBON DIOXIDE. + (WATER MAY BE INEFFECTIVE.) + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 2350 + LD50 (ORAL-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 2370 + LD50 (IPR-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 1460 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY IRRITATE OR BURN MUCOUS MEMBRANES. + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA AND VOMITING. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION, MOISTURE + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG BASES, STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, ALKALIES + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, RUBBER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME BENZOIC ACID +HAZARD CLASS ORM-E +UN/NA NA9094 +LABELS NONE +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 5000 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/bht.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/bht.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..746e6422 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/bht.txt @@ -0,0 +1,148 @@ + +MSDS - BHT + +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: P-CRESOL, 2,6-DI-TERT-BUTYL-; (4-METHYL-2,6-DI-TERT-BUTYL-PHENOL) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +Percent: >99 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: GO7875000 +CAS Number: 128-37-0 +OSHA PEL: 10 MG/M3 (MFR) +ACGIH TLV: 10 MG/M3 (MFR) +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: WHITE GRANULAR, FAINT ODOR. +Boiling Point: 509F,265C +Melting Point: 157F,69C +Vapor Pressure (MM Hg/70 F): N/A +Vapor Density (Air=1): 7.6 +Specific Gravity: 0.899 (H*20=1) +Evaporation Rate And Ref: NOT APPLICABLE +Solubility In Water: INSOLUBLE +Percent Volatiles By Volume: N/A +Magnetism (Milligauss): N/P +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: >260F,>127C +Flash Point Method: COC +Lower Explosive Limit: N/A +Upper Explosive Limit: N/A +Extinguishing Media: FOAM, CARBON DIOXIDE, DRY CHEMICAL, WATER. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: WEAR NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED SCBA AND FULL +PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (FP N). MOVE EXPOSED CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF +POSS. USE WATER TO KEEP FIRE EXPOSED CNTNRS COOL. +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: CONTACT WITH STRONG OXIDIZERS MAY CAUSE +FIRE. CLOSED CONTAINERS MAY EXPLODE DUE TO PRESSURE BUILDUP WHEN EXPOSED TO +EXTREME HEAT. +Report for NIIN: 00N033724 +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Cond To Avoid (Stability): NOT APPLICABLE. +Materials To Avoid: OXIDIZING AGENTS, STRONG ACIDS. +Hazardous Decomp Products: CO*2, CO. +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +Conditions To Avoid (Poly): NOT RELEVANT +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: YES +Route Of Entry - Skin: NO +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: YES +Health Haz Acute And Chronic: ACUTE: INHALATION: CAN CAUSE IRRITATION OF +NASAL AND RESPIRATORY PASSAGES. EYES: CONTACT MAY CAUSE SEVERE IRRITATION +OR BURNS. SKIN: PROLONGED CONTACT MAY CAUSE SKIN IRRITATION. INGESTION: IF +LARGE QUANTITIES, MAY CAUSE DIARRHEA, RESPIRATORY DEPRESSION, TREMORS, +CHRONIC PULMONARY EDEMA OR CONJECTION (EFTS OF OVEREXP) +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO +Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: NOT RELEVANT +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: HLTH HAZ: AND HEMORRAGE. CHRONIC: STUDIES +INDICATE SOME EFFECT ON NEWBORN IN LABORATORY ANIMALS SO MATERIAL IS AN +EXPERIMENTAL TERATOGEN. LIMITED ANIMAL EXPERIMENTS SUGGEST LIMITED +TOXICITY. +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Emergency/First Aid Proc: INHAL: REMOVE VICTIM FROM EXPOS, RESTORE BRTHG +IF NEC, & CONT PHYS IMMED. EYE: FLUSH WITH COPIOUS AMTS OF H*2O FOR AT +LEAST 15 MIN. CONT AN OPHTHALMOLOGIST/PHYS IMMED. SKIN: WASH AFFECTED AREA +W/SOAP & H*2O FOR 15 MIN. IF IRRIT OCCURS CONT PHYS. INGEST: IF VICTIM IS +CONSCIOUS, IMMED GIVE 2-4 GLASSES OF H*2O. INDUCE VOMIT BY TOUCHING FINGER +TO BACK OF THROAT. CONT PHYS/POIS CNTRL CENTER IMMED. +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: PROVIDE VENTILATION AND REMOVE ANY HEAT OR +FLAME. SWEEP UP WITH A MINIMUM OF DUSTING OR VACUUM WITH A FILTERED OUTLET +VACUUMING SYSTEM. PUT RESULTING WASTE INTO A REMOVABLE HEAD STEEL DRUM. +Neutralizing Agent: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Waste Disposal Method: FOR DISPOSAL, CONTRACT WITH A LICENSED CHEMICAL +WASTE DISPOSAL AGENCY. DISCHARGE, TREATMENT, OR DISPOSAL MAY BE SUBJECT TO +FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL REGULATIONS. DISPOSE OF IN ACCORDANCE WITH +FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL REGULATIONS (FP N). +Precautions-Handling/Storing: STORE IN COOL, DRY, WELL VENTILATED STORAGE +AREA. DO NOT STORE NEAR OXIDIZING AGENTS OR STRONG ACIDS. +Other Precautions: DO NOT STORE NEAR FOOD PRODUCTS. WASH HANDS THOROUGHLY +BEFORE EATING, DRIKING, OR USING REST ROOM. +Report for NIIN: 00N033724 +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED DUST/MIST/ORGANIC VAPOR +RESPIRATOR IF CONCENTRATIONS EXCEED ACCEPTABLE LIMITS OR IRRITATION OCCURS. +Ventilation: LOCAL EXHAUST RECOMMENDED. +Protective Gloves: NEOPRENE OR RUBBER GLOVES. +Eye Protection: CHEMICAL WORKERS GOGGLES (FP N). +Other Protective Equipment: SAFETY SHOWER, EYE WASH STATION. +Work Hygienic Practices: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Trans Data Review Date: 93040 +DOT PSN Code: ZZZ +DOT Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +IMO PSN Code: ZZZ +IMO Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED FOR THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +IATA PSN Code: ZZZ +IATA Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +AFI PSN Code: ZZZ +AFI Prop. Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +Additional Trans Data: NOT REGULATED FOR TRANSPORTATION +Report for NIIN: 00N033724 +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Technical Review Date: 08SEP92 +Label Date: 20AUG92 +Label Status: M +Common Name: CAO-3 BHT +Chronic Hazard: YES +Signal Word: WARNING! +Acute Health Hazard-Slight: X +Contact Hazard-Moderate: X +Fire Hazard-Slight: X +Reactivity Hazard-None: X +Special Hazard Precautions: STORE IN COOL, DRY, WELL VENTILATED STORAGE +CONTACT MAY CAUSE SEVERE IRRITATION OR BURNS. SKIN: PROLONGED CONTACT MAY +Report for NIIN: 00N033724 +CAUSE SKIN IRRITATION. INGESTION: IF LARGE QUANTITIES, MAY CAUSE DIARRHEA, +RESPIRATORY DEPRESSION, TREMORS, CHRONIC PULMONARY EDEMA OR CONJECTION AND +HEMORRAGE. CHRONIC: STUDIES INDICATE SOME EFFECT ON NEWBORN IN LABORATORY +ANIMALS SO MATERIAL IS AN EXPERIMENTAL TERATOGEN. LIMITED ANIMAL +EXPERIMENTS SUGGEST LIMITED TOXICITY. +Protect Eye: Y +Protect Skin: Y +Protect Respiratory: Y + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/boric_acid.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/boric_acid.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0093fb8e --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/boric_acid.txt @@ -0,0 +1,182 @@ + +MSDS - BORIC ACID + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: BORIC ACID +FORMULA: H3BO3 +FORMULA WT: 61.83 +CAS NO.: 10043-35-3 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: ED4550000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: BORACIC ACID; ORTHOBORIC ACID; BOROFAX +PRODUCT CODES: 0084,5168,0090,0091,9820 + EFFECTIVE: 10/03/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 2 MODERATE + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 2 MODERATE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + CAUSES IRRITATION + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED OR ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +BORIC ACID 90-100 10043-35-3 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): 15 + +MELTING POINT: 171 C ( 340 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.44 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): MODERATE (1 TO 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: COLORLESS, ODORLESS SOLID. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + OXIDES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 2660 + LD50 (SCU-RAT)(MG/KG) - 1400 + LD50 (IV-RAT) (MG/KG) - 1330 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INGESTION IS HARMFUL AND MAY BE FATAL. + DUST INHALATION MAY CAUSE TIGHTNESS AND PAIN IN CHEST, COUGHING, AND + DIFFICULTY IN BREATHING. + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + PROLONGED EXPOSURE MAY CAUSE DERMATITIS. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, HEADACHES, DIZZINESS, + GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE MAY INCLUDE KIDNEY AND/OR LIVER DAMAGE. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + DAMAGED SKIN + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INGESTION, INHALATION, SKIN CONTACT, EYE CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, GIVE LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: MOISTURE, HEAT + +INCOMPATIBLES: POTASSIUM METAL, WATER, STRONG BASES + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, UNIFORM, RUBBER + GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_carbide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_carbide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..5d2f48b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_carbide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,187 @@ + +MSDS - CALCIUM CARBIDE, ANHYDROUS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: CALCIUM CARBIDE, ANHYDROUS +FORMULA: CAC2 +FORMULA WT: 64.10 +CAS NO.: 00075-20-7 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: EV9400000 +PRODUCT CODES: E284 + EFFECTIVE: 10/22/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 2 MODERATE + FLAMMABILITY - 4 EXTREME (FLAMMABLE) + REACTIVITY - 3 SEVERE (WATER REACTIVE) + CONTACT - 2 MODERATE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES; CLASS B EXTINGUISHER + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + DANGER + CAUSES IRRITATION + HARMFUL IF INHALED + CONTACT WITH WATER LIBERATES FLAMMABLE ACETYLENE GAS. +KEEP FROM ANY POSSIBLE CONTACT WITH WATER. KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, +FLAME. AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +DO NOT BREATHE DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH +ADEQUATE VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, +DO NOT USE WATER. USE DRY SAND, EARTH OR SODA ASH. IN CASE OF SPILL, +SWEEP UP AND CAREFULLY REMOVE. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED STRIPE (STORE SEPARATELY) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +CALCIUM CARBIDE, ANHYDROUS 90-100 75-20-7 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 2300 C ( 4172 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 2.2 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.22 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): DECOMPOSES % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: GRAYISH-BLACK SOLID WITH GARLIC-LIKE ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A NFPA 704M RATING: 1-4-2 W + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE DRY CHEMICAL OR CARBON DIOXIDE. DO NOT USE WATER. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE EXPOSED CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. + USE WATER TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL; DO NOT GET WATER INSIDE + CONTAINERS. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + REACTS VIOLENTLY WITH WATER LIBERATING AND IGNITING HYDROGEN. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE SEVERE IRRITATION OR BURNS. + +TARGET ORGANS + EYES, SKIN + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: UNSTABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: MOISTURE + +INCOMPATIBLES: WATER, COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, + HYDROGEN CHLORIDE, MAGNESIUM + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: PHOSPHINE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, SMOKING, OR FLAMES IN AREA. DO NOT + USE WATER. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER. + MOVE CONTAINER(S) FROM SPILL AREA. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D001, D003 (IGNITABLE, REACTIVE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, UNIFORM, RUBBER + GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED STRIPE (STORE SEPARATELY) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + ISOLATE FROM INCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS. + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED AREA + AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, OR FLAME. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CALCIUM CARBIDE +HAZARD CLASS FLAMMABLE SOLID +UN/NA UN1402 +LABELS FLAMMABLE SOLID, DANGEROUS WHEN WET +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 10 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CALCIUM CARBIDE +HAZARD CLASS 4.3 +UN/NA UN1402 +LABELS DANGEROUS WHEN WET + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_carbonate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_carbonate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..6bb9d626 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_carbonate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,176 @@ + +MSDS - CALCIUM CARBONATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: CALCIUM CARBONATE +FORMULA: CACO3 +FORMULA WT: 100.09 +CAS NO.: 471-34-1 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: EV9580000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: LIMESTONE; MARBLE; CALCITE; CHALK; CARBONIC ACID, CALCIUM + SALT +PRODUCT CODES: 5178,4485,5152,1294,1301,1300,4918,1288 + EFFECTIVE: 10/22/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 0 NONE + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + MAY CAUSE IRRITATION + MAY BE HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +CALCIUM CARBONATE 90-100 471-34-1 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 825 C ( 1517 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.83 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: GRAY GRANULAR STONES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + OXIDES, CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 10 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY IRRITATE NOSE AND THROAT. + INHALATION OF DUST MAY CAUSE IRRITATION TO UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT. + CONTACT CAN CAUSE EYE IRRITATION. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE GASTROINTESTINAL PAIN. + +TARGET ORGANS + EYES, SKIN + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, INGESTION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG ACIDS, FLUORINE, ALUM, AMMONIUM SALTS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES, CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: A RESPIRATOR WITH DUST/MIST FILTER IS RECOMMENDED. + IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV, A SELF- + CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_chloride.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_chloride.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..30045de6 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_chloride.txt @@ -0,0 +1,160 @@ + +MSDS - CALCIUM CHLORIDE, ANHYDROUS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: CALCIUM CHLORIDE, ANHYDROUS +FORMULA: CACL2 +FORMULA WT: 110.99 +CAS NO.: 10043-52-4 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: EV9800000 +PRODUCT CODES: 1311 + EFFECTIVE: 09/26/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 2 MODERATE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + +STORAGE: KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +CALCIUM CHLORIDE 90-100 10043-52-4 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 772 C ( 1422 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.15 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): COMPLETE (IN ALL PROPORTIONS) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE GRANULES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 1000 + LD50 (IPR-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 280 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE SEVERE IRRITATION OR BURNS. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA AND VOMITING. + DUST MAY IRRITATE NOSE AND THROAT. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: MOISTURE + +INCOMPATIBLES: MOST COMMON METALS, WATER + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, UNIFORM, RUBBER + GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_fluoride.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_fluoride.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..59e32572 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_fluoride.txt @@ -0,0 +1,179 @@ + +MSDS - CALCIUM FLUORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: CALCIUM FLUORIDE +FORMULA: CAF2 +FORMULA WT: 78.08 +CAS NO.: 7789-75-5 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: EW1760000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: FLUORITE; FLUORSPAR +PRODUCT CODES: 1354 + EFFECTIVE: 09/02/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + CAUSES IRRITATION +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +CALCIUM FLUORIDE 90-100 7789-75-5 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 2500 C ( 4532 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 1403 C ( 2557 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 3.18 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: ODORLESS, WHITE POWDER OR CUBIC CRYSTALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + HYDROGEN FLUORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 2.5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 2.5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 4250 + LD50 (IPR-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 2775 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY IRRITATE SKIN OR EYES. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE GASTROINTESTINAL PAIN. + INGESTION IS HARMFUL AND MAY BE FATAL. + +TARGET ORGANS + EYES, SKIN, RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, KIDNEYS + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, INGESTION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG ACIDS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: HYDROGEN FLUORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS TLV, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_oxalate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_oxalate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e0ae83c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_oxalate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,169 @@ + +MSDS - CALCIUM OXALATE + +SECTION I. IDENTIFICATION + + - Chemical Name: Calcium Oxalate + - Synonym(s): Ethanedioic Acid Calcium Salt + - Formula: C2CaO4.H2O +=============================================================================== + +SECTION II. PRODUCT AND COMPONENT HAZARD DATA + + A. Weight + COMPONENT(S): Percent TLV(R) Accession No. CAS Reg. No. + + Calcium Oxalate GT 98 --- 435753 5794-28-5 + + B. PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENT(S): + + LOW HEALTH HAZARD FOR USUAL INDUSTRIAL HANDLING +=============================================================================== + +SECTION III. PHYSICAL DATA + + - Appearance and Odor: Colorless crystals; odorless + - Melting Point: 200 C (392 F) + - Vapor Pressure: Negligible + - Evaporation Rate (n-butyl acetate = 1): Negligible + - Vapor Density (Air = 1): Not Applicable + - Volatile Fraction by Weight: Negligible + - Specific Gravity (H2O = 1): 2.2 + - Solubility in Water (by Weight): Negligible +=============================================================================== + +SECTION IV. FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA + + - Extinguishing Media: Water spray; Dry chemical; CO2 + - Special Fire Fighting Procedures: None known + - Unusual Fire and Explosion Hazards: None known +=============================================================================== + +SECTION V. REACTIVITY DATA + + - Stability: Stable + - Incompatibility: Strong oxidizers + - Hazardous Decomposition Products: + As with any other organic material, combustion will produce + carbon dioxide and probably carbon monoxide. + - Hazardous Polymerization: Will not occur. +=============================================================================== + +SECTION VI. TOXICITY AND HEALTH HAZARD DATA + + A. EXPOSURE LIMITS: Not established + + B. EXPOSURE EFFECTS: + + Inhalation: Low hazard for usual industrial handling. + + Eyes: No specific hazard known. + However, any material that contacts the eye may be + irritating. + + Skin: Low hazard for usual industrial handling. + + C. FIRST AID: + + Eyes: Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water. + + Skin: Flush skin with plenty of water. + + D. TOXICITY DATA + + Eye Irritation: Calcium oxalate is a very inert insoluble solid + having no injurious effect on contact with the eye.(1) + + Other: The mean lethal oral dose for an adult is felt to be from 15 + - 30 g, with death resulting from acute kidney failure within a few + hours.(2) +=============================================================================== + +SECTION VII. VENTILATION AND PERSONAL PROTECTION + + A. VENTILATION: + + Good general ventilation should be sufficient. + + B. SKIN AND EYE PROTECTION: + + Safety glasses should be worn in any type of industrial + chemical handling. +=============================================================================== + +SECTION VIII. SPECIAL STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS + + Keep from contact with oxidizing materials. +=============================================================================== + +SECTION IX. SPILL, LEAK, AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES + + Sweep material onto paper and place in fiber carton. + Package appropriately for safe feed to an incinerator or + dissolve in compatible waste solvents prior to incineration. + Dispose by incineration or contract with licensed chemical + waste disposal agency. + Discharge, treatment, or disposal may be subject to federal, + state, or local laws. +=============================================================================== + +SECTION X. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS DATA + + A. SUMMARY: + This chemical has not been tested for environmental effects. + Some published data are available for oxalic acid and oxalate + anion, and these data have been used to provide the following + estimate of environmental impact: + + This chemical has a moderate biological oxygen demand and it + may cause oxygen depletion in aquatic systems. It is expected + to have a low potential to affect aquatic organisms. The + organic portion of this chemical is readily biodegradable and + is not likely to bioconcentrate. When diluted with water, this + chemical released directly or indirectly into the environment + is not expected to have a significant impact. + + Calcium oxalate is practically insoluble in water and acetic + acid.6,7 The data below are for oxalic acid and/or sodium + oxalate. + B. OXYGEN DEMAND DATA: (Oxalic acid)(3) + ThOD: 1.8 g/g + COD: 0.18 g/g + BOD5: 0.14 g/g + BOD20: 0.16 g/g + C. ACUTE AQUATIC EFFECTS: + Goldfish; Period of survival: 0.4 - 0.5 hr, 1000 ppm (pH 2.6); + 4 days, 200 ppm (pH 5.3)(3) + 96-hour LC50; Mosquito Fish: 1350 mg/L (Sodium oxalate)(5) + 96-hour LCo; Water flea: 95 mg/L (Oxalic acid)(4) + 48-hour Immobilization; Water Flea: 214 mg/L (sodium oxalate) +=============================================================================== + +SECTION XII. REFERENCES + + 1. Grant, W. M. Toxicology of the Eye, Charles C. Thomas, Publ. + Springfield, Ill. 974. + + 2. Gosselin, R. E., et. al., Clinical Toxicology of Commercial + Products, 4th, 1976. + + 3. Verschueren, K., Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic + Chemicals, Second Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New + York, N.Y., 1983. + + 4. Battelle's Columbus Laboratories, Water Quality Critical Data + Book - Vol. 3 - Effects of Chemicals on Aquatic Life - Selected + Data from the Literature Through 1968, for the U.S. + Environmental Protection Agency, Project No. 18050 GWV, + Contract No. 68-01-0007, May 1971. + + 5. McKee, J.E. and Wolf, H.W., Eds., "Water Quality Criteria," + State of California, Publication No. 3-A, 1963. + + 6. Weast, R.C. "Handbook of Chemistry and Physics", CRC Press Ed. + CRC Handbook, Boca Raton, FL, 1981-2. + + 7. Windholz, M. "The Merck Index - Ninth Edition" Merck and Co., + Ruhway NJ, 1976. + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_phosphide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_phosphide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a84db77b --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_phosphide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,195 @@ + +Common Name: CALCIUM PHOSPHIDE + +CAS Number: 1305-99-3 +DOT Number: UN 1360 +------------------------------------------------------------ +Substance number: 0329 +Date: 8/1/87 Revision: +------------------------------------------------------------ +HAZARD SUMMARY +* Calcium Phosphide can affect you when breathed in. +* Phosphine gas is a highly toxic gas released when Calcium +Phosphide is wet or has contacted moisture. Consult the NJ DOH +Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet on Phosphine. * Calcium Phosphide +is a DANGEROUS FIRE and EXPLOSION HAZARD. + + +IDENTIFICATION +Calcium Phosphide is a reddish-brown crystalline (sugar or sand- +like) or a grey granular solid. It is used to kill rodents and +in explosives and fireworks. + +REASON FOR CITATION +* Calcium Phosphide is on the Hazardous Substance List because it +is cited by DOT. + + +HOW TO DETERMINE IF YOU ARE BEING EXPOSED +* Exposure to hazardous substances should be routinely evaluated. +This may include collecting personal and area air samples. You +can obtain copies of sampling results from your employer. You +have a legal right to this information under OSHA 1910.20. * If +you think you are experiencing any work-related health problems, +see a doctor trained to recognize occupational diseases. Take +this Fact Sheet with you. + + +WORKPLACE EXPOSURE LIMITS +No occupational exposure limits have been established for Calcium +Phosphide. This does not mean that this substance is not +harmful. Safe work practices should always be followed. + + +WAYS OF REDUCING EXPOSURE +* Where possible, enclose operations and use local exhaust +ventilation at the site of chemical release. If local exhaust +ventilation or enclosure is not used, respirators should be worn. +* Wear protective work clothing. +* Dry brush or vacuum material thoroughly from skin immediately +after exposure to Calcium Phosphide and follow with large amounts +of water. * Post hazard and warning information in the work area. +In addition, as part of an ongoing education and training effort, +communicate all information on the health and safety hazards of +Calcium Phosphide to potentially exposed workers. + + +HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION + +Acute Health Effects +The following acute (short-term) health effects may occur +immediately or shortly after exposure to Calcium Phosphide: + +* Exposure to Calcium Phosphide that has contacted moisture can +expose you to Phosphine gas which is highly toxic and dangerous. +consult the NJ DOH Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet on phosphine. + +Chronic Health Effects +The following chronic (long-term) health effects can occur at +some time after exposure to Calcium Phosphide and can last for +months or years: + +Cancer Hazard +* According to the information presently available to the New +Jersey Department of Health, Calcium Phosphide has not been +tested for its ability to cause cancer in animals. + +Reproductive Hazard +* According to the information presently available to the New +Jersey Department of Health, Calcium Phosphide has not been +tested for its ability to adversely affect reproduction. + +Other Long-Term Effects +* No chronic (long-term) health effects are known at this time. + + +MEDICAL + +Medical Testing +There is no special test for this chemical. However, if illness +occurs or overexposure is suspected, medical attention is +recommended. + +Any evaluation should include a careful history of past and +present symptoms with an exam. Medical tests that look for +damage already done are not a substitute for controlling +exposure. + +Request copies of your medical testing. You have a legal right +to this information under OSHA 1910.20. + + +WORKPLACE CONTROLS AND PRACTICES + +Unless a less toxic chemical can be substituted for a hazardous +substance, ENGINEERING CONTROLS are the most effective way of +reducing exposure. The best protection is to enclose operations +and/or provide local exhaust ventilation at the site of chemical +release. Isolating operations can also reduce exposure. Using +respirators or protective equipment is less effective than the +controls mentioned above, but is sometimes necessary. + +In evaluating the controls present in your workplace, consider: +(1) how hazardous the substance is, (2) how much of the substance +is released into the workplace and (3) whether harmful skin or +eye contact could occur. Special controls should be in place for +highly toxic chemicals or when significant skin, eye, or +breathing exposures are possible. + +Good WORK PRACTICES can help to reduce hazardous exposures. The +following work practices are recommended: + +* Workers whose clothing has been contaminated by Calcium +Phosphide should change into clean clothing promptly. * +Contaminated work clothes should be laundered by individuals who +have been informed of the hazards of exposure to Calcium +Phosphide. * On skin contact with Calcium Phosphide, immediately +wash or shower to remove the chemical. At the end of the +workshift, wash any areas of the body that may have contacted +Calcium Phosphide, whether or not known skin contact has +occurred. * Do not eat, smoke, or drink where Calcium Phosphide +is handled, processed, or stored, since the chemical can be +swallowed. Wash hands carefully before eating or smoking. * Use +a vacuum to reduce dust during clean-up. Do not dry sweep. + +FIRE HAZARDS + +* Calcium Phosphide releases highly flammable Phosphine gas on +contact with moisture. * DO NOT USE WATER OR FOAM EXTINGUISHERS. +* Use dry chemical, soda ash, or lime extinguishers. +* If employees are expected to fight fires, they must be trained +and equipped as stated in OSHA 1910.156. + + +SPILLS AND EMERGENCIES + +If Calcium Phosphide is spilled, take the following steps: + +* Restrict persons not wearing protective equipment from area of +spill until clean-up is complete. * Remove all ignition sources. +* Ventilate area of spill. +* Collect powdered material in the most convenient and safe +manner and deposit in sealed containers. * It may be necessary to +contain and dispose of Calcium Phosphide as a HAZARDOUS WASTE. +Contact your state Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) +or your regional office of the federal Environmental Protection +Agency (EPA) for specific recommendations. + + +HANDLING AND STORAGE + +* Prior to working with Calcium Phosphide you should be trained +on its proper handling and storage. * Store in tightly closed +containers in a cool, well-ventilated area away from STRONG +OXIDIZERS (such as CHLORINE, BROMINE and FLUORINE), STRONG ACIDS +(such as HYDROCHLORIC, SULFURIC and NITRIC), OXYGEN, SULFUR or +MOISTURE since violent reactions occur. * Sources of ignition, +such as smoking and open flames, are prohibited where Calcium +Phosphide is handled, used, or stored. * Use only nonsparking +tools and equipment, especially when opening and closing +containers of Calcium Phosphide. * Wherever Calcium Phosphide is +used, handled, manufactured, or stored, use explosion-proof +electrical equipment and fittings. * Do not store large amounts +of this material in a room protected by WATER sprinkler systems. +* Protect containers against physical damage. + + +FIRST AID + +Eye Contact +* Immediately flush with large amounts of water, after quickly +wiping excess Calcium Phosphide from face with dry cloth. +Continue without stopping for at least 30 minutes, occasionally +lifting upper and lower lids. Seek medical attention immediately. + +Skin Contact +* Remove contaminated clothing. Remove Calcium Phosphide from +skin with a dry cloth. Wash with soap and water, rinsing with +large amounts of water. + +Breathing +* Remove the person from exposure. +* Begin rescue breathing if breathing has stopped and CPR if +heart action has stopped. * Transfer promptly to a medical +facility. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_resinate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_resinate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..32abebd9 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_resinate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ + +MSDS - CALCIUM RESINATE + +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: CALCIUM RESINATE +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: EW3970000 +CAS Number: 9007-13-0 +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: CADMIUM BROMIDE, TETRAHYDRATE +Ingredient Sequence Number: 02 +Percent: 6MIN +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 1000288CB +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Magnetism (Milligauss): N/P +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point Method: N/P +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: N/P +Hazardous Poly Occur: N/P +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: N/P +Route Of Entry - Skin: N/P +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: N/P +Carcinogenicity - NTP: N/P +Carcinogenicity - IARC: N/P +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: N/P +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Trans Data Review Date: 79327 +DOT PSN Code: CRV +DOT Proper Shipping Name: CALCIUM RESINATE +DOT Class: 4.1 +DOT ID Number: UN1313 +DOT Pack Group: III +DOT Label: FLAMMABLE SOLID +IMO PSN Code: DLV +IMO Proper Shipping Name: CALCIUM RESINATE +IMO Regulations Page Number: 4132 +IMO UN Number: 1313 +IMO UN Class: 4.1 +IMO Subsidiary Risk Label: - +IATA PSN Code: FAT +IATA UN ID Number: 1313 +IATA Proper Shipping Name: CALCIUM RESINATE +IATA UN Class: 4.1 +IATA Label: FLAMMABLE SOLID +AFI PSN Code: FAT +AFI Prop. Shipping Name: CALCIUM RESINATE +AFI Class: 4.1 +AFI ID Number: UN1313 +AFI Pack Group: III +AFI Label: FLAMMABLE SOLID +AFI Special Prov: A1,A19 +AFI Basic Pac Ref: 8-7 +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Label Status: G +Common Name: MIL-C-20470,CALCIUM RESINATE +Chronic Hazard: N/P + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_silicide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_silicide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e717a407 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_silicide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,211 @@ +ELKEM METALS -- CALCIUM-SILICON ALLOYS, HYPERCAL ALLOY +MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET +FSC: 3439 +NIIN: 00N044298 +Manufacturer's CAGE: 1DS52 +Part No. Indicator: A +Part Number/Trade Name: CALCIUM-SILICON ALLOYS, HYPERCAL ALLOY +=========================================================================== + General Information +=========================================================================== +Company's Name: ELKEM METALS CO * +Company's P. O. Box: 1344 * +Company's City: NIAGARA FALLS * +Company's State: NY * +Company's Country: US * +Company's Zip Code: 14302 * +Company's Emerg Ph #: 716-286-7548;800-424-9300(CHEMTREC) * +Company's Info Ph #: 716-286-7548 * +Safety Data Action Code: C +Record No. For Safety Entry: 001 +Tot Safety Entries This Stk#: 001 +Status: SMJ * +Date MSDS Prepared: 01DEC85 * +Safety Data Review Date: 18OCT95 * +MSDS Serial Number: BTLTX +Hazard Characteristic Code: N1 * +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: CALCIUM +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +Percent: 10-32 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: EV8040000 +CAS Number: 7440-70-2 +OSHA PEL: N/K (FP N) +ACGIH TLV: N/K (FP N) +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: SILICON +Ingredient Sequence Number: 02 +Percent: 38-65 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: VW0400000 +CAS Number: 7440-21-3 +OSHA PEL: 10 MG/M3 TDUST +ACGIH TLV: 10 MG/M3 TDUST +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: BARIUM +Ingredient Sequence Number: 03 +Percent: 0-18 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: CQ8370000 +CAS Number: 7440-39-3 +OSHA PEL: 0.5 MG/M3 +ACGIH TLV: 0.5 MG/M3 +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: ALUMINUM +Ingredient Sequence Number: 04 +Percent: 1-21 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: BD0330000 +CAS Number: 7429-90-5 +OSHA PEL: 15MG/M3 DUST;5 FUME +ACGIH TLV: 10MG/M3 DUST +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: CHROMIUM +Ingredient Sequence Number: 05 +Percent: <0.5 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: GB4200000 +CAS Number: 7440-47-3 +OSHA PEL: 1 MG/M3 +ACGIH TLV: 0.5 MG/M3 +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: NICKEL +Ingredient Sequence Number: 06 +Percent: <0.5 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: QR5950000 +CAS Number: 7440-02-0 +OSHA PEL: 1 MG/M3 +ACGIH TLV: 1 MG/M3 +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: EXPLAN OF CARCIN: TO MAN, VOL 49, PG 257, 1990: GRP 2B. NTP +6TH ANNUAL RPT ON CARCIN, 1991: ANTIC TO BE CARCIN. +Ingredient Sequence Number: 07 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 9999999ZZ +OSHA PEL: NOT APPLICABLE +ACGIH TLV: NOT APPLICABLE +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: GREY METALLIC, ODORLESS * +Boiling Point: N/K * +Melting Point: SUPP DATA * +Vapor Pressure (MM Hg/70 F): N/K * +Vapor Density (Air=1): N/K * +Specific Gravity: 2.0-2.5 * +Decomposition Temperature: N/K * +Evaporation Rate And Ref: N/K * +Solubility In Water: INSOLUBLE * +Percent Volatiles By Volume: N/K * +pH: N/K * +Corrosion Rate (IPY): N/K * +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: N/K * +Flash Point Method: N/P * +Lower Explosive Limit: N/K * +Upper Explosive Limit: N/K * +Extinguishing Media: CLASS D FIRES: USE DRY CHEM, DRY SAND/CARBON DIOXIDE +TO SMOTHER FIRE. FIRE MAY ALSO BE ISOLATED & ALLOWED TO (SUPP DATA) * +Special Fire Fighting Proc: WEAR NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED SCBA AND FULL +PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (FP N). * +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: BASED UPON COMBUSTIBILITY TESTS, FINE MATL +IS CONSIDERED VERY ACTIVE. CONCS OF ALLOY DUST, WHEN SUSPENDED IN AIR, CAN +BE IGNITED, PROPAGATE FLAME (SUPP DATA) * +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES * +Cond To Avoid (Stability): PRLNGD CONT W/MOISTURE DURING STOR.VENT SHOULD +BE SUPPLIED IN AREAS OF EXTENDED STOR.AVOID GENERATION OF AIRBORNE DUSTS. * +Materials To Avoid: MOISTURE, ACIDS. * +Hazardous Decomp Products: SM AMTS OF ARSINE, PHOSPHINE, & HYDROGEN MAY +EVOLVE IF MOISTURE IS PRESENT. RXN W/ACIDS CAN PRDCE SILANES (SUPP DATA) * +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO * +Conditions To Avoid (Poly): NOT RELEVANT * +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. * +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: YES * +Route Of Entry - Skin: NO * +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: NO * +Health Haz Acute And Chronic: ACUTE: ALLOYS ARE OF LOW TOXICITY IN LUMP +FORM AND NO RESIDUAL INJURY IS EXPECTED. HIGH CONCENTRATION OF METALLIC +DUST MAY CAUSE SOME IRRITATION TO EYE, NOSE AND THROAT. CHRONIC: NO +RESIDUAL INJURY IS EXPECTED. * +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO * +Carcinogenicity - IARC: YES * +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO * +Explanation Carcinogenicity: CHROMIUM: IARC MONOGRAPHS, VOL 49, PG 49, +1990:GRP 1. NTP 6TH ANNUAL RPT ON CARCINS, 1991: KNOWN TO BE CARCIN. +(SUPDAT) * +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: SEE HEALTH HAZARDS. * +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. * +Emergency/First Aid Proc: INHAL: REMOVE FROM DUSTY AREA TO FRESH AIR. +SKIN: NO HAZARD ASSOCIATED W/SKIN CONTACT. FLUSH WITH COPIOUS AMOUNTS OF +WATER. CALL MD (FP N). EYE: FLUSH WITH WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 MINUTES TO BE +SURE THAT NO PARTICLES REMAIN IN EYE. INGEST: CALL MD IMMED (FP N). * +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: AVOID USING COMPRESSED AIR TO MANEUVER +SPILLS/LEAKS OF FINE MATERIAL. FINE MATERIAL SHOULD BE SWEPT UP/VACUUMED. +NO PROBLEM IS ASSOCIATED WITH SPILLS/LEAKS OF LUMP MATERIAL. KEEP WET +MATERIAL SEPARATED FROM DRY MATERIAL. * +Neutralizing Agent: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. * +Waste Disposal Method: AVOID REPACKING WET MATERIAL IN SEALED CONTAINERS. +DISPOSE OF I/A/W APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL REGULATIONS. * +Precautions-Handling/Storing: EXCLUDE CONT W/MOISTURE & ACIDS AS MUCH AS +POSS. CALCIUM-SILICON ALLOYS SHOULD BE KEPT AWAY FROM SPARKS, HEAT & OPEN +FLAMES IN A WELL VENTD AREA. * +Other Precautions: MILLING: SPECIAL PREC, SUCH AS USE OF INERT ATMOSPHERE, +SHOULD BE USED WHEN SIZING TO MINUS 8 MESH. MINIMIZE AND CONTROL DUSTY +OPERATIONS. GRINDING WET MATL MAY BE HAZ DUE TO THE POSSIBILITY OF HYDROGEN +EVOLUTION. * +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: IN DUSTY AREAS, USE NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED SCHEDULE +21C RESPIRATOR. * +Ventilation: LOCAL FOR DUSTY AREAS. PROVIDE VENTILATION DURING STORAGE OR +HANDLING OF MOIST MATERIAL. * +Protective Gloves: IMPERVIOUS GLOVES (FP N). * +Eye Protection: ANSI APVD CHEMICAL SAFETY GOGGLES (FP N) * +Other Protective Equipment: AS WITH OTHER METAL DUSTS AVOID CONTAMINATION +OF WORK CLOTHING. * +Work Hygienic Practices: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. * +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: MP:>1292F,>700C. EXTING MEDIA: BURN ITSELF +OUT. DO NOT DISTURB METAL WHILE EXTING FIRE. EXPLO HAZ: READILY, GENERATE +IARC MONOGRAPHS ON EVAL OF CARCIN RISK OF CHEM (ING 7) * +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Label Status: G +Common Name: CALCIUM-SILICON ALLOYS, HYPERCAL ALLOY +Special Hazard Precautions: ACUTE: ALLOYS ARE OF LOW TOXICITY IN LUMP FORM +AND NO RESIDUAL INJURY IS EXPECTED. HIGH CONCENTRATION OF METALLIC DUST MAY +CAUSE SOME IRRITATION TO EYE, NOSE AND THROAT. CHRONIC: NO RESIDUAL INJURY +IS EXPECTED. SEE HEALTH HAZARDS. +Label Name: ELKEM METALS CO +Label P.O. Box: 1344 +Label City: NIAGARA FALLS +Label State: NY +Label Zip Code: 14302 +Label Country: US +Label Emergency Number: 716-286-7548;800-424-9300(CHEMTREC) +======================================================================= +URL for this msds http://hazard.com. If you wish to change, add to, or +delete information in this archive please sent updates to dan@hazard.com. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_sulfate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_sulfate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..6af06b5a --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calcium_sulfate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,165 @@ + +MSDS - CALCIUM SULFATE, ANHYDROUS, POWDER + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: CALCIUM SULFATE, ANHYDROUS, POWDER +FORMULA: CASO4 +FORMULA WT: 136.14 +CAS NO.: 07778-18-9 +COMMON SYNONYMS: ANHYDRITE; ANHYDROUS GYPSUM +PRODUCT CODES: 1458 + EFFECTIVE: 05/22/86 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + MAY CAUSE IRRITATION +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + NOT APPLICABLE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 1450 C ( 2642 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.96 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): SLIGHT (0.1 TO 1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE ODORLESS GRANULES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + SULFUR DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY IRRITATE SKIN OR EYES. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG ACIDS, ALUMINUM +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES OF SULFUR + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calomel.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calomel.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..51214790 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/calomel.txt @@ -0,0 +1,192 @@ + +MSDS - CALOMEL + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: CALOMEL +FORMULA: HGCL +FORMULA WT: 236.04 +CAS NO.: 07546-30-7 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OV8750000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: MERCUROUS CHLORIDE, MERCURY MONOCHLORIDE +PRODUCT CODES: 1363 + EFFECTIVE: 10/24/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 3 SEVERE (POISON) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 3 SEVERE (LIFE) +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + POISON DANGER + MAY BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED OR INHALED + EXCEPTIONAL HEALTH AND CONTACT HAZARDS - READ MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET +DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +MERCUROUS CHLORIDE 90-100 7546-30-7 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 384 C ( 723 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 302 C ( 576 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 7.15 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE POWDER WITH NO ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + HYDROGEN CHLORIDE, MERCURY FUMES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.1 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 210 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY CAUSE HEADACHE, COUGHING, DIZZINESS OR DIFFICULT BREATHING. + INHALATION AND INGESTION ARE HARMFUL AND MAY BE FATAL. + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA AND VOMITING. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF MERCURY POISONING INCLUDE A BUILDUP OF THE + METAL IN THE BRAIN, LIVER AND KIDNEYS. SYMPTOMS INCLUDE HEADACHE, + TREMORS, LOOSE TEETH, LOSS OF APPETITE, BLISTERS ON THE SKIN AND + IMPAIRED MEMORY. + +TARGET ORGANS + EYES, SKIN + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INGESTION, INHALATION, ABSORPTION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: LIGHT + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG BASES, CARBONATES, SULFIDES, CYANIDES, ALKALIES, + SULFITES, SULFATES, HYDROGEN PEROXIDE, AMMONIA, + HYDROGEN BROMIDE, IODINE + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: HYDROGEN CHLORIDE, MERCURY FUMES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D009 (EP TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE APPROPRIATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF THE TLV IS EXCEEDED, A SELF- + CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, RUBBER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + + + + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP PRODUCT OUT OF LIGHT. + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN SECURE POISON AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME MERCURY COMPOUNDS, SOLID, N.O.S. (CALOMEL) +HAZARD CLASS 6.1 +UN/NA UN2025 +LABELS POISON + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/castor_oil.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/castor_oil.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..64da24e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/castor_oil.txt @@ -0,0 +1,161 @@ + +MSDS - CASTOR OIL + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: CASTOR OIL +FORMULA: +FORMULA WT: .00 +CAS NO.: 8001-79-4 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: FI4100000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: RICINUS OIL +PRODUCT CODES: 1518 + EFFECTIVE: 03/24/86 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 1 SLIGHT + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + NOT APPLICABLE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 313 C ( 595 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: -10 C ( 14 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 0.96 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 100 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: PALE YELLOW VISCOUS LIQUID. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: 235 C ( 455 F) + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY, CARBON DIOXIDE, DRY CHEMICAL OR ORDINARY FOAM. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT MAY CAUSE MODERATE EYE IRRITATION. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. TAKE UP WITH SAND OR OTHER NONCOM- + BUSTIBLE ABSORBENT MATERIAL AND PLACE INTO CONTAINER FOR LATER DISPOSAL. + FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP VAPOR AND MIST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/cetone.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/cetone.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..065c0c3b --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/cetone.txt @@ -0,0 +1,218 @@ + +MSDS - ACETONE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: ACETONE +FORMULA: (CH3)2CO +FORMULA WT: 58.08 +CAS NO.: 67-64-1 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: AL3150000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: DIMETHYL KETONE; METHYL KETONE; 2-PROPANONE +PRODUCT CODES: 9010,9006,9002,9254,9009,9001,9004,5356,A134,9007,9005,9005 + 9008 + EFFECTIVE: 08/27/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 3 SEVERE (FLAMMABLE) + REACTIVITY - 2 MODERATE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES; CLASS B EXTINGUISHER + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + DANGER + CAUSES IRRITATION + EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED OR INHALED +KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME. AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING VAPOR. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH +ADEQUATE VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, +USE ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL, CARBON DIOXIDE - WATER MAY BE INEFFECTIVE. +FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER SPRAY. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +ACETONE 90-100 67-64-1 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 56 C ( 133 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): 181 + +MELTING POINT: -95 C ( -139 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 2.0 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 0.79 EVAPORATION RATE: ~10 + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): COMPLETE (IN ALL PROPORTIONS) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 100 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: CLEAR, COLORLESS LIQUID WITH A FRAGRANT SWEET ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: -18 C ( 0 F) NFPA 704M RATING: 1-3-0 + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - 13.0 % LOWER - 2.6 % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL OR CARBON DIOXIDE. + (WATER MAY BE INEFFECTIVE.) + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + VAPORS MAY FLOW ALONG SURFACES TO DISTANT IGNITION SOURCES AND FLASH BACK. + CLOSED CONTAINERS EXPOSED TO HEAT MAY EXPLODE. CONTACT WITH STRONG + OXIDIZERS MAY CAUSE FIRE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 1780 MG/M3 ( 750 PPM) + +SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT (STEL): 2375 MG/M3 ( 1000 PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 2400 MG/M3 ( 1000 PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 9750 + LD50 (ORAL-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 3000 + LD50 (IPR-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 1297 + LD50 (SKN-RABBIT) (G/KG) - 20 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + VAPORS MAY BE IRRITATING TO SKIN, EYES, NOSE AND THROAT. + INHALATION OF VAPORS MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, HEADACHE, OR LOSS OF + CONSCIOUSNESS. + LIQUID MAY CAUSE PERMANENT EYE DAMAGE. + CONTACT WITH SKIN HAS A DEFATTING EFFECT, CAUSING DRYING AND IRRITATION. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, HEADACHES, DIZZINESS, + GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE MAY INCLUDE KIDNEY AND/OR LIVER DAMAGE. + +TARGET ORGANS + RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, SKIN + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, INGESTION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME, SOURCES OF IGNITION + +INCOMPATIBLES: HALOGEN ACIDS AND HALOGEN COMPOUNDS, STRONG BASES, + STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, CAUSTICS, AMINES AND AMMONIA, + CHLORINE AND CHLORINE COMPOUNDS, + STRONG ACIDS, ESP. SULFURIC, NITRIC, HYDROCHLORIC + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, + SMOKING, OR FLAMES IN AREA. STOP LEAK IF YOU CAN DO SO WITHOUT RISK. USE + WATER SPRAY TO REDUCE VAPORS. TAKE UP WITH SAND OR OTHER NON-COMBUSTIBLE + ABSORBENT MATERIAL AND PLACE INTO CONTAINER FOR LATER DISPOSAL. FLUSH + AREA WITH WATER. + + J. T. BAKER SOLUSORB(R) SOLVENT ADSORBENT IS RECOMMENDED + FOR SPILLS OF THIS PRODUCT. + + + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: U002 (TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS UP + TO 5000 PPM, A GAS MASK WITH ORGANIC VAPOR + CANNISTER IS RECOMMENDED. ABOVE THIS LEVEL, A + SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACE + SHIELD IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, BUTYL RUBBER + GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + BOND AND GROUND CONTAINERS WHEN TRANSFERRING LIQUID. KEEP CONTAINER + TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN A COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED, FLAMMABLE LIQUID + STORAGE AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME ACETONE +HAZARD CLASS FLAMMABLE LIQUID +UN/NA UN1090 +LABELS FLAMMABLE LIQUID +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 5000 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME ACETONE +HAZARD CLASS 3.1 +UN/NA UN1090 +LABELS FLAMMABLE LIQUID + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/charcoal.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/charcoal.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..9bcf1d4b --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/charcoal.txt @@ -0,0 +1,100 @@ + + + + + M A T E R I A L S A F E T Y D A T A S H E E T + CHARCOAL, WOOD + +================================================================================ + SECTION I - Product Identification +================================================================================ + PRODUCT NAME: CHARCOAL, WOOD + FORMULA: C + FORMULA WT: 12.01 + CAS NO.: + COMMON SYNONYMS: N/A + +================================================================================ + Precautionary Labeling +================================================================================ + N/A +================================================================================ + SECTION II - Hazardous Components +================================================================================ + N/A +================================================================================ + SECTION III - Physical Data +================================================================================ +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE @ 20C (MM HG): NA +MELTING POINT: 3500C VAPOR DENSITY (AIR=1): NA +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 3.51 EVAPORATION RATE: NA + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + SOLUBILITY(H2O): INSOLUBLE PERCENT VOLATILES BY VOLUME: NA +APPEARANCE & ODOR: BLACK, ODORLESS, AMORPHOUS POWDER, LUMPS OR STICKS +================================================================================ + SECTION IV - Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +================================================================================ +FLASH POINT: N/A +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + WATER SPRAY OR FOAM + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + WET MATERIAL MAY IGNITE SPONTANEOUSLY IN AIR +UNUSUAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS + DUST PARTICLES CAN FORM EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE WITH AIR +================================================================================ + SECTION V - Health Hazard Data +================================================================================ +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): NONE ESTABLISHED +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INHALATION OF DUST MAY CAUSE IRRITATION OF NASAL AND RESPIRATORY + PASSAGES. CONTACT WITH SKIN AND EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + SKIN: WASH WITH SOAP AND WATER + EYES: FLUSH THOROUGHLY WITH WATER + INHALATION: REMOVE TO FRESH AIR + INGESTION: GET MEDICAL ASSISTANCE + GET MEDICAL ASSISTANCE FOR ALL CASES OF OVEREXPOSURE +================================================================================ + SECTION VI - Reactivity Data +================================================================================ +STABILITY: STABLE +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: AVOID CONTACT WITH OXIDIZING MATERIALS +INCOMPATIBILES: OXIDIZERS, BF3 +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: COX FROM COMBUSTION +================================================================================ + SECTION VII - Spill and Disposal Procedures +================================================================================ +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + TAKE UP AND CONTAINERIZE FOR PROPER DISPOSAL +================================================================================ + SECTION VIII - Protective Equipment +================================================================================ + PROVIDE ADEQUATE GENERAL MECHANICAL AND LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + DUST RESPIRATOR MAY BE REQUIRED + PROTECT EYES AND SKIN WITH SAFETY GOGGLES AND GLOVES +================================================================================ + SECTION IX - Storage and Handling Precautions +================================================================================ + AVOID WETTING AND SUBSEQUENT DRYING IN STORAGE + DO NOT BREATHE DUST + AVOID CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES +================================================================================ + SECTION X - Transportation Data and Additional Information +================================================================================ + NONE + REV. 9/85 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +(TM) and (R) : Registered Trademarks +N/A = Not Applicable OR Not Available +The information published in this Material Safety Data Sheet has been compiled +from our experience and data presented in various technical publications. It is +the user's responsibility to determine the suitability of this information for +adoption of necessary safety precautions. We reserve the right to revise +Material Safety Data Sheets periodically as new information becomes available. +Copyright by Manufacturer +LICENSE GRANTED TO MAKE UNLIMITED COPIES FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY +by OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY +. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/chlorowax.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/chlorowax.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e0b4b003 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/chlorowax.txt @@ -0,0 +1,151 @@ +DOVER CHEMICAL -- CHLOREZ, 700-DD +MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET +NSN: 681000N017088 +Manufacturer's CAGE: 2R633 +Part No. Indicator: A +Part Number/Trade Name: CHLOREZ, 700-DD +=========================================================================== + General Information +=========================================================================== +Company's Name: DOVER CHEMICAL COMPANY +Company's Street: W 15TH & DAVIS STS +Company's City: DOVER +Company's State: OH +Company's Country: US +Company's Zip Code: 44622 +Company's Emerg Ph #: 216-343-7711 +Company's Info Ph #: 216-343-7711 +Record No. For Safety Entry: 001 +Tot Safety Entries This Stk#: 001 +Status: SMJ +Date MSDS Prepared: 12FEB88 +Safety Data Review Date: 15MAY95 +MSDS Serial Number: BLBZV +Hazard Characteristic Code: N1 +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: PARAFFIN WAXES, AND HYDROCARBON WAXES, CHLORINATED +(CHLORINATED PARAFFIN) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: RV0450000 +CAS Number: 63449-39-8 +OSHA PEL: NOT APPLICABLE +ACGIH TLV: NOT APPLICABLE +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: WHITE TO CREAM POWDER OR FLAKE-NO DISTINCT ODOR. +Boiling Point: SUPP DATA +Specific Gravity: 1.6 (25C) +Solubility In Water: NIL +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: >392F,>200C +Flash Point Method: COC +Extinguishing Media: DRY CHEMICAL, FOAM OR WATER FOG. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: PROTECT AGAINST DECOMPOSITION OF PRODUCT- WEAR +NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED PRESSURE DEMAND SCBA AND FULL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (FP +N). +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: MATERIAL WILL BECOME MOLTEN AND FREE FLOWING +AT TEMPERATURES ABOVE THE SOFTENING POINT. THERMAL DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS +MAY INCLUDE HCL AND/OR PHOSGENE. +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Cond To Avoid (Stability): NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Materials To Avoid: AVOID STRONG OXIDIZING AND REDUCING AGENTS. +Hazardous Decomp Products: HYDROCHLORIC ACID, CARBON MONOXIDE, HCL AND/ OR +PHOSGENE (FP N). +Conditions To Avoid (Poly): HEATING TO DECOMPOSITION. +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: LD50:(ORAL)>4 G/KG +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: NO +Route Of Entry - Skin: YES +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: NO +Health Haz Acute And Chronic: ACUTE:MILD SKIN IRRITATION. SUBCHRONIC +TOXICITY-NO COMPOUND RELATED EFFECTS. TERATOLOGY-NO MATERNAL TOXICITY +OBSERVED. CONSIDERED CLASTOGENIC. CHLOROCARBON/CHLOROFLUORINATED (CFC) +MATERIAL HAVE PRODUCED SENSITIZATION OF THE MYOCARDIUM TO EPINEPHRINE IN +LABORATORY ANIMALS AND COULD HAVE A SIMILAR EFFECT(EFTS OF OVEREXP) +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO +Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: NOT RELEVANT. +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: HLTH HAZ:IN HUMANS. ADRENOMIMETRICS (I.E. +EPINEPHRINE) MAY BE CONTRA-INDICATED EXCEPT FOR LIFE-SUSTAINING USES IN +HUMANS ACUTELY OR CHRONICALLY EXPOSED TO CHLOROCARBONS OR CFC'S (FP N). +IRRITATION OF SKIN. +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Emergency/First Aid Proc: EYE:FLUSH WITH LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER FOR AT +LEAST 15 MINUTES. SKIN:WASH WITH SOAP AND WATER. INHAL:REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. +CALL MD. INGEST:CALL MD IMMEDIATELY. +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: WEAR NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED PROTECTIVE +EQUIPMENT, PREVENT MATERIAL FROM ENTERING WATERWAY, SHOVEL INTO RECLAIM OR +DISPOSAL CONTAINER. +Neutralizing Agent: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Waste Disposal Method: ACCORDING TO ALL LOCAL, STATE AND FEDERAL +REGULATIONS. +Precautions-Handling/Storing: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Other Precautions: NO SMOKING IN AREA OF USE. DO NOT USE IN GENERAL +VICINITY OF ARC WELDING, OPEN FLAMES, OR HOT SURFACES. HEAT AND/OR UV +RADIATION MAY CAUSE THE FORMATION OF HCL AND/OR PHOSGENE (FP N). +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED DUST MASK. +Ventilation: MECHANICAL EXHAUST TO REMOVE DUST. +Protective Gloves: IMPERVIOUS GLOVES. +Eye Protection: CHEMICAL WORKERS GOGGLES W/FSHLD (FP N). +Other Protective Equipment: LONG SLEEVE SHIRT AND TROUSERS, EYE WASH, +SAFETY SHOWER. +Work Hygienic Practices: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: BP:SOFTENS AT 95-110 C. +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Trans Data Review Date: 91302 +DOT PSN Code: ZZZ +DOT Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +IMO PSN Code: ZZZ +IMO Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED FOR THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +IATA PSN Code: ZZZ +IATA Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +AFI PSN Code: ZZZ +AFI Prop. Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +Additional Trans Data: NOT REGULATED FOR TRANSPORTATION +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Label Status: G +Common Name: CHLOREZ, 700-DD +Special Hazard Precautions: ACUTE:MILD SKIN IRRITATION. SUBCHRONIC +TOXICITY-NO COMPOUND RELATED EFFECTS. TERATOLOGY-NO MATERNAL TOXICITY +OBSERVED. CONSIDERED CLASTOGENIC. CHLOROCARBON/CHLOROFLUORINATED (CFC) +MATERIAL HAVE PRODUCED SENSITIZATION OF THE MYOCARDIUM TO EPINEPHRINE IN +LABORATORY ANIMALS AND COULD HAVE A SIMILAR EFFECT(EFTS OF OVEREXP)HLTH +HAZ:IN HUMANS. ADRENOMIMETRICS (I.E. EPINEPHRINE) MAY BE CONTRA-INDICATED +EXCEPT FOR LIFE-SUSTAINING USES IN HUMANS ACUTELY OR CHRONICALLY EXPOSED TO +CHLOROCARBONS OR CFC'S (FP N). IRRITATION OF SKIN. +Label Name: DOVER CHEMICAL COMPANY +Label Street: W 15TH & DAVIS STS +Label City: DOVER +Label State: OH +Label Zip Code: 44622 +Label Country: US +Label Emergency Number: 216-343-7711 +======================================================================= +URL for this msds http://siri.org If you wish to change, add to, or +delete information in this archive please send updates to dan@siri.org. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/cmc.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/cmc.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c6b8d7b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/cmc.txt @@ -0,0 +1,133 @@ +CMC +MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET +NSN: 685000F039725 +Manufacturer's CAGE: 0BLY0 +Part No. Indicator: A +Part Number/Trade Name: AQUALON CELLULOSE GUM +=========================================================================== + General Information +=========================================================================== +Company's Name: ACT COMMUNICATIONS INC +Company's P. O. Box: 375 +Company's City: ECTOR +Company's State: TX +Company's Country: US +Company's Zip Code: 75418 +Company's Emerg Ph #: 903-961-2300 +Company's Info Ph #: 903-961-2300 +Record No. For Safety Entry: 001 +Tot Safety Entries This Stk#: 001 +Status: SE +Date MSDS Prepared: 27SEP91 +Safety Data Review Date: 04MAY95 +Preparer's Company: ACT COMMUNICATIONS INC +Preparer's City: ECTOR +Preparer's State: TX +Preparer's Zip Code: 75418 +MSDS Serial Number: BWXMY +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: CARBOXYMETHYLCELLULOSE +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +Percent: >99.5 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: FJ5950000 +CAS Number: 9004-32-4 +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: WHITE TO OFF WHITE GRANULAR POWDER W/NO ODOR. +Specific Gravity: 1.59 +Solubility In Water: SLIGHT +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Extinguishing Media: WATER SPRAY, DRY CHEMICAL, FOAM, CO2, HALON +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: MAY FORM FLAMMABLE DUST-AIR MIXTURES. +AUTOIGNITION TEMP 440F. STATIC CHARGES GENERATED BY EMPTYING PACKAGE IN/ +NEAR FLAMMABLE VAPORS MAY CAUSE FLASH FIRE. +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Cond To Avoid (Stability): SUNLIGHT, ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT, HEAT, IGNITION +SOURCES +Hazardous Decomp Products: CO, CO2, SMOKE +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: NO +Route Of Entry - Skin: NO +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: NO +RESPIRATORY IRRITATION. LAXATIVE EFFECT AFTER REPEATED ORAL INGESTION OF +LARGE AMOUNTS (10 GRAMS). A SINGLE CASE OF ALLERGIC CONTACT DERMATITIS +AFTER REPEATED LONG TERM (8 YRS.) SKIN CONTACT. +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO +Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: NONE +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: IRRITATION +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: NONE +Emergency/First Aid Proc: EYES: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH W/PLENTY OF LOW- +PRESSURE WATER FOR 15 MINS. REMOVE ANY CONTACT LENSES TO ASSURE THOROUGH +FLUSHING. INHALATION: REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. TREAT ANY IRRITATION +SYMPTOMATICALLY. OBTAIN MEDICAL ATTENTION IN ALL CASES. +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: SWEEP UP MATERIAL FOR USE/DISPOSAL. SURFACES +SUBJECT TO/DUSTING W/THIS PRODUCT CAN BECOME SLIPPERY WHEN WET. +Waste Disposal Method: INCINERATION OF WASTE MATERIAL IN A PERMITTED +FACILITY IAW/FEDERAL, STATE & LOCAL REGULATIONS IS RECOMMENDED. LANDFILLING +IN A LICENSED FACILITY EQUIPPED W/LEACHATE COLLECTION IS A SUITABLE +ALTERNATIVE. THIS PRODUCT IS BIODEGRADABLE. (SEE SUPP) +Precautions-Handling/Storing: AVOID IGNITION SOURCES. GROUND ALL +EQUIPMENT. WHEN EMPTYING BAGS WHERE FLAMMABLE VAPORS MAY BE PRESENT, +BLANKET VESSEL W/INERT GAS/GROUND OPERATOR. +Other Precautions: POUR MATERIAL SLOWLY INTO CONDUCTIVE, GROUNDED CHUTE. +AVOID CONTACT W/EYES, SKIN & CLOTHING. AVOID BREATHING DUST. +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: APPROPRIATE RESPIRATORY PROTECTION IS REQUIRED +WHEN EXPOSED TO AN AIRBORNE CONTAMINANT IS LIKELY TO EXCEED ACCEPTABLE +LIMITS. +Ventilation: ADEQUATE VENTILATION SHOULD BE PROVIDED TO KEEP DUST +CONCENTRATIONS BELOW ACCEPTABLE EXPOSURE LIMITS. +Protective Gloves: IMPERVIOUS +Eye Protection: SAFETY GLASSES +Other Protective Equipment: EYEWASH FOUNTAINS, SAFETY SHOWERS SHOULD BE +EASILY ACCESSIBLE. +Work Hygienic Practices: WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. KEEP AREA CLEAN. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: BROWNING TEMP: 440F. WASTE CONT'D: WASTEWATER +CONTAINING THIS PRODUCT CAN BE CONSIDERED FOR TREATMENT IN AN ACCLIMATED +BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT SYSTEM OF ADEQUATE CAPACITY. +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Label Status: G +Common Name: AQUALON CELLULOSE GUM +Special Hazard Precautions: EYES: MILD IRRITATION. INHALATION: RESPIRATORY +IRRITATION. LAXATIVE EFFECT AFTER REPEATED ORAL INGESTION OF LARGE AMOUNTS +(10 GRAMS). A SINGLE CASE OF ALLERGIC CONTACT DERMATITIS AFTER REPEATED +LONG TERM (8 YRS.) SKIN CONTACT. IRRITATION +Label Name: ACT COMMUNICATIONS INC +Label P.O. Box: 375 +Label City: ECTOR +Label State: TX +Label Zip Code: 75418 +Label Country: US +Label Emergency Number: 903-961-2300 +======================================================================= +URL for this msds http://siri.org. If you wish to change, add to, or +delete information in this archive please send updates to dan@siri.org. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e88a7896 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper.txt @@ -0,0 +1,179 @@ + +MSDS - COPPER + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: COPPER +FORMULA: CU +FORMULA WT: 63.55 +CAS NO.: 07440-50-8 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: GL5325000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: BRONZE POWDER; C.I. 77400; ARWOOD COPPER +PRODUCT CODES: 1732,1736,1720,1714,1728 + EFFECTIVE: 06/25/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 0 NONE + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + MAY CAUSE IRRITATION +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +COPPER 90-100 07440-50-8 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 2595 C ( 4703 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 1083 C ( 1981 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 8.92 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: REDDISH, LUSTROUS, MALLEABLE METAL. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + COPPER FUMES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 1.0 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY CAUSE SNEEZING AND COUGHING. + DUST MAY IRRITATE SKIN OR EYES. + PROLONGED EXPOSURE MAY CAUSE DERMATITIS. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, HEADACHES, DIZZINESS, + GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION. + NOTE: PRODUCT IS A SOLID MASS; HOWEVER, WARNINGS ARE BASED ON INHALATION + DUST, MIST OR FUME EMISSIONS THAT ARE POSSIBLE DURING MANUFACTURING OR + CHEMICAL REACTIONS. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: MOISTURE + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG ACIDS, ACTIVE HALOGEN COMPOUNDS, CHLORINE, + FLUORINE, IODINE, BROMINE, AMMONIA + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: COPPER FUMES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS TLV, A DUST/MIST RESPIRATOR IS + RECOMMENDED. IF CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF + RESPIRATOR, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME COPPER, HEAVY FOIL +HAZARD CLASS ORM-E +LABELS NONE +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 5000 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_carbonate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_carbonate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3fdb0638 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_carbonate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,104 @@ + +MSDS - CUPRIC CARBONATE + +================================================================================ + SECTION I - Product Identification +================================================================================ + PRODUCT NAME: CUPRIC CARBONATE + FORMULA: MIXTURE CU(CO3) & CU(OH)2 + FORMULA WT: .00 + CAS NO.: 01184-64-1 + COMMON SYNONYMS: COPPER(II)CARBONATE; CUPRIC CARBONATE,BASIC; COPPER + CARBONATE HYDROXIDE + PRODUCT CODES: 5465,5007,5001,1786 + +================================================================================ + Precautionary Labeling +================================================================================ +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + HEALTH - 2 + FLAMMABILITY - 0 + REACTIVITY - 0 + CONTACT - 1 +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + WARNING + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. +================================================================================ + SECTION II - Hazardous Components +================================================================================ + COMPONENT % CAS NO. +CUPRIC CARBONATE 90-100 1184-64-1 +================================================================================ + SECTION III - Physical Data +================================================================================ +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 3.90 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 +APPEARANCE & ODOR: ODORLESS, GREEN TO BLUE POWDER. +================================================================================ + SECTION IV - Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +================================================================================ +FLASH POINT: N/A +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. +================================================================================ + SECTION V - Health Hazard Data +================================================================================ +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 1 MG/M3 ( PPM) +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA AND VOMITING. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE GASTROINTESTINAL PAIN. + DUST MAY IRRITATE EYES. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE MAY INCLUDE KIDNEY AND/OR LIVER DAMAGE. +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. +================================================================================ + SECTION VI - Reactivity Data +================================================================================ +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG ACIDS +================================================================================ + SECTION VII - Spill and Disposal Procedures +================================================================================ +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. +================================================================================ + SECTION VIII - Protective Equipment +================================================================================ +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS UP + TO 6 PPM, A HIGH-EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE + RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. ABOVE THIS LEVEL, A + SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, RUBBER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. +================================================================================ + SECTION IX - Storage and Handling Precautions +================================================================================ +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. +================================================================================ + SECTION X - Transportation Data and Additional Information +================================================================================ +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_i_chloride.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_i_chloride.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d13b7d21 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_i_chloride.txt @@ -0,0 +1,109 @@ + +MSDS - CUPROUS CHLORIDE + +================================================================================ + SECTION I - Product Identification +================================================================================ + PRODUCT NAME: CUPROUS CHLORIDE + FORMULA: CUCL + FORMULA WT: 99.00 + CAS NO.: 07758-89-6 + NIOSH/RTECS NO.: GL6990000 + COMMON SYNONYMS: COPPER(I)CHLORIDE; COPPER MONOCHLORIDE + PRODUCT CODES: 1862 + +================================================================================ + Precautionary Labeling +================================================================================ +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + HEALTH - 2 + FLAMMABILITY - 0 + REACTIVITY - 0 + CONTACT - 1 +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + WARNING + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. +================================================================================ + SECTION II - Hazardous Components +================================================================================ + COMPONENT % CAS NO. +CUPROUS CHLORIDE 90-100 7758-89-6 +================================================================================ + SECTION III - Physical Data +================================================================================ +BOILING POINT: 1490 C ( 2714 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A +MELTING POINT: 430 C ( 806 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 3.53 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE CRYSTALLINE POWDER OR CUBIC CRYSTALS. +================================================================================ + SECTION IV - Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +================================================================================ +FLASH POINT: N/A +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + HYDROGEN CHLORIDE +================================================================================ + SECTION V - Health Hazard Data +================================================================================ +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 1 MG/M3 ( PPM) +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 265 +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + INHALATION OF DUST MAY CAUSE IRRITATION TO UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT. +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. +================================================================================ + SECTION VI - Reactivity Data +================================================================================ +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: MOISTURE, LIGHT +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, POTASSIUM METAL, WATER +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: HYDROGEN CHLORIDE +================================================================================ + SECTION VII - Spill and Disposal Procedures +================================================================================ +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. +================================================================================ + SECTION VIII - Protective Equipment +================================================================================ +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS UP + TO 12 PPM, A HIGH-EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE + RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. ABOVE THIS LEVEL, A + SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, RUBBER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. +================================================================================ + SECTION IX - Storage and Handling Precautions +================================================================================ +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. +================================================================================ + SECTION X - Transportation Data and Additional Information +================================================================================ +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_ii_chloride.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_ii_chloride.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..1d768561 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_ii_chloride.txt @@ -0,0 +1,351 @@ + +MSDS - Copper(II) chloride dihydrate + Cupric chloride dihydrate + + + **** SECTION 2 - COMPOSITION, INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS **** + ++------------+------------------------------------+---------+-----------+ +| CAS# | Chemical Name | % | EINECS# | +|------------|------------------------------------|---------|-----------| +| 10125-13-0|Copper(II) chloride dihydrate, reage|99% |unlisted | + nt (powder), 99% (Titr.) ++------------+------------------------------------+---------+-----------+ + Hazard Symbols: XN T + Risk Phrases: 22 25 36 36/37/38 + + **** SECTION 3 - HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION **** + + EMERGENCY OVERVIEW +Appearance: Not available. +WARNING! MAY CAUSE ALLERGIC SKIN REACTION. HYGROSCOPIC. HARMFUL IF +SWALLOWED. MAY CAUSE SEVERE EYE IRRITATION AND POSSIBLE INJURY. MAY +CAUSE LIVER AND KIDNEY DAMAGE. CAUSES SEVERE RESPIRATORY TRACT +IRRITATION. INHALATION OF FUMES MAY CAUSE METAL-FUME FEVER. EYE +CONTACT MAY RESULT IN PERMANENT EYE DAMAGE. MAY CAUSE SEVERE SKIN +IRRITATION. CAUSES SEVERE DIGESTIVE TRACT IRRITATION WITH PAIN, +NAUSEA, VOMITING AND DIARRHEA. MAY CORRODE THE DIGESTIVE TRACT WITH +HEMORRHAGING AND POSSIBLE SHOCK. +Target Organs: Kidneys, liver. + +Potential Health Effects + Eye: + Exposure to particulates or solution may cause conjunctivitis, + ulceration, and corneal abnormalities. Causes redness and pain. + Skin: + May cause skin sensitization, an allergic reaction, which becomes + evident upon re-exposure to this material. Causes redness and pain. + Skin contact can cause itching, redness, and an eczema-type rash. + Ingestion: + Harmful if swallowed. Causes gastrointestinal irritation with + nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. + Inhalation: + Causes severe irritation of upper respiratory tract with coughing, + burns, breathing difficulty, and possible coma. Inhalation of fumes + may cause metal fume fever, which is characterized by flu-like + symptoms with metallic taste, fever, chills, cough, weakness, chest + pain, muscle pain and increased white blood cell count. + Chronic: + Prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause dermatitis. May cause + liver and kidney damage. + Chronic toxicity related to copper is found only in individuals with + Wilson's disease, who are unable to excrete copper. This causes + retention of copper in the body resulting in damage to the liver, + kidneys, brain, blood, bones and endocrine glands). + + + **** SECTION 4 - FIRST AID MEASURES **** + + Eyes: + Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, + occasionally lifting the upper and lower lids. Get medical aid + immediately. + Skin: + Get medical aid. Flush skin with plenty of soap and water for at + least 15 minutes while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. + Ingestion: + Induce vomiting. If victim is conscious and alert, give 2-4 cupfuls + of milk or water. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious + person. Get medical aid immediately. + Inhalation: + Get medical aid immediately. Remove from exposure to fresh air + immediately. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If + breathing is difficult, give oxygen. + Notes to Physician: + Treat symptomatically and supportively. + Penicallamine may be of value as a chelating agent. + + + **** SECTION 5 - FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES **** + + General Information: + Wear appropriate protective clothing to prevent contact with skin + and eyes. Wear a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) to + prevent contact with thermal decomposition products. Substance is + noncombustible. + Extinguishing Media: + Substance is noncombustible; use agent most appropriate to + extinguish surrounding fire. + Autoignition Temperature: Not applicable. + Flash Point: Not applicable. + NFPA Rating: Not published. + Explosion Limits, Lower: Not available. + Upper: Not available. + + + **** SECTION 6 - ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES **** + + General Information: Use proper personal protective equipment as indicated + in Section 8. + Spills/Leaks: + Vacuum or sweep up material and place into a suitable disposal + container. Avoid generating dusty conditions. + + + **** SECTION 7 - HANDLING and STORAGE **** + + Handling: + Wash thoroughly after handling. Minimize dust generation and + accumulation. Do not get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing. Do not + ingest or inhale. Use only in a chemical fume hood. + Storage: + Store in a tightly closed container. Store in a cool, dry, + well-ventilated area away from incompatible substances. + + + **** SECTION 8 - EXPOSURE CONTROLS, PERSONAL PROTECTION **** + + Engineering Controls: + Local exhaust ventilation may be necessary to control any air + contaminants to within their TLVs during the use of this product. + + Exposure Limits ++--------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-----------------+ +| Chemical Name | ACGIH | NIOSH |OSHA - Final PELs| +|--------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-----------------| +| Copper(II) chloride|fume: 0.2 mg/m3 |as Cu: 1 mg/m3 |fume, as Cu: 0.1 | +| dihydrate, reagent|TWA; dusts and | TWA (dusts and | mg/m3 TWA; dust| +| (powder), 99% (Tit| mists, as Cu: 1 |mists); 0.1 mg/m3 |s and mists, as C| +| r.) | mg/m3 TWA |TWA (fume) |u: 1 mg/m3 TWA | +| | (listed under | (listed under | (listed under| +| | COPPER | COPPER | COPPER | ++--------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-----------------+ + + OSHA Vacated PELs: + Copper(II) chloride dihydrate, reagent (powder), 99% (Titr.): + No OSHA Vacated PELs are listed for this chemical. + + Personal Protective Equipment + + Eyes: + Wear appropriate protective eyeglasses or chemical + safety goggles as described by OSHA's eye and face + protection regulations in 29 CFR 1910.133. + Skin: + Wear appropriate protective gloves to prevent skin + exposure. + Clothing: + Wear appropriate protective clothing to minimize + contact with skin. + Respirators: + Follow the OSHA respirator regulations found in 29CFR + 1010.134. Always use a NIOSH-approved respirator when + necessary. + + + **** SECTION 9 - PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES **** + +Physical State: Solid +Appearance: Not available. +Odor: Odorless +pH: 3.0-3.8 @ 5% aq.sol +Vapor Pressure: Not available. +Vapor Density: Not available. +Evaporation Rate: Not available. +Viscosity: Not available. +Boiling Point: Not available. +Freezing/Melting Point: 100_C +Decomposition Temperature: 100_C +Solubility: 1150 g/l (5% aq.sol) +Specific Gravity/Density: 2.5400 +Molecular Formula: Cl2Cu.2H2O +Molecular Weight: 170.4788 + + + **** SECTION 10 - STABILITY AND REACTIVITY **** + + Chemical Stability: + Stable. Stable under normal temperatures and pressures. + Conditions to Avoid: + Incompatible materials, acids, excess heat, temperatures above 65_C, + exposure to moist air or water. + Incompatibilities with Other Materials: + Incompatible with hydrazine, nitromethane, and sodium hypobromite. A + mixture of either potassium or sodium with cupric chloride produces + a strong explosion on impact. Copper salts can form explosive + acetylides in contact with acetylene. Copper salts may enhance the + decomposition of hydrazine. + Hazardous Decomposition Products: + Hydrogen chloride, chloride fumes. + Hazardous Polymerization: Will not occur. + + + **** SECTION 11 - TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION **** + + RTECS#: + CAS# 10125-13-0: GL7030000 + LD50/LC50: + Not available. + Carcinogenicity: + Copper(II) chloride dihydrate, reagent (powder), 99% (Titr.) - + Not listed by ACGIH, IARC, NIOSH, NTP, or OSHA. + Epidemiology: + No data available. + Teratogenicity: + No data available. + Reproductive Effects: + No data available. + Neurotoxicity: + No data available. + Mutagenicity: + No data available. + Other Studies: + No data available. + + + **** SECTION 12 - ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION **** + + Ecotoxicity: + Acute aquatic effects: 96-hour LC50; Fathead minnow: 0.43 mg/L + 96-hour LC50; Bluegill sunfish: 1.25 mg/L 48-hour LC50; Rainbow + trout: 0.4-0.5 mg/L This chemical is expected to cause little oxygen + depletion in aquatic systems. It has a high potential to affect + aquatic organisms and secondary waste treatment microorganisms. + Environmental Fate: + This chemical is not likely to bioconcentrate. + Physical/Chemical: + Not available. + Other: + Not available. + + + **** SECTION 13 - DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS **** + +Dispose of in a manner consistent with federal, state, and local regulations. +RCRA D-Series Maximum Concentration of Contaminants: Not listed. +RCRA D-Series Chronic Toxicity Reference Levels: Not listed. +RCRA F-Series: Not listed. +RCRA P-Series: Not listed. +RCRA U-Series: Not listed. +Not listed as a material banned from land disposal according to RCRA. + + + **** SECTION 14 - TRANSPORT INFORMATION **** + + US DOT + Shipping Name: COPPER CHLORIDE + Hazard Class: 8 + UN Number: UN2802 + Packing Group: III + IMO + Shipping Name: COPPER CHLORIDE + Hazard Class: 8 + UN Number: 2802 + Packing Group: 3 + IATA + Shipping Name: COPPER CHLORIDE + Hazard Class: 8 + UN Number: 2802 + Packing Group: 3 + RID/ADR + Shipping Name: COPPER CHLORIDE + Dangerous Goods Code: 8(11C) + UN Number: 2802 + Canadian TDG + No information available. + + + **** SECTION 15 - REGULATORY INFORMATION **** + +A. Federal + TSCA + CAS# 10125-13-0 is not on the TSCA Inventory. It is a hydrate and + exempt from TSCA Inventory requirements (40CFR270.3(u)(2)). + Health & Safety Reporting List + None of the chemicals are on the Health & Safety Reporting List. + Chemical Test Rules + None of the chemicals in this product are under a Chemical Test Rule. + Section 12b + None of the chemicals are listed under TSCA Section 12b. + TSCA Significant New Use Rule + None of the chemicals in this material have a SNUR under TSCA. + CERCLA/SARA + Section 302 (RQ) + None of the chemicals in this material have an RQ. + Section 302 (TPQ) + None of the chemicals in this product have a TPQ. + SARA Codes + CAS # 10125-13-0: acute, chronic. + Section 313 + No chemicals are reportable under Section 313. + Clean Air Act: + This material does not contain any hazardous air pollutants. + This material does not contain any Class 1 Ozone depletors. + This material does not contain any Class 2 Ozone depletors. + Clean Water Act: + None of the chemicals in this product are listed as Hazardous + Substances under the CWA. + None of the chemicals in this product are listed as Priority + Pollutants under the CWA. + None of the chemicals in this product are listed as Toxic Pollutants + under the CWA. + OSHA: + None of the chemicals in this product are considered highly hazardous + by OSHA. +B. State + Not present on state lists from CA, PA, MN, MA, FL, or NJ. + California No Significant Risk Level: + None of the chemicals in this product are listed. + +C. International + Canada + None of the chemicals in this product are listed on the DSL/NDSL list. + CAS# 10125-13-0 is not listed on Canada's Ingredient Disclosure List. + European Labeling in Accordance with EC Directives + Hazard Symbols: XN T + Risk Phrases: + R 22 Harmful if swallowed. + R 25 Toxic if swallowed. + R 36 Irritating to eyes. + R 36/37/38 Irritating to eyes, respiratory system + and skin. + Safety Phrases: + S 22 Do not inhale dust. + S 24/25 Avoid contact with skin and eyes. + S 26 In case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately + with plenty of water and seek medical advice. + S 37/39 Wear suitable gloves and eye/face + protection. + S 44 If you feel unwell, seek medical advice (show + the label where possible). + Exposure Limits: + OEL-ARAB Republic of Egypt:TWA 0.1 mg/m3 (fume). OEL-AUSTRALIA:TWA 0.2 + mg/m3 (fume). OEL-AUSTRALIA:TWA 1 mg/m3 (dust). OEL-BELGIUM:TWA 0.2 m + g/m3 (fume). OEL-BELGIUM:TWA 1 mg/m3 (dust). OEL-DENMARK:TWA 0.1 mg/m3 + (fume). OEL-DENMARK:TWA 1 mg/m3 (dust). OEL-FINLAND:TWA 0.2 mg/m3 (fu + me). OEL-FINLAND:TWA 1 mg/m3. OEL-FINLAND:TWA 1 mg/m3 (dust) + CE:TWA 0.2 mg/m3 (fume). OEL-FRANCE:TWA 1 mg/m3;STEL 2 mg/m3 (dust). O + EL-GERMANY:TWA 0.1 mg/m3 (fume). OEL-GERMANY:TWA 1 mg/m3. OEL-GERMANY: + TWA 1 mg/m3 (dust). OEL-HUNGARY:TWA 0.2 mg/m3;STEL 0.4 mg/m3 (dust). O + EL-INDIA:TWA 0.2 mg/m3 (fume). OEL-THE NETHERLANDS:TWA 02 mg/m3 (fume) + . OEL-THE NETHERLANDS:TWA 1 mg/m3 (dust). OEL-THE PHILIPPINES:TWA 1.0 + mg/m3 (fume). OEL-POLAND:TWA 0.1 mg/m3 (fume). OEL-RUSSIA:STEL 0.5 ppm + (1 mg/m3) (dust). OEL-SWEDEN:TWA 0.2 mg/m3 (resp. dust). OEL-SWEDEN:T + WA 0.2 mg/m3 (fume). OEL-SWEDEN:TWA 1 mg/m3 (total dust). OEL-SWITZERL + AND:TWA 0.1 mg/m3;STEL 0.2 mg/m3 (fume). OEL-SWITZERLAND:TWA 1 mg/m3;S + TEL 1 mg/m3. OEL-THAILAND:TWA 0.1 mg/m3 (fume). OEL-THAILAND:TWA 1 mg/ + m3. OEL-UNITED KINGDOM:TWA 0.2 mg/m3 (fume). OEL-UNITED KINGDOM:TWA 1 + mg/m3. OEL IN BULGARIA, COLOMBIA, JORDAN, KOREA check ACGIH TLV. OEL I + N NEW ZEALM-7M-7 + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_ii_fluoride.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_ii_fluoride.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..2d067c40 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_ii_fluoride.txt @@ -0,0 +1,130 @@ + +MSDS - COPPER (II) FLUORIDE + +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: FLUORIDES, AS F +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: LM6290000 +CAS Number: 16984-48-8 +OSHA PEL: 2.5 MG/M3 (AS F) +ACGIH TLV: 2.5 MG/M3 (AS F) +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: WHITE POWDER +Boiling Point: N/A +Melting Point: 1742F,950C +Vapor Pressure (MM Hg/70 F): N/A +Vapor Density (Air=1): N/A +Specific Gravity: 4.23 +Evaporation Rate And Ref: NOT APPLICABLE +Solubility In Water: MODERATE +Percent Volatiles By Volume: N/A +Magnetism (Milligauss): N/P +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: NON-FLAMMABLE +Flash Point Method: N/P +Lower Explosive Limit: N/A +Upper Explosive Limit: N/A +Extinguishing Media: WATER, CO*2, FOAM, OR DRY POWDER. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: WEAR NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED SCBA & FULL +PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (FP N). +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: NONE KNOWN. +Report for NIIN: 00N026157 +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Cond To Avoid (Stability): NONE KNOWN. +Materials To Avoid: STRONG ACIDS. +Hazardous Decomp Products: CONTACT W/ACIDS MAY PRODUCE HF. +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +Conditions To Avoid (Poly): NOT RELEVANT +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: NO +Route Of Entry - Skin: NO +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: NO +Health Haz Acute And Chronic: NO SPECIFIC TOXICOLOGICAL DATA AVAILABLE FOR +THIS COMPOUND. PENDING EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF TOXICITY, THIS +MATERIAL SHOULD BE TREATED W/CAUTION & DIRECT CONTACT SHOULD BE AVOIDED. +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO +Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: NOT RELEVANT +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Emergency/First Aid Proc: INGEST:GET MD. SKIN:FLUSH W/SOAP & WATER. +EYES:IRRIGATE W/WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 MINUTES. GET MD. INHAL:REMOVE TO +FRESH AIR. +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: SWEEP UP & TRANSFER TO SUITABLE CONTAINER. +Neutralizing Agent: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Waste Disposal Method: DISPOSE OF I/A/W FEDERAL, STATE & LOCAL +REGULATIONS. +Precautions-Handling/Storing: AVOID EYE & SKIN CONTACT. AVOID INHALATION. +STORE AWAY FROM ACIDS. +Other Precautions: COPPER (II) FLUORIDE IS HYGROSCOPIC; CONTACT W/MOIST +AIR SLOWLY SHOWS BLUE COLORATION BECAUSE OF FORMATION OF THE DIHYDRATE. +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: USE NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED RESPIRATOR FOR +CONCENTRATION ENCOUNTERED. +Ventilation: LOCAL EXHAUST:FUME HOOD. OTHER:N(2) FED DRY BOX. * +Protective Gloves: POLYVINYL CHLORIDE/NEOPRENE GLOVES. +Eye Protection: CHEMICAL WORKERS GOGGLES (FP N). +Other Protective Equipment: PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AS NEEDED TOP PREVENT +CONTACT. +Work Hygienic Practices: WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Report for NIIN: 00N026157 +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Trans Data Review Date: 92122 +DOT PSN Code: ZZZ +DOT Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +IMO PSN Code: ZZZ +IMO Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED FOR THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +IATA PSN Code: ZZZ +IATA Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +AFI PSN Code: ZZZ +AFI Prop. Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +Additional Trans Data: NOT REGULATED FOR TRANSPORTATION +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +Report for NIIN: 00N026157 +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Technical Review Date: 06FEB92 +Label Date: 03FEB92 +Label Status: M +Common Name: COPPER (II) FLUORIDE +Chronic Hazard: NO +Signal Word: CAUTION! +Acute Health Hazard-Slight: X +Contact Hazard-None: X +Fire Hazard-None: X +Reactivity Hazard-None: X +Special Hazard Precautions: AVOID EYE AND SKIN CONTACT. AVOID INHALATION. +STORE AWAY FROM ACIDS. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER USING. ACUTE:NO SPECIFIC +TOXICOLOGICAL DATA AVAILABLE FOR THIS COMPOUND. PENDING EXPERIMENTAL +DETERMINATION OF TOXICITY, MATERIAL SHOULD BE TREATED WITH CAUTION. +CHRONIC:NONE LISTED BY MANUFACTURER. +Protect Eye: Y +Protect Skin: Y +Protect Respiratory: Y + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_oxide_blk.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_oxide_blk.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..eb21bb86 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_oxide_blk.txt @@ -0,0 +1,155 @@ + +MSDS - CUPRIC OXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: CUPRIC OXIDE +FORMULA: CUO +FORMULA WT: 79.55 +CAS NO.: 01317-38-0 +COMMON SYNONYMS: COPPER(II)OXIDE; BLACK COPPER OXIDE +PRODUCT CODES: 1814,1820,5256,5255 + EFFECTIVE: 10/08/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 2 MODERATE + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +CUPRIC OXIDE 90-100 1317-38-0 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 1326 C ( 2419 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 6.40 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: BLACK CRYSTALLINE POWDER OR GRANULES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 1 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INHALATION OF DUST MAY CAUSE IRRITATION TO UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS UP + TO 15 PPM, A HIGH-EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE + RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. ABOVE THIS LEVEL, A + SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, RUBBER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_oxide_red.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_oxide_red.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..6c49e0bb --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/copper_oxide_red.txt @@ -0,0 +1,170 @@ + +MSDS - CUPROUS OXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: CUPROUS OXIDE +FORMULA: CU2O +FORMULA WT: 143.09 +CAS NO.: 01317-39-1 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: GL8050000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: RED COPPER OXIDE; BROWN COPPER OXIDE +PRODUCT CODES: 1878 + EFFECTIVE: 10/31/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 2 MODERATE + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +CUPROUS OXIDE 90-100 1317-39-1 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 1800 C ( 3272 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 1232 C ( 2250 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 6.00 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: RED-BROWN POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + OXIDES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 470 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY IRRITATE SKIN OR EYES. + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + EXCESSIVE INHALATION OF DUST IS IRRITATING AND MAY BE SEVERELY DAMAGING + TO RESPIRATORY PASSAGES AND/OR LUNGS. + INGESTION MAY BE HARMFUL. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: AIR, MOISTURE, HEAT, LIGHT + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS UP + TO 1 PPM, A HIGH-EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE + RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. ABOVE THIS LEVEL, A + SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINERS OUT OF SUN AND AWAY FROM HEAT. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/decaborane.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/decaborane.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4ca895b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/decaborane.txt @@ -0,0 +1,252 @@ + +Common Name: DECABORANE + +CAS Number: 17702-41-9 +DOT Number: UN 1868 +------------------------------------------------------------ +Substance number: 0597 +Date: February 1989 Revision: First +------------------------------------------------------------ +HAZARD SUMMARY +* Decaborane can affect you when breathed in and by passing +through your skin. * Exposure can cause restlessness, headaches, +dizziness, and nausea. High concentrations can cause muscle +twitching, convulsions, unconsciousness, and death. High or +repeated exposures may damage the liver and kidneys. * Vapor +exposure may cause clouding of the eyes with loss of vision. +Contact can cause severe eye burns and may also irritate the +skin. * Decaborane may explode on contact with heat or flame, or +with oxygenated or halogenated solvents. Contact with water can +form flammable Hydrogen gas. + + +IDENTIFICATION +Decaborane is a colorless or white crystalline solid with a +bitter odor. It is used in rocket propellants and in making +other chemicals. + + +REASON FOR CITATION +* Decaborane is on the Hazardous Substance List because it is +regulated by OSHA and cited by ACGIH, NFPA, DOT and EPA. + + +HOW TO DETERMINE IF YOU ARE BEING EXPOSED +* Exposure to hazardous substances should be routinely evaluated. +This may include collecting personal and area air samples. You +can obtain copies of sampling results from your employer. You +have a legal right to this information under OSHA 1910.20. * If +you think you are experiencing any work-related health problems, +see a doctor trained to recognize occupational diseases. Take +this Fact Sheet with you. + + +WORKPLACE EXPOSURE LIMITS +OSHA: The legal airborne permissible exposure limit (PEL) is 0.05 +ppm averaged over an 8-hour workshift and 0.15 ppm not to be +exceeded during any (15 minute) work period. (Final Rule January +1989). + +ACGIH: The recommended airborne exposure limit is 0.05 ppm +averaged over an 8-hour workshift and 0.15 ppm as a STEL (short +term exposure limit). + +* The above exposure limits are for air levels only. When skin +contact also occurs, you may be overexposed, even though air +levels are less than the limits listed above. + + +WAYS OF REDUCING EXPOSURE +* Where possible, enclose operations and use local exhaust +ventilation at the site of chemical release. If local exhaust +ventilation or enclosure is not used, respirators should be worn. +* Wear protective work clothing. +* Wash thoroughly immediately after exposure to Decaborane and at +the end of the workshift. * Post hazard and warning information +in the work area. In addition, as part of an ongoing education +and training effort, communicate all information on the health +and safety hazards of Decaborane to potentially exposed workers. + + +HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION + +Acute Health Effects +The following acute (short-term) health effects may occur +immediately or shortly after exposure to Decaborane: +* Exposure can cause restlessness, headaches, fatigue, +clumsiness, nausea, hiccups and shaking. High levels can cause +muscle twitches, convulsions, unconsciousness, and death. * +Contact can cause severe eye burns, leading to permanent damage. +It may also irritate the skin, causing a rash or burning feeling +on contact. * Exposure to the vapor can irritate the eyes, nose, +and throat. + +Chronic Health Effects +The following chronic (long-term) health effects can occur at +some time after exposure to Decaborane and can last for months or +years: + +Cancer Hazard +* According to the information presently available to the New +Jersey Department of Health, Decaborane has not been tested for +its ability to cause cancer in animals. + +Reproductive Hazard +* According to the information presently available to the New +Jersey Department of Health, Decaborane has not been tested for +its ability to affect reproduction. + +Other Long-Term Effects +* Repeated exposures may affect the ability to concentrate and +damage the nervous system, causing tremors and spasms. * +Decaborane may damage the liver and kidneys. +* Overexposure may cause clouding of the cornea and eyes with +loss of vision. + + +MEDICAL + +Medical Testing +Before beginning employment and at regular times after that, the +following is recommended: + +* Examination of the nervous system. + +If symptoms develop or overexposure is suspected, the following +may be useful: + +* Liver and kidney function tests. +* Exam of the eyes and vision. + +Any evaluation should include a careful history of past and +present symptoms with an exam. Medical tests that look for +damage already done are not a substitute for controlling +exposure. + +Request copies of your medical testing. You have a legal right +to this information under OSHA 1910.20. + +Mixed Exposures +Because smoking can cause heart disease, as well as lung cancer, +emphysema, and other respiratory problems, it may worsen +respiratory conditions caused by chemical exposure. Even if you +have smoked for a long time, stopping now will reduce your risk +of developing health problems. + + +WORKPLACE CONTROLS AND PRACTICES + +Unless a less toxic chemical can be substituted for a hazardous +substance, ENGINEERING CONTROLS are the most effective way of +reducing exposure. The best protection is to enclose operations +and/or provide local exhaust ventilation at the site of chemical +release. Isolating operations can also reduce exposure. Using +respirators or protective equipment is less effective than the +controls mentioned above, but is sometimes necessary. + +In evaluating the controls present in your workplace, consider: +(1) how hazardous the substance is, (2) how much of the substance +is released into the workplace and (3) whether harmful skin or +eye contact could occur. Special controls should be in place for +highly toxic chemicals or when significant skin, eye, or +breathing exposures are possible. + +In addition, the following control is recommended: + +* Where possible, automatically transfer Decaborane from drums or +other storage containers to process containers. + +Good WORK PRACTICES can help to reduce hazardous exposures. The +following work practices are recommended: + +* Workers whose clothing has been contaminated by Decaborane +should change into clean clothing promptly. * Contaminated work +clothes should be laundered by individuals who have been informed +of the hazards of exposure to Decaborane. * Eye wash fountains in +the immediate work area should be provided for emergency use. * +On skin contact with Decaborane, immediately wash or shower to +remove the chemical. * Wash any areas of the body that may have +contacted Decaborane at the end of each work day, whether or not +known skin contact has occurred. * Do not eat, smoke, or drink +where Decaborane is handled, processed, or stored, since the +chemical can be swallowed. Wash hands carefully before eating or +smoking. * Do not dry sweep for clean-up. Use a vacuum or a wet +method to reduce dust during clean-up. +FIRE HAZARDS + +* The solid can self-ignite in Oxygen, and mixtures with +oxidizing materials can be explosive. * Decaborane is a +combustible solid. +* Use dry chemical or foam extinguishers. Avoid halogenated +extinguishing agents, as they can react violently. * POISONOUS +GASES ARE PRODUCED IN FIRE. +* CONTAINERS MAY EXPLODE IN FIRE. +* If employees are expected to fight fires, they must be trained +and equipped as stated in OSHA 1910.156. + + +SPILLS AND EMERGENCIES + +If Decaborane is spilled or leaked, take the following steps: + +* Restrict persons not wearing protective equipment from area of +spill or leak until cleanup is complete. * Remove all ignition +sources. +* Ventilate area of spill or leak. +* Collect powdered material in the most convenient manner and +deposit in sealed containers. * It may be necessary to contain +and dispose of Decaborane as a HAZARDOUS WASTE. Contact your +Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) or your regional +office of the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for +specific recommendations. + + +HANDLING AND STORAGE + +* Prior to working with Decaborane you should be trained on its +proper handling and storage. * Decaborane must be stored to avoid +contact with OXIDIZERS, such as PERMANGANATES, NITRATES, +PEROXIDES, CHLORATES, and PERCHLORATES; or HALOGENATED COMPOUNDS, +since violent reactions occur. * Store in tightly closed +containers in a cool, well ventilated area away from HEAT and +WATER. HEAT can cause an explosion. Contact with WATER can +slowly produce flammable Hydrogen gas. Detached storage is +preferable. * Sources of ignition such as smoking and open flames +are prohibited where Decaborane is handled, used, or stored. + + +FIRST AID + +Eye Contact +* Immediately flush with large amounts of water for at least 15 + +minutes, occasionally lifting upper and lower lids. Seek medical +attention immediately. + +Skin Contact +* Quickly remove contaminated clothing. Immediately wash area +with large amounts of soap and water. Seek medical attention +immediately. + +Breathing +* Remove the person from exposure. +* Begin rescue breathing if breathing has stopped and CPR if +heart action has stopped. * Transfer promptly to a medical +facility. + + +PHYSICAL DATA + +Vapor Pressure: 0.05 mm Hg at 77 degrees F (25 degrees C) +Flash Point: 176 degrees F (80 degrees C) +Water Solubility: Insoluble + + +OTHER COMMONLY USED NAMES + +Chemical Name: +Decaborane + +Other Names and Formulations: +Boron Hydride; Nido-Decaborane; Decaboron Tetradecahydride + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/dechlorane.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/dechlorane.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4a827623 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/dechlorane.txt @@ -0,0 +1,160 @@ +OCCIDENTAL CHEMICAL -- DECHLORANE PLUS 515 THE FLAMETAMER +MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET +FSC: 6850 +NIIN: 00N011596 +Manufacturer's CAGE: 32618 +Part No. Indicator: A +Part Number/Trade Name: DECHLORANE PLUS 515 THE FLAMETAMER +=========================================================================== + General Information +=========================================================================== +Company's Name: OCCIDENTAL CHEMICAL CORPORATION +Company's Street: 360 RAINBOW BOULEVARD SOUTH,SUITE 400 +Company's City: NIAGARA FALLS +Company's State: NY +Company's Country: US +Company's Zip Code: 14302 +Company's Emerg Ph #: 716-278-7021 +Company's Info Ph #: 716-286-3081 +Record No. For Safety Entry: 001 +Tot Safety Entries This Stk#: 001 +Date MSDS Prepared: 24MAY89 +Safety Data Review Date: 01MAR90 +MSDS Serial Number: BJKKF +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: DECH PLUS.PERCENT:99.90 BY VOL;99.95 BY WT. +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: IO1430000 +CAS Number: 13560-89-9 +OSHA PEL: N/K (FP N/ORNL) +ACGIH TLV: N/K (FP N/ORNL) +Other Recommended Limit: N/K (FP N/ORNL) +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: FREE-FLOWING WHITE,ODORLESS POWDER. +Boiling Point: N/A +Melting Point: 350C,662F +Vapor Pressure (MM Hg/70 F): SEE SUPP +Vapor Density (Air=1): N/A +Specific Gravity: 1.8 (WATER=1) +Decomposition Temperature: N/K (FP N) +Evaporation Rate And Ref: N/K (FP N/ORNL) +Solubility In Water: INSOLUBLE +pH: SUP DA +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: N/A +Lower Explosive Limit: N/A +Upper Explosive Limit: N/A +Extinguishing Media: NON-FLAMMABLE.USE AGENT SUITABLE FOR SURROUNDING +FIRE. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: USE NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED POSITIVE PRESSURE SCBA +AND FULL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT. +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: DECOMPOSITION BY BURNING IN OPEN FLAME MAY +YIELD HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS. +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Cond To Avoid (Stability): AVOID TEMPERATURES ABOVE 275C,527F. +Materials To Avoid: PROLONGED HEATING IN EXCESS OF 275C,527F ACCELERATES +THERMAL DEGRADATION. +Hazardous Decomp Products: AT TEMPERATURES IN EXCESS OF 275C,527F +DEGRADATION PRODUCTS INCLUDE HYDROGEN CHLORIDE. +Conditions To Avoid (Poly): N/K (FP N/ORNL) +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: LD50 RAT ORAL >25 G/KG;LD50 (SEE SUPP) +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: YES +Route Of Entry - Skin: NO +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: YES +Health Haz Acute And Chronic: SEE SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF OVEREXPOSURE. +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO +Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: NONE +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: EYES:NO OCULAR EFFECTS HAVE BEEN OBSERVED. +SKIN:NO IRRITANT EFFECTS HAVE BEEN OBSERVED.INGESTION:NOT HIGHLY TOXIC IF +SWALLOWED.INHALATION:DUST MAY CAUSE IRRITATION OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT. +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: N/K (FP N/ORNL) +Emergency/First Aid Proc: EYES:FLUSH W/ DIRECTED STREAM OF WATER AT LEAST +15 MIN;HOLD LIDS APART.GET IMMED MED ATTN IF IRRIT OCCURS.SKIN:WASH W/ +SOAP,WATER.GET PROMPT MED ATTN IF IRRIT OCCURS.INGEST:NEVER GIVE ANYTHING +BY MOUTH TO UNCON PERSON.GIVE SEVERAL GLASSES OF WATER,THEN TICKLE BACK OF +THROAT W/ FINGER TO INDUCE VOMIT.KEEP AIRWAY CLEAR.SEEK MED ATTN +IMMED.INHAL:REMOVE FROM EXPOS,GIVE SUPPORT TREATMENT IF NEEDED. +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: SCOOP & SWEEP UP ALL SPILLED PRODUCT & OTHER +CONTAMINATED MATERIAL & PLACE IN MARKED DISPOSAL CONTAINERS.CLEAN UP AREA +ON A DRY BASIS.DO NOT FLUSH TO SEWER. +Neutralizing Agent: N/K (FP N/ORNL) +Waste Disposal Method: DISPOSAL MUST BE IAW FEDERAL,STATE & LOCAL REGS (FP +N).DISPOSE OF SPILLED/WASTE PROD,OTHER CONTAM MATL IN LICENSED LANDFILL OR +BURN IN LICENSED INCIN DESIGNED TO HANDLE HYDROGEN CHLORIDE AS COMBUST +PROD.MATL NOT USED OR REPROCESSED DISP PER REGS. +Precautions-Handling/Storing: STORE IN CLEAN,DRY,WELL VENTILATED AREA AWAY +FROM HEAT.KEEP CONTR CLOSED TO PREVENT CONTAM.USE NORMAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS +& GOOD INDUS HYGIENE PRAC. +Other Precautions: DO NOT REUSE CONTRS,RESIDUES MAY REMAIN;OBSERVE ALL +LABEL PREC.DISPOSE OF CONTR PER GOVERNMENT REGS.INSURE ADEQ VENT IN WORK +AREA.AVOID EYE CONTACT.DO NOT ALLOW TO ENTER SEWERS OR WATERWAYS.HEATING +>275C,525F CAUSES DEGRADATION,TOXIC GASES. +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED RESPIRATOR APPROPRIATE FOR +EXPOSURE OF CONCERN (FP N). +Ventilation: LOCAL AND GENERAL VENTILATION NECESSARY TO KEEP AIR +CONCENTRATION BELOW LEVEL OF CONCERN (FP N/ORNL). +Protective Gloves: RESISTANT SUCH AS COTTON. +Eye Protection: CHEMICAL WORKERS GOGGLES (FP N). +Other Protective Equipment: EYE WASH FACILITY SHOULD BE IN CLOSE +PROXIMITY.OBSERVE GOOD WORK PRACTICES.WEAR APPROVED DUST MASK,CLOTHING. +Work Hygienic Practices: WASH CONTAMINATED CLOTHING BEFORE REUSE.WASH +THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: VP:0.006 MMHG @ 200C,392F.PH:7 100 GM/L. +LD50-LC50 MIX:RABBIT DERMAL >8 G/KG;LC50 RAT INHALATION >2.25 MG/L/4 HR. +ROUTES OF ENTRY:INHALATION/SKIN/INGESTION (FP N). +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Trans Data Review Date: 90347 +DOT PSN Code: ZZZ +DOT Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +IMO PSN Code: ZZZ +IMO Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED FOR THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +IATA PSN Code: ZZZ +IATA Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +AFI PSN Code: ZZZ +AFI Prop. Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +Additional Trans Data: NOT REGULATE FOR TRANSPORTATION +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Label Status: G +Common Name: DECHLORANE PLUS 515 THE FLAMETAMER +Special Hazard Precautions: SEE SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF OVEREXPOSURE. +EYES:NO OCULAR EFFECTS HAVE BEEN OBSERVED.SKIN:NO IRRITANT EFFECTS HAVE +BEEN OBSERVED.INGESTION:NOT HIGHLY TOXIC IF SWALLOWED.INHALATION:DUST MAY +CAUSE IRRITATION OF THE RESPIRATORY TRACT. +Label Name: OCCIDENTAL CHEMICAL CORPORATION +Label Street: 360 RAINBOW BOULEVARD SOUTH,SUITE 400 +Label City: NIAGARA FALLS +Label State: NY +Label Zip Code: 14302 +Label Country: US +Label Emergency Number: 716-278-7021 +======================================================================= +URL for this msds http://hazard.com. If you wish to change, add to, or +delete information in this archive please sent updates to dan@hazard.com. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/dextrin.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/dextrin.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..48bc86f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/dextrin.txt @@ -0,0 +1,164 @@ + +MSDS - DEXTRIN + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: DEXTRIN +FORMULA: (C6H10O5)N +FORMULA WT: 162.14 +CAS NO.: 9004-53-9 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: HH9450000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: STARCH GUM +PRODUCT CODES: G193 + EFFECTIVE: 03/11/86 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 0 NONE + FLAMMABILITY - 1 SLIGHT + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 0 NONE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + NOT APPLICABLE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.45 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): MODERATE (1 TO 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 10 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: OFF-WHITE TO YELLOW POWDER WITH A BLAND ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + NO EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE WERE DOCUMENTED. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: FLAME + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/diazomethane.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/diazomethane.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..1fc469d4 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/diazomethane.txt @@ -0,0 +1,269 @@ + + Common Name: Diazomethane + CAS Number: 334-88-3 + DOT Number: None + Date: March, 1986 + ----------------------------------------- + + HAZARD SUMMARY + * Diazomethane can affect you when breathed in. + * It is extremely toxic. Exposure can cause severe lung damage + with symptoms of coughing, chest pain, shortness of breath, + fever and fatigue. These may not be felt until hours or days + after exposure and this can cause death. + * Exposure to the gas or liquid can cause severe skin burns and + eye damage. + * Repeated exposures, even at low levels, may cause an asthma- + like lung allergy. + * Heat, sunlight, or other bright lights can cause it to + explode. Contact with alkali metals, drying agents and rough + edges can also cause explosions. + + IDENTIFICATION + Diazomethane is a yellow gas at room temperature. It can also + exist as a liquid under pressure. It is used in making other + chemicals. + + REASON FOR CITATION + * Diazomethane is on the Hazardous Substance List because it is + regulated by OSHA and cited by ACGIH. + + HOW TO DETERMINE IF YOU ARE BEING EXPOSED + * Exposure to hazardous substances should be routinely + evaluated. This may include collecting personal and area air + samples. You can obtain copies of sampling results from your + employer. You have a legal right to this information under + OSHA 1910.20. + * If you think you are experiencing any work-related health + problems, see a doctor trained to recognize occupational + diseases. Take this Fact Sheet with you. + ----------------------------------------- + + WORKPLACE EXPOSURE LIMITS + OSHA: The legal airborne permissible exposure limit (PEL) is + 0.2 ppm averaged over an 8-hour work-shift. + + ACGIH: The recommended airborne exposure limit is 0.2 ppm + averaged over an 8-hour workshift. + + WAYS OF REDUCING EXPOSURE + * Where possible, enclose operations and use local exhaust + ventilation at the site of chemical release. If local exhaust + ventilation or enclosure is not used, respirators should be + worn. + * Wear protective work clothing. + * Wash thoroughly immediately after exposure to Diazomethane. + * Post hazard and warning information in the work area. In + addition, as part of an ongoing education and training effort, + communicate all information on the health and safety hazards + of Diazomethane to potentially exposed workers. + + This Fact Sheet is a summary source of information of all potential + and most severe health hazards that may result from exposure. + Duration of exposure, concentration of the substance and other + factors will affect your susceptibility to any of the potential + effects described below. + ------------------------------------------ + + HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION + + Acute Health Effects + The following acute (short-term) health effects may occur + immediately or shortly after exposure to Diazomethane: + + * Breathing Diazomethane gas or vapors can cause severe lung + damage. Immediate symptoms may include coughing, wheezing, + shortness of breath, chest pain, dizziness, fatigue, headache, + and irritation of the mouth, nose and throat. Nausea, + vomiting, and fever may also occur. This can progress to a + build-up of fluid in the lungs (pulmonary edema) and death. + The effects may not be felt for hours or days after exposure. + * Contact with Diazomethane gas, liquefied gas, or solutions can + cause severe eye burns and permanent damage. + * Skin contact can cause severe irritation, burns and scaling of + the affected body area. Similar symptoms may occur on the + skin inside the mouth, nose and throat following inhalation. + + Chronic Health Effects + The following chronic (long-term) health effects can occur at some + time after exposure to Diazomethane and can last for months or + years: + + Cancer Hazard + * According to the information presently available to the New + Jersey Department of Health, Diazomethane has not been tested + for its ability to cause cancer in animals. + + Reproductive Hazard + * According to the information presently available to the New + Jersey Department of Health, Diazomethane has not been tested + for its ability to affect reproduction. + + Other Long-Term Effects + * Repeated exposure to Diazomethane can cause an asthma-like + lung allergy. Symptoms may include coughing, wheezing, and + fatigue. The symptoms may become progressively worse with + repeated attacks, and permanent lung damage (emphysema) may + result. + + MEDICAL + + Medical Testing + Before beginning employment and at regular times after that, the + following are recommended: + + * Lung function tests. These may be normal at first if the + person is not having an attack at the time. + + If symptoms develop or overexposure is suspected, the following may + be useful: + + * Evaluation by a qualified allergist, including careful + exposure history and special testing, may help diagnose + allergy. + * Consider chest x-ray after acute over-exposure. + + Any evaluation should include a careful history of past and present + symptoms with an exam. Medical tests that look for damage already + done are not a substitute for controlling exposure. + + Request copies of your medical testing. You have a legal right to + this information under OSHA 1910.20. + + Mixed Exposures + Because smoking can cause heart disease, as well as lung cancer, + emphysema, and other respiratory problems, it may worsen + respiratory conditions caused by chemical exposure. Even if you + have smoked for a long time, stopping now will reduce your risk of + developing health problems. + + WORKPLACE CONTROLS AND PRACTICES + + Unless a less toxic chemical can be substituted for a hazardous + substance, ENGINEERING CONTROLS are the most effective way of + reducing exposure. The best protection is to enclose operations + and/or provide local exhaust ventilation at the site of chemical + release. Isolating operations can also reduce exposure. Using + respirators or protective equipment is less effective than the + controls mentioned above, but is sometimes necessary. + + In evaluating the controls present in your workplace, consider: (1) + how hazardous the substance is, (2) how much of the substance is + released into the workplace and (3) whether harmful skin or eye + contact could occur. Special controls should be in place for + highly toxic chemicals or when significant skin, eye, or breathing + exposures are possible. In addition, the following control is + recommended: + + * Where possible, automatically transfer Diazomethane from + cylinders or other storage containers to process containers. + + Good WORK PRACTICES can help to reduce hazardous exposures. The + following work practices are recommended: + + * Workers whose clothing has been contaminated by liquid + Diazomethane should change into clean clothing promptly. + * Do not take contaminated work clothes home. Family members + could be exposed. + * Contaminated work clothes should be laundered by individuals + who have been informed of the hazards of exposure to + Diazomethane. + * Eye wash fountains should be provided in the immediate work + area for emergency use. + * If there is the possibility of skin exposure, emergency shower + facilities should be provided. + * On skin contact with Diazomethane, immediately wash or shower + to remove the chemical. + * Do not eat, smoke, or drink where Diazomethane is handled, + processed, or stored, since the chemical can be swallowed. + Wash hands carefully before eating or smoking. + + PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + + WORKPLACE CONTROLS ARE BETTER THAN PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT. + However, for some jobs (such as outside work, confined space entry, + jobs done only once in a while, or jobs done while workplace + controls are being installed), personal protective equipment may be + appropriate. + + The following recommendations are only guidelines and may not apply + to every situation. + + Clothing + * Avoid skin contact with Diazomethane. Wear protective gloves + and clothing. Safety equipment suppliers/manufacturers can + provide recommendations on the most protective glove/clothing + material for your operation. + * All protective clothing (suits, gloves, footwear, headgear) + should be clean, available each day, and put on before work. + + Eye Protection + * Wear splash-proof chemical goggles and face shield when + working with liquid Diazomethane, or gas-proof goggles when + working with the gas, unless full facepiece respiratory + protection is worn. + + Respiratory Protection + IMPROPER USE OF RESPIRATORS IS DANGEROUS. Such equipment should + only be used if the employer has a written program that takes into + account workplace conditions, requirements for worker training, + respirator fit testing and medical exams, as described in OSHA + 1910.134. + + * Where the potential exists for exposures over 0.2 ppm, use a + MSHA/NIOSH approved supplied-air respirator with a full + facepiece operated in the positive pressure mode or with a + full facepiece, hood, or helmet in the continuous flow mode, + or use a MSHA/NIOSH approved self-contained breathing + apparatus with a full facepiece operated in pressure-demand or + other positive pressure mode. + * Exposure to 10 ppm is immediately dangerous to life and + health. If the possibility of exposures above 10 ppm exists, + use a MSHA/NIOSH approved self-contained breathing apparatus + with a full facepiece operated in continuous flow or other + positive pressure mode. + + HANDLING AND STORAGE + + * Prior to working with Diazomethane you should be trained on + its proper handling and storage. + * Diazomethane must be stored to avoid contact with ALKALI + METALS, such as LITHIUM, SODIUM, or POTASSIUM; or DRYING + AGENTS, such as CALCIUM SULFATE, since violent reactions + occur. + * Store in tightly closed containers in a cool well-ventilated + area away from HEAT and LIGHT. The pure liquid material + explodes above 302oF, whereas impure material explodes at + lower temperatures. Exposure of the gas or solutions to + SUNLIGHT or other BRIGHT LIGHTING may cause an explosion. + Contact with ROUGH EDGES, such as found on ground glass, may + cause an explosion. Safety barriers or shields should be used + to protect workers from accidental explosions. + * Sources of ignition such as smoking and open flames are + prohibited where Diazomethane is handled, used, or stored. + * Metal containers used in the transfer of 5 gallons or more of + Diazomethane should be grounded and bonded. Drums must be + equipped with self-closing valves, pressure vacuum bungs, and + flame arresters. + * Use only non-sparking tools and equipment, especially when + opening and closing containers of Diazomethane. + * Wherever Diazomethane is used, handled, manufactured, or + stored, use explosion-proof electrical equipment and fittings. + + Common Name: Diazomethane + DOT Number: None + DOT Emergency Guide code: No Citation + CAS Number: 334-88-3 + ----------------------------------------- + Hazard rating NJ DOH NFPA + FLAMMABILITY Not Found + REACTIVITY Not Found + EXPLOSIVE LIQUID + ---------------------------------------- + Hazard Rating Key: 0=minimal; 1=slight; 2=moderate; 3=serious; + 4=severe + + FIRE HAZARDS + + * Diazomethane will explode in a fire. In the event of a fire, + immediately evacuate the area. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/dioctyl_adipate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/dioctyl_adipate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..fb989811 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/dioctyl_adipate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,340 @@ + + Common Name: Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate + CAS Number: 103-23-1 + DOT Number: None + Date: January 4, 1989 + ----------------------------------------- + + HAZARD SUMMARY + * Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate can affect you when breathed in. + * Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate can cause eye irritation and may + burn the skin. + + IDENTIFICATION + Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate is a light colored, oily liquid. It is + used as a plasticizer in making polyvinyl and certain other + plastics, and in solvents and aircraft lubricants. + + REASON FOR CITATION + * Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate is on the Hazardous Substance List + because it is cited by DEP, EPA, IARC and NFPA. + * Definitions are attached. + + HOW TO DETERMINE IF YOU ARE BEING EXPOSED + * Exposure to hazardous substances should be routinely + evaluated. This may include collecting personal and area air + samples. You can obtain copies of sampling results from your + employer. You have a legal right to this information under + OSHA 1910.20. + * If you think you are experiencing any work related health + problems, see a doctor trained to recognize occupational + diseases. Take this Fact Sheet with you. + + WORKPLACE EXPOSURE LIMITS + No occupational exposure limits have been established for Bis (2- + Ethylhexyl) Adipate. This does not mean that this substance is not + harmful. Safe work practices should always be followed. + + * Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate may cause cancer, mutations or + reproductive problems. All contact with this chemical should + be reduced to the lowest possible level. + + WAYS OF REDUCING EXPOSURE + * Where possible, enclose operations and use local exhaust + ventilation at the site of chemical release. If local exhaust + ventilation or enclosure is not used, respirators should be + worn. + * Wear protective work clothing. + * Wash thoroughly immediately after exposure to Bis (2- + Ethylhexyl) Adipate and at the end of the workshift. + * Post hazard and warning information in the work area. In + addition, as part of an ongoing education and training effort, + communicate all information on the health and safety hazards of Bis + (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate to potentially exposed workers. + + This Fact Sheet is a summary source of information of all potential + and most severe health hazards that may result from exposure. + Duration of exposure, concentration of the substance and other + factors will affect your susceptibility to any of the potential + effects described below. + ------------------------------------------ + + HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION + + Acute Health Effects + The following acute (short term) health effects may occur + immediately or shortly after exposure to Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) + Adipate: + + * Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate can irritate the eyes and may burn + the skin. + Chronic Health Effects + The following chronic (long term) health effects can occur at some + time after exposure to Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate and can last for + months or years: + + Cancer Hazard + * There is limited evidence that Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate + causes cancer in animals. It may cause cancer of the liver. + * Many scientists believe there is no safe level of exposure to + a carcinogen. Such substances may also have the potential for + causing reproductive damage in humans. + + Reproductive Hazard + * There is limited evidence that Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate may + damage the developing fetus. + * There is limited evidence that Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate may + decrease fertility in males and females. + + Other Long Term Effects + * Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate has not been tested for other + chronic (long term) health effects. + + MEDICAL + + Medical Testing + Any evaluation should include a careful history of past and present + symptoms with an exam. Medical tests that look for damage already + done are not a substitute for controlling exposure. + + There is no special test for this chemical. However, if illness + occurs or over exposure is suspected, medical attention is + recommended. + + Request copies of your medical testing. You have a legal right to + this information under OSHA 1910.20. + + WORKPLACE CONTROLS AND PRACTICES + + Unless a less toxic chemical can be substituted for a hazardous + substance, ENGINEERING CONTROLS are the most effective way of + reducing exposure. The best protection is to enclose operations + and/or provide local exhaust ventilation at the site of chemical + release. Isolating operations can also reduce exposure. Using + respirators or protective equipment is less effective than the + controls mentioned above, but is sometimes necessary. + + In evaluating the controls present in your workplace, consider: (1) + how hazardous the substance is, (2) how much of the substance is + released into the workplace and (3) whether harmful skin or eye + contact could occur. Special controls should be in place for highly + toxic chemicals or when significant skin, eye, or breathing + exposures are possible. + + In addition, the following control is recommended: + * Where possible, automatically pump liquid Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) + Adipate from drums or other storage containers to process + containers. + + Good WORK PRACTICES can help to reduce hazardous exposures. The + following work practices are recommended: + + * Workers whose clothing has been contaminated by Bis (2- + Ethylhexyl) Adipate should change into clean clothing + promptly. + * If there is the possibility of skin exposure, emergency shower + facilities should be provided. + * Contaminated work clothes should be laundered by individuals + who have been informed of the hazards of exposure to Bis (2- + Ethylhexyl) Adipate. + * On skin contact with Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate, immediately + wash or shower to remove the chemical. At the end of the + workshift, wash any areas of the body that may have contacted + Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate, whether or not known skin contact + has occurred. + * Do not eat, smoke, or drink where Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate + is handled, processed, or stored, since the chemical can be + swallowed. Wash hands carefully before eating or smoking. + + PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + + WORKPLACE CONTROLS ARE BETTER THAN PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT. + However, for some jobs (such as outside work, confined space entry, + jobs done only once in a while, or jobs done while workplace + controls are being installed), personal protective equipment may be + appropriate. + + The following recommendations are only guidelines and may not apply + to every situation. + + Clothing + * Avoid skin contact with Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate. Wear + protective gloves and clothing. Safety equipment + suppliers/manufacturers can provide recommendations on the + most protective glove/clothing material for your operation. + * All protective clothing (suits, gloves, footwear, headgear) + should be clean, available each day, and put on before work. + + Eye Protection + * Wear splash proof chemical goggles and face shield when + working with liquid Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate, unless full + facepiece respiratory protection is worn. + + Respiratory Protection + IMPROPER USE OF RESPIRATORS IS DANGEROUS. Such equipment should + only be used if the employer has a written program that takes into + account workplace conditions, requirements for worker training, + respirator fit testing and medical exams, as described in OSHA + 1910.134. + * Engineering controls must be effective to ensure that exposure + to Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate does not occur. + * Where the potential exists for exposure to Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) + Adipate, use a MSHA/NIOSH approved supplied air respirator + with a full facepiece operated in the positive pressure mode + or with a full facepiece, hood, or helmet in the continuous + flow mode, or use a MSHA/NIOSH approved self contained + breathing apparatus with a full facepiece operated in pressure + demand or other positive pressure mode. + + Common Name: Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate + DOT Number: None + DOT Emergency Guide code: No Citation + CAS Number: 103-23-1 + ---------------------------------------- + Hazard rating NJDOH NFPA + FLAMMABILITY - 1 + REACTIVITY - 0 + ---------------------------------------- + POISONOUS GASES ARE PRODUCED IN FIRE + ---------------------------------------- + Hazard Rating Key: 0=minimal; 1=slight; 2=moderate; 3=serious; + 4=severe + + FIRE HAZARDS + * Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate is a COMBUSTIBLE LIQUID. + * Use dry chemical, CO2, or alcohol foam extinguishers. + * POISONOUS GASES ARE PRODUCED IN FIRE, including acrid smoke + and irritating fumes. + * If employees are expected to fight fires, they must be trained + and equipped as stated in OSHA 1910.156. + + SPILLS AND EMERGENCIES + If Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate is spilled or leaked, take the + following steps: + + * Restrict persons not wearing protective equipment from area of + spill or leak until cleanup is complete. + * Remove all ignition sources. + * Absorb liquids in vermiculite, dry sand, earth, or a similar + material and deposit in sealed containers. + * It may be necessary to contain and dispose of Bis (2- + Ethylhexyl) Adipate as a HAZARDOUS WASTE. Contact your state + Environmental Program for specific recommendations. + + ========================================== + FOR LARGE SPILLS AND FIRES immediately call your fire department. + ========================================== + + HANDLING AND STORAGE + * Prior to working with Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate you should be + trained on its proper handling and storage. + * Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate is an ester. Some esters may + explode on mixing with NITRATES. + * Store in tightly closed containers in a cool, well ventilated + area. + * Sources of ignition, such as smoking and open flames, are + prohibited where Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate is used, handled, + or stored in a manner that could create a potential fire or + explosion hazard. + + FIRST AID + + POISON INFORMATION + + Eye Contact + * Immediately flush with large amounts of water for at least 15 + minutes, occasionally lifting upper and lower lids. + + Skin Contact + * Remove contaminated clothing. Wash contaminated skin with + water. + + Breathing + * Remove the person from exposure. + + PHYSICAL DATA + + Vapor Pressure: 2.60 mm Hg at 392oF (200oC) + Flash Point: 385oF (196oC) + Water Solubility: Insoluble + + OTHER COMMONLY USED NAMES + + Chemical Name: + Hexanedioic Acid, bis(2-ethylhexyl) ester + + Other Names and Formulations: + BEHA; DEHA; DOA; Dioctyl Adipate; Octyl Adipate; Di-2-Ethylhexyl + Adipate. + ------------------------------------------ + Not intended to be copied and sold for commercial purposes. + ------------------------------------------ + NEW JERSEY DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH + Right to Know Program + CN 368, Trenton, NJ 08625 0368 + ------------------------------------------ + ------------------------------------------ + + ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION + + Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate is a liquid used to make plastics and + lubricants. It may enter the environment from industrial + discharges or spills. + + ACUTE (SHORT-TERM) ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS + + Acute toxic effects may include the death of animals, birds, or + fish, and death or low growth rate in plants. Acute effects are + seen two to four days after animals or plants come in contact with + a toxic chemical substance. + + Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate has slight acute toxicity to aquatic + life. Insufficient data are available to evaluate or predict the + short-term effects of this chemical to plants, birds, or land + animals. + + CHRONIC (LONG-TERM) ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS + + Chronic toxic effects may include shortened lifespan, reproductive + problems, lower fertility, and changes in appearance or behavior. + Chronic effects can be seen long after first exposure(s) to a toxic + chemical. + + Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate has slight chronic toxicity to aquatic + life. Insufficient data are available to evaluate or predict the + long-term effects of this chemical to plants, birds, or land + animals. + + WATER SOLUBILITY + + Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate is slightly soluble in water. + Concentrations of 1 milligram and less will mix with a liter of + water. + + DISTRIBUTION AND PERSISTENCE IN THE ENVIRONMENT + + Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate is slightly persistent in water, with a + half-life of between 2 to 20 days. The half-life of a pollutant is + the amount of time it takes for one-half of the chemical to be + degraded. About 47.5% of this chemical will eventually end up in + terrestrial soils; about 44% will end up in aquatic sediments; and + the rest will end up in the air. + + BIOACCUMULATION IN AQUATIC ORGANISMS + + Some substances increase in concentration, or bioaccumulate, in + living organisms as they breathe contaminated air, drink + contaminated water, or eat contaminated food. These chemicals can + become concentrated in the tissues and internal organs of animals + and humans. + + The concentration of Bis (2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate found in fish + tissues is expected to be considerably higher than the average + concentration of this chemical in the water from which the fish was + taken. + + SUPPORT DOCUMENT: AQUIRE Database, ERL-Duluth, U.S. EPA. + + +............................................................................... +. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/disilver_oxide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/disilver_oxide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..5bfbb882 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/disilver_oxide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,168 @@ + +MSDS - SILVER OXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: SILVER OXIDE +FORMULA: AG2O +FORMULA WT: 231.74 +CAS NO.: 20667-12-3 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: VW4900000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: ARGENTOUS OXIDE; DISILVER OXIDE +PRODUCT CODES: V005,3427,5005 + EFFECTIVE: 10/24/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 2 MODERATE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + +STORAGE: KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +SILVER OXIDE 90-100 20667-12-3 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 7.22 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: BROWNISH-BLACK ODORLESS POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + (POSITIVE PRESSURE IF AVAILABLE) BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE. + MOVE EXPOSED CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. + USE WATER TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + CLOSED CONTAINERS EXPOSED TO HEAT MAY EXPLODE. + MODERATE OXIDIZER. CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.1 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST INHALATION MAY CAUSE TIGHTNESS AND PAIN IN CHEST, COUGHING, AND + DIFFICULTY IN BREATHING. + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: AIR, LIGHT, HEAT + +INCOMPATIBLES: MOST COMMON METALS, COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, AMMONIA, + MAGNESIUM, ORGANIC MATERIALS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. KEEP COMBUSTIBLES (WOOD, PAPER, OIL, + ETC.) AWAY FROM SPILLED MATERIAL. WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE + MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH + SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS TLV, A HIGH-EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE + RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. IF CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF RESPIRATOR, A SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + KEEP PRODUCT OUT OF LIGHT. + ISOLATE FROM INCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ethanol.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ethanol.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..f2510c40 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ethanol.txt @@ -0,0 +1,222 @@ + +MSDS - ALCOHOL, ANHYDROUS, REAGENT + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: ALCOHOL, ANHYDROUS, REAGENT +FORMULA: MIXTURE C2H5OH & C3H7OH & CH3OH +FORMULA WT: .00 +CAS NO.: - - +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: KQ6300000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: ETHANOL +PRODUCT CODES: 9229,9401,A478,5128,9400 + EFFECTIVE: 08/06/86 + REVISION #03 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 3 SEVERE (POISON) + FLAMMABILITY - 3 SEVERE (FLAMMABLE) + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES & SHIELD; LAB COAT & APRON; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES; CLASS B +EXTINGUISHER + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + POISON DANGER + FLAMMABLE - VAPOR HARMFUL + MAY BE FATAL OR CAUSE BLINDNESS IF SWALLOWED + CANNOT BE MADE NON-POISONOUS + CAUTION - POISON - CONTAINS METHYL ALCOHOL. NOT FOR INTERNAL OR + EXTERNAL USE. +KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME. DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING VAPOR. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, USE WATER SPRAY, +ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL, OR CARBON DIOXIDE. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER +SPRAY. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +ETHYL ALCOHOL 90-100 64-17-5 +ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL >1 67-63-0 +METHYL ALCOHOL >1 67-56-1 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 78 C ( 172 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): 44 + +MELTING POINT: -114 C ( -173 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 1.6 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 0.79 EVAPORATION RATE: 3.1 + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): COMPLETE (IN ALL PROPORTIONS) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 100 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: CLEAR, COLORLESS LIQUID WITH A PLEASANT ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: 13 C ( 55 F) + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - 19.0 % LOWER - 3.3 % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY, ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL OR CARBON DIOXIDE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + VAPORS MAY FLOW ALONG SURFACES TO DISTANT IGNITION SOURCES AND FLASH BACK. + CLOSED CONTAINERS EXPOSED TO HEAT MAY EXPLODE. CONTACT WITH STRONG + OXIDIZERS MAY CAUSE FIRE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TLV AND PEL ARE BASED ON ABSOLUTE ETHANOL. ETHYL ALCOHOL HAS BEEN LINKED +TO BIRTH DEFECTS AND CANCER IN HUMANS. + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 1900 MG/M3 ( 1000 PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 1900 MG/M3 ( 1000 PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 7060 + LD50 (IPR-RAT)(MG/KG) - 4070 + LD50 (IV-RAT) (MG/KG) - 1440 + LC50 (INHAL-MOUSE) (G/M3) - 39 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INHALATION OF VAPORS MAY CAUSE HEADACHE, NAUSEA, VOMITING, DIZZINESS, + DROWSINESS, IRRITATION OF RESPIRATORY TRACT, AND LOSS OF CONSCIOUSNESS. + CONTACT MAY CAUSE IRRITATION OF SKIN, EYES, AND MUCOUS MEMBRANES. + PROLONGED EXPOSURE MAY CAUSE DERMATITIS. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE BLINDNESS. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, HEADACHES, DIZZINESS, + GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEPRESSION. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INGESTION, INHALATION, SKIN CONTACT, EYE CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, GIVE LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION, + SUNLIGHT AND ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, ALUMINUM, ALKALI METALS, + ACETYL CHLORIDE + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, SMOKING OR FLAMES IN AREA. STOP LEAK + IF YOU CAN DO SO WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER SPRAY TO REDUCE VAPORS. TAKE UP + WITH SAND OR OTHER NON-COMBUSTIBLE ABSORBENT MATERIAL AND PLACE INTO + CONTAINER FOR LATER DISPOSAL. FLUSH AREA WITH WATER. + + J. T. BAKER SOLUSORB(R) SOLVENT ADSORBENT IS RECOMMENDED + FOR SPILLS OF THIS PRODUCT. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D001 (IGNITABLE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, A CHEMICAL CARTRIDGE RESPIRATOR WITH ORGANIC + VAPOR CARTRIDGE IS RECOMMENDED. IF CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF CARTRIDGE RESPIRATOR, A SELF- + CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES AND FACE SHIELD, UNIFORM, + PROTECTIVE SUIT, RUBBER GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + BOND AND GROUND CONTAINERS WHEN TRANSFERRING LIQUID. + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN A COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED, + FLAMMABLE LIQUID STORAGE AREA OR CABINET. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME ETHYL ALCOHOL +HAZARD CLASS FLAMMABLE LIQUID +UN/NA UN1170 +LABELS FLAMMABLE LIQUID + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME ETHANOL +HAZARD CLASS 3.2 +UN/NA UN1170 +LABELS FLAMMABLE LIQUID + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ferric_oxide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ferric_oxide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8b206a6f --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/ferric_oxide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,164 @@ + +MSDS - FERRIC OXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: FERRIC OXIDE +FORMULA: FE2O3 +FORMULA WT: 159.69 +CAS NO.: 1309-37-1 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: NO7400000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: IRON(III)OXIDE; RED IRON OXIDE; C.I. 77491 +PRODUCT CODES: 2024 + EFFECTIVE: 05/05/86 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + MAY CAUSE IRRITATION +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +FERRIC OXIDE 90-100 1309-37-1 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 1565 C ( 2849 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 5.24 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: RED TO REDDISH-BROWN, ODORLESS POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY IRRITATE EYES. + INHALATION OF DUST MAY CAUSE IRRITATION TO UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS TLV, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/gallic_acid.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/gallic_acid.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..11f5b25b --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/gallic_acid.txt @@ -0,0 +1,97 @@ + +MSDS - BISMUTH SUBGALLATE + +================================================================================ + SECTION I - Product Identification +================================================================================ + PRODUCT NAME: BISMUTH SUBGALLATE + FORMULA: HOCOC6H2(OH)OBI(OH H2O)O + FORMULA WT: 412.12 + CAS NO.: 00099-26-3 + COMMON SYNONYMS: BASIC BISMUTH GALLATE; GALLIC ACID BISMUTH BASIC SALT + PRODUCT CODES: 1131 + +================================================================================ + Precautionary Labeling +================================================================================ +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + WARNING + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED, INHALED, OR ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN + CAUSES IRRITATION + THERE IS INSUFFICIENT DATA IN THE PUBLISHED LITERATURE TO ASSIGN COMPLETE + NUMERICAL SAF-T-DATA RATINGS AND LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT FOR THIS + PRODUCT. SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS MUST BE USED IN STORAGE, USE AND HANDLING. + PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT FOR LABORATORY BENCH USE SHOULD BE CHOSEN USING + PROFESSIONAL JUDGMENT BASED ON THE SIZE AND TYPE OF REACTION OR TEST TO BE + CONDUCTED AND THE AVAILABLE VENTILATION, WITH OVERRIDING CONSIDERATION TO + MINIMIZE CONTACT WITH THE CHEMICAL. +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. +================================================================================ + SECTION II - Hazardous Components +================================================================================ + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + NOT APPLICABLE +================================================================================ + SECTION III - Physical Data +================================================================================ +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: N/A EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 +APPEARANCE & ODOR: BRIGHT YELLOW, ODORLESS POWDER. +================================================================================ + SECTION IV - Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +================================================================================ +FLASH POINT: N/A +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. +================================================================================ + SECTION V - Health Hazard Data +================================================================================ +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + NO EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE WERE DOCUMENTED. +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. +================================================================================ + SECTION VI - Reactivity Data +================================================================================ +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: LIGHT +================================================================================ + SECTION VII - Spill and Disposal Procedures +================================================================================ +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. +================================================================================ + SECTION VIII - Protective Equipment +================================================================================ +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SINCE SOME OF THE HAZARDS OF THIS PRODUCT ARE + UNKNOWN, AN INDUSTRIAL HYGIENIST SHOULD BE + CONSULTED ON VENTILATION AND PERSONAL PROTECTIVE + EQUIPMENT. COVER THE BODY AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE TO + AVOID CONTACT WITH THE CHEMICAL. WEAR SAFETY + GOGGLES, GLOVES, AND IMPERVIOUS CLOTHING. +================================================================================ + SECTION IX - Storage and Handling Precautions +================================================================================ +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP PRODUCT OUT OF LIGHT. + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. +================================================================================ + SECTION X - Transportation Data and Additional Information +================================================================================ +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/graphite.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/graphite.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ec080bfd --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/graphite.txt @@ -0,0 +1,109 @@ + +MSDS - GRAPHITE + +================================================================================ + SECTION I - Product Identification +================================================================================ + PRODUCT NAME: GRAPHITE + FORMULA: C + FORMULA WT: 12.01 + CAS NO.: 07782-42-5 + NIOSH/RTECS NO.: VV7780000 + COMMON SYNONYMS: NATURAL GRAPHITE; MINERAL CARBON; BLACK LEAD + PRODUCT CODES: M845 + +================================================================================ + Precautionary Labeling +================================================================================ +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + HEALTH - 1 + FLAMMABILITY - 2 + REACTIVITY - 0 + CONTACT - 0 +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES; CLASS B EXTINGUISHER +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + CAUTION + COMBUSTIBLE +KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME. +AVOID BREATHING DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. IN CASE OF FIRE, SOAK WITH WATER. IN CASE OF SPILL, SWEEP UP AND +REMOVE. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. +================================================================================ + SECTION II - Hazardous Components +================================================================================ + COMPONENT % CAS NO. +GRAPHITE 90-100 7782-42-5 +================================================================================ + SECTION III - Physical Data +================================================================================ +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.20 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 +APPEARANCE & ODOR: DARK GRAY TO BLACK ODORLESS POWDER. +================================================================================ + SECTION IV - Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +================================================================================ +FLASH POINT: N/A +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL OR CARBON DIOXIDE. + (WATER MAY BE INEFFECTIVE.) +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + (POSITIVE PRESSURE IF AVAILABLE) BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE. + MOVE EXPOSED CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. + USE WATER TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. +================================================================================ + SECTION V - Health Hazard Data +================================================================================ +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 2.5 MG/M3 ( PPM) +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY IRRITATE EYES. + DUST MAY CAUSE SNEEZING AND COUGHING. + MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY RECOGNIZED AS BEING AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + TO GRAPHITE: SKIN, SINUS AND PULMONARY DISEASES. +================================================================================ + SECTION VI - Reactivity Data +================================================================================ +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: AIR, MOISTURE +================================================================================ + SECTION VII - Spill and Disposal Procedures +================================================================================ +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, + SMOKING, OR FLAMES IN AREA. WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL + INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA + WITH WATER. +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. +================================================================================ + SECTION VIII - Protective Equipment +================================================================================ +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS UP + TO 5 PPM, A DUST/MIST RESPIRATOR IS + RECOMMENDED. ABOVE THIS LEVEL, A SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. +================================================================================ + SECTION IX - Storage and Handling Precautions +================================================================================ +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED AREA + AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, OR FLAME. +================================================================================ + SECTION X - Transportation Data and Additional Information +================================================================================ +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/gum_arabic.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/gum_arabic.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..063fb273 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/gum_arabic.txt @@ -0,0 +1,79 @@ + +MSDS - ARABIC GUM + +================================================================================ + SECTION I - Product Identification +================================================================================ + PRODUCT NAME: ARABIC GUM + FORMULA: COMPOSITION VARIES + FORMULA WT: 240,000 + CAS NO.: + COMMON SYNONYMS: ACACIA GUM + +================================================================================ + Precautionary Labeling +================================================================================ + N/A +================================================================================ + SECTION II - Hazardous Components +================================================================================ + N/A +================================================================================ + SECTION III - Physical Data +================================================================================ +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE @ 20C (MM HG): N/A +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY (AIR=1): N/A +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.49 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + SOLUBILITY(H2O): 37 PERCENT VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE TO PALE YELLOW POWDER +================================================================================ + SECTION IV - Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +================================================================================ +FLASH POINT: NONFLAMMABLE +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + WATER SPRAY, CO2, DRY CHEMICAL +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS +UNUSUAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS + EMITS EXTREMELY CORROSIVE FUMES ON DECOMPOSITION +================================================================================ + SECTION V - Health Hazard Data +================================================================================ +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): NONE ESTABLISHED +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT MAY CAUSE DERMATITIS. DUST INHALATION MAY CAUSE RESPIRATORY + SYMPTOMS: COUGHING, ASTHMA, WHEEZING +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + SKIN: WASH WITH SOAP/WATER + EYES: FLUSH WITH WATER; GET MEDICAL ASSISTANCE + INHALATION: REMOVE TO FRESH AIR; GET MEDICAL ATTENTION + INGESTION: GET MEDICAL ATTENTION +================================================================================ + SECTION VI - Reactivity Data +================================================================================ +STABILITY: STABLE +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: +INCOMPATIBILES: N/A +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: CO +================================================================================ + SECTION VII - Spill and Disposal Procedures +================================================================================ +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + TAKE UP AND CONTAINERIZE FOR PROPER DISPOSAL +================================================================================ + SECTION VIII - Protective Equipment +================================================================================ + EXHAUST VENTILATION PREFERRED + DUST RESPIRATOR MAY BE REQUIRED + PROTECTIVE GLOVES AND SAFETY GOGGLES RECOMMENDED +================================================================================ + SECTION IX - Storage and Handling Precautions +================================================================================ + N/A +================================================================================ + SECTION X - Transportation Data and Additional Information +================================================================================ + SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.35 - 1.49 + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/gum_copal.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/gum_copal.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..bea3954f --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/gum_copal.txt @@ -0,0 +1,125 @@ +RUGBY LABS -- COPAL CAVITY VARNISH - RESIN COPAL +MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET +FSC: 6520 +NIIN: 012178855 +Manufacturer's CAGE: 4V824 +Part No. Indicator: A +Part Number/Trade Name: COPAL CAVITY VARNISH +=========================================================================== + General Information +=========================================================================== +Item Name: RESIN COPAL +Company's Name: RUGBY LABS, INC +Company's Street: 898 ORLANDO AVE +Company's City: WEST HEMPSTEAD +Company's State: NY +Company's Zip Code: 11552 +Company's Emerg Ph #: (800) 645-2158 +Company's Info Ph #: (800) 645-2158 +Record No. For Safety Entry: 001 +Tot Safety Entries This Stk#: 002 +Date MSDS Prepared: 20JAN86 +Safety Data Review Date: 28AUG90 +Preparer's Company: OK ANALYTICAL LAB +Preparer's St Or P. O. Box: 141 LANZA AVE BLDG 12, 3 FLOOR +Preparer's City: GARFIELD +Preparer's State: NJ +Preparer's Zip Code: 07026 +MSDS Serial Number: BJCTR +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: TRACHYLOLIC ACID +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 1005170TA +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: CLEAR LIGHT BROWN LIQUID WITH ALCOHOLIC ODORL. +Boiling Point: 113F +Vapor Pressure (MM Hg/70 F): 350 +Vapor Density (Air=1): 4.0 +Specific Gravity: 1.144F +Evaporation Rate And Ref: (BU AC = 1): 5.0 +Solubility In Water: 20% +Percent Volatiles By Volume: 90% +pH: 3.40 +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: 57F +Flash Point Method: PMCC +Lower Explosive Limit: 2.6% +Upper Explosive Limit: 7.8% +Extinguishing Media: WATER FOG, FOAM, CO2, DRY CHEMICAL +Special Fire Fighting Proc: KEEP VAPORS AWAY FROM POSSIBLE IGNITION +SOURCE. WEAR POSITIVE PRESSURE, SELF CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS. +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: DON'T PRESSURIZE, CUT, HEAT, WELD OR EXPOSED +SUCH CONTAINERS TO FLAME. +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Cond To Avoid (Stability): FLAME, HEAT, IGNITION SOURCE +Materials To Avoid: ALUMINUM, ALLOYS, AMINES & AMMONIA +Hazardous Decomp Products: HYDROGEN CHLORIDE & CO +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: ORAL RATS LD50 = 250 MG/KG +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: NO +Route Of Entry - Skin: YES +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: YES +IRRITATION. INGESTION: RAPID ABSORPTION MAY OCCUR THROUGH LUNGS IF +ASPIRATED & CAUSE SYSTEMIC EFFECTS. +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO +Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: NONE +IRRITATION. +Emergency/First Aid Proc: INGESTION: DECISION TO INDUCE VOMITING OR NOT +SHOULD BE MADE BY PHYSICIAN. +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: FOR SMALL SPILLS: SMOTHER W/FOAM OR SPONGE +MATERIALS. +Waste Disposal Method: BURN IN SYSTEM EQUIPPED W/AN HYDROCHLORIC ACID +SCRUBBER IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE & LOCAL +REGULATIONS. +Precautions-Handling/Storing: DON'T BREATHE VAPORS. DON'T GET IN EYES, OR +SKIN OR ON CLOTHING. DON'T TAKE INTERNALLY. +Other Precautions: NO SMOKING. +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: APPROVED FULL-FACE, SUPPLIED AIR RESPIRATOR. +Ventilation: LOCAL EXHAUST: RECOMMENDED +Protective Gloves: RUBBER +Eye Protection: CHEMICAL GOGGLES +Other Protective Equipment: RUBBER PROTECTIVE CLOTH +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Label Status: G +Common Name: COPAL CAVITY VARNISH +IRRITATION. INGESTION: RAPID ABSORPTION MAY OCCUR THROUGH LUNGS IF +IRRITATION. +Label Name: RUGBY LABS, INC +Label Street: 898 ORLANDO AVE +Label City: WEST HEMPSTEAD +Label State: NY +Label Zip Code: 11552 +Label Emergency Number: (800) 645-2158 +======================================================================= +URL for this msds http://hazard.com. If you wish to change, add to, or +delete information in this archive please sent updates to dan@hazard.com. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/gum_tragacanth.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/gum_tragacanth.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..95590f7e --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/gum_tragacanth.txt @@ -0,0 +1,131 @@ +Fisher Acros -- Tragacanth Gum 9000-65-1 + +ACC39013 + +---------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Tragacanth gum + +Acros Catalog #s: AC421385000 AC421395000 +*** This product is for research and development purposes only. *** + +MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET + +Pittsburgh, PA 15219-4785 +1-800-ACROS-01 (1-800-227-6701) +For Emergency Transportation Information call CHEMTREC: 800-424-9300 + +Date of Revision: 10/31/90 Accession Number: 120242 +Modified by Fisher Scientific: 12/94 +============================================================================== +SECTION I. IDENTIFICATION + + - Product Name: Tragacanth Gum + - Synonym(s): Gum Tragacanth + - Formula: Gummy exudation from Astragalus Gummifer Labill + - CAT No(s): 136 9875; 136 9883; 164 6520; 193 6061 + - Chem. No(s): 15409 +============================================================================== +SECTION II. PRODUCT AND COMPONENT HAZARD DATA + + ACGIH + COMPONENT(S): Percent TLV(R) CAS Reg. No. + + Tragacanth Gum ca. 100 --- 9000-65-1 +============================================================================== +SECTION III. PHYSICAL DATA + + - Appearance and Odor: White to yellow solid; odorless + - Melting Point: Not Available + - Vapor Pressure: Negligible + - Evaporation Rate (n-butyl acetate = 1): Negligible + - Volatile Fraction by Weight: Negligible + - Specific Gravity (Water = 1): Not Available + - Solubility in Water (by Weight): Not Available +============================================================================== +SECTION IV. FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA + + - Flash Point: Not Applicable + - Extinguishing Media: Water spray; Dry chemical; Carbon dioxide + - Special Fire Fighting Procedures: Wear self-contained breathing + apparatus and protective clothing. + - Unusual Fire and Explosion Hazards: Fire or excessive heat may produce + hazardous decomposition products. +============================================================================== +SECTION V. REACTIVITY DATA + + - Stability: Stable + - Incompatibility: Strong oxidizers + - Hazardous Decomposition Products: Combustion will produce carbon + dioxide and probably carbon monoxide. Oxides of nitrogen may also be + present. + - Hazardous Polymerization: Will not occur. +============================================================================== +R-0354.000C 85-5404 + + -2- + +============================================================================== +SECTION VI. TOXICITY AND HEALTH HAZARD DATA + + A. EXPOSURE LIMITS: Not established. + + B. EXPOSURE EFFECTS: + Inhalation: Low hazard for usual industrial handling. + Skin: Low hazard for usual industrial handling. + Eye: No specific hazard known. Contact may cause transient irritation. + Ingestion: Expected to be a low ingestion hazard. + + C. FIRST AID: + Inhalation: If symptomatic, remove to fresh air. Get medical attention + if symptoms persist. + Skin: Wash after each contact. Get medical attention if symptoms occur. + Eye: Any material that contacts the eye should be washed out + immediately with water. Get medical attention if symptoms occur. + Ingestion: Drink 1-2 glasses of water. Seek medical attention. +============================================================================== +SECTION VII. VENTILATION AND PERSONAL PROTECTION + + A. VENTILATION AND RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: + Good ventilation* should be sufficient. Supplementary ventilation or + respiratory protection may be needed in special circumstances. + + * Typically ten room volumes per hour is considered good general + ventilation; ventilation rates should be matched to conditions of use. + + B. SKIN AND EYE PROTECTION: + Safety glasses with side shields are recommended in industrial + operations involving chemicals. + If prolonged or repeated skin contact is necessary, impervious gloves + or other protection may be required. +============================================================================== +SECTION VIII. SPECIAL STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS + + Keep from contact with oxidizing materials. +============================================================================== +SECTION IX. SPILL, LEAK, AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES + + Sweep up material and package for safe feed to an incinerator. + Dispose by incineration or contract with licensed chemical waste disposal + agency. Discharge, treatment, or disposal may be subject to federal, state + or local laws. +============================================================================== +R-0354.000C 85-5404 + + -3- + +============================================================================== +SECTION X. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION + +WHMIS STATUS: Noncontrolled Product + +The information contained herein is furnished without warranty of any kind. +Users should consider these data only as a supplement to other information +gathered by them and must make independent determinations of the suitability +and completeness of information from all sources to assure proper use and +disposal of these materials and the safety and health of employees and +customers. +============================================================================== +R-0354.000C 85-5404 @120242* + +---------------------------------------------------------------------------- diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/hexachlorobenzene.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/hexachlorobenzene.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..40b249ee --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/hexachlorobenzene.txt @@ -0,0 +1,273 @@ + +MSDS - Hexachlorobenzene + + **** SECTION 2 - COMPOSITION, INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS **** + ++------------+------------------------------------+---------+-----------+ +| CAS# | Chemical Name | % | EINECS# | +|------------|------------------------------------|---------|-----------| +| 118-74-1|Hexachlorobenzene, 99% | |unlisted | ++------------+------------------------------------+---------+-----------+ + Hazard Symbols: T+ + Risk Phrases: 36/37/38 43 45 + + + **** SECTION 3 - HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION **** + + EMERGENCY OVERVIEW +Appearance: white fine crystalline powder. + + +Target Organs: None. + +Potential Health Effects + The toxicological properties of this material have not been + investigated. Use appropriate procedures to prevent opportunities + for direct contact with the skin or eyes and to prevent inhalation. + + + **** SECTION 4 - FIRST AID MEASURES **** + + Eyes: + Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, + occasionally lifting the upper and lower lids. + Skin: + Flush skin with plenty of soap and water for at least 15 minutes + while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. + Ingestion: + DO NOT induce vomiting. Allow the victim to rinse his mouth and then + to drink 2-4 cupfuls of water, and seek medical advice. + Inhalation: + Remove from exposure to fresh air immediately. + Notes to Physician: + Treat symptomatically. + + + **** SECTION 5 - FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES **** + + General Information: + As in any fire, wear a self-contained breathing apparatus in + pressure-demand, MSHA/NIOSH (approved or equivalent), and full + protective gear. + Extinguishing Media: + In case of fire, use water, dry chemical, chemical foam, or + alcohol-resistant foam. + Autoignition Temperature: Not available. + Flash Point: 242_C (467.60_F) + NFPA Rating: Not published. + Explosion Limits, Lower: Not available. + Upper: Not available. + + + **** SECTION 6 - ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES **** + + General Information: Use proper personal protective equipment as indicated + in Section 8. + Spills/Leaks: + Sweep up, then place into a suitable container for disposal. + + + **** SECTION 7 - HANDLING and STORAGE **** + + Handling: + Not available. + Storage: + Not available. + + + **** SECTION 8 - EXPOSURE CONTROLS, PERSONAL PROTECTION **** + + Engineering Controls: + Use adequate general or local exhaust ventilation to keep airborne + concentrations below the permissible exposure limits. + + Exposure Limits ++--------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-----------------+ +| Chemical Name | ACGIH | NIOSH |OSHA - Final PELs| +|--------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-----------------| +| Hexachlorobenzene, |none listed |none listed |none listed | +| 99% | | | | ++--------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-----------------+ + + OSHA Vacated PELs: + Hexachlorobenzene, 99%: + No OSHA Vacated PELs are listed for this chemical. + + Personal Protective Equipment + + Eyes: + Wear safety glasses and chemical goggles if splashing + is possible. + Skin: + Wear appropriate protective gloves and clothing to + prevent skin exposure. + Clothing: + Wear appropriate protective clothing to minimize + contact with skin. + Respirators: + Wear a NIOSH/MSHA-approved (or equivalent) + full-facepiece airline respirator in the positive + pressure mode with emergency escape provisions. + + **** SECTION 9 - PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES **** + +Physical State: Not available. +Appearance: White fine crystalline powder +Odor: None reported. +pH: Not available. +Vapor Pressure: 1 mbar @ 114 C +Vapor Density: Not available. +Evaporation Rate: Not available. +Viscosity: Not available. +Boiling Point: 332.0_C +Freezing/Melting Point: 227.00 - 229.00 +Decomposition Temperature: Not available. +Solubility: Insoluble in water. +Specific Gravity/Density: Not available. +Molecular Formula: C6 Cl6 +Molecular Weight: Not available. + + + **** SECTION 10 - STABILITY AND REACTIVITY **** + + Chemical Stability: + Stable under normal temperatures and pressures. + Conditions to Avoid: + Not available. + Incompatibilities with Other Materials: + Strong oxidizing agents. + Hazardous Decomposition Products: + Hydrogen chloride, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide. + Hazardous Polymerization: Has not been reported. + + + **** SECTION 11 - TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION **** + + RTECS#: + CAS# 118-74-1: DA2975000 + LD50/LC50: + CAS# 118-74-1: Inhalation, mouse: LC50 =4 gm/m3; Inhalation, rabbit: + LC50 =1800 mg/m3; Inhalation, rat: LC50 =3600 mg/m3; Oral, mouse: + LD50 = 4 gm/kg; Oral, rabbit: LD50 = 2600 mg/kg; Oral, rat: LD50 = 10 + gm/kg. + Carcinogenicity: + Hexachlorobenzene, 99% - + ACGIH: A2-suspected human carcinogen + California: carcinogen + NIOSH: occupational carcinogen + NTP: Suspect carcinogen + OSHA: Possible Select carcinogen + IARC: Group 2B carcinogen + + + **** SECTION 12 - ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION **** + + Ecotoxicity: + Not available. + + + **** SECTION 13 - DISPOSAL CONSIDERATIONS **** + +Dispose of in a manner consistent with federal, state, and local regulations. +RCRA D-Series Maximum Concentration of Contaminants: waste number D032; regulato +RCRA D-Series Chronic Toxicity Reference Levels: chronic toxicity reference leve +RCRA F-Series: Not listed. +RCRA P-Series: Not listed. +RCRA U-Series: waste number U127 +This material is banned from land disposal according to RCRA. + + + **** SECTION 14 - TRANSPORT INFORMATION **** + + US DOT + Shipping Name: HEXACHLOROBENZENE + Hazard Class: 6.1 + UN Number: UN2729 + Packing Group: III + IMO + Shipping Name: HEXACHLOROBENZENE + Hazard Class: 6.1 + UN Number: 2729 + Packing Group: 3 + IATA + Shipping Name: HEXACHLOROBENZENE + Hazard Class: 6.1 + UN Number: 2729 + Packing Group: 3 + RID/ADR + Shipping Name: HEXACHLOROBENZENE + Dangerous Goods Code: 6.1(17C) + UN Number: 2729 + Canadian TDG + No information available. + + + **** SECTION 15 - REGULATORY INFORMATION **** + +A. Federal + TSCA + CAS# 118-74-1 is listed on the TSCA inventory. + Health & Safety Reporting List + None of the chemicals are on the Health & Safety Reporting List. + Chemical Test Rules + None of the chemicals in this product are under a Chemical Test Rule. + Section 12b + None of the chemicals are listed under TSCA Section 12b. + TSCA Significant New Use Rule + None of the chemicals in this material have a SNUR under TSCA. + CERCLA/SARA + Section 302 (RQ) + None of the chemicals in this material have an RQ. + Section 302 (TPQ) + None of the chemicals in this product have a TPQ. + Section 313 + This chemical is not at a high enough concentration to be reportable + under Section 313. + No chemicals are reportable under Section 313. + Clean Air Act: + CAS# 118-74-1 is listed as a hazardous air pollutant (HAP). + This material does not contain any Class 1 Ozone depletors. + This material does not contain any Class 2 Ozone depletors. + Clean Water Act: + None of the chemicals in this product are listed as Hazardous + Substances under the CWA. + CAS# 118-74-1 is listed as a Priority Pollutant under the Clean Water + Act. + None of the chemicals in this product are listed as Toxic Pollutants + under the CWA. + OSHA: + None of the chemicals in this product are considered highly hazardous + by OSHA. +B. State + Hexachlorobenzene, 99% can be found on the following state right to + know lists: New Jersey, Florida, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, + Massachusetts. + The following statement(s) is(are) made in order to comply with + the California Safe Drinking Water Act: + This product contains Hexachlorobenzene, 99%, a chemical known to the + state of California to cause cancer. + This product contains Hexachlorobenzene, 99%, a chemical known to the + state of California to cause developmental effects. + California No Significant Risk Level: + CAS# 118-74-1: no significant risk level = 0.4 ug/day +C. International + Canada + CAS# 118-74-1 is listed on Canada's DSL/NDSL List. + CAS# 118-74-1 is listed on Canada's Ingredient Disclosure List. + European Labeling in Accordance with EC Directives + Hazard Symbols: T+ + Risk Phrases: + R 36/37/38 Irritating to eyes, respiratory system + and skin. + R 43 May cause sensitization by skin contact. + R 45 May cause cancer. + Safety Phrases: + S 44 If you feel unwell, seek medical advice (show + the label where possible). + S 53 Avoid exposure - obtain special instructions + before use. + Exposure Limits: + OEL-CZECHOSLOVAKIA:TWA 1 mg/m3;STEL 2 mg/m3. OEL-FRANCE;Carcinogen. OE + L-RUSSIA:STEL 0.9 mg/m3;Skin + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/hexachloroethane.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/hexachloroethane.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..621a7f77 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/hexachloroethane.txt @@ -0,0 +1,117 @@ + +MSDS - HEXACHLOROETHANE + +SECTION I. IDENTIFICATION + + - Product Name: Hexachloroethane + - Synonym(s): Perchloroethane + - Formula: C2 Cl6 +============================================================================== + +SECTION II. PRODUCT AND COMPONENT HAZARD DATA + ACGIH +COMPONENT(S): Percent TLV(R) CAS Reg. No. + + Hexachloroethane ca. 100 10 ppm 67-72-1 +============================================================================== + +SECTION III. PHYSICAL DATA + + - Appearance and odor: Colorless crystals; camphor-like odor + - Melting Point: 187 C (369 F) + - Vapor Pressure: Negligible + - Evaporation Rate (n-butyl acetate = 1): 2.1 + - Volatile Fraction by Weight: Negligible + - Specific Gravity (Water = 1): 2.09 + - Solubility in Water: Negligible +============================================================================== + +SECTION IV. FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA + + - Flash Point: Noncombustible + - Extinguishing Media: Use appropriate agent for surrounding fire. + - Special Fire Fighting Procedures: Wear self-contained breathing + apparatus and protective clothing. + - Unusual Fire and Explosion Hazards: Fire or excessive heat may produce + hazardous decomposition products. May react with metals and alkalies + forming spontaneously explosive materials. +============================================================================== + +SECTION V. REACTIVITY DATA + + - Stability: Stable + - Incompatibility: Strong oxidizers, strong bases, metals + - Hazardous Decomposition Products: Thermal decomposition may produce + carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Hydrogen chloride gas and phosgene + may also be present. + - Hazardous Polymerization: Will not occur. +============================================================================== + +SECTION VI. TOXICITY AND HEALTH HAZARD DATA + + A. EXPOSURE LIMITS: + Threshold Limit Value (TLV): 1 ppm, 8-hr TWA, ACGIH 1990-1991. + Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL): 1 ppm (skin), OSHA. + + B. EXPOSURE EFFECTS: Exposure to high concentrations may cause liver and + kidney damage. + + Carcinogenicity Status: Hexachloroethane has been identified as a + carcinogen or potential carcinogen for hazard communication purposes by: + + California: WARNING. Hexachloroethane is known to the State of + California to cause cancer. + + Inhalation: Harmful if inhaled. Dust or vapor irritating to the + respiratory tract. + Skin: Harmful if absorbed through the skin. + Eye: Causes eye irritation. + Ingestion: Harmful if swallowed. Ingestion of large amounts may cause + central nervous system depression based on animal data. + + C. FIRST AID: + Inhalation: Remove to fresh air. Treat symptomatically. If symptoms + are present get medical attention. + Skin: In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water + for at least 15 minutes while removing contaminated clothing and + shoes. Wash contaminated clothing before reuse. Destroy or thoroughly + clean contaminated shoes. If symptoms are present after washing, get + medical attention. + Eye: Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 + minutes and get medical attention. + Ingestion: If swallowed, induce vomiting immediately as directed by + medical personnel. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious + person. Call a physician or poison control center immediately. +============================================================================== + +SECTION VII. VENTILATION AND PERSONAL PROTECTION + + A. VENTILATION: + Use process enclosures, local exhaust ventilation or other engineering + controls to reduce dust concentrations to an acceptable level. + + B. RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: + If engineering controls are inadequate to control dust concentrations + to an acceptable level, a NIOSH-approved dust or vapor respirator + should be worn if needed. If respirators are used, a program should be + instituted to assure compliance with OSHA Standard 29 CFR 1910.134. + + C. SKIN AND EYE PROTECTION: + Protective gloves and clothing should be worn. Safety glasses, goggles, + or a face shield should be worn. +============================================================================== + +SECTION VIII. SPECIAL STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS + + Keep from contact with oxidizing materials, metals or bases. Do not store + in metal containers. +============================================================================== + +SECTION IX. SPILL, LEAK, AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES + + Sweep up material and package for safe feed to an incinerator. Dispose by + incineration or contract with licensed chemical waste disposal agency. + Discharge, treatment, or disposal may be subject to federal, state or local + laws. + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/hexamine.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/hexamine.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ea64bd16 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/hexamine.txt @@ -0,0 +1,184 @@ + +MSDS - HEXAMETHYLENETETRAMINE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: HEXAMETHYLENETETRAMINE +FORMULA: (CH2)6N4 +FORMULA WT: 140.19 +CAS NO.: 00100-97-0 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: MN4725000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: METHENAMINE; UROTROPIN; HMTA ; HEXAFORM +PRODUCT CODES: N145 + EFFECTIVE: 05/06/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 1 SLIGHT + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; CLASS B EXTINGUISHER + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + CAUSES IRRITATION +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + NOT APPLICABLE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 4.9 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.30 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE CRYSTALLINE POWDER WITH MILD AMINE ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP 250 C ( 482 F) + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + GIVES OFF IRRITATING VAPORS. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + AMMONIA, FORMALDEHYDE, NITROGEN OXIDES, CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TOXICITY: LD50 (IV-RAT) (MG/KG) - 9200 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + PROLONGED CONTACT MAY CAUSE SKIN SENSITIZATION. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION, MOISTURE + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG ACIDS, STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: AMMONIA, FORMALDEHYDE, OXIDES OF NITROGEN, + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, + SMOKING, OR FLAMES IN AREA. WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL + INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA + WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D001 (IGNITABLE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, RUBBER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED AREA + AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, OR FLAME. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME HEXAMINE +HAZARD CLASS 4.1 +UN/NA UN1328 +LABELS FLAMMABLE SOLID + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/iron.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/iron.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8c703bd1 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/iron.txt @@ -0,0 +1,183 @@ + +MSDS - IRON + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: IRON +FORMULA: FE +FORMULA WT: 55.85 +CAS NO.: 07439-89-6 +COMMON SYNONYMS: METALLIC IRON; ELEMENTAL IRON;STEEL +PRODUCT CODES: 2228,2234,2230,2226 + EFFECTIVE: 06/25/86 + REVISION #03 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 3 SEVERE (FLAMMABLE) + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 0 NONE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; CLASS D EXTINGUISHER + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + CAUSES IRRITATION + HARMFUL IF INHALED + DUST MAY FORM FLAMMABLE AND EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE WITH AIR, ESPECIALLY + WHEN DAMP. +KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME. DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +DO NOT BREATHE DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH +ADEQUATE VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, +DO NOT USE WATER. USE DRY SAND, EARTH OR SODA ASH. IN CASE OF SPILL, +SWEEP UP AND CAREFULLY REMOVE. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED STRIPE (STORE SEPARATELY) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +IRON 90-100 7439-89-6 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 3000 C ( 5432 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 1535 C ( 2795 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 7.86 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: GRAY CRYSTALLINE POWDER OR CHIPS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE POWDERED GRAPHITE, POWDERED SALT, OR POWDERED LIMESTONE. + DO NOT USE WATER, CARBON DIOXIDE, OR DRY CHEMICAL. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + CAN BE AN EXPLOSION HAZARD, ESPECIALLY WHEN HEATED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + PROLONGED CONTACT MAY CAUSE SKIN IRRITATION. + DUST MAY IRRITATE SKIN OR EYES. + CHRONIC EFFECTS INCUDE IRRITATION OF SKIN, EYES, NOSE, THROAT, AND LUNGS. + NOTE: PRODUCT IS A SOLID MASS; HOWEVER, WARNINGS ARE BASED ON INHALATION + OF + DUST, MIST OR FUME EMISSIONS THAT ARE POSSIBLE DURING MANUFACTURING OR + CHEMICAL REACTIONS. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES WHILE REMOVING CONTAMINATED CLOTHING AND SHOES. + WASH CLOTHING BEFORE RE-USE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: MOISTURE, HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION + +INCOMPATIBLES: ORGANIC ACIDS, STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, WATER, + MINERAL ACIDS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, + SMOKING, OR FLAMES IN AREA. WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL + INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA + WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D001 (IGNITABLE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, A DUST/MIST RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. + IF CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF RESPIRATOR, + A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED STRIPE (STORE SEPARATELY) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED AREA + AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, OR FLAME. + DO NOT STORE NEAR OXIDIZING MATERIALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/iron_filings.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/iron_filings.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8c703bd1 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/iron_filings.txt @@ -0,0 +1,183 @@ + +MSDS - IRON + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: IRON +FORMULA: FE +FORMULA WT: 55.85 +CAS NO.: 07439-89-6 +COMMON SYNONYMS: METALLIC IRON; ELEMENTAL IRON;STEEL +PRODUCT CODES: 2228,2234,2230,2226 + EFFECTIVE: 06/25/86 + REVISION #03 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 3 SEVERE (FLAMMABLE) + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 0 NONE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; CLASS D EXTINGUISHER + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + CAUSES IRRITATION + HARMFUL IF INHALED + DUST MAY FORM FLAMMABLE AND EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE WITH AIR, ESPECIALLY + WHEN DAMP. +KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME. DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +DO NOT BREATHE DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH +ADEQUATE VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, +DO NOT USE WATER. USE DRY SAND, EARTH OR SODA ASH. IN CASE OF SPILL, +SWEEP UP AND CAREFULLY REMOVE. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED STRIPE (STORE SEPARATELY) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +IRON 90-100 7439-89-6 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 3000 C ( 5432 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 1535 C ( 2795 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 7.86 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: GRAY CRYSTALLINE POWDER OR CHIPS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE POWDERED GRAPHITE, POWDERED SALT, OR POWDERED LIMESTONE. + DO NOT USE WATER, CARBON DIOXIDE, OR DRY CHEMICAL. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + CAN BE AN EXPLOSION HAZARD, ESPECIALLY WHEN HEATED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + PROLONGED CONTACT MAY CAUSE SKIN IRRITATION. + DUST MAY IRRITATE SKIN OR EYES. + CHRONIC EFFECTS INCUDE IRRITATION OF SKIN, EYES, NOSE, THROAT, AND LUNGS. + NOTE: PRODUCT IS A SOLID MASS; HOWEVER, WARNINGS ARE BASED ON INHALATION + OF + DUST, MIST OR FUME EMISSIONS THAT ARE POSSIBLE DURING MANUFACTURING OR + CHEMICAL REACTIONS. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES WHILE REMOVING CONTAMINATED CLOTHING AND SHOES. + WASH CLOTHING BEFORE RE-USE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: MOISTURE, HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION + +INCOMPATIBLES: ORGANIC ACIDS, STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, WATER, + MINERAL ACIDS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, + SMOKING, OR FLAMES IN AREA. WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL + INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA + WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D001 (IGNITABLE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, A DUST/MIST RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. + IF CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF RESPIRATOR, + A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED STRIPE (STORE SEPARATELY) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED AREA + AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, OR FLAME. + DO NOT STORE NEAR OXIDIZING MATERIALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/iron_iii_oxide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/iron_iii_oxide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8b206a6f --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/iron_iii_oxide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,164 @@ + +MSDS - FERRIC OXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: FERRIC OXIDE +FORMULA: FE2O3 +FORMULA WT: 159.69 +CAS NO.: 1309-37-1 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: NO7400000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: IRON(III)OXIDE; RED IRON OXIDE; C.I. 77491 +PRODUCT CODES: 2024 + EFFECTIVE: 05/05/86 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + MAY CAUSE IRRITATION +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +FERRIC OXIDE 90-100 1309-37-1 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 1565 C ( 2849 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 5.24 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: RED TO REDDISH-BROWN, ODORLESS POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY IRRITATE EYES. + INHALATION OF DUST MAY CAUSE IRRITATION TO UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS TLV, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/iron_powder.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/iron_powder.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8c703bd1 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/iron_powder.txt @@ -0,0 +1,183 @@ + +MSDS - IRON + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: IRON +FORMULA: FE +FORMULA WT: 55.85 +CAS NO.: 07439-89-6 +COMMON SYNONYMS: METALLIC IRON; ELEMENTAL IRON;STEEL +PRODUCT CODES: 2228,2234,2230,2226 + EFFECTIVE: 06/25/86 + REVISION #03 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 3 SEVERE (FLAMMABLE) + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 0 NONE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; CLASS D EXTINGUISHER + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + CAUSES IRRITATION + HARMFUL IF INHALED + DUST MAY FORM FLAMMABLE AND EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE WITH AIR, ESPECIALLY + WHEN DAMP. +KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME. DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +DO NOT BREATHE DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH +ADEQUATE VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, +DO NOT USE WATER. USE DRY SAND, EARTH OR SODA ASH. IN CASE OF SPILL, +SWEEP UP AND CAREFULLY REMOVE. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED STRIPE (STORE SEPARATELY) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +IRON 90-100 7439-89-6 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 3000 C ( 5432 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 1535 C ( 2795 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 7.86 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: GRAY CRYSTALLINE POWDER OR CHIPS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE POWDERED GRAPHITE, POWDERED SALT, OR POWDERED LIMESTONE. + DO NOT USE WATER, CARBON DIOXIDE, OR DRY CHEMICAL. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + CAN BE AN EXPLOSION HAZARD, ESPECIALLY WHEN HEATED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + PROLONGED CONTACT MAY CAUSE SKIN IRRITATION. + DUST MAY IRRITATE SKIN OR EYES. + CHRONIC EFFECTS INCUDE IRRITATION OF SKIN, EYES, NOSE, THROAT, AND LUNGS. + NOTE: PRODUCT IS A SOLID MASS; HOWEVER, WARNINGS ARE BASED ON INHALATION + OF + DUST, MIST OR FUME EMISSIONS THAT ARE POSSIBLE DURING MANUFACTURING OR + CHEMICAL REACTIONS. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES WHILE REMOVING CONTAMINATED CLOTHING AND SHOES. + WASH CLOTHING BEFORE RE-USE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: MOISTURE, HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION + +INCOMPATIBLES: ORGANIC ACIDS, STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, WATER, + MINERAL ACIDS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, + SMOKING, OR FLAMES IN AREA. WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL + INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA + WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D001 (IGNITABLE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, A DUST/MIST RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. + IF CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF RESPIRATOR, + A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED STRIPE (STORE SEPARATELY) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED AREA + AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, OR FLAME. + DO NOT STORE NEAR OXIDIZING MATERIALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/isopropyl_alcohol.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/isopropyl_alcohol.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..fed6e8d4 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/isopropyl_alcohol.txt @@ -0,0 +1,217 @@ + +MSDS - ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL +FORMULA: CH3CHOHCH3 +FORMULA WT: 60.10 +CAS NO.: 67-63-0 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: NT805000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: 2-PROPANOL; ISOPROPANOL; SEC-PROPYL ALCOHOL; IPA; + DIMETHYLCARBINOL +PRODUCT CODES: U298,5082,9080 + EFFECTIVE: 09/03/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 3 SEVERE (FLAMMABLE) + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES; CLASS B EXTINGUISHER + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + FLAMMABLE + CAUSES IRRITATION + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED OR INHALED +KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME. AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING VAPOR. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH +ADEQUATE VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, +USE ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL, CARBON DIOXIDE - WATER MAY BE INEFFECTIVE. +FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER SPRAY. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL 90-100 67-63-0 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 82 C ( 180 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): 33 + +MELTING POINT: -89 C ( -128 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 2.1 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 0.79 EVAPORATION RATE: 2.83 + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): COMPLETE (IN ALL PROPORTIONS) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 100 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: COLORLESS LIQUID WITH SLIGHT ODOR OF RUBBING ALCOHOL. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP 12 C ( 53 F) NFPA 704M RATING: 1-3-0 + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - 12.0 % LOWER - 2.0 % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL OR CARBON DIOXIDE. + (WATER MAY BE INEFFECTIVE.) + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + VAPORS MAY FLOW ALONG SURFACES TO DISTANT IGNITION SOURCES AND FLASH BACK. + CLOSED CONTAINERS EXPOSED TO HEAT MAY EXPLODE. CONTACT WITH STRONG + OXIDIZERS MAY CAUSE FIRE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 980 MG/M3 ( 400 PPM) + +SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT (STEL): 1225 MG/M3 ( 500 PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 980 MG/M3 ( 400 PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 5045 + LD50 (IPR-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 933 + LD50 (SKN-RABBIT) (G/KG) - 13 + LD50 (IV-MOUSE) (MG/KG) - 1863 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INHALATION OF VAPORS MAY CAUSE HEADACHE, NAUSEA, VOMITING, DIZZINESS, + DROWSINESS, IRRITATION OF RESPIRATORY TRACT, AND LOSS OF CONSCIOUSNESS. + INHALATION OF VAPORS MAY CAUSE PULMONARY EDEMA. + LIQUID MAY BE IRRITATING TO SKIN AND EYES. PROLONGED SKIN CONTACT MAY + RESULT IN DERMATITIS. EYE CONTACT MAY RESULT IN TEMPORARY CORNEAL DAMAGE. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, HEADACHES, DIZZINESS, + GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEPRESSION. + +TARGET ORGANS + EYES, SKIN, RESPIRATORY SYSTEM + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, INGESTION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, ALUMINUM, NITRIC ACID, + SULFURIC ACID, AMINES AND AMMONIA, + HALOGEN ACIDS AND HALOGEN COMPOUNDS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, + SMOKING, OR FLAMES IN AREA. STOP LEAK IF YOU CAN DO SO WITHOUT RISK. USE + WATER SPRAY TO REDUCE VAPORS. TAKE UP WITH SAND OR OTHER NON-COMBUSTIBLE + ABSORBENT MATERIAL AND PLACE INTO CONTAINER FOR LATER DISPOSAL. FLUSH + AREA WITH WATER. + J. T. BAKER SOLUSORB(R) SOLVENT ADSORBENT IS RECOMMENDED + FOR SPILLS OF THIS PRODUCT. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D001 (IGNITABLE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS UP + TO 1000 PPM, A CHEMICAL CARTRIDGE RESPIRATOR WITH + ORGANIC VAPOR CARTRIDGE IS RECOMMENDED. ABOVE + THIS LEVEL, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS RECOMMENDED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, NEOPRENE GLOVES + ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + BOND AND GROUND CONTAINERS WHEN TRANSFERRING LIQUID. KEEP CONTAINER + TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN A COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED, FLAMMABLE LIQUID + STORAGE AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME ISOPROPANOL +HAZARD CLASS FLAMMABLE LIQUID +UN/NA UN1219 +LABELS FLAMMABLE LIQUID + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME ISOPROPANOL +HAZARD CLASS 3.2 +UN/NA UN1219 +LABELS FLAMMABLE LIQUID + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/kaolin.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/kaolin.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..b0a4f31a --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/kaolin.txt @@ -0,0 +1,161 @@ + +MSDS - KAOLIN + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: KAOLIN +FORMULA: AL2O3 2SIO2 2H2O +FORMULA WT: .00 +CAS NO.: 01332-58-7 +COMMON SYNONYMS: KAOLINITE; CHINA CLAY; BOLUS ALBA; PORCELAIN CLAY +PRODUCT CODES: 2242,2240 + EFFECTIVE: 06/30/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 0 NONE + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + MAY CAUSE IRRITATION +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +KAOLIN 90-100 1332-58-7 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.60 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE TO YELLOWISH OR GRAY POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 10 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT (STEL): 20 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INHALATION OF DUST MAY CAUSE IRRITATION TO UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT. + PROLONGED CONTACT MAY CAUSE SKIN IRRITATION. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS + ABOVE 10 MG/M3, A DUST/MIST RESPIRATOR IS + RECOMMENDED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/kieselguhr.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/kieselguhr.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0e887ef0 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/kieselguhr.txt @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ + +MSDS - DIATOMACEOUS EARTH + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: DIATOMACEOUS EARTH +FORMULA: +FORMULA WT: .00 +CAS NO.: 68855-54-9 +COMMON SYNONYMS: DIATOMITE; CELITE; KIESELGUHR SODA ASH FLUX CALCINED +PRODUCT CODES: 1939,1939 + EFFECTIVE: 09/26/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + MAY CAUSE IRRITATION +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +DIATOMACEOUS EARTH 90-100 68855-54-9 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.30 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): SLIGHT (0.1 TO 1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE TO PALE GRAY TO PALE BUFF POWDER WITH NO ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + OXIDES OF SILICON + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 10 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INHALATION OF DUST MAY CAUSE IRRITATION TO UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT. + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + PROLONGED EXPOSURE TO EXCESSIVE CONCENTRATIONS OF DUST MAY CAUSE PULMONARY + DISEASE. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, SKIN CONTACT, EYE CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +INCOMPATIBLES: HYDROGEN FLUORIDE + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES OF SILICON + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lactose.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lactose.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..02aac233 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lactose.txt @@ -0,0 +1,159 @@ + +MSDS - D-(+)-LACTOSE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: D-(+)-LACTOSE +FORMULA: C12H22O11 +FORMULA WT: 342.30 +CAS NO.: 63-42-3 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OO9625000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: B-LACTOSE; MILK SUGAR; 4-0-BETA-D-GALACTOPYRANOSYL-D-GLUCOSE +PRODUCT CODES: P347 + EFFECTIVE: 06/09/86 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 0 NONE + FLAMMABILITY - 1 SLIGHT + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 0 NONE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + NOT APPLICABLE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.53 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE CRYSTALLINE POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + NO EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE WERE DOCUMENTED. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lampblack.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lampblack.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..11ba79ca --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lampblack.txt @@ -0,0 +1,106 @@ + + + + + M A T E R I A L S A F E T Y D A T A S H E E T + CARBON (LAMPBLACK) + +================================================================================ + SECTION I - Product Identification +================================================================================ + MANUFACTURERS NAME : PFIZER INC.,MINERALS,PIGMENTS,METALS + EMERGENCY TEL. NO. : (212)573-2816 + PREPARATION DATE : 05/07/86 + INFORMATION TEL. NO. : ( ) - + PRODUCT NUMBER : 00575 + PRODUCT NAME : CARBON (LAMPBLACK) + PRODUCT CLASS : NONE + +================================================================================ + SECTION II - Hazardous Components +================================================================================ + NONE LISTED +================================================================================ + SECTION III - Physical Data +================================================================================ +BOILING RANGE : NA VAPOUR DENSITY(AIR=1) : NA +EVAPORATION RATE: NA VOLATILE VOLUME : 1.8 WT/GAL: NA +OTHER PROPERTIES : + BLACK POWDER +================================================================================ + SECTION IV - Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +================================================================================ +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS : + AWAY FROM STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS +================================================================================ + SECTION V - Health Hazard Data +================================================================================ +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE : + RECLAIM FOR USE OR REMOVE TO DUMP +OTHER PRECAUTIONS : + NONE +================================================================================ + SECTION VI - Reactivity Data +================================================================================ +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION : + FULTER MASK +VENTILATION : + GENERAL MECH +SKIN PROTECTION : + NONE +EYE PROTECTION : + SAFETY GOGGLES +OTHER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT : + NONE +HYGIENIC PRACTICES : + NONE +================================================================================ + SECTION VII - Spill and Disposal Procedures +================================================================================ +FLAMMABILITY CLASSIFICATION : NONE +FLASH POINT : NA +FLAMMABLE LIMITS UPPER - NA LOWER - NA +EXTINGUISHING MEDIA : + WATER +UNUSUAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS : + NONE +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES : + NONE +================================================================================ + SECTION VIII - Protective Equipment +================================================================================ +STABILITY : STABLE +HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION : WILL NOT OCCUR +HAZARDOUS DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS : + NONE +CONDITIONS TO AVOID : + NONE +INCOMPATIBILITY ( MATERIALS TO AVOID ) : + STRONG OXIDIZING AGENT +================================================================================ + SECTION IX - Storage and Handling Precautions +================================================================================ +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE : + RESP/IRR +MEDICAL CONDITIONS PRONE TO AGGRAVATION BY EXPOSURE : + NONE +PRIMARY ROUTE(S) OF ENTRY : EYE/SKIN +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES : + EYE/SKIN/WASH W/WATER-SEE DR FOR EYES +================================================================================ + SECTION X - Transportation Data and Additional Information +================================================================================ +N/A + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +(TM) and (R) : Registered Trademarks +N/A = Not Applicable OR Not Available +The information published in this Material Safety Data Sheet has been compiled +from our experience and data presented in various technical publications. It is +the user's responsibility to determine the suitability of this information for +adoption of necessary safety precautions. We reserve the right to revise +Material Safety Data Sheets periodically as new information becomes available. +Copyright by Manufacturer +LICENSE GRANTED TO MAKE UNLIMITED COPIES FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY +by OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY +. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lampblack_conductive.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lampblack_conductive.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..11ba79ca --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lampblack_conductive.txt @@ -0,0 +1,106 @@ + + + + + M A T E R I A L S A F E T Y D A T A S H E E T + CARBON (LAMPBLACK) + +================================================================================ + SECTION I - Product Identification +================================================================================ + MANUFACTURERS NAME : PFIZER INC.,MINERALS,PIGMENTS,METALS + EMERGENCY TEL. NO. : (212)573-2816 + PREPARATION DATE : 05/07/86 + INFORMATION TEL. NO. : ( ) - + PRODUCT NUMBER : 00575 + PRODUCT NAME : CARBON (LAMPBLACK) + PRODUCT CLASS : NONE + +================================================================================ + SECTION II - Hazardous Components +================================================================================ + NONE LISTED +================================================================================ + SECTION III - Physical Data +================================================================================ +BOILING RANGE : NA VAPOUR DENSITY(AIR=1) : NA +EVAPORATION RATE: NA VOLATILE VOLUME : 1.8 WT/GAL: NA +OTHER PROPERTIES : + BLACK POWDER +================================================================================ + SECTION IV - Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +================================================================================ +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS : + AWAY FROM STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS +================================================================================ + SECTION V - Health Hazard Data +================================================================================ +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE : + RECLAIM FOR USE OR REMOVE TO DUMP +OTHER PRECAUTIONS : + NONE +================================================================================ + SECTION VI - Reactivity Data +================================================================================ +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION : + FULTER MASK +VENTILATION : + GENERAL MECH +SKIN PROTECTION : + NONE +EYE PROTECTION : + SAFETY GOGGLES +OTHER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT : + NONE +HYGIENIC PRACTICES : + NONE +================================================================================ + SECTION VII - Spill and Disposal Procedures +================================================================================ +FLAMMABILITY CLASSIFICATION : NONE +FLASH POINT : NA +FLAMMABLE LIMITS UPPER - NA LOWER - NA +EXTINGUISHING MEDIA : + WATER +UNUSUAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS : + NONE +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES : + NONE +================================================================================ + SECTION VIII - Protective Equipment +================================================================================ +STABILITY : STABLE +HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION : WILL NOT OCCUR +HAZARDOUS DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS : + NONE +CONDITIONS TO AVOID : + NONE +INCOMPATIBILITY ( MATERIALS TO AVOID ) : + STRONG OXIDIZING AGENT +================================================================================ + SECTION IX - Storage and Handling Precautions +================================================================================ +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE : + RESP/IRR +MEDICAL CONDITIONS PRONE TO AGGRAVATION BY EXPOSURE : + NONE +PRIMARY ROUTE(S) OF ENTRY : EYE/SKIN +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES : + EYE/SKIN/WASH W/WATER-SEE DR FOR EYES +================================================================================ + SECTION X - Transportation Data and Additional Information +================================================================================ +N/A + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +(TM) and (R) : Registered Trademarks +N/A = Not Applicable OR Not Available +The information published in this Material Safety Data Sheet has been compiled +from our experience and data presented in various technical publications. It is +the user's responsibility to determine the suitability of this information for +adoption of necessary safety precautions. We reserve the right to revise +Material Safety Data Sheets periodically as new information becomes available. +Copyright by Manufacturer +LICENSE GRANTED TO MAKE UNLIMITED COPIES FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY +by OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY +. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_azide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_azide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e96d50dd --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_azide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +SUBSTANCE NAME: Lead azide +CAS Number: 13424-46-9 + +UN Number: 0129 + +CLASSIFICATION OF PURE SUBSTANCE +Risk Phrases: + +R3 Extreme risk of explosion by shock, friction, fire or other + sources of ignition. + +R20/22 Harmful by inhalation and if swallowed. + +R33 Danger of cumulative effects. + +Safety Phrases: + +S33 Take precautionary measures against static discharges. + +S34 Avoid shock and friction. + +S35 This material and its container must be disposed of in a safe + way. + +CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTANCE AS AN INGREDIENT IN MIXTURE +Health Hazard Classification : Harmful +Concentration Cut-off level : 25 % weight/weight + + Above this concentration ingredient to be classified with R20 + and/or R21 and/or R22. + +When classifying a substance as an ingredient in a mixture at a +particular concentration cut-off level take into account any +risk phrases that apply at the lower concentration cut-off level. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_chloride.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_chloride.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d3852893 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_chloride.txt @@ -0,0 +1,186 @@ + +MSDS - LEAD CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: LEAD CHLORIDE +FORMULA: PBCL2 +FORMULA WT: 278.10 +CAS NO.: 07758-95-4 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OF9450000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: LEAD(II)CHLORIDE; LEAD DICHLORIDE +PRODUCT CODES: 2308,2310,5195 + EFFECTIVE: 10/17/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 3 SEVERE (LIFE) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + EXCEPTIONAL HEALTH HAZARD - READ MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED OR INHALED +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +LEAD CHLORIDE 90-100 7758-95-4 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 950 C ( 1742 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 501 C ( 934 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 9.6 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 5.85 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): MODERATE (1 TO 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: ODORLESS,WHITE CRYSTALLINE POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A NFPA 704M RATING: 4-0-0 + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + (POSITIVE PRESSURE IF AVAILABLE) BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE. + MOVE EXPOSED CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. + USE WATER TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + CAN BE AN EXPLOSION HAZARD, ESPECIALLY WHEN HEATED. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CHLORINE, HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.15 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CHRONIC EFFECTS RESULTING FROM LOW LEVEL EXPOSURE TO LEAD COMPOUNDS + MAY INCLUDE ANEMIA, KIDNEY DAMAGE, IMPAIRED EYESIGHT, AND LEAD + BUILD-UP IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PARTICULARLY THE BRAIN). + SKIN ABSORPTION MAY BE HARMFUL. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D008 (EP TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS TLV, A HIGH-EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE + RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. IF CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF RESPIRATOR, A SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN SECURE POISON AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME LEAD CHLORIDE +HAZARD CLASS ORM-E +LABELS NONE +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 100 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME LEAD COMPOUNDS, SOLUBLE, N.O.S. (LEAD CHLORIDE) +HAZARD CLASS 6.1 +UN/NA UN2291 +LABELS HARMFUL - STOW AWAY FROM FOOD STUFFS + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_dioxide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_dioxide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e9049ad6 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_dioxide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,190 @@ + +MSDS - LEAD DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: LEAD DIOXIDE +FORMULA: PBO2 +FORMULA WT: 239.19 +CAS NO.: 01309-60-0 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OG0700000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: LEAD(IV)OXIDE; LEAD PEROXIDE; LEAD BROWN; LEAD OXIDE BROWN +PRODUCT CODES: 2353,2352,2351,2348 + EFFECTIVE: 06/30/86 + REVISION #03 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 3 SEVERE (LIFE) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 3 SEVERE (OXIDIZER) + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + DANGER + EXCEPTIONAL HEALTH HAZARD - READ MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET + STRONG OXIDIZER - CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED OR INHALED +KEEP FROM CONTACT WITH CLOTHING AND OTHER COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. DO NOT +STORE NEAR COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, SOAK WITH WATER. +IN CASE OF SPILL, SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +LEAD DIOXIDE 90-100 1309-60-0 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 8.2 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 9.38 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: DARK BROWN POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + (POSITIVE PRESSURE IF AVAILABLE) BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE. + MOVE EXPOSED CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. + USE WATER TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + STRONG OXIDIZER. CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE. + CAN REACT VIOLENTLY WITH SHOCK, FRICTION OR HEAT. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.15 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT (STEL): 0.45 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (IPR-GUINEA PIG) (MG/KG) - 220 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CHRONIC EFFECTS RESULTING FROM LOW LEVEL EXPOSURE TO LEAD COMPOUNDS + MAY INCLUDE ANEMIA, KIDNEY DAMAGE, IMPAIRED EYESIGHT, AND LEAD + BUILD-UP IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PARTICULARLY THE BRAIN). + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: SHOCK, FRICTION, HEAT + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG REDUCING AGENTS, COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, + CHEMICALLY ACTIVE METALS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + KEEP COMBUSTIBLES (WOOD, PAPER, OIL, ETC.) AWAY FROM SPILLED MATERIAL. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D003 (REACTIVE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: A RESPIRATOR WITH DUST/MIST FILTER IS RECOMMENDED. + IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV, A SELF- + CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, BUTYL RUBBER + GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE SEPARATELY AND AWAY FROM FLAMMABLE + AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME LEAD PEROXIDE +HAZARD CLASS OXIDIZER +UN/NA UN1872 +LABELS OXIDIZER +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 5000 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME LEAD DIOXIDE +HAZARD CLASS 5.1 +UN/NA UN1872 +LABELS OXIDIZING AGENT + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_ii_oxide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_ii_oxide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..997b718d --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_ii_oxide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,178 @@ + +MSDS - LEAD OXIDE (LITHARGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: LEAD OXIDE (LITHARGE) +FORMULA: PBO +FORMULA WT: 223.19 +CAS NO.: 01317-36-8 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OG1750000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: LEAD(II)OXIDE; LEAD MONOXIDE; LEAD OXIDE YELLOW +PRODUCT CODES: 4995,2338,2340 + EFFECTIVE: 10/16/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 3 SEVERE (LIFE) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + EXCEPTIONAL HEALTH HAZARD - READ MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED OR INHALED +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +LEAD OXIDE 90-100 1317-36-8 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 888 C ( 1630 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 9.53 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: YELLOW TO REDDISH POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.15 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, HEADACHES, DIZZINESS, + GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION. + CHRONIC EFFECTS RESULTING FROM LOW LEVEL EXPOSURE TO LEAD COMPOUNDS + MAY INCLUDE ANEMIA, KIDNEY DAMAGE, IMPAIRED EYESIGHT, AND LEAD + BUILD-UP IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PARTICULARLY THE BRAIN). + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG REDUCING AGENTS, COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, + CHEMICALLY ACTIVE METALS, ALUMINUM, SODIUM METAL + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS TLV, A HIGH-EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE + RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. IF CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF RESPIRATOR, A SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN SECURE POISON AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME LEAD OXIDE +HAZARD CLASS ORM-E +LABELS NONE +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 1 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME LEAD COMPOUNDS, SOLUBLE, N.O.S. (LEAD OXIDE (LITHARGE)) +HAZARD CLASS 6.1 +UN/NA UN2291 +LABELS HARMFUL - STOW AWAY FROM FOOD STUFFS + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_nitrate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_nitrate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..cc33f393 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_nitrate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,195 @@ + +MSDS - LEAD NITRATE, CRYSTAL + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: LEAD NITRATE, CRYSTAL +FORMULA: PB(NO3)2 +FORMULA WT: 331.20 +CAS NO.: 10099-74-8 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OG2100000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: LEAD(II)NITRATE; LEAD DINITRATE; NITRIC ACID, LEAD(2+)SALT +PRODUCT CODES: 5044,5048,5162,2322,2328 + EFFECTIVE: 06/30/86 + REVISION #03 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 3 SEVERE (LIFE) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 3 SEVERE (OXIDIZER) + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + DANGER + EXCEPTIONAL HEALTH HAZARD - READ MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET + STRONG OXIDIZER - CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED OR INHALED +KEEP FROM CONTACT WITH CLOTHING AND OTHER COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. DO NOT +STORE NEAR COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, SOAK WITH WATER. +IN CASE OF SPILL, SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +LEAD NITRATE 90-100 10099-74-8 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 11.0 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 4.53 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE OR COLORLESS CRYSTALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A NFPA 704M RATING: 0-0-0 OXY + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + STRONG OXIDIZER. CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE. + CAN REACT VIOLENTLY WITH SHOCK, FRICTION OR HEAT. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + NITROGEN OXIDES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.15 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT (STEL): 0.45 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CHRONIC EFFECTS RESULTING FROM LOW LEVEL EXPOSURE TO LEAD COMPOUNDS + MAY INCLUDE ANEMIA, KIDNEY DAMAGE, IMPAIRED EYESIGHT, AND LEAD + BUILD-UP IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PARTICULARLY THE BRAIN). + DUST MAY CAUSE HEADACHE, COUGHING, DIZZINESS OR DIFFICULT BREATHING. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING AND LOSS OF CONSCIOUSNESS. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: SHOCK, FRICTION, HEAT + +INCOMPATIBLES: COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, ORGANIC MATERIALS, + STRONG REDUCING AGENTS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES OF NITROGEN + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + KEEP COMBUSTIBLES (WOOD, PAPER, OIL, ETC.) AWAY FROM SPILLED MATERIAL. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D003 (REACTIVE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: A RESPIRATOR WITH DUST/MIST FILTER IS RECOMMENDED. + IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV, A SELF- + CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, BUTYL RUBBER + GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE SEPARATELY AND AWAY FROM FLAMMABLE + AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME LEAD NITRATE +HAZARD CLASS OXIDIZER +UN/NA UN1469 +LABELS OXIDIZER +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 100 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME LEAD NITRATE +HAZARD CLASS 5.1, 6.1 +UN/NA UN1469 +LABELS OXIDIZING AGENT, POISON + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_oxide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_oxide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0a36fbd6 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lead_oxide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,187 @@ + +MSDS - LEAD OXIDE, RED + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: LEAD OXIDE, RED +FORMULA: PB3O4 +FORMULA WT: 685.57 +CAS NO.: 01314-41-6 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OG5425000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: LEAD TETROXIDE; MINERAL RED +PRODUCT CODES: 2334 + EFFECTIVE: 10/22/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 3 SEVERE (LIFE) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + EXCEPTIONAL HEALTH HAZARD - READ MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED OR INHALED +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +LEAD OXIDE, RED 90-100 1314-41-6 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 1472 C ( 2682 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 9.10 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: ODORLESS,BRIGHT RED POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + (POSITIVE PRESSURE IF AVAILABLE) BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE. + MOVE EXPOSED CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. + USE WATER TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + CAN BE AN EXPLOSION HAZARD, ESPECIALLY WHEN HEATED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.15 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (IPR-RAT)(MG/KG) - 630 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CHRONIC EFFECTS RESULTING FROM LOW LEVEL EXPOSURE TO LEAD COMPOUNDS + MAY INCLUDE ANEMIA, KIDNEY DAMAGE, IMPAIRED EYESIGHT, AND LEAD + BUILD-UP IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PARTICULARLY THE BRAIN). + DUST MAY IRRITATE SKIN. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG REDUCING AGENTS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D008 (EP TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS TLV, A HIGH-EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE + RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. IF CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF RESPIRATOR, A SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, NEOPRENE GLOVES + ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + + + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN SECURE POISON AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME LEAD OXIDE, RED, POWDER +HAZARD CLASS ORM-E +LABELS NONE +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 1 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME LEAD COMPOUNDS, SOLUBLE, N.O.S. (LEAD OXIDE, RED) +HAZARD CLASS 6.1 +UN/NA UN2291 +LABELS HARMFUL - STOW AWAY FROM FOOD STUFFS + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/linseed_oil.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/linseed_oil.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..1b2092b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/linseed_oil.txt @@ -0,0 +1,126 @@ + +MSDS - BOILED LINSEED OIL + +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: LINSEED OIL; (BOILED LINSEED OIL) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: OI9690000 +CAS Number: 8001-26-1 +OSHA PEL: NOT APPLICABLE +ACGIH TLV: NOT APPLICABLE +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: AMBER COLOR LIQUID; OIL ODOR. +Boiling Point: >300F,>149C +Vapor Density (Air=1): HVR/AIR +Specific Gravity: 0.93 (H*2O=1) +Evaporation Rate And Ref: SLOWER THAN ETHER +Solubility In Water: NIL +Percent Volatiles By Volume: 0 +pH: N/A +Magnetism (Milligauss): N/P +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: 250F,121C +Flash Point Method: TCC +Lower Explosive Limit: N/A +Upper Explosive Limit: N/A +Extinguishing Media: FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL, OR CARBON DIOXIDE. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: WEAR NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED SCBA AND FULL +PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (FP N). +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: NONE +Report for NIIN: 00N030448 +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Cond To Avoid (Stability): NONE +Materials To Avoid: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS. +Hazardous Decomp Products: CARBON MONOXIDE. +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +Conditions To Avoid (Poly): NOT RELEVANT +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: YES +Route Of Entry - Skin: NO +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: YES +Health Haz Acute And Chronic: PROLONGED OR REPEATED EXPOSURE MAY CAUSE +NAUSEA, HEADACHE, AND LOSS OF CONSCIOUSNESS, NARCOSIS AND IRRITATION OF +RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. LIQUID IRRITATING TO EYES AND SKIN. +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO +Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: NOT RELEVANT +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: SEE HEALTH HAZARDS. +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: NONE KNOWN +Emergency/First Aid Proc: SKIN: WASH THOROUGHLY WITH WATER. OBTAIN MEDICAL +HELP IF IRRITATION PERSISTS. EYES: WASH THOROUGHLY WITH WATER FOR AT LEAST +15 MINUTES. OBTAIN MEDICAL HELP IF IRRITATION PERSISTS. INHAL: REMOVE TO +FRESH AIR. INGEST: CALL MD IMMEDIATELY (FP N). +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: ABSORB WITH INERT MATERIAL. REMOVE FOR +DISPOSAL. +Neutralizing Agent: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Waste Disposal Method: INCINERATION OR LANDFILL. DISPOSE OF I/A/W FEDERAL, +STATE AND LOCAL REGULATIONS (FP N). +Precautions-Handling/Storing: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Other Precautions: PROVIDE ADEQUATE VENTILATION. AVOID PROLONGED OR +REPEATED SKIN CONTACT. +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED SELF-CONTAINED RESPIRATOR. +Ventilation: LOCAL EXHAUST. +Protective Gloves: SOLVENT RESISTANT GLOVES. +Eye Protection: CHEMICAL WORKERS GOGGLES (FP N). +Other Protective Equipment: NONE +Work Hygienic Practices: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Report for NIIN: 00N030448 +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Trans Data Review Date: 92267 +DOT PSN Code: ZZZ +DOT Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +IMO PSN Code: ZZZ +IMO Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED FOR THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +IATA PSN Code: ZZZ +IATA Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +AFI PSN Code: ZZZ +AFI Prop. Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +Additional Trans Data: NOT REGULATED FOR TRANSPORTATION +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +Report for NIIN: 00N030448 +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Technical Review Date: 07MAY92 +Label Status: M +Common Name: 150800, BOILED LINSEED OIL +Chronic Hazard: NO +Signal Word: CAUTION! +Acute Health Hazard-Slight: X +Contact Hazard-Slight: X +Fire Hazard-Slight: X +Reactivity Hazard-None: X +Special Hazard Precautions: ACUTE: PROLONGED OR REPEATED INHALATION MAY +CAUSE NAUSEA, HEADACHE, LOSS OF CONSCIOUSNESS, NARCOSIS AND IRRITATION OF +RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. LIQUID CONTACT WITH EYES AND SKIN MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. +CHRONIC: NONE LISTED BY MANUFACTURER. +Protect Eye: Y +Protect Skin: Y +Protect Respiratory: Y + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lithium_carbonate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lithium_carbonate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..787c687b --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lithium_carbonate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ + +MSDS - LITHIUM CARBONATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: LITHIUM CARBONATE +FORMULA: LI2CO3 +FORMULA WT: 73.89 +CAS NO.: 00554-13-2 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OJ5800000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: CARBONIC ACID, DILITHIUM SALT; CARBONIC ACID LITHIUM SALT; + DILITHIUM CARBONATE +PRODUCT CODES: 4919,2362 + EFFECTIVE: 09/26/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 2 MODERATE + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +LITHIUM CARBONATE 90-100 554-13-2 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 720 C ( 1328 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.11 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): MODERATE (1 TO 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE ODORLESS POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 525 + LD50 (IPR-RAT)(MG/KG) - 156 + LD50 (SCU-RAT)(MG/KG) - 434 + LD50 (IV-RAT) (MG/KG) - 241 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE ACUTE LOCAL TISSUE DAMAGE, WITH OTHER EFFECTS + RANGING FROM NAUSEA AND DIZZINESS TO UNCONSCIOUSNESS. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEPRESSION. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE MAY INCLUDE KIDNEY AND/OR LIVER DAMAGE. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: MOISTURE + +INCOMPATIBLES: FLUORINE, WATER, STRONG ACIDS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + + J. T. BAKER NEUTRACIT-2(R) CAUSTIC NEUTRALIZER IS RECOMMENDED + FOR SPILLS OF THIS PRODUCT. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lithium_chloride.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lithium_chloride.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..f9c99c4b --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lithium_chloride.txt @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ + +MSDS - LITHIUM CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: LITHIUM CHLORIDE +FORMULA: LICL +FORMULA WT: 42.39 +CAS NO.: 07447-41-8 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OJ5950000 +PRODUCT CODES: 5188,2374,2370 + EFFECTIVE: 09/26/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 2 MODERATE + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +LITHIUM CHLORIDE 90-100 7447-41-8 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 1360 C ( 2480 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 613 C ( 1135 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.07 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE ODORLESS SOLID. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 526 + LD50 (IPR-RAT)(MG/KG) - 514 + LD50 (SCU-RAT)(MG/KG) - 499 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + PROLONGED CONTACT MAY CAUSE SKIN SENSITIZATION. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEPRESSION. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +INCOMPATIBLES: BROMINE TRIFLUORIDE AND TRICHLORIDE + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lycopodium.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lycopodium.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d17989f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/lycopodium.txt @@ -0,0 +1,103 @@ + +MSDS - LYCOPODIUM + +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: LYCOPODIUM +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 1005003LY +OSHA PEL: N/K (FP N) +ACGIH TLV: N/K (FP N) +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: SOLID +Evaporation Rate And Ref: NOT KNOWN +Solubility In Water: INSOLUBLE +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: NOT AVAILABLE +Flash Point Method: N/P +Extinguishing Media: CO*2, DRY CHEMICALS, FOAM AND WATER. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: USE NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED SCBA & FULL PROTECTIVE +EQUIPMENT (FP N). +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: FLAMMABLE. +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Cond To Avoid (Stability): NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Materials To Avoid: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Hazardous Decomp Products: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +Conditions To Avoid (Poly): NOT RELEVANT. +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: NO +Route Of Entry - Skin: NO +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: NO +Health Haz Acute And Chronic: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO +Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: NOT RELEVANT. +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Emergency/First Aid Proc: INGEST:CALL MD IMMEDIATELY (FP N). INHAL: REMOVE +TO FRESH AIR. SUPPORT BREATHING (GIVE O*2/ARTF RESP) (FP N). SKIN: WASH +IMMEDIATELY WITH PLENTY OF WATER AND SOAP. EYES:RINSE IMMEDIATELY WITH +PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 MINUTES AND SEEK MEDICAL ADVICE. TAKE OFF +IMMEDIATELY ALL CONTAMINATED CLOTHING. +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: COLLECT IN SUITABLE CONTAINERS. WASH +REMAINDER AWAY WITH COPIOUS QUANTITIES OF WATER AND DETERGENT. +Neutralizing Agent: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Waste Disposal Method: THE COMPOUND SHOULD BE BURNED IN ACCORDANCE WITH +FEDERAL, STATE OR LOCAL LAWS. +Precautions-Handling/Storing: PROTECT FROM MOISTURE. +Other Precautions: HIGHLY FLAMMABLE. KEEP AWAY FROM SOURCES OF IGNITION - +NO SMOKING. +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED RESPIRATOR APPROPRIATE FOR +EXPOSURE OF CONCERN (FP N). +Ventilation: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Protective Gloves: IMPERVIOUS GLOVES (FP N). +Eye Protection: ANSI APPRVD CHEM WORKER GOGGLES (FP N). +Other Protective Equipment: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Work Hygienic Practices: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Technical Review Date: 11JAN94 +Label Date: 11JAN94 +Label Status: M +Common Name: LYCOPODIUM 62800 +Chronic Hazard: NO +Signal Word: DANGER! +Acute Health Hazard-None: X +Contact Hazard-None: X +Fire Hazard-Severe: X +Reactivity Hazard-None: X +Special Hazard Precautions: FLAMMABLE. ACUTE & CHRONIC:NONE SPECIFIED BY +MANUFACTURER. +Protect Eye: Y +Protect Skin: Y +Protect Respiratory: Y + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/magnesium.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/magnesium.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c929bc06 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/magnesium.txt @@ -0,0 +1,199 @@ + +MSDS - MAGNESIUM + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: MAGNESIUM +FORMULA: MG +FORMULA WT: 24.30 +CAS NO.: 7439-95-4 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OM2100000 +PRODUCT CODES: 2416 + EFFECTIVE: 10/24/86 + REVISION #03 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 4 EXTREME (FLAMMABLE) + REACTIVITY - 3 SEVERE (WATER REACTIVE) + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; CLASS D EXTINGUISHER + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + CAUSES IRRITATION + DUST MAY FORM FLAMMABLE AND EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE WITH AIR, ESPECIALLY + WHEN DAMP. +KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME. +DO NOT BREATHE DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH +ADEQUATE VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, +DO NOT USE WATER. USE DRY SAND, EARTH OR SODA ASH. IN CASE OF SPILL, +SWEEP UP AND CAREFULLY REMOVE. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED STRIPE (STORE SEPARATELY) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +MAGNESIUM 90-100 7439-95-4 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 1107 C ( 2025 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 650 C ( 1202 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 0.84 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.74 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): DECOMPOSES % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: SILVERY, WHITE METALLIC POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP 634 C ( 1175 F) NFPA 704M RATING: 0-1-2 W + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + SMOTHER WITH DRY SODA ASH. NEVER USE WATER OR CHEMICAL FIRE + EXTINGUISHERS. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + BURNS WITH A VERY BRIGHT FLAME, FIRE GLASSES MUST BE WORN. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + REACTS VIOLENTLY WITH WATER PRODUCING HIGHLY FLAMMABLE VAPORS. + CONTACT WITH STRONG OXIDIZERS MAY CAUSE FIRE OR EXPLOSION. + DUST MAY FORM EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE WITH AIR. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + HYDROGEN GAS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TLV IS LISTED FOR MAGNESIUM OXIDE FUME. + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 10 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INHALATION OF DUST MAY CAUSE IRRITATION TO UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT. + INHALATION OF FUMES MAY RESULT IN LEUKOCYTOSIS. + CONTACT MAY CAUSE IRRITATION OF SKIN, EYES, AND MUCOUS MEMBRANES. + +TARGET ORGANS + RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, EYES + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, SKIN CONTACT, EYE CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING; IF CONSCIOUS, GIVE LARGE AMOUNTS OF + WATER. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: MOISTURE, HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, STRONG ACIDS, WATER, HALOGENS, + CYANIDES + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: HYDROGEN + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, + SMOKING, OR FLAMES IN AREA. DO NOT USE WATER. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER. + MOVE CONTAINER(S) FROM SPILL AREA. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D001, D003 (IGNITABLE, REACTIVE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED STRIPE (STORE SEPARATELY) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE AWAY FROM WATER OR LOCATIONS WHERE + WATER MAY BE USED TO EXTINGUISH FIRE. + STORE IN A COOL, WELL-VENTILATED AREA AWAY FROM SOURCES OF HEAT, FLAME, OR + IGNITION. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME MAGNESIUM METAL (POWDERED) +HAZARD CLASS FLAMMABLE SOLID +UN/NA UN1869 +LABELS FLAMMABLE SOLID, DANGEROUS WHEN WET + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME MAGNESIUM, POWDER, NON-PYROPHORIC +HAZARD CLASS 4.3 +UN/NA UN1418 +LABELS DANGEROUS WHEN WET + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/magnesium_carbonate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/magnesium_carbonate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..9ea72017 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/magnesium_carbonate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,98 @@ + + + + + M A T E R I A L S A F E T Y D A T A S H E E T + MAGNESIUM CARBONATE + +================================================================================ + SECTION I - Product Identification +================================================================================ + PRODUCT NAME: MAGNESIUM CARBONATE + FORMULA: 4MGCO3.MG(OH)2.5H2O + FORMULA WT: 485.74 + CAS NO.: + COMMON SYNONYMS: N/A + +================================================================================ + Precautionary Labeling +================================================================================ + N/A +================================================================================ + SECTION II - Hazardous Components +================================================================================ + N/A +================================================================================ + SECTION III - Physical Data +================================================================================ +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE @ 20C (MM HG): N/A +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY (AIR=1): N/A +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.16 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + SOLUBILITY(H2O): 0.04 PERCENT VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A +APPEARANCE & ODOR: COLORLESS TO WHITE CRYSTALS +================================================================================ + SECTION IV - Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +================================================================================ +FLASH POINT: NONFLAMMABLE +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + ANY SUITABLE FOR OTHER MATERIALS INVOLVED +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS +UNUSUAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS + NONE +================================================================================ + SECTION V - Health Hazard Data +================================================================================ +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): NONE ESTABLISHED +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + PROLONGED CONTACT AND ACUTE INGESTION MAY RESULT IN ALLERGIC REACTION +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + EYES: WASH WITH WATER 15 MINUTES; GET MEDICAL ASSISTANCE + SKIN: WASH WITH SOAP/WATER; GET MEDICAL ASSISTANCE + INGESTION: GET MEDICAL ATTENTION + INHALATION: REMOVE TO FRESH AIR; GET MEDICAL ASSISTANCE +================================================================================ + SECTION VI - Reactivity Data +================================================================================ +STABILITY: STABLE +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE +INCOMPATIBILES: ACIDS, OXIDIZERS, CYANIDES, HALOGENS, HALOGEN + COMPOUNDS OXIDIZING MATERIALS (REACTS VIGOROUSLY) +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: CO2 MGO +================================================================================ + SECTION VII - Spill and Disposal Procedures +================================================================================ +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + SWEEP UP & CONTAINERIZE FOR DISPOSAL +================================================================================ + SECTION VIII - Protective Equipment +================================================================================ + PROVIDE ADEQUATE GENERAL MECHANICAL VENTILATION + PROTECT EYES AND SKIN WITH SAFETY GOGGLES AND GLOVES + DO NOT BREATHE DUST + DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, OR ON CLOTHING +================================================================================ + SECTION IX - Storage and Handling Precautions +================================================================================ + KEEP CONTAINER CLOSED + STORE IN A COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED AREA + WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING +================================================================================ + SECTION X - Transportation Data and Additional Information +================================================================================ + NONE + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +(TM) and (R) : Registered Trademarks +N/A = Not Applicable OR Not Available +The information published in this Material Safety Data Sheet has been compiled +from our experience and data presented in various technical publications. It is +the user's responsibility to determine the suitability of this information for +adoption of necessary safety precautions. We reserve the right to revise +Material Safety Data Sheets periodically as new information becomes available. +Copyright by Manufacturer +LICENSE GRANTED TO MAKE UNLIMITED COPIES FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY +by OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY +. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/magnesium_oxide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/magnesium_oxide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d4dfcfba --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/magnesium_oxide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,168 @@ + +MSDS - MAGNESIUM OXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: MAGNESIUM OXIDE +FORMULA: MGO +FORMULA WT: 40.30 +CAS NO.: 1309-48-4 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OM3850000 +PRODUCT CODES: 2477,2484,2476,2480 + EFFECTIVE: 09/03/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + MAY CAUSE IRRITATION + MAY BE HARMFUL IF INHALED +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +MAGNESIUM OXIDE 90-100 1309-48-4 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 3600 C ( 6512 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 2800 C ( 5072 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 3.60 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE TO LIGHT-GRAY POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 10 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 15 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST INHALATION MAY CAUSE TIGHTNESS AND PAIN IN CHEST, COUGHING, AND + DIFFICULTY IN BREATHING. + INHALATION OF FUMES MAY RESULT IN LEUKOCYTOSIS. + CONTACT CAN CAUSE EYE IRRITATION. + +TARGET ORGANS + RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, EYES + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: AIR + +INCOMPATIBLES: BROMINE TRIFLUORIDE AND TRICHLORIDE, + PHOSPHORUS PENTACHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS UP + TO 45 PPM, A HIGH-EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE + RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. ABOVE THIS LEVEL, A + SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, NEOPRENE GLOVES + ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/magnesium_sulfate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/magnesium_sulfate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..6b3a25ae --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/magnesium_sulfate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,166 @@ + +MSDS - MAGNESIUM SULFATE, ANHYDROUS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: MAGNESIUM SULFATE, ANHYDROUS +FORMULA: MGSO4 +FORMULA WT: 120.37 +CAS NO.: 07487-88-9 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OM4500000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: EPSOM SALTS +PRODUCT CODES: 2506 + EFFECTIVE: 05/30/86 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + NOT APPLICABLE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.65 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE CRYSTALLINE POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + SULFUR DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TOXICITY: LD50 (SCU-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 980 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + PROLONGED CONTACT MAY BE IRRITATING TO THE SKIN, EYES, AND MUCOUS + MEMBRANES. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: MOISTURE, HEAT + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES OF SULFUR + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/malachite_green.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/malachite_green.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8fa5cfe6 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/malachite_green.txt @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ + +MSDS - MALACHITE GREEN HYDROCHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: MALACHITE GREEN HYDROCHLORIDE +FORMULA: C23H25N2CL +FORMULA WT: 364.92 +CAS NO.: 00569-64-2 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: BQ1180000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: C.I. BASIC GREEN 4; C.I. 42000 +PRODUCT CODES: P451 + EFFECTIVE: 10/29/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 2 MODERATE + FLAMMABILITY - 1 SLIGHT + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 2 MODERATE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED + CAUSES IRRITATION +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +MALACHITE GREEN HYDROCHLORIDE 90-100 569-64-2 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: N/A EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: GREEN CRYSTALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 80 + LD50 (IPR-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 4.2 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INGESTION MAY BE HARMFUL. + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + PROLONGED EXPOSURE MAY CAUSE DERMATITIS. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES OF NITROGEN + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, UNIFORM, RUBBER + GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME POISONOUS SOLIDS, N.O.S. (MALACHITE GREEN +HAZARD CLASS 6.1 +UN/NA UN2811 +LABELS HARMFUL - STOW AWAY FROM FOOD STUFFS + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/manganese_dioxide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/manganese_dioxide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d81591c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/manganese_dioxide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,185 @@ + +MSDS - MANGANESE DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: MANGANESE DIOXIDE +FORMULA: MNO2 +FORMULA WT: 86.94 +CAS NO.: 1313-13-9 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OP0350000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: BLACK MANGANESE OXIDE; CEMENT BLACK; MANGANESE (IV) OXIDE +PRODUCT CODES: Z134,2526,8392,5308,2527,5298 + EFFECTIVE: 09/08/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + CAUSES IRRITATION + HARMFUL IF INHALED +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +MANGANESE DIOXIDE 90-100 1313-13-9 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 535 C ( 995 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 5.02 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: ODORLESS BLACK CRYSTALLINE POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + (POSITIVE PRESSURE IF AVAILABLE) BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE. + MOVE EXPOSED CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. + USE WATER TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + STRONG OXIDIZER. CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TLV LISTED DENOTES CEILING LIMIT. + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY IRRITATE SKIN OR EYES. + INHALATION OF EXCESSIVE AMOUNTS OF DUST MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, WEAKNESS, + CHILLS, AND LOSS OF APPETITE. + INHALATION OF DUST MAY CAUSE IRRITATION TO UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEPRESSION. + PROLONGED INHALATION OF MANGANESE IN THE FORM OF ITS INORGANIC COMPOUNDS + MAY CAUSE MANGANISM. + +TARGET ORGANS + RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, BLOOD, KIDNEYS + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INGESTION, INHALATION + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, STRONG ACIDS, + STRONG REDUCING AGENTS, NITRATES, + COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, HYDROGEN PEROXIDE, AZIDES, + CHLORINE, CHLORATES, CHLORINE TRIFLUORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. KEEP COMBUSTIBLES (WOOD, PAPER, OIL, + ETC.) AWAY FROM SPILLED MATERIAL. WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE + MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH + SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS TLV, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE SEPARATELY AND AWAY FROM FLAMMABLE + AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mek.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mek.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..dfddf682 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mek.txt @@ -0,0 +1,215 @@ + +MSDS - METHYL ETHYL KETONE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: METHYL ETHYL KETONE +FORMULA: CH3COCH2CH3 +FORMULA WT: 72.11 +CAS NO.: 78-93-3 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: EL6475000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: 2-BUTANONE; MEK; ETHYL METHYL KETONE; METHYLACETONE +PRODUCT CODES: 9214,9323,9211,5385,9319,Q531 + EFFECTIVE: 08/27/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 2 MODERATE + FLAMMABILITY - 3 SEVERE (FLAMMABLE) + REACTIVITY - 2 MODERATE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES; CLASS B EXTINGUISHER + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE + CAUSES IRRITATION + HARMFUL IF INHALED +KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME. +AVOID BREATHING VAPOR. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH +ADEQUATE VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, +USE ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL, CARBON DIOXIDE - WATER MAY BE INEFFECTIVE. +FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER SPRAY. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +METHYL ETHYL KETONE 90-100 78-93-3 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 80 C ( 176 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): 78 + +MELTING POINT: -87 C ( -125 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 2.5 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 0.81 EVAPORATION RATE: 5.7 + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 100 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: CLEAR COLORLESS, LIQUID WITH ACETONE-LIKE ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP -7 C ( 20 F) NFPA 704M RATING: 1-3-0 + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - 11.4 % LOWER - 1.8 % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL OR CARBON DIOXIDE. + (WATER MAY BE INEFFECTIVE.) + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + VAPORS MAY FLOW ALONG SURFACES TO DISTANT IGNITION SOURCES AND FLASH BACK. + CLOSED CONTAINERS EXPOSED TO HEAT MAY EXPLODE. CONTACT WITH STRONG + OXIDIZERS MAY CAUSE FIRE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 590 MG/M3 ( 200 PPM) + +SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT (STEL): 885 MG/M3 ( 300 PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 590 MG/M3 ( 200 PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 2737 + LD50 (IPR-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 616 + LD50 (SKN-RABBIT) (G/KG) - 13 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INHALATION OF VAPORS MAY CAUSE HEADACHE, NAUSEA, VOMITING, DIZZINESS, + DROWSINESS, IRRITATION OF RESPIRATORY TRACT, AND LOSS OF CONSCIOUSNESS. + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + PROLONGED EXPOSURE MAY CAUSE DERMATITIS. + LIQUID MAY CAUSE PERMANENT EYE DAMAGE. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, HEADACHES, DIZZINESS, + GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION. + +TARGET ORGANS + NASAL SEPTUM, LUNGS + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, INGESTION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, STRONG BASES, CAUSTICS, + MINERAL ACIDS, AMINES AND AMMONIA, HALOGENS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, SMOKING OR FLAMES IN AREA. STOP LEAK + IF YOU CAN DO SO WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER SPRAY TO REDUCE VAPORS. TAKE UP + WITH SAND OR OTHER NON-COMBUSTIBLE ABSORBENT MATERIAL AND PLACE INTO + CONTAINER FOR LATER DISPOSAL. FLUSH AREA WITH WATER. + + J. T. BAKER SOLUSORB(R) SOLVENT ADSORBENT IS RECOMMENDED + FOR SPILLS OF THIS PRODUCT. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: U159 (TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS UP + TO 1000 PPM, A CHEMICAL CARTRIDGE RESPIRATOR WITH + ORGANIC VAPOR CARTRIDGE IS RECOMMENDED. ABOVE + THIS LEVEL, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS RECOMMENDED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, RUBBER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + BOND AND GROUND CONTAINERS WHEN TRANSFERRING LIQUID. KEEP CONTAINER + TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN A COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED, FLAMMABLE LIQUID + STORAGE AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME METHYL ETHYL KETONE +HAZARD CLASS FLAMMABLE LIQUID +UN/NA UN1193 +LABELS FLAMMABLE LIQUID +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 5000 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME METHYL ETHYL KETONE +HAZARD CLASS 3.2 +UN/NA UN1193 +LABELS FLAMMABLE LIQUID + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercuric_chloride.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercuric_chloride.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7ed26157 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercuric_chloride.txt @@ -0,0 +1,198 @@ + +MSDS - MERCURIC CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: MERCURIC CHLORIDE +FORMULA: HGCL2 +FORMULA WT: 271.50 +CAS NO.: 07487-94-7 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OV9100000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: MERCURY(II)CHLORIDE; MERCURY BICHLORIDE +PRODUCT CODES: 2594 + EFFECTIVE: 06/30/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 4 EXTREME (POISON) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 3 SEVERE (LIFE) +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + POISON DANGER + MAY BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED, INHALED, OR ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN + EXCEPTIONAL HEALTH AND CONTACT HAZARDS - READ MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET +DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +MERCURIC CHLORIDE 90-100 7487-94-7 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 302 C ( 576 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 277 C ( 531 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 8.7 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 5.44 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): MODERATE (1 TO 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: CRYSTALS OR WHITE GRANULES OR POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + CLOSED CONTAINERS EXPOSED TO HEAT MAY EXPLODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + HYDROGEN CHLORIDE, MERCURY FUMES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.05 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 1 + LD50 (IPR-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 5 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST INHALATION MAY CAUSE TIGHTNESS AND PAIN IN CHEST, COUGHING, AND + DIFFICULTY IN BREATHING. + SKIN ABSORPTION MAY BE HARMFUL OR FATAL. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, HEADACHES, DIZZINESS, + GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION. + INHALATION AND INGESTION ARE HARMFUL AND MAY BE FATAL. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF MERCURY POISONING INCLUDE A BUILDUP OF THE + METAL IN THE BRAIN, LIVER AND KIDNEYS. SYMPTOMS INCLUDE HEADACHE, + TREMORS, LOOSE TEETH, LOSS OF APPETITE, BLISTERS ON THE SKIN AND + IMPAIRED MEMORY. + + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FRICTION, SHOCK, LIGHT + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG ACIDS, AMMONIA, CARBONATES, METALLIC SALTS, + ALKALIES, PHOSPHITES, PHOSPHATES, SULFITES, SULFATES, + BROMIDES, ANTIMONY, ARSENIC + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: HYDROGEN CHLORIDE, MERCURY FUMES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D009 (EP TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE APPROPRIATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF THE TLV IS EXCEEDED, A SELF- + CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, RUBBER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN SECURE POISON AREA. + KEEP PRODUCT OUT OF LIGHT. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME MERCURIC CHLORIDE, SOLID +HAZARD CLASS POISON B +UN/NA UN1624 +LABELS POISON + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME MERCURIC CHLORIDE +HAZARD CLASS 6.1 +UN/NA UN1624 +LABELS POISON + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercuric_oxycyanide.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercuric_oxycyanide.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..efc48dab --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercuric_oxycyanide.txt @@ -0,0 +1,415 @@ + + Common Name: Mercuric Oxycyanide + CAS Number: 1335-31-5 + DOT Number: UN 1642 + Date: September 28, 1987 + ----------------------------------------- + + HAZARD SUMMARY + * Mercuric Oxycyanide can affect you when breathed and by + passing through skin. + * Overexposures can cause kidney damage. + * Mercury poisoning can cause "shakes", irritability, sore gums, + memory loss, increased saliva, personality change and even + permanent brain damage. + * Skin contact can cause irritation, skin allergy, or a gray + skin color. + * Eye contact causes irritation. + * Heating or use near acid can release toxic Mercury and Cyanide + vapors. + * Health effects have been reported below NIOSH exposure levels. + + IDENTIFICATION + Mercuric Oxycyanide is a white crystalline powder (sugar or sand- + like). It has been used in medicine as a topical antiseptic. + + REASON FOR CITATION + * Mercuric Oxycyanide is on the Hazardous Substance List because + it is cited by NIOSH, ACGIH and DOT. + + HOW TO DETERMINE IF YOU ARE BEING EXPOSED + * Exposure to hazardous substances should be routinely + evaluated. This may include collecting personal and area air + samples. You can obtain copies of sampling results from your + employer. You have a legal right to this information under + OSHA 1910.20. + * If you think you are experiencing any work-related health + problems, see a doctor trained to recognize occupational + diseases. Take this Fact Sheet with you. + ----------------------------------------- + + WORKPLACE EXPOSURE LIMITS + OSHA: The legal airborne permissible exposure limit (PEL) is + 0.1 mg/m3 for Mercury and inorganic compounds measured as + Mercury, not to be exceeded at any time. + NIOSH: The recommended airborne exposure limit is 0.05 mg/m3 + averaged over an 8 hour workshift for Mercury, inorganic, + and measured as Mercury. + ACGIH: The recommended airborne exposure limit is 0.1 mg/m3 for + inorganic compounds and 0.05 mg/m3 of Mercury vapor + averaged over an 8-hour workshift and measured as + Mercury. + + * The above exposure limits are for air levels only. When skin + contact also occurs, you may be overexposed, even though air + levels are less than the limits listed above. + + WAYS OF REDUCING EXPOSURE + * Where possible, enclose operations and use local exhaust + ventilation at the site of chemical release. If local exhaust + ventilation or enclosure is not used, respirators should be + worn. + * Wear protective work clothing. + * Wash thoroughly immediately after exposure to Mercuric + Oxycyanide and at the end of the workshift. + * Post hazard and warning information in the work area. In + addition, as part of an ongoing education and training effort, + communicate all information on the health and safety hazards + of Mercuric Oxycyanide to potentially exposed workers. + + This Fact Sheet is a summary source of information of all potential + and most severe health hazards that may result from exposure. + Duration of exposure, concentration of the substance and other + factors will affect your susceptibility to any of the potential + effects described below. + ------------------------------------------ + + HEALTH HAZARD INFORMATION + + Acute Health Effects + The following acute (short-term) health effects may occur + immediately or shortly after exposure to Mercuric Oxycyanide: + + * Mercuric Oxycyanide can affect you when breathed in and by + passing through your skin. + * Direct contact causes eye irritation and possible damage and + may irritate the skin. + * Heating or contact with acid or acid mist causes release of + toxic Mercury and Cyanide vapors and lung effects of + bronchitis and phlegm and/or lung irritation. Overexposure to + Cyanide can cause sudden death. + * Breathing Mercuric Oxycyanide causes irritation of the throat + and air passages. + + Chronic Health Effects + The following chronic (long-term) health effects can occur at some + time after exposure to Mercuric Oxycyanide and can last for months + or years: + + Cancer Hazard + * According to the information presently available to the New + Jersey Department of Health, Mercuric Oxycyanide has not been + tested for its ability to cause cancer in animals. + + Reproductive Hazard + * Mercuric Oxycyanide has not been tested for its ability to + cause reproductive damage, but it should be HANDLED WITH + CAUTION since some related Mercury compounds damage the + developing fetus and decrease fertility in males and females. + * Organic Mercury substances (organic substances are those which + contain carbon) have been identified as human teratogens. + While inorganic Mercury substances (those without carbon) such + as Mercuric Oxycyanide have not been shown to be human + teratogens, they still should be handled with caution as they + may cause reproductive problems in males and females. + + Other Long-Term Effects + * High or repeated exposure can cause kidney damage or Mercury + poisoning. Mercury poisoning causes sore gums, "shakes" + (often with shaky handwriting), irritability and increased + saliva. Other changes may include memory loss, extreme + shyness, weakness, poor appetite and metallic taste. Serious + personality changes and brain damage may occur, especially if + exposure continues. + * Repeated skin contact may make the skin turn gray. + * Exposure can also cause brown staining in the eye and may + affect peripheral vision (the ability to see to the side). + * Skin allergy may also occur. If this happens, even small + future exposures can cause rash. + * Mercury can accumulate in the body with repeated exposure. It + can take months or years for the body to get rid of excess + Mercury. + + MEDICAL + + Medical Testing + Before first exposure and every 6 to 12 months after, a complete + medical history and exam is strongly recommended, with: + + * Exam of the nervous system, including handwriting. + * Routine urine test (UA). + * Urine test for Mercury (should be less than 0.02 mg/liter). + * Eye exam. + + After suspected illness or overexposure, repeat the tests above AND + get a blood test for Mercury. + + Any evaluation should include a careful history of past and present + symptoms with an exam. Medical tests that look for damage already + done are not a substitute for controlling exposure. Request copies + of your medical testing. You have a legal right to this + information under OSHA 1910.20. + + Mixed Exposures + Creams to whiten or bleach skin may contain Mercury; if so, their + use increases risk. + + Conditions Made Worse By Exposure + Persons allergic to Mercury may also react to Mercurochrome or + Merthiolate, which contain Mercury. + + WORKPLACE CONTROLS AND PRACTICES + + Unless a less toxic chemical can be substituted for a hazardous + substance, ENGINEERING CONTROLS are the most effective way of + reducing exposure. The best protection is to enclose operations + and/or provide local exhaust ventilation at the site of chemical + release. Isolating operations can also reduce exposure. Using + respirators or protective equipment is less effective than the + controls mentioned above, but is sometimes necessary. + + In evaluating the controls present in your workplace, consider: (1) + how hazardous the substance is, (2) how much of the substance is + released into the workplace and (3) whether harmful skin or eye + contact could occur. Special controls should be in place for + highly toxic chemicals or when significant skin, eye, or breathing + exposures are possible. + + In addition, the following controls are recommended: + + * Vigorous, periodic cleaning of all work surfaces. + * Where possible, automatically transfer Mercuric Oxycyanide + from drums or other storage containers to process containers. + * Specific engineering controls are recommended for this + chemical by NIOSH. Refer to the NIOSH criteria document: + Occupational Exposures to inorganic Mercury #73-11024 and + Hydrogen Cyanide and Cyanide Salts #77-108. + + Good WORK PRACTICES can help to reduce hazardous exposures. The + following work practices are recommended: + + * Workers whose clothing has been contaminated by Mercuric + Oxycyanide should change into clean clothing promptly. + * Do not take contaminated work clothes home. Family members + could be exposed. + * Contaminated work clothes should be laundered by individuals + who have been informed of the hazards of exposure to Mercuric + Oxycyanide. + * Eye wash fountains should be provided in the immediate work + area for emergency use. + * On skin contact with Mercuric Oxycyanide, immediately wash or + shower to remove the chemical. At the end of the workshift, + wash any areas of the body that may have contacted Mercuric + Oxycyanide, whether or not known skin contact has occurred. + * Do not eat, smoke, or drink where Mercuric Oxycyanide is + handled, processed, or stored, since the chemical can be + swallowed. Wash hands carefully before eating or smoking. + * For clean-up use a specialized charcoal-filtered vacuum or + suction pump to avoid generating Mercury vapor. Care should + be taken not to disturb spilled material. + + PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + + WORKPLACE CONTROLS ARE BETTER THAN PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT. + However, for some jobs (such as outside work, confined space entry, + jobs done only once in a while, or jobs done while workplace + controls are being installed), personal protective equipment may be + appropriate. + + The following recommendations are only guidelines and may not apply + to every situation. + + Clothing + * Avoid skin contact with Mercuric Oxycyanide. Wear protective + gloves and clothing. Safety equipment suppliers/ manufacturers + can provide recommendations on the most protective glove/ + clothing material for your operation. + * Non-absorbent materials are recommended. + * All protective clothing (suits, gloves, footwear, headgear) + should be clean, available each day and put on before work. + + Eye Protection + * Wear dust-proof goggles and face shield when working with + powders or dust, unless full facepiece respiratory protection + is worn. + + Respiratory Protection + IMPROPER USE OF RESPIRATORS IS DANGEROUS. Such equipment should + only be used if the employer has a written program that takes into + account workplace conditions, requirements for worker training, + respirator fit testing and medical exams, as described in OSHA + 1910.134. + + * Where the potential exists for exposures over 0.05 mg/m3 as + Mercury, use a MSHA/NIOSH approved supplied-air respirator + with a full facepiece operated in the positive pressure mode + or with a full facepiece, hood, or helmet in the continuous + flow mode, or use a MSHA/ NIOSH approved self-contained + breathing apparatus with a full facepiece operated in + pressure-demand or other positive pressure mode. + + ADDITIONAL WORKPLACE EXPOSURE LIMITS for Cyanides measured as + Cyanide. + + OSHA: The legal airborne permissible exposure limit (PEL) is 5 + mg/m3 averaged over an 8-hour work-shift. + NIOSH: The recommended airborne exposure limit is 5 mg/m3, which + should not be exceeded during any 10 minute work period. + ACGIH: The recommended airborne exposure limit is 5 mg/m3 + averaged over an 8-hour workshift. + + Common Name: Mercuric Oxycyanide + DOT Number: UN 1642 + DOT Emergency Guide code: 53 + CAS Number: 1335-31-5 + ---------------------------------------- + NJ DOH Hazard rating + FLAMMABILITY 1 + REACTIVITY 3 + ----------------------------------------- + CYANIDE GAS RELEASED IN FIRE + EXPLOSIVE + ----------------------------------------- + Hazard Rating Key: 0=minimal; 1=slight; 2=moderate; 3=serious; + 4=severe + + FIRE HAZARDS + + * Mercuric Oxycyanide may burn, but does not readily ignite. + * Use dry chemical, CO2, water spray, or foam extinguishers. + * POISONOUS GASES ARE PRODUCED IN FIRE, including Cyanide gas + and Oxides of Nitrogen. + * CONTAINERS MAY EXPLODE IN FIRE. + * If employees are expected to fight fires, they must be trained + and equipped as stated in OSHA 1910.156. + + SPILLS AND EMERGENCIES + + If Mercuric Oxycyanide is spilled, take the following steps: + + * Restrict persons not wearing protective equipment from area of + spill until clean-up is complete. + * Remove all ignition sources. + * Spills should be collected with special Mercury vapor + suppressants or special vacuums. Kits specific for clean-up + of Mercury spills are available. + * It may be necessary to contain and dispose of Mercuric + Oxycyanide as a HAZARDOUS WASTE. Contact the NJ Department of + Environmental Protection (DEP) or your regional office of the + federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for specific + recommendations. + ========================================== + FOR LARGE SPILLS AND FIRES immediately call your fire department. + ========================================== + + HANDLING AND STORAGE + + * Prior to working with Mercuric Oxycyanide you should be + trained on its proper handling and storage. + * Mercuric Oxycyanide is self reactive. Friction, heat and + rough handling may cause an explosion. + * Store in tightly closed containers in a cool, well-ventilated + area. + + FIRST AID + Eye Contact + * Immediately flush with large amounts of water for at least 15 + minutes, occasionally lifting upper and lower lids. Seek + medical attention promptly. + + Skin Contact + * Quickly remove contaminated clothing. Immediately wash + contaminated skin with large amounts of water. + + Breathing + * Remove the person from exposure. + * Transfer promptly to a medical facility. + + PHYSICAL DATA + + Water Solubility: Slightly soluble + + OTHER COMMONLY USED NAMES + + Chemical Name: + Mercury Cyanide Oxide + + Other Names and Formulations: + Mercury Oxycyanide. + ------------------------------------------ + Not intended to be copied and sold for commercial purposes. + ------------------------------------------ + + NEW JERSEY DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH + Right to Know Project + CN 368, Trenton, NJ 08625-0368 + ------------------------------------------ + ------------------------------------------ + + ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION + + Elemental mercury is a heavy and relatively inert liquid which is + oxidized to inorganic mercury (II) under natural conditions. + Mercury (II) may combine with an organic fraction to from + methylmercury. Both mercury (II) and methylmercury are of + environmental concern. Mercury (II) may enter the environment in + industrial or municipal waste treatment discharges, from previously + contaminated sediments, and from the weathering of natural rocks. + Bacteria may then convert it into methylmercury. The concentration + of mercury (II) in bodies of water may be elevated with acid rain + due to the scouring of mercury from the air and increased + partitioning from the sediment into the water. + + ACUTE (SHORT TERM) ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS + + Acute toxic effects may include the death of animals, birds, or + fish, and death or low growth rate in plants. Acute effects are + seen two to four days after animals or plants come in contact with + a toxic chemical substance. + + Mercury(II) and methylmercury has high acute toxicity to aquatic + life. Insufficient data are available to evaluate or predict the + short term effects of mercury (II) or methylmercury to plants, + birds, or land animals. + + CHRONIC (LONG-TERM) ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS + + Chronic toxic effects may include shortened lifespan, reproductive + problems, lower fertility, and changes in appearance or behavior. + Chronic effects can be seen long after first exposure(s) to a + toxic chemical. + + Mercury (II) and methylmercury have high chronic toxicity to + aquatic life. Eating fish contaminated with mercury residues has + caused secondary poisoning in humans: birds or land animals + similarly exposed to mercury and its compounds could also be + subject to such effects. Insufficient data are available to + evaluate or predict the long-term effects of mercury and its + compounds to plants. + + DISTRIBUTION AND PERSISTENCE IN THE ENVIRONMENT + + Mercury is highly persistent in water, with a half-life greater + than 200 days. The half-life of a pollutant is the amount of time + it takes for one-half of the chemical to be degraded. + + + BIOACCUMULATION IN AQUATIC ORGANISMS + + Some substances increase in concentration, or bioaccumulate, in + living organisms as they breathe contaminated air, drink + contaminated water, or eat contaminated food. These chemicals can + become concentrated in the tissues and internal organs of animals + and humans. + The concentration of mercury(II) and methylmercury found in fish + tissues is expected to be considerably higher than the average + concentration of mercury(II) or methylmercury in the water from + which the fish was taken. + + SUPPORT DOCUMENT: AQUIRE Database, ERL, Duluth, U.S.EPA, + Phytotox. + + + +............................................................................... +. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercuric_thiocyanate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercuric_thiocyanate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0e9afe54 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercuric_thiocyanate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,188 @@ + +MSDS - MERCURIC THIOCYANATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: MERCURIC THIOCYANATE +FORMULA: HG(SCN)2 +FORMULA WT: 316.78 +CAS NO.: 00592-85-8 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: XL1550000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: MERCURY(II)THIOCYANATE; MERCURIC SULFOCYANATE; MERCURIC + SULFOCYANIDE +PRODUCT CODES: P651 + EFFECTIVE: 10/31/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 3 SEVERE (LIFE) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 3 SEVERE (LIFE) +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + POISON DANGER + EXCEPTIONAL HEALTH AND CONTACT HAZARDS - READ MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET + MAY BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED + HARMFUL IF ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN +DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +MERCURIC THIOCYANATE 90-100 592-85-8 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 11 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: N/A EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE, ODORLESS POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + (POSITIVE PRESSURE IF AVAILABLE) BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE. + MOVE EXPOSED CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. + USE WATER TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + CLOSED CONTAINERS EXPOSED TO HEAT MAY EXPLODE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.1 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF MERCURY POISONING INCLUDE A BUILDUP OF THE + METAL IN THE BRAIN, LIVER AND KIDNEYS. SYMPTOMS INCLUDE HEADACHE, + TREMORS, LOOSE TEETH, LOSS OF APPETITE, BLISTERS ON THE SKIN AND + IMPAIRED MEMORY. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE MAY INCLUDE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM + DEPRESSION. + SKIN ABSORPTION MAY BE HARMFUL OR FATAL. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, LIGHT, MOISTURE + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG ACIDS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D009 (EP TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS TLV, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, RUBBER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN SECURE POISON AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME MERCURIC THIOCYANATE, SOLID +HAZARD CLASS POISON B +UN/NA UN1646 +LABELS POISON +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 10 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME MERCURY THIOCYANATE +HAZARD CLASS 6.1 +UN/NA UN1646 +LABELS POISON + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercury_oxide_red.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercury_oxide_red.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..407e35ac --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercury_oxide_red.txt @@ -0,0 +1,208 @@ + +MSDS - MERCURIC OXIDE, RED + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: MERCURIC OXIDE, RED +FORMULA: HGO +FORMULA WT: 216.59 +CAS NO.: 21908-53-2 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OW8750000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: MERCURY(II)OXIDE, RED +PRODUCT CODES: 2620,2622 + EFFECTIVE: 09/26/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 4 EXTREME (POISON) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 3 SEVERE (LIFE) +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + POISON DANGER + EXCEPTIONAL CONTACT HAZARD - READ MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET + MAY BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED, INHALED, OR ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN +DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +DO NOT BREATHE DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +MERCURIC OXIDE 90-100 21908-53-2 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 500 C ( 932 F) DECOMPOSES VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 11.14 EVAPORATION RATE: 0.6 + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: BRIGHT RED OR ORANGE-RED HEAVY POWDER WITH NO ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + NOTE: DECOMPOSES AT MELTING POINT. + CAN REACT VIOLENTLY WITH SHOCK, FRICTION OR HEAT. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE, MERCURY FUMES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PEL LISTED DENOTES CEILING LIMIT. + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.1 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 0.1 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 18 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + ACUTE POISONING VIA ALL ROUTES OF EXPOSURE MAY BE SEVERE ENOUGH TO BE + FATAL. + DUST INHALATION MAY CAUSE TIGHTNESS AND PAIN IN CHEST, COUGHING, AND + DIFFICULTY IN BREATHING. + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE SEVERE IRRITATION OR BURNS. PROLONGED + CONTACT MAY CAUSE SKIN SENSITIZATION. SUBSTANCE IS READILY ABSORBED + THROUGH THE SKIN. + PROLONGED EYE CONTACT MAY CAUSE PERMANENT DAMAGE TO THE CORNEA AND + BLINDNESS MAY OCCUR. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION, AND + BURNS TO MOUTH AND THROAT. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF MERCURY POISONING INCLUDE A BUILDUP OF THE + METAL IN THE BRAIN, LIVER AND KIDNEYS. SYMPTOMS INCLUDE HEADACHE, + TREMORS, LOOSE TEETH, LOSS OF APPETITE, BLISTERS ON THE SKIN AND + IMPAIRED MEMORY. + +TARGET ORGANS + EYES, SKIN, RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, KIDNEYS + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + ALLERGIES, CHRONIC RESPIRATORY DISEASE, NERVE SYSTEM DISORDERS, + KIDNEY DISORDERS + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, ABSORPTION, SKIN CONTACT, EYE CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES WHILE REMOVING CONTAMINATED CLOTHING AND SHOES. + WASH CLOTHING BEFORE RE-USE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: LIGHT, HEAT + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG REDUCING AGENTS, STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, + AMINES, COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, ORGANIC MATERIALS, + PHENOL + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: MERCURY FUMES, CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D009 (EP TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE APPROPRIATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF THE TLV IS EXCEEDED, A SELF- + CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP PRODUCT OUT OF LIGHT. + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN SECURE POISON AREA. + STORE IN LIGHT-RESISTANT CONTAINERS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME MERCURIC OXIDE, SOLID +HAZARD CLASS POISON B +UN/NA UN1641 +LABELS POISON + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME MERCURIC OXIDE, SOLID +HAZARD CLASS 6.1 +UN/NA UN1641 +LABELS POISON + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercury_oxide_yel.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercury_oxide_yel.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..15d21202 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/mercury_oxide_yel.txt @@ -0,0 +1,200 @@ + +MSDS - MERCURIC OXIDE, YELLOW + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: MERCURIC OXIDE, YELLOW, +FORMULA: HGO +FORMULA WT: 216.59 +CAS NO.: 21908-53-2 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: OW8750000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: MERCURY(II)OXIDE, YELLOW +PRODUCT CODES: 2630 + EFFECTIVE: 11/11/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 4 EXTREME (POISON) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 3 SEVERE (LIFE) +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + POISON DANGER + MAY BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED, INHALED, OR ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN + EXCEPTIONAL HEALTH AND CONTACT HAZARDS - READ MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET +DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +DO NOT BREATHE DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +MERCURIC OXIDE 90-100 21908-53-2 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 500 C ( 932 F) DECOMPOSES VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 11.14 EVAPORATION RATE: 0.6 + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: YELLOW TO ORANGE YELLOW, HEAVY POWDER WITH NO ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + NOTE: DECOMPOSES AT MELTING POINT. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE, MERCURY FUMES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TLV LISTED DENOTES (TLV-SKIN). + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.1 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 18 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INHALATION OF VAPORS MAY CAUSE COUGHING, CHEST PAINS, DIFFICULTY BREATHING, + OR UNCONSCIOUSNESS. + PROLONGED EYE CONTACT MAY CAUSE PERMANENT DAMAGE TO THE CORNEA AND + BLINDNESS MAY OCCUR. + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + SUBSTANCE IS READILY ABSORBED THROUGH THE SKIN. + INHALATION AND INGESTION ARE HARMFUL AND MAY BE FATAL. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF MERCURY POISONING INCLUDE A BUILDUP OF THE + METAL IN THE BRAIN, LIVER AND KIDNEYS. SYMPTOMS INCLUDE HEADACHE, + TREMORS, LOOSE TEETH, LOSS OF APPETITE, BLISTERS ON THE SKIN AND + IMPAIRED MEMORY. + +TARGET ORGANS + EYES, SKIN + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, INGESTION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES WHILE REMOVING CONTAMINATED CLOTHING AND SHOES. + WASH CLOTHING BEFORE RE-USE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: LIGHT, HEAT + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG REDUCING AGENTS, STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, + AMINES, COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, ORGANIC MATERIALS, + PHENOL + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: MERCURY FUMES, CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D009 (EP TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE APPROPRIATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF THE TLV IS EXCEEDED, A SELF- + CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP PRODUCT OUT OF LIGHT. + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN SECURE POISON AREA. + STORE IN LIGHT-RESISTANT CONTAINERS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME MERCURIC OXIDE, SOLID +HAZARD CLASS POISON B +UN/NA UN1641 +LABELS POISON + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME MERCURIC OXIDE, SOLID +HAZARD CLASS 6.1 +UN/NA UN1641 +LABELS POISON + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/methyl_alcohol.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/methyl_alcohol.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..93eff822 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/methyl_alcohol.txt @@ -0,0 +1,225 @@ + +MSDS - METHANOL + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: METHANOL +FORMULA: CH3OH +FORMULA WT: 32.04 +CAS NO.: 67-56-1 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: PC1400000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: METHYL ALCOHOL; WOOD ALCOHOL; CARBINOL; METHYLOL; WOOD + SPIRIT +PRODUCT CODES: 9049,9072,9075,9076,9071,5217,5370,9074,P704,9093,5536,9068 + 9073,9091,9263,9069,9070 + EFFECTIVE: 09/26/86 + REVISION #04 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 3 SEVERE (POISON) + FLAMMABILITY - 3 SEVERE (FLAMMABLE) + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES & SHIELD; LAB COAT & APRON; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES; CLASS B +EXTINGUISHER + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + POISON DANGER + FLAMMABLE + HARMFUL IF INHALED + CANNOT BE MADE NON-POISONOUS + MAY BE FATAL OR CAUSE BLINDNESS IF SWALLOWED +KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME. DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING VAPOR. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH +ADEQUATE VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, +USE ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL, CARBON DIOXIDE - WATER MAY BE INEFFECTIVE. +FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER SPRAY. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +METHANOL 90-100 67-56-1 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 65 C ( 149 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): 96 + +MELTING POINT: -98 C ( -144 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 1.11 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 0.79 EVAPORATION RATE: 4.6 + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): COMPLETE (IN ALL PROPORTIONS) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 100 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: CLEAR, COLORLESS LIQUID WITH CHARACTERISTIC PUNGENT ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP 12 C ( 54 F) NFPA 704M RATING: 1-3-0 + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - 36.0 % LOWER - 6.0 % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL OR CARBON DIOXIDE. + (WATER MAY BE INEFFECTIVE.) + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + VAPORS MAY FLOW ALONG SURFACES TO DISTANT IGNITION SOURCES AND FLASH BACK. + CLOSED CONTAINERS EXPOSED TO HEAT MAY EXPLODE. CONTACT WITH STRONG + OXIDIZERS MAY CAUSE FIRE. + BURNS WITH A CLEAR, ALMOST INVISIBLE FLAME. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE, FORMALDEHYDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TLV LISTED DENOTES (TLV-SKIN). + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 260 MG/M3 ( 200 PPM) + +SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT (STEL): 310 MG/M3 ( 250 PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 260 MG/M3 ( 200 PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 5628 + LD50 (IPR-RAT)(MG/KG) - 9540 + LD50 (SCU-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 9800 + LD50 (SKN-RABBIT) (G/KG) - 20 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INHALATION AND INGESTION ARE HARMFUL AND MAY BE FATAL. + INHALATION MAY CAUSE HEADACHE, NAUSEA, VOMITING, DIZZINESS, NARCOSIS, + SUFFOCATION, LOWER BLOOD PRESSURE, CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEPRESSION. + LIQUID MAY BE IRRITATING TO SKIN AND EYES. PROLONGED SKIN CONTACT MAY + RESULT IN DERMATITIS. EYE CONTACT MAY RESULT IN TEMPORARY CORNEAL DAMAGE. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE BLINDNESS. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, HEADACHES, DIZZINESS, + GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE MAY INCLUDE KIDNEY AND/OR LIVER DAMAGE. + +TARGET ORGANS + EYES, SKIN, CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, INGESTION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES WHILE REMOVING CONTAMINATED CLOTHING AND SHOES. + WASH CLOTHING BEFORE RE-USE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, STRONG ACIDS, ALUMINUM + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE, FORMALDEHYDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, SMOKING OR FLAMES IN AREA. STOP LEAK + IF YOU CAN DO SO WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER SPRAY TO REDUCE VAPORS. TAKE UP + WITH SAND OR OTHER NON-COMBUSTIBLE ABSORBENT MATERIAL AND PLACE INTO + CONTAINER FOR LATER DISPOSAL. FLUSH AREA WITH WATER. + + J. T. BAKER SOLUSORB(R) SOLVENT ADSORBENT IS RECOMMENDED + FOR SPILLS OF THIS PRODUCT. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: U154 (TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS + ABOVE 200 PPM, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING + APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES AND FACE SHIELD, UNIFORM, + PROTECTIVE SUIT, RUBBER GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + BOND AND GROUND CONTAINERS WHEN TRANSFERRING LIQUID. KEEP CONTAINER + TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN A COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED, FLAMMABLE LIQUID + STORAGE AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME METHANOL +HAZARD CLASS FLAMMABLE LIQUID +UN/NA UN1230 +LABELS FLAMMABLE LIQUID +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 5000 LBS. + + + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME METHANOL +HAZARD CLASS 3.2, 6.1 +UN/NA UN1230 +LABELS FLAMMABLE LIQUID, POISON + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/methylene_blue.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/methylene_blue.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ac003d19 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/methylene_blue.txt @@ -0,0 +1,168 @@ + +MSDS - METHYLENE BLUE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: METHYLENE BLUE +FORMULA: C16H18CLN3S 3H2O +FORMULA WT: 373.91 +CAS NO.: 7220-79-3 +COMMON SYNONYMS: BASIC BLUE 9 +PRODUCT CODES: Q473,2702,Q475 + EFFECTIVE: 11/24/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + NOT APPLICABLE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 190 C ( 374 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 13 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: N/A EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): MODERATE (1 TO 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: ODORLESS, DARK GREEN CRYSTALS WITH A BRONZE LUSTRE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + NITROGEN OXIDES, SULFUR DIOXIDE, CHLORINE, HYDROGEN CHLORIDE, + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + NO EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE WERE DOCUMENTED. + +TARGET ORGANS + EYES, SKIN + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT, INHALATION, INGESTION + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG REDUCING AGENTS, CAUSTICS, ALKALIES, + STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES OF NITROGEN, OXIDES OF SULFUR, + CHLORINE AND CHLORINE COMPOUNDS, + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/methylene_chloride.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/methylene_chloride.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..892d260c --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/methylene_chloride.txt @@ -0,0 +1,216 @@ + +MSDS - METHYLENE CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: METHYLENE CHLORIDE +FORMULA: CH2CL2 +FORMULA WT: 84.93 +CAS NO.: 75-09-2 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: PA8050000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: DICHLOROMETHANE; METHYLENE DICHLORIDE; METHANE DICHLORIDE +PRODUCT CODES: 9324,9341,Q480,9330,5378,5531,9315,9329,9264 + EFFECTIVE: 10/24/86 + REVISION #03 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 3 SEVERE (CANCER CAUSING) + FLAMMABILITY - 1 SLIGHT + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 2 MODERATE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES & SHIELD; LAB COAT & APRON; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + POISON DANGER + CAUSES IRRITATION + HARMFUL IF ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN + MAY BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED OR INHALED + NOTE: REPORTED AS CAUSING CANCER IN LABORATORY ANIMALS. EXERCISE DUE CARE. +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +METHYLENE CHLORIDE 90-100 75-09-2 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 40 C ( 104 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): 350 + +MELTING POINT: -95 C ( -139 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 2.9 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.32 EVAPORATION RATE: 27.5 + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): MODERATE (1 TO 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 100 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: COLORLESS,VOLATILE LIQUID WITH PENETRATING,ETHER-LIKE ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A NFPA 704M RATING: 2-1-0 + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - 19 % LOWER - 12 % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + CLOSED CONTAINERS EXPOSED TO HEAT MAY EXPLODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + HYDROGEN CHLORIDE, PHOSGENE, CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +ACGIH DENOTES THAT THIS SUBSTANCE IS SUSPECT OF CARCINOGENIC POTENTIAL +FOR MAN. + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 350 MG/M3 ( 100 PPM) + +SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT (STEL): 1740 MG/M3 ( 500 PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): MG/M3 ( 500 PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 2524 + LD50 (IPR-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 1500 + LD50 (SCU-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 6460 + LC50 (INHAL-RAT-)(G/M3) - 88 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INHALATION AND INGESTION ARE HARMFUL AND MAY BE FATAL. + INHALATION MAY CAUSE HEADACHE, NAUSEA, VOMITING, DIZZINESS, NARCOSIS, + SUFFOCATION, LOWER BLOOD PRESSURE, CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEPRESSION. + INHALATION OF VAPORS MAY CAUSE SEVERE IRRITATION OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. + LIQUID MAY BE IRRITATING TO SKIN AND EYES. PROLONGED SKIN CONTACT MAY + RESULT IN DERMATITIS. EYE CONTACT MAY RESULT IN TEMPORARY CORNEAL DAMAGE. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION, AND + BURNS TO MOUTH AND THROAT. + +TARGET ORGANS + SKIN, CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM, CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, EYES + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, INGESTION, SKIN CONTACT, EYE CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + + ACCEPTABLE MAXIMUM PEAK ABOVE THE ACCEPTANCE CEILING CONCENTRATION FOR + AN 8 HOUR SHIFT = 2000 PPM FOR 5 MINUTES IN ANY 2HOURS. (PEL) CEILING + = 1000 PPM + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION, MOISTURE + +INCOMPATIBLES: ALKALI METALS, STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, STRONG BASES, + OXIDES OF NITROGEN, ZINC, ALUMINUM, WATER, MAGNESIUM, + AMINES + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: HYDROGEN CHLORIDE, PHOSGENE, + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + STOP LEAK IF YOU CAN DO SO WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER SPRAY TO REDUCE VAPORS. + TAKE UP WITH SAND OR OTHER NON-COMBUSTIBLE ABSORBENT MATERIAL AND PLACE + INTO CONTAINER FOR LATER DISPOSAL. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: U080 (TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS + ABOVE 100 PPM, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING + APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES AND FACE SHIELD, UNIFORM, + PROTECTIVE SUIT, POLYVINYL ALCOHOL GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN SECURE POISON AREA. + KEEP CONTAINERS OUT OF SUN AND AWAY FROM HEAT. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME DICHLOROMETHANE (AIR ONLY) +HAZARD CLASS ORM-A +UN/NA UN1593 +LABELS NONE +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 1000 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME DICHLOROMETHANE +HAZARD CLASS 6.1 +UN/NA UN1593 +LABELS HARMFUL - STOW AWAY FROM FOOD STUFFS + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/naphthalene.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/naphthalene.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..41ec4ec3 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/naphthalene.txt @@ -0,0 +1,195 @@ + +MSDS - NAPHTHALENE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: NAPHTHALENE +FORMULA: C10H8 +FORMULA WT: 128.18 +CAS NO.: 00091-20-3 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: QJ0525000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: NAPHTHALIN, NAPHTHENE, CAMPHOR TAR, MOTH BALLS +PRODUCT CODES: 2718 + EFFECTIVE: 09/03/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 2 MODERATE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + COMBUSTIBLE +KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE +OF FIRE, SOAK WITH WATER. IN CASE OF SPILL, SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. FLUSH SPILL +AREA WITH WATER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +NAPHTHALENE 90-100 91-20-3 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 218 C ( 424 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): 0.05 + +MELTING POINT: 80 C ( 176 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 4.42 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.14 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE CRYSTALLINE VOLATILE SOLID WITH THE ODOR OF + MOTH BALLS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP 88 C ( 190 F) NFPA 704M RATING: 2-2-0 + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - 5.9 % LOWER - 0.9 % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY, CARBON DIOXIDE, DRY CHEMICAL OR ORDINARY FOAM. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + (POSITIVE PRESSURE IF AVAILABLE) BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE. + MOVE EXPOSED CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. + USE WATER TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + CLOSED CONTAINERS EXPOSED TO HEAT MAY EXPLODE. + CONTACT WITH STRONG OXIDIZERS MAY CAUSE FIRE OR EXPLOSION. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 50 MG/M3 ( 10 PPM) + +SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT (STEL): 75 MG/M3 ( 15 PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 50 MG/M3 ( 10 PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 1780 + LD50 (SCU-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 969 + LD50 (IV-MOUSE) (MG/KG) - 100 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, HEADACHES, DIZZINESS, + GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION. + +TARGET ORGANS + EYES, SKIN, BLOOD, LIVER, KIDNEYS, CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, INGESTION, ABSORPTION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME, SOURCES OF IGNITION + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, + SMOKING, OR FLAMES IN AREA. WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL + INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA + WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: U165 (TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS UP + TO 500 PPM, A CHEMICAL CARTRIDGE RESPIRATOR WITH + ORGANIC VAPOR CARTRIDGE IS RECOMMENDED. ABOVE + THIS LEVEL, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS RECOMMENDED. +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, RUBBER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED AREA + AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, OR FLAME. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME NAPHTHALENE (AIR AND WATER ONLY) +HAZARD CLASS ORM-A +UN/NA UN1334 +LABELS NONE +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 100 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME NAPHTHALENE, CRUDE OR REFINED +HAZARD CLASS 4.1 +UN/NA UN1334 +LABELS FLAMMABLE SOLID + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/nitro_laquer.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/nitro_laquer.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8ddbf1d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/nitro_laquer.txt @@ -0,0 +1,148 @@ +KOPPERS COMPANY -- CELLULOSE NITRATE-GLOSS LACQUER - LACQUER.CELLULOSE NITRATE,GLOSS FOR AIRCRAF USE +MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET +FSC: 8010 +NIIN: 005985933 +Manufacturer's CAGE: 80592 +Part No. Indicator: A +Part Number/Trade Name: CELLULOSE NITRATE-GLOSS LACQUER +=========================================================================== + General Information +=========================================================================== +Item Name: LACQUER.CELLULOSE NITRATE,GLOSS FOR AIRCRAF USE +Company's Name: KOPPERS COMPANY,INC. +Company's Street: 3000 KOPPERS BLDG +Company's City: PITTSBURGH +Company's State: PA +Company's Country: US +Company's Zip Code: 15219-1818 +Record No. For Safety Entry: 007 +Tot Safety Entries This Stk#: 007 +Date MSDS Prepared: 01JAN85 +Safety Data Review Date: 26APR82 +Supply Item Manager: GSA +MSDS Serial Number: BFHLG +Specification Number: TT-L-32 +Hazard Characteristic Code: F1 +Unit Of Issue: GL +Unit Of Issue Container Qty: 1 GALLON +Type Of Container: CAN +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL (SARA III) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: NT8050000 +CAS Number: 67-63-0 +OSHA PEL: 400 PPM/500 STEL +ACGIH TLV: 400 PPM/500STEL;9192 +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: METHYL ISOBUTYL CARBINOL +Ingredient Sequence Number: 02 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: PO5776000 +ACGIH TLV: 25PPM +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: N-BUTYL ACETATE (SARA III) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 03 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: AF7350000 +CAS Number: 123-86-4 +OSHA PEL: 150 PPM +ACGIH TLV: 150 PPM/200STEL;9394 +Other Recommended Limit: NONE RECOMMENDED +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: BUTYL CELLOSOLVE +Ingredient Sequence Number: 04 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: EP3600000 +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: BLUE VISCOUS LIQUID WITH TYPICAL SOLVENT ODOR. +Vapor Density (Air=1): HEAV +Specific Gravity: 7.8 LB +Evaporation Rate And Ref: N BUTYL ACET FASTE +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: 23F TCC -5.0C +Extinguishing Media: FOAM,DRY CHEMICAL,WATER SPRAY FOG OR CO2. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: USE AIR SUPPLIED EQUIPMENT FOR ENCLOSURED +AREAS.COOL EXPOSED +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT,SPARKS AND FLAME. +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: SYSTEMIC TOXIC EFFECTS MAY ALSO RESULT FROM +SKIN ABSORPTION:IRRITATION TO EYES,NOSE AND THROAT NEAR. +Emergency/First Aid Proc: IF INHALED,MOVE TO FRESH AIR.IF NOT +BREATHING,GIVE ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION,PREFERABLY MOUTH TO MOUTH.CALL A +PHYSICIAN.IN CASE OF SKIN CONTACT,WASH THOROUGHLY WITH SOAP AND WATER;FOR +EYES FLUSH IMMEDIATELY WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR 15 MIN. AND CONTACT +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: REMOVE ALL SOURCES OF IGNITION (FLAME, +ELECTRICAL,STATIC OR FRICTION SPARKS; HOT SURFACES,ETC.). AVOID BREATHING +VAPORS.VENTILATE AREA. CONTAIN AND SCOOP UP SPILL WITH NON-SPARKING TOOLS, +RAGS,ETC.USE INERT ABSORBENT MATERIALS ON SMALL SPILLS OR ON RE +Waste Disposal Method: DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH LOCAL APPLICABLE +REGULATIONS. +Precautions-Handling/Storing: KEEP CONTAINERS CLOSED AND UPRIGHT TO +PREVENT LEAKAGE.AVOID FLAMES, WELDING,SMOKING,SPARKS,OPEN LIGHTS,ETC.AVOID +BREATHING OF VAPORS OR SPRAY MIST.AVO +Other Precautions: MAINTAIN GOOD PERSONAL HYGIENE.DO NOT USE IN CONFINED +AREAS,TANK OR PIT WITHOUT ADEQUATE VENTILATION. +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: ORGANIC VAPOR CANISTER WHERE OXYGEN CONTENT IS +ADEQUATE AND VAPOR CO +Ventilation: LOCAL EXHAUST +Protective Gloves: RUBBER GLOVES +Eye Protection: GOGGLES +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: METHYL ISOBUTYL KETONE PO6125000;TLV 50 PPM; +BUTYL ALCOHOL EO2000000;TLV 50PPM; VM AND P NAPTHA SE7555000; TLV 300PPM +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Trans Data Review Date: 82116 +DOT PSN Code: LFD +DOT Proper Shipping Name: PAINT +DOT Class: 3 +DOT ID Number: UN1263 +DOT Pack Group: II +DOT Label: FLAMMABLE LIQUID +IMO PSN Code: LCP +IMO Proper Shipping Name: PAINT OR PAINT RELATED MATERIAL +IMO Regulations Page Number: 3268 +IMO UN Number: 1263 +IMO UN Class: 3.2 +IMO Subsidiary Risk Label: - +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Label Status: F +Special Hazard Precautions: MAY BE POISONOUS IF INHALED OR ABSORBED +THROUGH SKIN. VAPORS MAY CAUSE DIZZINESS OR SUFFOCATION. CONTACT MAY +IRRITATE OR BURN SKIN AND EYES. FIRE MAY PRODUCE IRRITATING OR POISONOUS +GASES. RUNOFF FROM FIRE CONTROL OR DILUTION WATER MAY CAUSE POLLUTION. +Label Name: KOPPERS CO INC +Label Street: 3000 KOPPERS BLDG +Label City: PITTSBURGH +Label State: PA +Label Zip Code: 15219-1818 +Label Country: US +======================================================================= +URL for this msds http://hazard.com. If you wish to change, add to, or +delete information in this archive please sent updates to dan@hazard.com. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/oxalic_acid.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/oxalic_acid.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..df732036 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/oxalic_acid.txt @@ -0,0 +1,113 @@ + + + + + M A T E R I A L S A F E T Y D A T A S H E E T + OXALIC ACID, CRYSTALS + +================================================================================ + SECTION I - Product Identification +================================================================================ + PRODUCT NAME: OXALIC ACID, CRYSTALS + FORMULA: HO2CCO2H.2H2O + FORMULA WT: 126.07 + CAS NO.: + COMMON SYNONYMS: ETHANEDIOIC ACID + +================================================================================ + Precautionary Labeling +================================================================================ + HEALTH - 2 + FLAMMABILITY - 1 + REACTIVITY - 0 +================================================================================ + SECTION II - Hazardous Components +================================================================================ + N/A +================================================================================ + SECTION III - Physical Data +================================================================================ +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE @ 20C (MM HG): N/A +MELTING POINT: 101C DEC VAPOR DENSITY (AIR=1): N/A +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.65 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + SOLUBILITY(H2O): 12 PERCENT VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE CRYSTALS +================================================================================ + SECTION IV - Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +================================================================================ +FLASH POINT: NONE +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + DRY CHEMICAL, "ALCOHOL" FOAM, CO2 (WATER MAY CAUSE FROTHING) + WATER SPRAY TO COOL EXPOSED CONTAINERS, DISPERSE VAPORS +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND GOGGLES +UNUSUAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS + EMITS HIGHLY TOXIC, IRRITATING FUMES IN FIRE CONDITIONS +================================================================================ + SECTION V - Health Hazard Data +================================================================================ +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 1 MG/M3 +TOXICITY: ORL-HMN LDLO: 71 MG/KG + ORL-RAT LD50: 375 MG/KG +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + HIGHLY TOXIC: CAN BE FATAL IF INGESTED OR INHALED. SEVERE BURNS ON + CONTACT. DUST IS IRRITATING TO MUCOUS MEMBRANES AND EYES. + INHALATION CAN CAUSE SERIOUS CORROSION OF MOUTH, THROAT, STOMACH. + INGESTION CAUSES NAUSEA, SHOCK CONVULSIONS AND DEATH AT 5 GM +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + SKIN: REMOVE CONTAMINATED CLOTHING AT ONCE (AND LAUNDER BEFORE REUSE) + WASH SKIN WITH SOAP AND WATER + EYES: FLUSH THOROUGHLY WITH WATER FOR 15 MINUTES + INHALATION: REMOVE TO FRESH AIR + INGESTION: DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING; GIVE DILUTE MILK OF MAGNESIA, LIME + WATER, OR MILK IF CONSCIOUS + GET MEDICAL ASSISTANCE FOR ALL CASES OF OVEREXPOSURE +================================================================================ + SECTION VI - Reactivity Data +================================================================================ +STABILITY: STABLE +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: EXTREME HEAT - SUBMIMES AND DECOMPOSES ABOVE MELTING + POINT EMITTING TOXIC FUMES +INCOMPATIBILES: OXIDIZERS, ALKALIES, SILVER, CHLORITES AND + HYPOCHLORITES, FURFURYL ALCOHOL +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: TOXIC FUMES INCLUDING COX AND FORMIC ACID +================================================================================ + SECTION VII - Spill and Disposal Procedures +================================================================================ +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + TAKE UP & CONTAINERIZE FOR DISPOSAL +================================================================================ + SECTION VIII - Protective Equipment +================================================================================ + PROVIDE ADEQUATE GENERAL MECHANICAL AND LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + PROTECT EYES AND SKIN WITH SAFETY GOGGLES AND GLOVES + WEAR CARTRIDGE RESPIRATOR, APRON AND LONG SLEEVES + USE ONLY WITH ADEQUATE VENTILATION AND DO NOT INHALE DUST OR VAPORS + USE IN FUME HOOD +================================================================================ + SECTION IX - Storage and Handling Precautions +================================================================================ + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. + PROTECT AGAINST PHYSICAL DAMAGE. + STORE IN A COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED AREA AWAY FROM OXIDIZERS + WASH GLOVES THOROUGHLY BEFORE REMOVING + WASH FACE AND HANDS AFTER FILLING CLEAN AREA THOROUGHLY AFTER USE +================================================================================ + SECTION X - Transportation Data and Additional Information +================================================================================ + THE ABOVE NFPA CODE IS APPLICABLE TO FIRE SITUATION ONLY + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +(TM) and (R) : Registered Trademarks +N/A = Not Applicable OR Not Available +The information published in this Material Safety Data Sheet has been compiled +from our experience and data presented in various technical publications. It is +the user's responsibility to determine the suitability of this information for +adoption of necessary safety precautions. We reserve the right to revise +Material Safety Data Sheets periodically as new information becomes available. +Copyright by Manufacturer +LICENSE GRANTED TO MAKE UNLIMITED COPIES FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY +by OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY +. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/paraffin_oil.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/paraffin_oil.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7a3aa83a --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/paraffin_oil.txt @@ -0,0 +1,167 @@ + +MSDS - PARAFFIN OIL + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: PARAFFIN OIL +FORMULA: +FORMULA WT: .00 +CAS NO.: 08012-95-1 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: PY8030000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: MINERAL OIL +PRODUCT CODES: S894,9388 + EFFECTIVE: 05/06/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 0 NONE + FLAMMABILITY - 1 SLIGHT + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 0 NONE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + NOT APPLICABLE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: -18 C ( 0 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 0.88 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WATER WHITE VISCOUS LIQUID WITH NO ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP 215 C ( 420 F) NFPA 704M RATING: 0-1-0 + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + PROLONGED CONTACT MAY CAUSE SKIN IRRITATION. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, CHLORINE + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. TAKE UP WITH SAND OR OTHER NONCOM- + BUSTIBLE ABSORBENT MATERIAL AND PLACE INTO CONTAINER FOR LATER DISPOSAL. + FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP VAPOR AND MIST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + DO NOT STORE NEAR OXIDIZING MATERIALS. + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + PRODUCT MAY SOLIDIFY AT ROOM TEMPERATURE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/paraform.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/paraform.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..2c43a0d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/paraform.txt @@ -0,0 +1,205 @@ + +MSDS - PARAFORMALDEHYDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: PARAFORMALDEHYDE +FORMULA: (CH2O)N +FORMULA WT: .00 +CAS NO.: 30525-89-4 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: RV0540000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: PARAFORM; POLYOXYMETHYLENE +PRODUCT CODES: S898 + EFFECTIVE: 09/08/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 3 SEVERE (CANCER CAUSING) + FLAMMABILITY - 2 MODERATE + REACTIVITY - 2 MODERATE + CONTACT - 3 SEVERE (CORROSIVE) +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES; CLASS B EXTINGUISHER + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + CAUSES EYE BURNS AND MAY IRRITATE SKIN. + DUST MAY FORM FLAMMABLE OR EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE WITH AIR. + NOTE: REPORTED AS CAUSING CANCER IN LABORATORY ANIMALS. EXERCISE DUE CARE. +KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME. DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +AVOID BREATHING VAPOR. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH +ADEQUATE VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, +USE ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL, CARBON DIOXIDE - WATER MAY BE INEFFECTIVE. +FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER SPRAY. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +PARAFORMALDEHYDE 90-100 30525-89-4 +FORMALDEHYDE >0.10 50-00-0 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): <2 + +MELTING POINT: 120 C ( 248 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 1.03 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.40 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE POWDER WITH FORMALDEHYDE-LIKE ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP 70 C ( 158 F) NFPA 704M RATING: 2-2-0 + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - 73.0 % LOWER - 7.0 % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL OR CARBON DIOXIDE. + (WATER MAY BE INEFFECTIVE.) + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + CAN BE AN EXPLOSION HAZARD, ESPECIALLY WHEN HEATED. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + FORMALDEHYDE, CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SOME EXPERIMENTS WITH TEST ANIMALS INDICATED THAT THIS SUBSTANCE MAY BE +ANTICIPATED TO BE A CARCINOGEN. + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 800 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: YES IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY BE IRRITATING TO EYES, NOSE, THROAT, OR LUNGS. + DUST MAY CAUSE HEADACHE, COUGHING, DIZZINESS OR DIFFICULT BREATHING. + CONTACT WITH SKIN MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + CONTACT WITH EYES MAY CAUSE BURNS. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA AND VOMITING. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE SEVERE BURNING OF MOUTH AND STOMACH. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INGESTION, INHALATION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, GIVE LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES. + + TOXICITY TEST RESULTS AND SAFETY AND HEALTH EFFECTS ARE LISTED FOR + FORMALDEHYDE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, ORGANIC ACIDS, OXIDES, + ALKALIES, STRONG ACIDS, STRONG BASES, AMINES + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: FORMALDEHYDE, CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, SMOKING, OR FLAMES IN AREA. WITH + CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; + REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D002 (CORROSIVE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, A DUST/MIST RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. + IF CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF RESPIRATOR, + A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, NEOPRENE GLOVES + ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN A COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED, + FLAMMABLE LIQUID STORAGE AREA OR CABINET. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME PARAFORMALDEHYDE (AIR AND WATER ONLY) +HAZARD CLASS ORM-A +UN/NA UN2213 +LABELS NONE +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 1000 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME PARAFORMALDEHYDE +HAZARD CLASS 4.1 +UN/NA UN2213 +LABELS NO LABEL REQUIRED PACKAGE TO BE MARKED: CLASS 4.1 + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/parlon.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/parlon.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c87c1276 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/parlon.txt @@ -0,0 +1,196 @@ + +MSDS - PARLON + +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: CHLORINATED RUBBER; (PARLON R) (CONTAINING ING 2) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 1009083CR +CAS Number: 9006-03-5 +OSHA PEL: N/K (FP N) +ACGIH TLV: N/K (FP N) +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: CARBON TETRACHLORIDE (SARA III) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 02 +Percent: 6-8 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: FG4900000 +CAS Number: 56-23-5 +OSHA PEL: 10 PPM +ACGIH TLV: 5 PPM, S +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: WASTE DISP METH:RESIDUES MUST COMPLY W/HAZARDOUS WASTE +REGULATIONS. +Ingredient Sequence Number: 09 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 9999999ZZ +OSHA PEL: NOT APPLICABLE +ACGIH TLV: NOT APPLICABLE +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: ING 10:IT IS RELS WHEN PARLON IS DISSOLVED IN ANY SOLV. +ANALYSES OF WORKPLACE ATMS IN AREAS WHERE PARLON WAS (ING 12) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 11 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 9999999ZZ +OSHA PEL: NOT APPLICABLE +ACGIH TLV: NOT APPLICABLE +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: ING 11:BEING DISSOLVED & PROCESSED INDICATE THAT CCL4 VAP +LEVELS IN THESE AREAS MAY EXCEED TLV UNLESS POS VENT (ING 13) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 12 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 9999999ZZ +OSHA PEL: NOT APPLICABLE +ACGIH TLV: NOT APPLICABLE +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: ING 17:ACGIH. NO SMOKING IN AREA OF USE. DO NOT USE IN GEN +VICIN OF ARC WELDING, OPEN FLAMES OR HOT SURFS. HEAT (ING 19) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 18 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 9999999ZZ +OSHA PEL: NOT APPLICABLE +ACGIH TLV: NOT APPLICABLE +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: VENT:COMPLY W/APPLICABLE AIR POLLUTION CONTROL REGULATIONS. +Ingredient Sequence Number: 20 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 9999999ZZ +OSHA PEL: NOT APPLICABLE +ACGIH TLV: NOT APPLICABLE +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: WHITE, FREE-FLOWING GRANULAR POWDER; ODORLESS. +Boiling Point: N/A +Melting Point: 349F,176C +Vapor Density (Air=1): N/A +Specific Gravity: 1.6 +Solubility In Water: NEGLIGIBLE +Percent Volatiles By Volume: NEGLIG +pH: N/A +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point Method: N/P +Lower Explosive Limit: N/A +Upper Explosive Limit: N/A +Extinguishing Media: WATER SPRAY, DRY CHEMICAL, FOAM, CARBON DIOXIDE, OR +HALON. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: USE NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED PRESSURE DEMAND SCBA & +FULL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (FP N). +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: THERMAL DECOMP PRODS MAY INCL HCL & PHOSGENE +(FP N). HAZ PRODS OF COMBUST:THEY WILL DEPEND ON COMBUST CNDTNS. THEY MAY +INCL SEV EYE, SKIN & RESP IRRITS (SUPDAT) +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Cond To Avoid (Stability): NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Materials To Avoid: AVOID MIXTURE W/CHROME PIGMENTS OR OTHER STRONG +OXIDIZING COMPOUNDS IN THE PRESENCE OF HEAT. +Hazardous Decomp Products: PHOSGENE (FP N). HYDROCHLORIC ACID. +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +Conditions To Avoid (Poly): NOT RELEVANT +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: YES +Route Of Entry - Skin: NO +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: YES +Health Haz Acute And Chronic: PARLON DUST IN EYE MAY CAUSE PHYSICAL IRRIT. +EYES: MILD, REVERSIBLE IRRIT & PAIN. INHAL: DROWSINESS, FATIGUE, GIDDINESS, +HEADACHE, INCOORD, NAUS. EXPOS TO HIGH ATM LEVELS CAUSES CNS DEPRESS, +LIVER/KIDNEY DMG, RESP & EYE IRRIT. CLINICAL SIGNS & SYMPS REPORTED +FOLLOWING OVEREXP TO CCL4 REFLECT TOX EFTS (EFTS OF OVEREXP) +Carcinogenicity - NTP: YES +Carcinogenicity - IARC: YES +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Explanation Carcinogenicity: CARBON TETRACHLORIDE:IARC MONOGRAPHS, SUPP, +VOL 7, PG 143, 1987:GRP 2B. NTP 7TH ANNUAL RPT ON CARCINS, 1994: (SUPDAT) +BLURRED/DIM VISION, DOUBLE VISION, DROW, DIZZ/INCOORD, GIDD, FATG, HDCH, +MUSCLE TWITCHES, IRREG HEARTBEAT, NAUS, VOMIT, UNCON, DIARR, LABORED BRTHG, +ABDOM PAIN, JAUN & INCR URINATION. CHANGES IN CONCS OF COMPONENTS OF BLOOD +& URINE WHICH REFLECT KIDNEY & LIVER DMG ALSO HAVE(SUPDAT) +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: CIRRHOSIS OF LIVER & OTHER LIVER DISEASES; +KIDNEY DISEASES. CCL4 MAY INCREASE ACTION OF CNS DEPRESSANTS (SUCH AS +ALCOHOL & BARBITURATES) & TRANQUILIZERS. +Emergency/First Aid Proc: INGEST:CALL MD IMMEDIATELY (FP N). SKIN: FLUSH +W/COPIOUS AMOUNTS OF WATER. CALL MD (FP N). EYES:IMMEDIATELY FLUSH W/ +PLENTY OF LOW-PRESSURE WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 MINUTES. REMOVE ANY CONTACT +LENSES TO ENSURE THOROUGH FLUSHING. CALL MD. INHAL:REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF +BREATHING HAS STOPPED, GIVE ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS +DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. CALL MD. +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: SWEEP UP SPILLED MATL FOR USE/DISP. FLUSH +SPILL AREA W/WATER SPRAY. THIS PROD CONTAINS CARBON TETRACHLORIDE LISTED AS +"TOXIC POLLUTANT" UNDER SECTION 307 OF CLEAN WATER ACT & SPECIFIC DISCHARGE +LIMITATIONS ON WASTEWATERS CNTNG IT MAY APPLY. (ING 8) +Neutralizing Agent: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Waste Disposal Method: DO NOT INCIN. LANDFILL IN PERMITTED FACILITY I/A/W +LOC, STATE & FED REGS. THIS PROD CONTAINS ONE/MORE OF SOLVS LISTED IN HAZ +WASTE REG 40 CFR 261.3(F), SECTIONS F001-F005, BECAUSE OF TOX. THEREFORE, +DISP OF UNUSED PROD & ALL SPILL CLEANUP (ING 9) +Precautions-Handling/Storing: WARNING! BEFORE DISSOLVING PARLON H IN ANY +SOLVENT, READ THIS MSDS. AVOID CONTACT W/EYES, SKIN & CLOTHING. AVOID +BREATHING DUST & VAPOR. +Other Precautions: HANDLE ONLY IN AREAS W/SUFFICIENT VENT TO PVNT OVEREXP. +THIS PROD MAY REACT W/CHROME PIGMENTS/OTHER STRONG OXIDIZING CMPDS IN +PRESENCE OF HEAT & SHOULD NOT BE STORED NEAR SUCH MATLS. COMPLETELY ISOLATE +& THORO CLEAN ALL EQUIP, (ING 10) +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED APPROPRIATE RESPIRATORY +PROTECTION IS REQUIRED WHEN EXPOSURE TO AIRBORNE CONTAMINANT IS LIKELY TO +EXCEED ACCEPTABLE LIMITS. RESPIRATORS SHOULD BE SELECTED & USED I/A/W OSHA, +SUBPART 1 (29 CFR 1910.134) & MFR'S RECS. +Ventilation: ADEQ VENT SHOULD BE PROVIDED TO KEEP VAP & DUST CONCS BELOW +ACCEPT EXPOS LIMS. DISCHARGE FROM VENT SYS SHOULD (ING 20) +Protective Gloves: IMPERVIOUS GLOVES. +Eye Protection: ANSI APPROVED CHEM WORKERS GOGGS (FP N). +Other Protective Equipment: EMERGENCY EYE WASH AND DELUGH SHOWER WHICH +MEET ANSI DESIGN CRITERIA (FP N). +Work Hygienic Practices: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: EXPLO HAZ:SUCH AS PHOSGENE, HYDROGEN CHLORIDE +& CHLORINATED ACIDS, ALDEHYDES & KETONES. CARBON MONOXIDE & CARBON DIOXIDE +MAY BE FORMED. EXPLAN OF CARCIN:ANTIC TO BE CARCIN. HUMAN:LIVER, KIDNEYS, +LUNG DMG. EFTS OF OVEREXP:BEEN REPORTED. DRINKING CCL4 CAUSES SEV GI IRRIT. +EXCEPT FOR REPORT OF OPTIC NERVE & SCIATIC(ING 3) +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Technical Review Date: 15DEC94 +Label Date: 14DEC94 +Label Status: M +Common Name: PARLON R (ALL TYPES) +Chronic Hazard: YES +Signal Word: WARNING! +Acute Health Hazard-Moderate: X +Contact Hazard-Moderate: X +Fire Hazard-None: X +Reactivity Hazard-None: X +Special Hazard Precautions: ACUTE:INHALATION OF MIST OR VAPOR MAY +CONTRIBUTE TO THE OCCURRENCE OF IRREGULAR HEARTBEAT (FP N). PARLON DUST IN +EYE MAY CAUSE PHYSICAL IRRITATION. EYES:MILD, REVERSIBLE IRRITATION & PAIN. +INHAL:DROW, FATG, GIDD, HDCH, INCOORD, NAUS. EXPOSURE TO HIGH ATMOSPHERIC +LEVELS CAUSES CNS DEPRESSION, LIVER OR KIDNEY DAMAGE, RESPIRATORY & EYE +IRRITATION. CLINICAL SIGNS & SYMPTOMS REPORTED FOLLOWING OVEREXPOSURE TO +CCL4 REFLECT TOXIC EFFECTS ON THESE ORGANS OR SYSTEMS. CHRONIC:CANCER +HAZARD. CONTAINS CARBON TETRACHLORIDE WHICH IS LISTED AS A HUMAN LIVER & +KIDNEY CARCINOGEN (FP N). +Protect Eye: Y +Protect Skin: Y +Protect Respiratory: Y + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/phosphorus_red.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/phosphorus_red.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7dd2dc50 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/phosphorus_red.txt @@ -0,0 +1,189 @@ + +MSDS - PHOSPHORUS, RED, AMORPHOUS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: PHOSPHORUS, RED, AMORPHOUS +FORMULA: P +FORMULA WT: 30.97 +CAS NO.: 07723-14-0 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: TH3495000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: RED PHOSPHORUS +PRODUCT CODES: 9358 + EFFECTIVE: 11/11/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 0 NONE + FLAMMABILITY - 2 MODERATE + REACTIVITY - 2 MODERATE + CONTACT - 2 MODERATE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES; CLASS D EXTINGUISHER + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + COMBUSTIBLE + CAUSES IRRITATION +KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME. DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +DO NOT BREATHE DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH +ADEQUATE VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, +DO NOT USE WATER. USE DRY SAND, EARTH OR SODA ASH. IN CASE OF SPILL, +SWEEP UP AND CAREFULLY REMOVE. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED STRIPE (STORE SEPARATELY) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +PHOSPHORUS, RED, AMORPHOUS 90-100 7723-14-0 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 4.7 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.34 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: REDDISH-BROWN ODORLESS POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (OPEN CUP N/A NFPA 704M RATING: 0-1-1 + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE DRY CHEMICAL OR CARBON DIOXIDE. DO NOT USE WATER. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + FLUSH AREA WITH WATER UNTIL COOL SO REIGNITION WILL NOT OCCUR. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + CONTACT WITH STRONG OXIDIZERS MAY CAUSE FIRE OR EXPLOSION. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.1 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT (STEL): 0.3 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 0.1 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE SEVERE IRRITATION OR BURNS. + +TARGET ORGANS + EYES, SKIN + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: FRICTION, HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION, + SHOCK, SUNLIGHT + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, STRONG BASES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, SMOKING, OR FLAMES IN AREA. WITH + CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; + REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D003 (REACTIVE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: A RESPIRATOR WITH DUST/MIST FILTER IS RECOMMENDED. + IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV, A SELF- + CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, UNIFORM, RUBBER + GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED STRIPE (STORE SEPARATELY) + + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED AREA + AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, OR FLAME. + DO NOT STORE NEAR OXIDIZING MATERIALS. + KEEP PRODUCT OUT OF LIGHT. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME PHOSPHOROUS, AMORPHOUS, RED +HAZARD CLASS FLAMMABLE SOLID +UN/NA UN1338 +LABELS FLAMMABLE SOLID +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 1 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME PHOSPHOROUS, AMORPHOUS, RED +HAZARD CLASS 4.1 +UN/NA UN1338 +LABELS FLAMMABLE SOLID + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/phthalocyanine_blue.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/phthalocyanine_blue.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..56660772 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/phthalocyanine_blue.txt @@ -0,0 +1,78 @@ +SILVERTOWN PRODUCTS -- 2A BLUE - 2A BLUE PTHALOCYANINE BLUE +MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET +FSC: 8010 +NIIN: 006641414 +Manufacturer's CAGE: 60137 +Part No. Indicator: A +Part Number/Trade Name: 2A BLUE +=========================================================================== + General Information +=========================================================================== +Item Name: 2A BLUE PTHALOCYANINE BLUE +Company's Name: SILVERTOWN PRODUCTS INC. +Company's Emerg Ph #: 714-984-3236 +Record No. For Safety Entry: 001 +Tot Safety Entries This Stk#: 002 +Date MSDS Prepared: 01JAN87 +Safety Data Review Date: 25OCT94 +Supply Item Manager: GSA +MSDS Serial Number: BFKLV +Hazard Characteristic Code: N1 +Unit Of Issue: QT +Unit Of Issue Container Qty: 1 QT +Type Of Container: METAL CAN +Net Unit Weight: 3.083 +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: BLUE LOW ODOR +Boiling Point: 212/414 +Specific Gravity: 1.27 +Percent Volatiles By Volume: 59 +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: NONE +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Materials To Avoid: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS +Hazardous Decomp Products: CO,CO2 +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: SLIGHT EYE IRRITATION +Emergency/First Aid Proc: FLUSH WITH WATER +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: FLUSH W/WATER INTO RETAINING AREA OR +CONTAINER PROVIDE VENTILATION +Waste Disposal Method: DISPOSE OF IN ACCORDANCE WITH REGULATIONS. +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Trans Data Review Date: 82130 +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Label Status: G +Common Name: 2A BLUE +Special Hazard Precautions: SLIGHT EYE IRRITATION +Label Name: SILVERTOWN PRODUCTS INC. +Label Emergency Number: 714-984-3236 +======================================================================= +URL for this msds http://hazard.com. If you wish to change, add to, or +delete information in this archive please sent updates to dan@hazard.com. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/plaster_of_paris.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/plaster_of_paris.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..080f7166 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/plaster_of_paris.txt @@ -0,0 +1,166 @@ + +MSDS - CALCIUM SULFATE, 1/2-HYDRATE, POWDER + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: CALCIUM SULFATE, 1/2-HYDRATE, POWDER +FORMULA: CASO4 1/2H2O +FORMULA WT: 145.15 +CAS NO.: 7778-18-9 +COMMON SYNONYMS: PLASTER OF PARIS; DRIED GYPSUM +PRODUCT CODES: 1463 + EFFECTIVE: 05/22/86 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + MAY CAUSE IRRITATION +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + NOT APPLICABLE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: N/A EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): SLIGHT (0.1 TO 1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE, ODORLESS POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP: N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + SULFUR DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY IRRITATE SKIN OR EYES. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +INCOMPATIBLES: ALUMINUM, STRONG ACIDS +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES OF SULFUR + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/polyvinyl_alcohol.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/polyvinyl_alcohol.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0820a75b --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/polyvinyl_alcohol.txt @@ -0,0 +1,180 @@ + +MSDS - POLY(VINYL ALCOHOL) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: POLY(VINYL ALCOHOL) +FORMULA: [-CH2CHOH-]N +FORMULA WT: .00 +CAS NO.: 09002-89-5 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: TR8100000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: ELVANOL; ETHENOL HOMAPOLYMER; PVA; POLYVIOL; VINOL; ALVYL +PRODUCT CODES: U229,U228,U227,U232 + EFFECTIVE: 03/18/87 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 0 NONE + FLAMMABILITY - 2 MODERATE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 0 NONE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; CLASS B EXTINGUISHER + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + COMBUSTIBLE + CAUSES EYE IRRITATION +KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, FLAME. DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF +FIRE, USE WATER SPRAY, ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL, OR CARBON DIOXIDE. FLUSH +SPILL AREA WITH WATER SPRAY. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +POLY(VINYL ALCOHOL) 90-100 9002-89-5 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 200 C ( 392 F) DECOMPOSES VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.26 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE TO CREAM POWDER WITH NO ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP 79 C ( 175 F) NFPA 704M RATING: 0-2-0 + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY, CARBON DIOXIDE, DRY CHEMICAL OR ORDINARY FOAM. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + DUST MAY FORM EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE WITH AIR. + CONTACT WITH STRONG OXIDIZERS MAY CAUSE FIRE OR EXPLOSION. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INHALATION OF DUST MAY CAUSE IRRITATION TO UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT. + CONTACT CAN CAUSE EYE IRRITATION. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INHALATION, EYE CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION, DUSTING + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, + SMOKING, OR FLAMES IN AREA. WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL + INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA + WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: RED (FLAMMABLE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN COOL, DRY, WELL-VENTILATED AREA + AWAY FROM HEAT, SPARKS, OR FLAME. + DO NOT STORE NEAR OXIDIZING MATERIALS. + + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_chlorate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_chlorate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3d43c2eb --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_chlorate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,195 @@ + +MSDS - POTASSIUM CHLORATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: POTASSIUM CHLORATE +FORMULA: KCLO3 +FORMULA WT: 122.55 +CAS NO.: 03811-04-9 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: F00350000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: CHLORIC ACID, POTASSIUM SALT; BERTHOLLET SALT; CHLORATE OF + POTASH +PRODUCT CODES: 3024,3031,3028 + EFFECTIVE: 11/11/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 3 SEVERE (OXIDIZER) + CONTACT - 2 MODERATE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + DANGER + CAUSES IRRITATION + STRONG OXIDIZER - CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE OR PRODUCE + SHOCK-SENSITIVE MIXTURES. +CLOTHING CONTAMINATED WITH CHLORATE OR ITS SOLUTIONS IS DANGEROUSLY +FLAMMABLE REMOVE CLOTHING AND KEEP WET UNTIL WASHED THOROUGHLY WITH +WATER. KEEP AWAY FROM FIRE. SPILLAGE MAY CAUSE FIRE. DO NOT GET ON +FLOOR. KEEP FROM CONTACT WITH CLOTHING AND OTHER COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. +DO NOT STORE NEAR COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, +CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE +OF FIRE, SOAK WITH WATER. IN CASE OF SPILL, SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. FLUSH SPILL +AREA WITH WATER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +POTASSIUM CHLORATE 90-100 3811-04-9 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 356 C ( 673 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 4.20 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.32 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): MODERATE (1 TO 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: COLORLESS, WHITE CRYSTALS WITH NO ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A) NFPA 704M RATING: 0-0-0 OXY + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + (POSITIVE PRESSURE IF AVAILABLE) BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE. + MOVE EXPOSED CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. + USE WATER TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + STRONG OXIDIZER. CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE. + WHEN EXPOSED TO HEAT, CLOSED CONTAINERS MAY EXPLODE; MAY ALSO GIVE + OFF HIGHLY TOXIC OR IRRITATING FUMES. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY IRRITATE NOSE AND THROAT. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING AND LOSS OF CONSCIOUSNESS. + +TARGET ORGANS + NASAL CAVATIES + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INGESTION, INHALATION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, SHOCK, FRICTION + +INCOMPATIBLES: ORGANIC MATERIALS, COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, + STRONG REDUCING AGENTS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + KEEP COMBUSTIBLES (WOOD, PAPER, OIL, ETC.) AWAY FROM SPILLED MATERIAL. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D003 (REACTIVE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, UNIFORM, BUTYL + RUBBER GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE SEPARATELY AND AWAY FROM FLAMMABLE + AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. + DO NOT DROP OR SLIDE DRUM QUANTITIES OF PRODUCT ACROSS SHARP PROJECTIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME POTASSIUM CHLORATE +HAZARD CLASS OXIDIZER +UN/NA UN1485 +LABELS OXIDIZER + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME POTASSIUM CHLORATE +HAZARD CLASS 5.1 +UN/NA UN1485 +LABELS OXIDIZING AGENT + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_chromate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_chromate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0e584815 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_chromate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,178 @@ + +MSDS - POTASSIUM CHROMATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: POTASSIUM CHROMATE +FORMULA: K2CRO4 +FORMULA WT: 194.20 +CAS NO.: 07789-00-6 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: GB2940000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: CHROMIC ACID, DIPOTASSIUM SALT +PRODUCT CODES: 3058,3060 + EFFECTIVE: 08/14/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 4 EXTREME (CANCER CAUSING) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 2 MODERATE + CONTACT - 3 SEVERE (LIFE) +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + POISON DANGER + MAY BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED + HARMFUL IF INHALED OR ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN + CAUSES IRRITATION - MAY CAUSE RASH OR EXTERNAL ULCERS. + CAUTION: CONTAINS CHROMIUM(VI),CANCER HAZARD +DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +DO NOT BREATHE DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +POTASSIUM CHROMATE 90-100 7789-00-6 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 975 C ( 1787 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 6.7 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.73 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: LEMON-YELLOW CRYSTALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.05 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 0.5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: YES IARC: YES Z LIST: YES OSHA REG: YES + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + EXCESSIVE INHALATION OF DUST IS IRRITATING AND MAY BE SEVERELY DAMAGING + TO RESPIRATORY PASSAGES AND/OR LUNGS. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE GASTROINTESTINAL PAIN. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE MAY INCLUDE KIDNEY AND/OR LIVER DAMAGE. + SKIN ABSORPTION MAY BE HARMFUL. + +TARGET ORGANS + SKIN + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INGESTION, SKIN CONTACT, EYE CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, GIVE LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES WHILE REMOVING CONTAMINATED CLOTHING AND SHOES. + WASH CLOTHING BEFORE RE-USE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +INCOMPATIBLES: COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, STRONG REDUCING AGENTS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D007 (EP TOXIC WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS TLV, A DUST/MIST RESPIRATOR IS + RECOMMENDED. IF CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF + RESPIRATOR, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, RUBBER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: BLUE (HEALTH) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN SECURE POISON AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME POTASSIUM CHROMATE +HAZARD CLASS ORM-E +LABELS NONE +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 1000 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_dichromate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_dichromate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ff1f7d73 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_dichromate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,194 @@ + +MSDS - POTASSIUM DICHROMATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: POTASSIUM DICHROMATE +FORMULA: K2CR2O7 +FORMULA WT: 294.19 +CAS NO.: 07778-50-9 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: HX7680000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: DICHROMIC ACID, DIPOTASSIUM SALT; BICHROMATE OF POTASH +PRODUCT CODES: 3094,3090,3092,3093 + EFFECTIVE: 09/10/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 4 EXTREME (CANCER CAUSING) + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 3 SEVERE (OXIDIZER) + CONTACT - 3 SEVERE (CORROSIVE) +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + POISON DANGER + STRONG OXIDIZER - CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE + MAY BE FATAL IF ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN - HARMFUL IF INHALED OR SWALLOWED. + MAY CAUSE BURNS OR EXTERNAL ULCERS + CAUTION: CONTAINS CHROMIUM(VI),CANCER HAZARD +KEEP FROM CONTACT WITH CLOTHING AND OTHER COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. DO NOT +STORE NEAR COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. +DO NOT BREATHE DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE +VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE OF FIRE, USE WATER +SPRAY, ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL OR CARBON DIOXIDE. IN CASE OF SPILL, +SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +POTASSIUM DICHROMATE 90-100 7778-50-9 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 398 C ( 748 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 10.0 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.67 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: BRIGHT, ORANGE-RED CRYSTALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A NFPA 704M RATING: 1-0-1 OXY + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + (POSITIVE PRESSURE IF AVAILABLE) BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE. + MOVE EXPOSED CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. + USE WATER TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + STRONG OXIDIZER. CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THIS SUBSTANCE IS LISTED AS AN NTP HUMAN CARCINOGEN AND AND IARC HUMAN +CARCINOGEN (GROUP 1). + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.05 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 0.5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: YES IARC: YES Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT WITH SKIN MAY CAUSE ULCERS, LOCAL DISCOLORATION, ECZEMA. + PROLONGED CONTACT WITH AIRBORNE SUBSTANCE MAY LEAD TO PERFORATED SEPTUM. + DUST MAY ULCERATE MUCOUS MEMBRANES. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, HEADACHES, DIZZINESS, + GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION. + SKIN ABSORPTION MAY BE HARMFUL OR FATAL. + +TARGET ORGANS + SKIN + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INGESTION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT + +INCOMPATIBLES: COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, ORGANIC MATERIALS, + STRONG REDUCING AGENTS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + KEEP COMBUSTIBLES (WOOD, PAPER, OIL, ETC.) AWAY FROM SPILLED MATERIAL. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D002, D003 (CORROSIVE, REACTIVE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: A RESPIRATOR WITH DUST/MIST FILTER IS RECOMMENDED. + IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV, A SELF- + CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE SEPARATELY AND AWAY FROM FLAMMABLE + AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME POTASSIUM DICHROMATE (AIR ONLY) +HAZARD CLASS ORM-A +UN/NA NA1479 +LABELS NONE +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 1000 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_nitrate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_nitrate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7e762c5f --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_nitrate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,187 @@ + +MSDS - POTASSIUM NITRATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: POTASSIUM NITRATE +FORMULA: KNO3 +FORMULA WT: 101.11 +CAS NO.: 07757-79-1 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: TT3700000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: SALTPETER; NITRIC ACID, POTASSIUM SALT +PRODUCT CODES: 3194,3190 + EFFECTIVE: 09/27/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 3 SEVERE (OXIDIZER) + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + DANGER + STRONG OXIDIZER - CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED +KEEP FROM CONTACT WITH CLOTHING AND OTHER COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. DO NOT +STORE NEAR COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE +OF FIRE, SOAK WITH WATER. IN CASE OF SPILL, SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. FLUSH SPILL +AREA WITH WATER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +POTASSIUM NITRATE 90-100 7757-79-1 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 334 C ( 633 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 3.00 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.11 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: COLORLESS PRISMS TO WHITE GRANULAR OR CRYSTALLINE POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A NFPA 704M RATING: 0-0-0 OXY + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + STRONG OXIDIZER. CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE. + WHEN EXPOSED TO HEAT, CLOSED CONTAINERS MAY EXPLODE; MAY ALSO GIVE + OFF HIGHLY TOXIC OR IRRITATING FUMES. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + NITROGEN OXIDES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RABBIT)(MG/KG) - 3015 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INGESTION MAY CAUSE GASTROINTESTINAL PAIN. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA AND VOMITING. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT + +INCOMPATIBLES: ORGANIC MATERIALS, COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, + STRONG REDUCING AGENTS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES OF NITROGEN + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. KEEP COMBUSTIBLES (WOOD, PAPER, OIL, + ETC.) AWAY FROM SPILLED MATERIAL. WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE + MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH + SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D003 (REACTIVE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, BUTYL RUBBER + GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE SEPARATELY AND AWAY FROM FLAMMABLE + AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME POTASSIUM NITRATE +HAZARD CLASS OXIDIZER +UN/NA UN1486 +LABELS OXIDIZER + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME POTASSIUM NITRATE +HAZARD CLASS 5.1 +UN/NA UN1486 +LABELS OXIDIZING AGENT + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_perchlorate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_perchlorate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..b6f21593 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_perchlorate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,184 @@ + +MSDS - POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE +FORMULA: KCLO4 +FORMULA WT: 138.55 +CAS NO.: 07778-74-7 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: SC9700000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: PERCHLORIC ACID, POTASSIUM SALT +PRODUCT CODES: 3220 + EFFECTIVE: 09/27/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 3 SEVERE (OXIDIZER) + CONTACT - 2 MODERATE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + DANGER + STRONG OXIDIZER - CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE + CAUSES IRRITATION +KEEP FROM CONTACT WITH CLOTHING AND OTHER COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. DO NOT +STORE NEAR COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE +OF FIRE, SOAK WITH WATER. IN CASE OF SPILL, SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. FLUSH SPILL +AREA WITH WATER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE 90-100 7778-74-7 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 610 C ( 1130 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 4.80 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.52 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): SLIGHT (0.1 TO 1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: COLORLESS, CRYSTAL OR WHITE CRYSTALLINE POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A NFPA 704M RATING: 1-0-2 OXY + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + STRONG OXIDIZER. CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE. + WHEN EXPOSED TO HEAT, CLOSED CONTAINERS MAY EXPLODE; MAY ALSO GIVE + OFF HIGHLY TOXIC OR IRRITATING FUMES. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + DUST MAY IRRITATE NOSE AND THROAT. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT, FLAME, SOURCES OF IGNITION + +INCOMPATIBLES: COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, ORGANIC MATERIALS, + STRONG REDUCING AGENTS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + KEEP COMBUSTIBLES (WOOD, PAPER, OIL, ETC.) AWAY FROM SPILLED MATERIAL. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D003 (REACTIVE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, UNIFORM, BUTYL + RUBBER GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE SEPARATELY AND AWAY FROM FLAMMABLE + AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE +HAZARD CLASS OXIDIZER +UN/NA UN1489 +LABELS OXIDIZER + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME POTASSIUM PERCHLORATE +HAZARD CLASS 5.1 +UN/NA UN1489 +LABELS OXIDIZING AGENT + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_permanganate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_permanganate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..f4d7cb9c --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_permanganate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,207 @@ + +MSDS - POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE +FORMULA: KMNO4 +FORMULA WT: 158.04 +CAS NO.: 07722-64-7 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: SD6475000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: PERMANGANIC ACID, POTASSIUM SALT +PRODUCT CODES: 3228,3227,3232 + EFFECTIVE: 11/25/86 + REVISION #03 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 2 MODERATE + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 3 SEVERE (OXIDIZER) + CONTACT - 2 MODERATE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + DANGER + CAUSES IRRITATION + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED OR INHALED + STRONG OXIDIZER - CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE +KEEP FROM CONTACT WITH CLOTHING AND OTHER COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. DO NOT +STORE NEAR COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. IN CASE +OF FIRE, SOAK WITH WATER. IN CASE OF SPILL, SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. FLUSH SPILL +AREA WITH WATER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE 90-100 7722-64-7 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 150 C ( 302 F) DECOMPOSES VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 5.40 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.70 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): MODERATE (1 TO 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: DARK PURPLE TO BRONZE CRYSTALS WITH NO ODOR. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A NFPA 704M RATING: 1-0-0 OXY + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + STRONG OXIDIZER. CONTACT WITH OTHER MATERIAL MAY CAUSE FIRE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PEL AND TEL VALUES ARE LISTED FOR MANGANESE. + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 5 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 1090 + LD50 (SCU-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 500 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + EXCESSIVE INHALATION OF DUST IS IRRITATING AND MAY BE SEVERELY DAMAGING + TO RESPIRATORY PASSAGES AND/OR LUNGS. + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE SEVERE IRRITATION OR BURNS. + SUBSTANCE IS READILY ABSORBED THROUGH THE SKIN. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION, AND + BURNS TO MOUTH AND THROAT. + PROLONGED INHALATION OF MANGANESE IN THE FORM OF ITS INORGANIC COMPOUNDS + MAY CAUSE MANGANISM. + +TARGET ORGANS + RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, BLOOD, KIDNEYS + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + DAMAGED SKIN + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + INGESTION, INHALATION + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING; IF CONSCIOUS, GIVE LARGE AMOUNTS OF + WATER. FOLLOW WITH DILUTED VINEGAR, FRUIT JUICE OR WHITES OF EGGS, BEATEN + WITH WATER. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR + AT LEAST 15 MINUTES. + + PEL AND TLV LISTED DENOTE CEILING LIMIT. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: HEAT + +INCOMPATIBLES: ORGANIC MATERIALS, COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, + STRONG REDUCING AGENTS, STRONG ACIDS, PEROXIDES, + ALCOHOLS, CHEMICALLY ACTIVE METALS + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + KEEP COMBUSTIBLES (WOOD, PAPER, OIL, ETC.) AWAY FROM SPILLED MATERIAL. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D001 (IGNITABLE WASTE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION + EXCEEDS TLV, A DUST/MIST RESPIRATOR IS + RECOMMENDED. IF CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS CAPACITY OF + RESPIRATOR, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS + IS ADVISED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, UNIFORM, BUTYL + RUBBER GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: YELLOW (REACTIVE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE SEPARATELY AND AWAY FROM FLAMMABLE + AND COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE +HAZARD CLASS OXIDIZER +UN/NA UN1490 +LABELS OXIDIZER +REPORTABLE QUANTITY 100 LBS. + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE +HAZARD CLASS 5.1 +UN/NA UN1490 +LABELS OXIDIZING AGENT + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_sulfate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_sulfate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..6665e40a --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_sulfate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,162 @@ + +MSDS - POTASSIUM SULFATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: POTASSIUM SULFATE +FORMULA: K2SO4 +FORMULA WT: 174.27 +CAS NO.: 07778-80-5 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: TT5900000 +PRODUCT CODES: 3290,3282,3278 + EFFECTIVE: 05/05/86 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 0 NONE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + NOT APPLICABLE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 1670 C ( 3038 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 1067 C ( 1953 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.66 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): MODERATE (1 TO 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE POWDER OR FINE CRYSTALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + SULFUR DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + NO EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE WERE DOCUMENTED. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: OXIDES OF SULFUR + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_thiocyanate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_thiocyanate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..332f45f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/potassium_thiocyanate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,166 @@ + +MSDS - POTASSIUM THIOCYANATE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: POTASSIUM THIOCYANATE +FORMULA: KSCN +FORMULA WT: 97.18 +CAS NO.: 00333-20-0 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: XL1925000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: THIOCYANIC ACID, POTASSIUM SALT; POTASSIUM ISOTHIOCYANATE +PRODUCT CODES: 3326,3330,5149,3328 + EFFECTIVE: 09/24/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 2 MODERATE + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +POTASSIUM THIOCYANATE 90-100 333-20-0 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 500 C ( 932 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 173 C ( 343 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.89 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE ODORLESS CRYSTALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + HYDROGEN CYANIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 854 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + CONTACT WITH SKIN MAY CAUSE ULCERS, LOCAL DISCOLORATION, ECZEMA. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +INCOMPATIBLES: NITRIC ACID, STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, + ACTIVE HALOGEN COMPOUNDS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: HYDROGEN CYANIDE, OXIDES OF SULFUR, OXIDES OF NITROGEN + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/pvc.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/pvc.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..1aa72717 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/pvc.txt @@ -0,0 +1,148 @@ + +MSDS- POLYVINYL CHLORIDE RESIN, PVC RESIN + +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: ETHYLENE, CHLORO-, (VINYL CHLORIDE) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +Percent: <0.001 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: KU9625000 +CAS Number: 75-01-4 +OSHA PEL: SEE 1910.1017 +ACGIH TLV: 5 PPM, A1; 9293 +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: WHITE POWDER, ODORLESS +Boiling Point: N/A +Melting Point: N/A +Vapor Pressure (MM Hg/70 F): 0.1 +Specific Gravity: 1.39(H*2O=1) +Evaporation Rate And Ref: NONE +Solubility In Water: NONE +Percent Volatiles By Volume: 0 +pH: N/A +Magnetism (Milligauss): N/P +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: 500F,260C +Flash Point Method: COC +Lower Explosive Limit: N/A +Upper Explosive Limit: N/A +Extinguishing Media: CO*2 OR WATER. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: WEAR NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED SCBA AND FULL +PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (FP N). WEAR GAS MASK APPROVED FOR ACID VAPORS. +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: PVC WILL NOT CONTINUE TO BURN AFTER IGNITION +WITHOUT AN EXTERNAL FIRE SOURCE. BURNING LIBERATES HCL GAS. +Report for NIIN: 00N031647 +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Cond To Avoid (Stability): TEMPERATURE ABOVE 300F WILL DECOMPOSE RAW RESIN +AND LIBERATE HCL. +Materials To Avoid: POLYVINYL CHLORIDE CMPDS SHOULD NOT COME INTO CONT W/ +ACETAL/ACETAL COPOLYMERS IN ELEVATED TEMP PROCESSING (SUPP DATA) +Hazardous Decomp Products: SLOW RELEASE OF HCL WHEN HEATED ABOVE 300F. +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +Conditions To Avoid (Poly): NOT RELEVANT +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: YES +Route Of Entry - Skin: NO +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: YES +Health Haz Acute And Chronic: POLYVINYL CHLORIDE AS A RESIN IN MORE OR +LESS INERT AS MEASURED BY ORAL LD50. ITS MAIN HAZ, IF ANY, WOULD BE ASSOC +W/UNREACTED VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER (GENERALLY EXTREMELY SM AMTS) & OTHER +ADDITIVES IN PLASTIC. PNEUMOCONIOSIS HAS BEEN DESCRIBED FROM INHAL OF DUST +WHICH SHOULD BE AVOIDED. COMBUSTION PROD(EFTS OF OVEREXP) +Carcinogenicity - NTP: YES +Carcinogenicity - IARC: YES +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: YES +Explanation Carcinogenicity: VINYL CHLORIDE: GROUP 1 (NTP, IARC), OSHA +REGD. +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: HLTH HAZ: OF POLYVINYL CHLORIDE MAY RSLT IN AN +ASTHMA SYNDROME. CHECK OSHA VCM REG 29CFR, TITLE 29, CHAPTER XVII, PART +1910. MATL CNTNS VINYL CHLORIDE WHICH IS A CANCER SUSPECT AGENT. PVC MEETS +RTECS CRITERIA AS AN EQUIVOCAL TUMORIGENIC AGENT-TUMORS OF LUNGS, THORAX/ +RESP SYS; TUMORS OF SKIN. MATL MAY CNTN (SUPP DATA) +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Emergency/First Aid Proc: INGEST: PRACTICALLY INERT. CALL MD IMMED (FP N). +INHAL: REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. GET MED ATTN IF NECESSARY. EYE: FLUSH WITH +WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 MIN. DO NOT RUB. SEE PHYS IF RESIDUAL FOREIGN BODY IS +SUSPECTED. SKIN: FLUSH WITH COPIOUS AMOUNTS OF WATER. CALL MD (FP N). +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: VACUUM, SWEEP, OR SHOVEL UP. +Neutralizing Agent: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Waste Disposal Method: LANDFILL, HIGH TEMPERATURE INCINERATION UNDER +CONTROLLED CONDITIONS DUE TO FORMATION OF HCL. DISPOSE OF IN ACCORDANCE +WITH FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL REGULATIONS (FP N). +Precautions-Handling/Storing: STORE IN DRY AREA BELOW 100F. +Other Precautions: WHEN OPENING TRUCK OR RAILCAR FOR UNLOADING, VENTILATE +BEFORE ENTERING. +Report for NIIN: 00N031647 +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: ANY NIOSH/MSHA APPROVED DUST RESPIRATOR. +Ventilation: LOCAL EXHAUST AS REQUIRED FOR GENERAL WORK AREA. +Protective Gloves: IMPERVIOUS GLOVES (FP N). +Eye Protection: CHEMICAL WORKERS GOGGLES (FP N). +Other Protective Equipment: NOT APPLICABLE +Work Hygienic Practices: NONE SPECIFIED BY MANUFACTURER. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: MFR TRADE NAME/PART NO: CHLOROETHYLENE +POLYMER, CHLOROETHYLENE HOMOPOLYMER, PVC 500. MATL TO AVOID: EQUIP. 2 MATL +ARE NOT COMPATIBLE & WILL REACT IN VIOLENT DECOMP WHEN MIXED UNDER CNDTNS +OF HEAT & PRESS. EFTS OF OVEREXP: TRACE AMTS OF VINYL CHLORIDE WHICH IS A +SUSPECT AGENT. +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Trans Data Review Date: 92238 +DOT PSN Code: ZZZ +DOT Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +IMO PSN Code: ZZZ +IMO Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED FOR THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +IATA PSN Code: ZZZ +IATA Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +AFI PSN Code: ZZZ +AFI Prop. Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +Additional Trans Data: NBOT REGULATED FOR TRANSPORTATION +Report for NIIN: 00N031647 +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Technical Review Date: 10JUN92 +Label Date: 10JUN92 +Label Status: M +Common Name: POLYVINYL CHLORIDE RESIN, PVC RESIN, (SUPP DATA) +Chronic Hazard: YES +Signal Word: CAUTION! +Acute Health Hazard-Slight: X +Contact Hazard-Slight: X +Fire Hazard-Slight: X +Reactivity Hazard-Slight: X +Special Hazard Precautions: STORE IN DRY AREA BELOW 100F. ACUTE: PRODUCT +AS A RESIN IS MORE OR LESS INERT AS MEASURED BY ORAL LD50. ITS MAIN +HAZARDS, IF ANY, WOULD BE ASSOCIATED WITH UNREACTED VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER +AND OTHER ADDITIVES IN PLASTIC. PNEUMOCONIOSIS HAS BEEN DESCRIBED FROM +Report for NIIN: 00N031647 +INHALATION OF THE DUST. COMBUSTION PRODUCTS MAY RESULT IN AN ASTHMA +SYNDROME. CHRONIC:CANCER HAZARD,THIS MATERIAL CONTAINS VINYL CHLROIDE WHICH +IS A LISTED HUMAN CARCINOGEN. TUMORS OF LUNGS, THORAX OR RESPIRATORY +SYSTEM; TUMORS OF THE SKIN. +Protect Eye: Y +Protect Skin: Y +Protect Respiratory: Y + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/rhodamine_b.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/rhodamine_b.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ec415113 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/rhodamine_b.txt @@ -0,0 +1,160 @@ + +MSDS - RHODAMINE B + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: RHODAMINE B +FORMULA: C28H31N2O3CL +FORMULA WT: 479.02 +CAS NO.: 00081-88-9 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: BP3675000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: RHODAMINE B; TETRAETHYLRHODAMINE,HYDROCHLORIDE +PRODUCT CODES: U872 + EFFECTIVE: 10/18/85 + REVISION #01 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 2 MODERATE + FLAMMABILITY - 1 SLIGHT + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 2 MODERATE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED + CAUSES IRRITATION +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +RHODAMINE B, HYDROCHLORIDE 90-100 81-88-9 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: 165 C ( 329 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: N/A EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): COMPLETE (IN ALL PROPORTIONS) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: GREEN CRYSTALS OR REDDISH-VIOLET POWDER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TOXICITY: LD50 (IPR-RAT)(MG/KG) - 112 + LD50 (ORAL-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 887 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + NO EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE WERE DOCUMENTED. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: HYDROGEN CHLORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND + COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, UNIFORM, PROPER + GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/salicylic_acid.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/salicylic_acid.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..92860c70 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/salicylic_acid.txt @@ -0,0 +1,189 @@ + +MSDS - SALICYLIC ACID + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: SALICYLIC ACID +FORMULA: 2-HOC6H4COOH +FORMULA WT: 138.12 +CAS NO.: 69-72-7 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: V00525000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: O-HYDROXYBENZOIC ACID; 2-HYDROXYBENZOIC ACID +PRODUCT CODES: 0302,0303,0300 + EFFECTIVE: 11/24/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 1 SLIGHT + REACTIVITY - 1 SLIGHT + CONTACT - 2 MODERATE +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + WARNING + CAUSES IRRITATION + HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED + DUST MAY FORM FLAMMABLE OR EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE WITH AIR. +AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. +KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +SALICYLIC ACID 90-100 69-72-7 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 211 C ( 412 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): <1 + +MELTING POINT: 159 C ( 318 F) VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): 4.8 + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 1.44 EVAPORATION RATE: <1 + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): SLIGHT (0.1 TO 1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE ODORLESS CRYSTALS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP 157 C ( 315 F) NFPA 704M RATING: 0-1-0 + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - 1.1 % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE WATER SPRAY, CARBON DIOXIDE, DRY CHEMICAL OR ORDINARY FOAM. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT RISK. USE WATER + TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL. + +UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS + DUST MAY FORM EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE WITH AIR. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +TOXICITY: LD50 (ORAL-RAT)(MG/KG) - 891 + LD50 (IV-MOUSE) (MG/KG) - 184 + LD50 (IPR-MOUSE)(MG/KG) - 1500 + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + INHALATION OF DUST MAY CAUSE IRRITATION TO UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT. + CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE IRRITATION. + PROLONGED EXPOSURE MAY CAUSE DERMATITIS. + PROLONGED EYE CONTACT MAY CAUSE PERMANENT DAMAGE TO THE CORNEA AND + BLINDNESS MAY OCCUR. + INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA, VOMITING, HEADACHES, DIZZINESS, + GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION. + CHRONIC EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE MAY INCLUDE KIDNEY AND/OR LIVER DAMAGE. + +TARGET ORGANS + EYES, SKIN + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT, INHALATION, INGESTION + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + CALL A PHYSICIAN. + IF SWALLOWED, IF CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY INDUCE VOMITING. + IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL + RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. + IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT + LEAST 15 MINUTES. FLUSH SKIN WITH WATER. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: LIGHT, HEAT, FLAME, OTHER SOURCES OF IGNITION, + MOISTURE + +INCOMPATIBLES: STRONG OXIDIZING AGENTS, STRONG BASES, MINERAL ACIDS, + IRON, MOST COMMON METALS + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: CARBON MONOXIDE, CARBON DIOXIDE, PHENOL + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. + SHUT OFF IGNITION SOURCES; NO FLARES, SMOKING, OR FLAMES IN AREA. WITH + CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; + REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION + TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: NONE REQUIRED WHERE ADEQUATE VENTILATION + CONDITIONS EXIST. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION IS + HIGH, USE AN APPROPRIATE RESPIRATOR OR DUST MASK. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, UNIFORM, PROPER + GLOVES ARE RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + KEEP PRODUCT OUT OF LIGHT. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/saran.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/saran.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..dd3c7f1f --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/saran.txt @@ -0,0 +1,133 @@ + +MSDS- SARAN RESIN + +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: COPOLYMER OF VINYLIDENE CHLORIDE AND ACRYLONITRILE +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +Percent: 100 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 1007434CF +OSHA PEL: NOT ESTABLISHED. +ACGIH TLV: NOT ESTABLISHED. +Other Recommended Limit: NONE SPECIFIED +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: WHITE GRANULAR SOLID - UNKNOWN ODOR +Specific Gravity: 1.60 +Decomposition Temperature: >392F,>200C +Solubility In Water: INSOLUBLE +Magnetism (Milligauss): N/P +Corrosion Rate (IPY): UNKNOWN +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point Method: N/P +Extinguishing Media: USE WATER FOG, CARBON DIOXIDE +Special Fire Fighting Proc: WEAR FIRE-FIGHTING EQUIPMENT AND A POSITIVE +PRESSURE SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS TO PROTECT AGAINST HYDROGEN +CHLORIDE IF RESIN IS EXPOSED TO FIRE. +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: IT MAY FORM HYDROGEN CHLORIDE AND OTHER +UNIDENTIFIED PRODUCTS. +Report for NIIN: 00K000028 +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Cond To Avoid (Stability): HIGH HEAT, OPEN FLAMES +Materials To Avoid: IRON, ZINC, COPPER, ALUMINUM IN SOLUTION, STRONG BASES +Hazardous Decomp Products: HYDROGEN CHLORIDE IS EVOLVE RAPIDLY WHEN RESIN +IS EXPOSED TO TEMPERATURES GREATER THAN 200C. +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +LD50-LC50 Mixture: LD50 (ORAL RAT) IS UNKNOWN +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: YES +Route Of Entry - Skin: YES +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: NO +NON-IRRITATING.INHALATION:NOT LIKELY TO BE A HAZARD.INGESTION:TOXICITY IS +LOW.MAY ACT AS OBSTRUCTION IF SWALLOWED.CHRONIC-NOT ANTICIPATED TO CAUSE +ANY SIGNIFICANT ADVERSE EFFECTS. +Carcinogenicity - NTP: NO +Carcinogenicity - IARC: NO +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: NO +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: MAY CAUSE MECHANICAL INJURY IN EYES. INHALATION +NOT LIKELY TO BE A HAZARD. INGESTION HAS A LOW TOXICITY. MAY ACT AS +OBSTRUCTION IF SWALLOWED. +Med Cond Aggravated By Exp: NONE KNOWN. +Emergency/First Aid Proc: EYES:IRRIGATE IMMEDIATELY WITH WATER FOR AT +LEAST 5 MINUTES.SKIN/INHALATION/INGESTION:NO ADVERSE EFFECTS ANTICIPATED. +HOWEVER,WASH SKIN WITH WATER.IF INHALED,REMOVE FROM EXPOSURE.IF SWALLOWED, +CALL A PHYSICIAN. +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: SWEEP UP AND TRANSFER TO AN APPROPRIATE +CONTAINER FOR DISPOSAL. +Neutralizing Agent: NOT APPLICABLE. +Waste Disposal Method: BURN IN AN INCINERATOR EQUIPPED TO HANDLE HYDROGEN +CHLORIDE FUMES OR BURY IN AN APPROVED LANDFILL. PROCEDURES MUST BE COMPLY +WITH LOCAL, STATE AND FEDERAL REGULATIONS. +Precautions-Handling/Storing: STORE IN A COOL,VENTILATED AREA AWAY FROM +INCOMPATIBLE PRODUCTS. +Other Precautions: RESIN DEGRADES VERY SLOWLY EVOLVING HCL.KEEP IT AS COOL +AS POSSIBLE.RESIN IS MOST FREQUENTLY USED IN COMBINATION WITH FLAMMABLE +SOLVENT.TRANSFERRING OF RESIN FROM CONTAINER CAUSES STATIC BUILD UP WHICH +MAY CAUSE FIRE NEAR FLAMMABLE SOLVENT. +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: NONE NORMALLY REQUIRED. +Ventilation: GOOD GENERAL VENTILATION IS SUFFICIENT FOR MOST CONDITIONS. +Report for NIIN: 00K000028 +Protective Gloves: NONE NORMALLY REQUIRED. +Eye Protection: CHEMICAL GOGGLES/SAFETY GLASSES +Other Protective Equipment: EYE WASH STATION, SAFETY SHOWER, CLEAN BODY- +COVERING CLOTHING AND APRON +Work Hygienic Practices: OBSERVE GOOD PERSONAL HYGIENE PRACTICES AND +RECOMMENDED PROCEDURES. DO NOT WEAR CONTAMINATED CLOTHING OR FOOTWEAR. +Suppl. Safety & Health Data: FORMULA CHANGED. FOR PREVIOUS FORMULATION, +SEE P/N A UNDER THE SAME NSN. +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Trans Data Review Date: 92017 +DOT PSN Code: ZZZ +DOT Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +IMO PSN Code: ZZZ +IMO Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED FOR THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +IATA PSN Code: ZZZ +IATA Proper Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +AFI PSN Code: ZZZ +AFI Prop. Shipping Name: NOT REGULATED BY THIS MODE OF TRANSPORTATION +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +Report for NIIN: 00K000028 +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Technical Review Date: 17JAN92 +MFR Label Number: UNKNOWN +Label Status: F +Common Name: SARAN RESIN F-310 +Chronic Hazard: NO +Signal Word: CAUTION! +Acute Health Hazard-Slight: X +Contact Hazard-Slight: X +Fire Hazard-None: X +Reactivity Hazard-None: X +NON-IRRITATING.INHALATION:NOT LIKELY TO BE A HAZARD.INGESTION:TOXICITY IS +LOW.MAY ACT AS OBSTRUCTION IF SWALLOWED.CHRONIC-NOT ANTICIPATED TO CAUSE +ANY SIGNIFICANT ADVERSE EFFECTS. STORE IN A COOL,VENTILATED AREA AWAY FROM +INCOMPATIBLE PRODUCTS. FIRST AID- EYES:IRRIGATE IMMEDIATELY WITH WATER FOR +AT LEAST 5 MINUTES.SKIN/INHALATION/INGESTION:NO ADVERSE EFFECTS +ANTICIPATED.HOWEVER,WASH SKIN WITH WATER.IF INHALED,REMOVE FROM EXPOSURE.IF +SWALLOWED,CALL A PHYSICIAN. +Protect Eye: Y +Report for NIIN: 00K000028 + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/shellac.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/shellac.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4e600445 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/shellac.txt @@ -0,0 +1,136 @@ + +MSDS - 4 LB WHITE OR ORANGE SHELLAC + +=========================================================================== + Ingredients/Identity Information +=========================================================================== +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: ETHYL ALCOHOL (ETHANOL) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 01 +Percent: 65 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: KQ6300000 +CAS Number: 64-17-5 +OSHA PEL: 1000 PPM +ACGIH TLV: 1000 PPM; 9192 +------------------------------------- +Proprietary: NO +Ingredient: ORANGE OR WHITE SHELLAC (CAS NO. 9000-59-3) +Ingredient Sequence Number: 02 +Percent: 35 +NIOSH (RTECS) Number: 1000635VA +ACGIH TLV: NOT ESTABLISHED +=========================================================================== + Physical/Chemical Characteristics +=========================================================================== +Appearance And Odor: AMBER - CLEAR COLOR, ALCOHOLIC ODOR +Boiling Point: 173F/78C +Vapor Pressure (MM Hg/70 F): 40 +Vapor Density (Air=1): 1.59 +Specific Gravity: 0.9242 +Evaporation Rate And Ref: 2.3 (BUTYL ACET) +Solubility In Water: NONE +Percent Volatiles By Volume: 71.4 +Magnetism (Milligauss): N/P +Report for NIIN: 00N006375 +=========================================================================== + Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Flash Point: 54F/12C (TCC) +Flash Point Method: N/P +Lower Explosive Limit: 3.3 +Upper Explosive Limit: 19 +Extinguishing Media: ALCOHOL, FOAM, CARBON DIOXIDE, DRY CHEMICAL, SAND OR +WATER. +Special Fire Fighting Proc: SELF-CONTAIN BREATH APP, WATER FOG TO COOL +EXPOSED CONTAINERS +Unusual Fire And Expl Hazrds: CLOSED CANS MAY EXPLODE WHEN EXPOSED TO +EXTREME HEAT. +=========================================================================== + Reactivity Data +=========================================================================== +Stability: YES +Cond To Avoid (Stability): SOURCES OF IGNITION +Materials To Avoid: WATER,ACID,OXIDIZING MATERIAL +Hazardous Poly Occur: NO +=========================================================================== + Health Hazard Data +=========================================================================== +Route Of Entry - Inhalation: N/P +Route Of Entry - Skin: N/P +Route Of Entry - Ingestion: N/P +Carcinogenicity - NTP: N/P +Carcinogenicity - IARC: N/P +Carcinogenicity - OSHA: N/P +Signs/Symptoms Of Overexp: EYE/SKIN: IRRITATION. VAPORS: IRRITATION OF +RESPIRATORY TRACT AND INTOXICATION IF INGESTED. +Emergency/First Aid Proc: EYE: FLUSH WITH WATER 15 MINUTES. SKIN: WASH +WITH SOAP & WATER. INHALATION: REMOVE FROM EXPOSURE,GIVE ARTIF RESP IF +NEEDED,CONTACT A PHYSICIAN. INGESTION: TREAT AS INTOXICATION. +=========================================================================== + Precautions for Safe Handling and Use +=========================================================================== +Steps If Matl Released/Spill: SECURE IGNITION SOURCES. PROVIDE ADEQUATE +VENTILATION ADN CLEAN AREA WITH ABSORBENT MATERIAL,SAND OR RAGS. +Waste Disposal Method: COMPLY WITH LOCAL,STATE AND FEDERAL REGULATIONS. +Precautions-Handling/Storing: STORE IN COOL PLACE AWAY FROM DIRECT +SUNLIGHT & SOURCES OF IGNITION. +Report for NIIN: 00N006375 +=========================================================================== + Control Measures +=========================================================================== +Respiratory Protection: NONE NEEDED (MFR) +Ventilation: LOCAL/MECHANICAL WITH EXPLOSION PROOF MOTORS +Eye Protection: SAFETY GLASSES +=========================================================================== + Transportation Data +=========================================================================== +Trans Data Review Date: 85276 +DOT PSN Code: LFD +DOT Proper Shipping Name: PAINT +DOT Class: 3 +DOT ID Number: UN1263 +DOT Pack Group: II +DOT Label: FLAMMABLE LIQUID +IMO PSN Code: LCP +IMO Proper Shipping Name: PAINT OR PAINT RELATED MATERIAL +IMO Regulations Page Number: 3268 +IMO UN Number: 1263 +IMO UN Class: 3.2 +IMO Subsidiary Risk Label: - +IATA PSN Code: SXI +IATA UN ID Number: 1263 +IATA Proper Shipping Name: PAINT +IATA UN Class: 3 +IATA Label: FLAMMABLE LIQUID +AFI PSN Code: SXI +AFI Prop. Shipping Name: PAINT OR PAINT RELATED MATERIAL +AFI Class: 3 +AFI ID Number: UN1263 +AFI Pack Group: II +AFI Label: FLAMMABLE LIQUID +AFI Basic Pac Ref: 7-8 +=========================================================================== + Disposal Data +=========================================================================== +Report for NIIN: 00N006375 +Disposal Data Review Date: 89284 +Rec # For This Disp Entry: 01 +Tot Disp Entries Per NSN: 001 +Landfill Ban Item: YES +Disposal Supplemental Data: IN CASE OF ACCIDENTAL EXPOSURE OR DISCHARGE, +CONSULT HEALTH AND SAFETY FILE FOR PRECAUTIONS. +1st EPA Haz Wst Code New: D001 +1st EPA Haz Wst Name New: IGNITIBLE +1st EPA Haz Wst Char New: IGNITABILITY +1st EPA Acute Hazard New: NO +=========================================================================== + Label Data +=========================================================================== +Label Required: YES +Label Status: F +Chronic Hazard: N/P +Special Hazard Precautions: MAY BE POISONOUS IF INHALED OR ABSORBED +THROUGH SKIN. VAPORS MAY CAUSE DIZZINESS OR SUFFOCATION. CONTACT MAY +IRRITATE OR BURN SKIN AND EYES. FIRE MAY PRODUCE IRRITATING OR POISONOUS +GASES. RUNOFF FROM FIRE CONTROL OR DILUTION WATER MAY CAUSE POLLUTION. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/silica.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/silica.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..9ac9128c --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/silica.txt @@ -0,0 +1,91 @@ + + + + + M A T E R I A L S A F E T Y D A T A S H E E T + SAND + +================================================================================ + SECTION I - Product Identification +================================================================================ + PRODUCT NAME: SAND + FORMULA: SIO2 + FORMULA WT: N/A + CAS NO.: + COMMON SYNONYMS: SILICON DIOXIDE + +================================================================================ + Precautionary Labeling +================================================================================ + N/A +================================================================================ + SECTION II - Hazardous Components +================================================================================ + N/A +================================================================================ + SECTION III - Physical Data +================================================================================ +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE @ 20C (MM HG): N/A +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY (AIR=1): N/A +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.2 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + SOLUBILITY(H2O): INSOLUBLE PERCENT VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A +APPEARANCE & ODOR: GRANULES ODORLESS +================================================================================ + SECTION IV - Fire and Explosion Hazard Data +================================================================================ +FLASH POINT: NONFLAMMABLE +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS, PROTECTIVE CLOTHING +UNUSUAL FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS + DUST CAN FORM EXPLOSIVE MIXTURES WITH AIR +================================================================================ + SECTION V - Health Hazard Data +================================================================================ +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.1 MG/M3 +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + PROLONGED INHALATION OF DUST CAN CAUSE FIBROSIS OF THE LUNG +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + WASH FROM SKIN WITH SOAP AND WATER. + RINSE FROM EYES WITH WATER. + CONSULT MEDICAL ASSISTANCE IF INGESTED. +================================================================================ + SECTION VI - Reactivity Data +================================================================================ +STABILITY: STABLE +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: +INCOMPATIBILES: N/A +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: COX +================================================================================ + SECTION VII - Spill and Disposal Procedures +================================================================================ +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + SWEEP UP AND CONTAINERIZE +================================================================================ + SECTION VIII - Protective Equipment +================================================================================ + PROTECT EYES WITH SAFETY GOGGLES. + PROVIDE ADEQUATE VENTILATION. +================================================================================ + SECTION IX - Storage and Handling Precautions +================================================================================ + NONE +================================================================================ + SECTION X - Transportation Data and Additional Information +================================================================================ + N/A + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +(TM) and (R) : Registered Trademarks +N/A = Not Applicable OR Not Available +The information published in this Material Safety Data Sheet has been compiled +from our experience and data presented in various technical publications. It is +the user's responsibility to determine the suitability of this information for +adoption of necessary safety precautions. We reserve the right to revise +Material Safety Data Sheets periodically as new information becomes available. +Copyright by Manufacturer +LICENSE GRANTED TO MAKE UNLIMITED COPIES FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY +by OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY +. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/silica_gel.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/silica_gel.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e6c1ee70 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/silica_gel.txt @@ -0,0 +1,168 @@ + +MSDS - SILICA GEL + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: SILICA GEL +FORMULA: +FORMULA WT: .00 +CAS NO.: 1343-98-2 +NIOSH/RTECS NO.: VV8850000 +COMMON SYNONYMS: AMORPHOUS SILICON DIOXIDE; SILICIC ACID +PRODUCT CODES: 7290,3406,3404,3405,5111 + EFFECTIVE: 06/09/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + MAY CAUSE IRRITATION + MAY BE HARMFUL IF INHALED +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + +SILICA GEL 90-100 01343-98-2 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: 2230 C ( 4046 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.10 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: N/A + +APPEARANCE & ODOR: ODORLESS, WHITE, GRANULAR POWDER (AMORPHOUS). + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 10 MG/M3 ( PPM) + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + PROLONGED CONTACT MAY CAUSE SKIN IRRITATION. + DUST MAY IRRITATE OR BURN MUCOUS MEMBRANES. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: MOISTURE + +INCOMPATIBLES: HYDROGEN FLUORIDE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET + TLV REQUIREMENTS. + +RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE + CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS + ABOVE 10 MG/M3, A DUST/MIST RESPIRATOR IS + RECOMMENDED. + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDESHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES ARE + RECOMMENDED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/silicon.txt b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/silicon.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..cc3232ca --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/CHEMICALS/silicon.txt @@ -0,0 +1,158 @@ + +MSDS - SILICON, 1000 PPM (0.100% W/V) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +PRODUCT NAME: SILICON, 1000 PPM (0.100% W/V) +FORMULA: N/A +FORMULA WT: 28.10 +CAS NO.: - - +PRODUCT CODES: 6939 + EFFECTIVE: 05/08/86 + REVISION #02 + + PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING +BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM + + HEALTH - 1 SLIGHT + FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE + REACTIVITY - 0 NONE + CONTACT - 1 SLIGHT +HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). + +LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT + +SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT + +PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS + + CAUTION + MAY CAUSE IRRITATION +DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER +HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + COMPONENT % CAS NO. + + PROPRIETARY + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 3 - PHYSICAL DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +BOILING POINT: N/A VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): N/A + +MELTING POINT: N/A VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A + +SPECIFIC GRAVITY: N/A EVAPORATION RATE: N/A + (H2O=1) (BUTYL ACETATE=1) + +SOLUBILITY(H2O): COMPLETE (IN ALL PROPORTIONS) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 100 +APPEARANCE & ODOR: CLEAR, COLORLESS SOLUTION. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A + +FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A % + +FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA + USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. + +SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES + FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-CONTAINED + BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACEPIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE PRESSURE MODE. + +TOXIC GASES PRODUCED + AMMONIA, NITROGEN OXIDES + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO + +EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE + VAPORS MAY BE IRRITATING TO SKIN, EYES, AND MUCOUS MEMBRANES. + +TARGET ORGANS + NONE IDENTIFIED + +MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE + NONE IDENTIFIED + +ROUTES OF ENTRY + NONE INDICATED + +EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES + INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE + LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED + PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 + MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION. + SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT LEAST + 15 MINUTES. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 6 - REACTIVITY DATA +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STABILITY: STABLE HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR + +CONDITIONS TO AVOID: NONE DOCUMENTED + +DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS: AMMONIA, OXIDES OF NITROGEN + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE + WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. TAKE UP WITH SAND OR OTHER NONCOM- + BUSTIBLE ABSORBENT MATERIAL AND PLACE INTO CONTAINER FOR LATER DISPOSAL. + FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. + +DISPOSAL PROCEDURE + DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL + ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: THIS IS A LABORATORY-USE PRODUCT FOR WHICH NO + INDUSTRIAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT HAS BEEN + DESIGNATED. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE) + +SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS + KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL STORAGE + AREA. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + 10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + +INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) + +PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, N.O.S. (NON-REGULATED) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/ast-dece.txt b/textfiles.com/science/ast-dece.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e808c428 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/ast-dece.txt @@ -0,0 +1,152 @@ +"6_3_2_6.TXT" (5875 bytes) was created on 07-07-92 + +SHORT BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF DECEASED ASTRONAUTS +SOURCE: Information Summaries +Astronaut Fact Book +February, 1992 + + +BASSETT, Charles A., II, Captain, U.S. Air Force +Born December 30, 1931, in Dayton, Ohio. +Bachelor of science in electrical engineering from Texas Technological +College. +Died February 28, 1966, at St. Louis, Missouri, in crash of T-38 jet. + +CARTER, Manley Lanier, Jr., "Sonny," Captain, U.S. Navy +Mission specialist. +Born August 15, 1947, in Macon, Georgia. +Bachelor of arts in chemistry and doctorate of medicine from Emory +University. +Flew on STS-33. +Died April 5, 1991, near New Brunswick, Georgia, in the crash of a +commercial airliner while on NASA business travel. + +CHAFFEE, Roger B., Lieutenant Commander, U.S. Navy +Born February 15, 1935, in Grand Rapids, Michigan. +Bachelor of science in aeronautical engineering from Purdue +University. +Died January 27, 1967, at NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida, +in Apollo spacecraft fire. + +EISELE, Donn F., Colonel, U.S. Air Force (Retired) +Born June 23, 1930, in Columbus, Ohio. +Bachelor of science in astronautics from U.S. Naval Academy; master of +science in astronautics from U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology. +Flew on Apollo 7. +Died December 2, 1987, in Tokyo, Japan of a heart attack. + +EVANS, Ronald E., Captain, U.S. Navy (Retired) +Born November 10, 1933, in St. Francis, Kansas. +Bachelor of science in electrical engineering from University of +Kansas; master of science in aeronautical engineering from U.S. Naval +Postgraduate School. +Flew on Apollo 17. +Died April 6, 1990, in Scottsdale, Arizona, of a heart attack. + +FREEMAN, Theodore C., Captain, U.S. Air Force +Born February 18, 1930, in Haverford, Pennsylvania. +Bachelor of science from U.S. Naval Academy; master of science in +aeronautical engineering from University of Michigan. +Died October 31, 1964, at Ellington Air Force Base, Houston, Texas, in +crash of T-38 jet. + +GIVENS, Edward G., Jr., Major, U.S. Air Force +Born January 5, 1930, in Quanah, Texas. +Bachelor of science in naval sciences from U.S. Naval Academy. Died +June 6, 1967, near Houston, Texas, in an automobile accident. + +GRIGGS, S. David, Civilian +Born September 7, 1939, in Portland, Oregon. +Bachelor of science from U.S. Naval Academy; master of science in +administration from George Washington University. +Flew on STS 51-D. +Died June 17, 1989, near Earle, Arkansas, in the crash of a +World-War-II-era training plane. + +GRISSOM, Virgil I., Lieutenant Colonel, U.S. Air Force +Born April 3, 1926, in Mitchell, Indiana. +Bachelor of science in mechanical engineering from Purdue University. +Flew on Mercury 4 and Gemini 3. +Died January 27, 1967, at NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida, +in the Apollo spacecraft fire. + +IRWIN, James B., Colonel, U.S. Air Force (Retired) +Born March 17, 1930, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. +Bachelor of science in naval science from U.S. Naval Academy; master +of science in aeronautical engineering and instrumentation engineering +from University of Michigan. +Flew on Apollo 15. +Died August 8, 1991, in Glenwood Springs, Colorado, of a heart attack. + +McNAIR, Ronald E., Civilian +Born October 21, 1950, in Lake City, South Carolina. Bachelor of +science in physics from North Carolina A & T State College; doctorate +of philosophy in physics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology. +Flew on STS 41-B. +Died January 28, 1986, in STS 51-L accident. + +ONIZUKA, Ellison S., Major, U.S. Air Force +Born June 24, 1946, in Kealakekua, Kona, Hawaii. +Bachelor and master of science in aerospace engineering from +University of Colorado. +Flew on STS 51-C. +Died January 28, 1986, in STS 51-L accident. + +RESNIK, Judith A., Civilian +Born April 5, 1949, in Akron, Ohio. +Bachelor of science in electrical engineering from Carnegie-Mellon +University; doctorate of philosophy in electrical engineering from +University of Maryland. +Flew on STS 41-D. +Died January 28, 1986, in STS 51-L accident. + +SCOBEE, Francis R., Major, U.S. Air Force (Retired) +Born May 19, 1939, in Cle Elum, Washington. +Bachelor of science in aerospace engineering from University of +Arizona. +Flew on STS 41-C. +Died January 28, 1986, in STS 51-L accident. + +SEE, Elliot M., Jr., Civilian +Born July 23, 1927, in Dallas, Texas. +Bachelor of science from U.S. Merchant Marine Academy; master of +science in engineering from University of California at Los Angeles. +Died February 28, 1966, in St. Louis, Missouri, in the crash of a T-38 +jet. + +SMITH, Michael J., Commander, U.S. Navy +Born April 30, 1945, in Beaufort, North Carolina. +Bachelor of science in naval science from U.S. Naval Academy; master +of science in aeronautical engineering from U.S. Naval Postgraduate +School. +Died January 28, 1986, in STS 51-L accident. + +SWIGERT, John L., Jr., Civilian +Born August 30, 1931, in Denver, Colorado. +Bachelor of science in mechanical engineering from University of +Colorado; master of science in aerospace science from Rensselaer +Polytechnic Institute; master of business administration from Hartford +College. +Flew on Apollo 13. +Died December 27, 1982, of cancer. + +THORNE, Stephen D., Lieutenant Commander, U.S. Navy Born February 11, +1953, in Frankfurt-on-Main, West Germany. +Bachelor of science in engineering from U.S. Naval Academy. +Died May 24, 1986, in Alta Loma, Texas, in an airplane crash. + +WHITE, Edward H., II, Lieutenant Colonel, U.S. Air Force +Born November 14, 1930, in San Antonio, Texas. +Bachelor of science from U.S. Military Academy; master of science in +aeronautical engineering from University of Michigan. +Flew on Gemini 4. +Died January 27, 1967, at NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida, +in the Apollo spacecraft fire. + +WILLIAMS, Clifton C., Jr., Major, U.S. Marine Corps +Born September 26, 1932, in Mobile, Alabama. +Bachelor of science in mechanical engineering from Auburn University. +Died October 5, 1967, near Tallahassee, Florida, in the crash of a +T-38 jet. + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/ast-dorn.txt b/textfiles.com/science/ast-dorn.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..665de9fa --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/ast-dorn.txt @@ -0,0 +1,86 @@ +"6_3_2_11.TXT" (2559 bytes) was created on 07-08-92 + +ASTRONAUT BIRTHPLACES BY STATE +SOURCE: Information Summaries +Astronaut Fact Book +February, 1992 + + +ALABAMA: Hartsfield, Jemison, K. Thornton, James Voss, C. Williams +ARKANSAS: Covey + +CALIFORNIA: Chilton, Clifford, Coats, Hauck, McCulley, Ochoa, O'Connor, Ride, +van Hoften, Young +COLORADO: Brand, Carpenter, Carr, Lounge, Roosa, Swigert +CONNECTICUT: Spring, Thuot + +DELAWARE: Sherlock +DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA: Gregory, Stewart + +FLORIDA: Davis, Lenoir, Richards, Thagard + +GEORGIA: Bridges, Carter, Hammond, Walker + +HAWAII: Onizuka + +ILLINOIS: Cernan, Kerwin, Mattingly, McDivitt, Meade, Nagel, Veach +INDIANA: J. Allen, Borman, M. Brown, England, Grissom, Janice Voss, D. +Williams, Wolf +IOWA: Cunningham, Hilmers, Nelson, Shriver + +KANSAS: Engle, Evans, Hawley +KENTUCKY: Wilcutt + +LOUISIANA: Halsell + +MARYLAND: Ivins, Jones, Reightler +MASSACHUSETTS: Apt, Duffy, McCandless, Musgrave, O'Leary, Precourt +MICHIGAN: Chaffee, Leestma, Lousma, McMonagle, Searfoss, Shaw, Worden +MINNESOTA: Cabana, D. Gardner +MISSISSIPPI: Haise, Peterson, Truly +MISSOURI: Akers, Godwin, Springer + +NEW HAMPSHIRE: Shepard +NEW JERSEY: Aldrin, Schirra, Schweickart, Sullivan +NEW MEXICO: Gutierrez, Schmitt +NEW YORK: Adamson, Bobko, Cleave, E. Collins, A. Fisher, Fullerton, E. Gibson, +R. Gibson, Grabe, W. Gregory, Hoffman, Melnick, Parker, Runco, Wetherbee +NORTH CAROLINA: E. Baker, C. Brown, Duke, Helms, McArthur, Smith, W. Thornton +NORTH DAKOTA: Buchli, Hieb +OHIO: Armstrong, Bassett, Cameron, Eisele, Glenn, Harbaugh, Henize, Henricks, +Lovell, Low, Overmyer, Resnik, Sega, Thomas, Walz +OKLAHOMA: Cooper, Garriott, Pogue, Stafford +OREGON: Griggs +PENNSYLVANIA: A. Allen, Bagian, Bluford, Bursch, Conrad, Freeman, Hart, Irwin, +Weitz +RHODE ISLAND: Readdy +SOUTH CAROLINA: Bolden, Casper, Culbertson, McNair +SOUTH DAKOTA: Gemar +TENNESSEE: M. Baker, Bull, Jernigan, Seddon, Shepherd +TEXAS: Bean, Blaha, Cockrell, Creighton, Crippen, Fabian, W. Fisher, Givens, +Harris, Holmquest, Mitchell, Mullane, Scott, See, White +UTAH: Lind +VERMONT: Graveline +VIRGINIA: Bowersox, G. Gardner, Wisoff +WASHINGTON: Dunbar, Gordon, Oswald, Scobee +WEST VIRGINIA: McBride +WISCONSIN: Brandenstein, Chiao, Lee, Michel, Slayton + + + +ASTRONAUTS BORN IN OTHER COUNTRIES* + + +AUSTRALIA: Chapman +CHINA: Lucid +COSTA RICA: Chang-Diaz +ENGLAND: Foale +HONG KONG: Anders +ITALY: M. Collins +PACIFIC ISLANDS: Newman +WALES: Llewellyn +WEST GERMANY: Thorne + +*See biographical sketches for city. + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/ast-list.txt b/textfiles.com/science/ast-list.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..37394185 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/ast-list.txt @@ -0,0 +1,257 @@ +"6_3_2_3.TXT" (14827 bytes) was created on 07-07-92 + + +ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ASTRONAUTS +SOURCE: Information Summaries +Astronaut Fact Book +February, 1992 + + + Selection Missions + Name __Year___ Group _Flown__ Status + +Adamson, James C. 1984 10 2 Current +Aldrin, Buzz 1963 3 2 Former +Akers, Thomas D. 1987 12 1 Current +Allen, Andrew M. 1987 12 Current +Allen, Joseph P. 1967 6 2 Former +Anders, William A. 1963 3 1 Former +Apt, Jerome 1985 11 1 Current +Armstrong, Neil A. 1962 2 2 Former + +Bagian, James P. 1980 9 2 Current +Baker, Ellen S. 1984 10 1 Current +Baker, Michael A. 1985 11 1 Current +Bassett, Charles A., II 1963 3 Deceased +Bean, Alan L. 1963 3 2 Former +Blaha, John E. 1980 9 3 Current +Bluford, Guion S., Jr. 1978 8 3 Current +Bobko, Karol J. 1969 7 3 Former +Bolden, Charles F., Jr. 1980 9 2 Current +Borman, Frank 1962 2 2 Former +Bowersox, Kenneth D. 1987 12 Current +Brand, Vance D. 1966 5 4 Current +Brandenstein, Daniel C. 1978 8 3 Current +Bridges, Roy D., Jr. 1980 9 1 Former +Brown, Curtis L., Jr. 1987 12 Current +Brown, Mark N. 1984 10 2 Current +Buchli, James F. 1978 8 4 Current +Bull, John S. 1966 5 Former +Bursch, Daniel W. 1990 13 Current + +Cabana, Robert D. 1985 11 1 Current +Cameron, Kenneth D. 1984 10 1 Current +Carpenter, M. Scott 1959 1 1 Former +Carr, Gerald P. 1966 5 1 Former +Carter, Manley Lanier, Jr. 1984 10 1 Deceased +Casper, John H. 1984 10 1 Current +Cernan, Eugene A. 1963 3 3 Former +Chaffee, Roger B. 1963 3 Deceased +Chang-Diaz, Franklin R. 1980 9 2 Current +Chapman, Philip K. 1967 6 Former +Chiao, Leroy 1990 13 Current +Chilton, Kevin P. 1987 12 Current +Cleave, Mary L. 1980 9 2 Former +Clifford, Michael R. 1990 13 Current +Coats, Michael L. 1978 8 3 Former +Cockrell, Kenneth D. 1990 13 Current +Collins, Eileen M. 1990 13 Current +Collins, Michael 1963 3 2 Former +Conrad, Charles, Jr. 1962 2 4 Former +Cooper, L. Gordon, Jr. 1959 1 2 Former +Covey, Richard O. 1978 8 3 Current +Creighton, John O. 1978 8 3 Current +Crippen, Robert L. 1969 7 4 Former +Culbertson, Frank L., Jr. 1984 10 1 Current +Cunningham, Walter 1963 3 1 Former + +Davis, N. Jan 1987 12 Current +Duffy, Brian 1985 11 Current +Duke, Charles M., Jr. 1966 5 1 Former +Dunbar, Bonnie J. 1980 9 2 Current + +Eisele, Donn F. 1963 3 1 Deceased +England, Anthony W. 1967 6 1 Former +Engle, Joe H. 1966 5 2 Former +Evans, Ronald E. 1966 5 1 Deceased + +Fabian, John M. 1978 8 2 Former +Fisher, Anna L. 1978 8 1 Current +Fisher, William F. 1980 9 1 Former +Foale, C. Michael 1987 12 Current +Freeman, Theodore C. 1963 3 Deceased +Fullerton, Charles G. 1969 7 2 Former + +Gardner, Dale A. 1978 8 2 Former +Gardner, Guy S. 1980 9 2 Former +Garriott, Owen K. 1965 4 2 Former +Gemar, Charles D. 1985 11 2 Current +Gibson, Edward G. 1965 4 1 Former +Gibson, Robert L. 1978 8 3 Current +Givens, Edward G., Jr. 1966 5 Deceased +Glenn, John H., Jr. 1959 1 1 Former +Godwin, Linda M. 1985 11 1 Current +Gordon, Richard F., Jr. 1963 3 2 Former +Grabe, Ronald J. 1980 9 3 Current +Graveline, Duane E. 1965 4 Former +Gregory, Frederick D. 1978 8 3 Current +Gregory, William G. 1990 13 Current +Griggs, S. David 1978 8 1 Deceased +Grissom, Virgil I. 1959 1 2 Deceased +Gutierrez, Sidney M. 1984 10 1 Current + +Haise, Fred W., Jr. 1966 5 1 Former +Halsell, James D., Jr. 1990 13 Current +Hammond, L. Blaine, Jr. 1984 10 1 Current +Harbaugh, Gregory J. 1987 12 1 Current +Harris, Bernard A., Jr. 1990 13 Current +Hart, Terry J. 1978 8 1 Former +Hartsfield, Henry W., Jr. 1969 7 3 Current +Hauck, Frederick H. 1978 8 3 Former +Hawley, Steven A. 1978 8 3 Former +Helms, Susan J. 1990 13 Current +Henize, Karl G. 1967 6 1 Former +Henricks, Terence T. 1985 11 1 Current +Hieb, Richard J. 1985 11 1 Current +Hilmers, David C. 1980 9 4 Current +Hoffman, Jeffrey A. 1978 8 2 Current +Holmquest, Donald L. 1967 6 Former + +Irwin, James B. 1966 5 1 Former +Ivins, Marsha S. 1984 10 1 Current + +Jemison, Mae C. 1987 12 Current +Jernigan, Tamara E. 1985 11 1 Current +Jones, Thomas D. 1990 13 Current + +Kerwin, Joseph P. 1965 4 1 Former + +Lee, Mark C. 1984 10 1 Current +Leestma, David C. 1980 9 2 Current +Lenoir, William B. 1967 6 1 Former +Lind, Don L. 1966 5 1 Former +Llewellyn, John A. 1967 6 Former +Lounge, John M. 1980 9 3 Current +Lousma, Jack R. 1966 5 2 Former +Lovell, James A., Jr. 1962 2 4 Former +Low, G. David 1984 10 2 Current +Lucid, Shannon W. 1978 8 3 Current + +Mattingly, Thomas K., II 1966 5 3 Former +McArthur, William S., Jr. 1990 13 Current +McBride, Jon A. 1978 8 1 Former +McCandless, Bruce, II 1966 5 2 Former +McCulley, Michael J. 1984 10 1 Former +McDivitt, James A. 1962 2 2 Former +McMonagle, Donald R. 1987 12 1 Current +McNair, Ronald E. 1978 8 2 Deceased +Meade, Carl J. 1985 11 1 Current +Melnick, Bruce E. 1987 12 1 Current +Michel, F. Curtis 1965 4 Former +Mitchell, Edgar D. 1966 5 1 Former +Mullane, Richard M. 1978 8 3 Former +Musgrave, F. Story 1967 6 4 Current + +Nagel, Steven R. 1978 8 3 Current +Nelson, George D. 1978 8 3 Former +Newman, James H. 1990 13 Current + +Ochoa, Ellen 1990 13 Current +O'Connor, Bryan D. 1980 9 2 Former +O'Leary, Brian T. 1967 6 Former +Onizuka, Ellison S. 1978 8 2 Deceased +Oswald, Stephen S. 1985 11 1 Current +Overmyer, Robert F. 1969 7 2 Former + +Parker, Robert A. R. 1967 6 2 Former +Peterson, Donald H. 1969 7 2 Former +Pogue, William R. 1966 5 1 Former +Precourt, Charles J., Jr. 1990 13 Current + +Readdy, William F. 1987 12 1 Current +Reightler, Kenneth S., Jr. 1987 12 1 Current +Resnik, Judith A. 1978 8 2 Deceased +Richards, Richard N. 1980 9 2 Current +Ride, Sally K. 1978 8 2 Former +Roosa, Stuart A. 1966 5 1 Former +Ross, Jerry L. 1980 9 3 Current +Runco, Mario, Jr. 1987 12 1 Current + +Schirra, Walter M., Jr. 1959 1 3 Former +Schmitt, Harrison H. 1965 4 1 Former +Schweickart, Russell L. 1963 3 1 Former +Scobee, Francis R. 1978 8 2 Deceased +Scott, David R. 1963 3 3 Former +Searfoss, Richard A. 1990 13 Current +Seddon, Margaret Rhea 1978 8 2 Current +See, Elliot M., Jr. 1962 2 Deceased +Sega, Ronald M. 1990 13 Current +Shaw, Brewster H., Jr. 1978 8 3 Former +Shepard, Alan B., Jr. 1959 1 2 Former +Shepherd, William M. 1984 10 2 Current +Sherlock, Nancy J. 1990 13 Current +Shriver, Loren J. 1978 8 2 Current +Slayton, Donald K. 1959 1 1 Former +Smith, Michael J. 1980 9 1 Deceased +Spring, Sherwood C. 1980 9 1 Former +Springer, Robert C. 1980 9 2 Current +Stafford, Thomas P. 1962 2 4 Former +Stewart, Robert L. 1978 8 2 Former +Sullivan, Kathryn D. 1978 8 2 Current +Swigert, John L., Jr. 1966 5 1 Deceased + +Thagard, Norman E. 1978 8 4 Current +Thomas, Donald A. 1990 13 Current +Thorne, Stephen D. 1985 11 Deceased +Thornton, Kathryn C. 1984 10 1 Current +Thornton, William E. 1967 6 2 Current +Thuot, Pierre J. 1985 11 1 Current +Truly, Richard H. 1969 7 2 Former + +van Hoften, James D. A. 1978 8 2 Former +Veach, Charles Lacy 1984 10 1 Current +Voss, James S. 1987 12 1 Current +Voss, Janice E. 1990 13 Current + +Walker, David M. 1978 8 2 Current +Walz, Carl E. 1990 13 Current +Weitz, Paul J. 1966 5 2 Current +Wetherbee, James D. 1984 10 1 Current +White, Edward H., II 1962 2 1 Deceased +Wilcutt, Terrence W. 1990 13 Current +Williams, Clifton C., Jr. 1963 3 Deceased +Williams, Donald E. 1978 8 2 Former +Wisoff, Peter J. K. 1990 13 Current +Wolf, David A. 1990 13 Current +Worden, Alfred M. 1966 5 1 Former + +Young, John W. 1962 2 6 Current +Adamson, James C. 1984 10 2 Current +Aldrin, Buzz 1963 3 2 Former +Akers, Thomas D. 1987 12 1 Current +Allen, Andrew M. 1987 12 Current +Allen, Joseph P. 1967 6 2 Former +Anders, William A. 1963 3 1 Former +Apt, Jerome 1985 11 1 Current +Armstrong, Neil A. 1962 2 2 Former + +Bagian, James P. 1980 9 2 Current +Baker, Ellen S. 1984 10 1 Current +Baker, Michael A. 1985 11 1 Current +Bassett, Charles A., II 1963 3 Deceased +Bean, Alan L. 1963 3 2 Former +Blaha, John E. 1980 9 3 Current +Bluford, Guion S., Jr. 1978 8 3 Current +Bobko, Karol J. 1969 7 3 Former +Bolden, Charles F., Jr. 1980 9 2 Current +Borman, Frank 1962 2 2 Former +Bowersox, Kenneth D. 1987 12 Current +Brand, Vance D. 1966 5 4 Current +Brandenstein, Daniel C. 1978 8 3 Current +Bridges, Roy D., Jr. 1980 9 1 Former +Brown, Curtis L., Jr. 1987 12 Current +Brown, Mark N. 1984 10 2 Current +Buchli, James F. 1978 8 4 Current +Buchli, James F. 1978 8 4 Current + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/ast-prog.txt b/textfiles.com/science/ast-prog.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..864c42e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/ast-prog.txt @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +"6_3_2_2.TXT" (1619 bytes) was created on 07-06-92 + +BACKGROUND ON THE ASTRONAUT PROGRAM +SOURCE: Information Summaries +Astronaut Fact Book +February, 1992 + +The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) selected the first +group of astronauts in 1959. From 500 candidates having the required jet +aircraft flight experience and engineering training as well as height below 5 +feet 11 inches, 7 military men became the Nation's first astronauts. The +second and third groups chosen included civilians who had extensive flying +experience. By 1964, requirements had changed and emphasis was placed on +academic qualifications; in 1965, 6 scientist astronauts were selected from a +group of 400 applicants who had a doctorate or equivalent experience in the +natural sciences, medicine, or engineering. The group named in 1978 was the +first of Space Shuttle flight crews and was composed of 15 pilots and 20 +mission specialists; 6 of the 35 were women and 4 were members of minorities. +Since then, 5 additional groups have been selected with an even mix of pilots +and mission specialists. + +In total, 195 astronauts have been selected in the 13 groups from 1959 through +1990; there are 97 astronauts currently in the program; 78 have retired, +resigned or been reassigned; and 20 are deceased. + +Payload specialists are career scientists or engineers selected by their +employer or country for their expertise in conducting a specific experiment or +commercial venture on a Space Shuttle mission. Their names are not included in +the Astronaut Fact Book. + +NASA accepts applications for the Astronaut Candidate Program on a continuing +basis and selects candidates as needed. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/ast500hr.txt b/textfiles.com/science/ast500hr.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..525660f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/ast500hr.txt @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +"6_3_2_14.TXT" (734 bytes) was created on 07-08-92 + +ASTRONAUTS WITH MORE THAN 500 HOURS IN SPACE (Number of Flights) + +Carr 2017:15:32 (1) +E. Gibson 2017:15:32 (1) +Pogue 2017:15:32 (1) +Garriott 1674:56:28 (2) +Bean 1671:45:27 (2) +Lousma 1619:13:49 (2) +Conrad 1179:38:36 (4) +Young 835:42:03 (6) +Weitz 793:13:31 (2) +Brand 746:03:53 (4) +Lovell 715:05:25 (4) +Kerwin 672:49:49 (1) +Thagard 604:45:06 (4) +Musgrave 598:07:22 (4) +Brandenstein 575:49:18 (3) +Cernan 566:16:22 (3) +Crippen 565:48:15 (4) +Scott 546:54:13 (3) +Shaw 533:53:06 (3) +Bluford 513:15:52 (3) +Mattingly 508:34:12 (3) +Stafford 507:44:10 (4) +Lucid 502:41:25 (3) + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/astronau.txt b/textfiles.com/science/astronau.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ceaf32e0 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/astronau.txt @@ -0,0 +1,198 @@ +"6_3_2_16.TXT" (8108 bytes) was created on 07-08-92 + +REQUIREMENTS FOR BECOMING AN ASTRONAUT + + ANNOUNCEMENT NO. 3ACS-83 + + FOR + + MISSION SPECIALIST & PILOT ASTRONAUT CANDIDATES + + +ASTRONAUT CANDIDATE PROGRAM + +M I S S I O N S P E C I A L I S T A S T R O N A U T + +Mission specialist astronauts, working with the commander and pilot, have +overall responsibility for the coordination of Shuttle operations in the areas +of crew activity planning, consumables usage, and other Shuttle activities +affecting experiment operations. Thus, mission specialists are proficient in +payload operations and are required to have a detailed knowledge of the Shuttle +systems as well as the operational characteristics, mission requirements and +objectives, and supporting systems and equipment for each of the experiments +that will be conducted on their assigned mission. Mission specialists +participate in extravehicular activities, perform special payload handling or +maintenance operations using a remote manipulator system, and assist in +specific experiment operation at the discretion of the experiment sponsor. + +P I L O T A S T R O N A U T + +Space Shuttle pilot astronauts serve as both Shuttle commanders and pilots. +During flight, the Shuttle commander has onboard responsibility for the space +vehicle, crew, mission success, and safety of flight. The Shuttle pilot assists +the commander in controlling and operating the Shuttle. In addition, Shuttle +pilots may deploy and retrieve payloads using a remote manipulator system, +participate in extravehicular activities, and support specific payload +operations where appropriate. + +G E N E R A L C A N D I D A T E I N F O R M A T I O N + +Selected applicants join the Johnson Space Center and are assigned to the +Astronaut Office. They will undergo a 1-year training and evaluation period +during which they are placed in responsible technical or scientific positions +allowing them to contribute substantially to the Shuttle Program and continue +to work in their scientific or technical fields, where feasible, while under +evaluation. They also participate in the basic astronaut training program which +is designed to develop the knowledge and skills required for formal mission +training upon selection for flight assignments. Pilot astronaut candidates are +required to maintain proficiency in NASA aircraft during their candidate +period. + +Applicants are made aware that selection as an astronaut candidate does not +ensure selection as an astronaut. Final selection as an astronaut depend upon +satisfactory completion of the 1-year training and evaluation period. Civilian +candidates who successfully complete the training and evaluation period and are +selected as astronauts become permanent Federal employees. Civilian candidates +not selected as astronauts may be placed in other positions within NASA +depending upon Agency requirements and manpower constraints at the time. + +Successful military candidates will be detailed to NASA for a time period +established by NASA/Department of Defense (DOD) Memorandum of Understanding. + +NASA has an affirmative action program goal of having qualified minorities and +women among the newly-selected astronaut candidates. Therefore, women and +minority candidates are encouraged to apply. + +QUALIFICATIONS OF APPLICANTS +(Both Military and Civilian Applicants) + +M I S S I O N S P E C I A L I S T A S T R O N A U T + +C A N D I D A T E P R O G R A M + +Applicants MUST meet the following minimum qualification requirements. + + + o Bachelor's degree from an accredited institution in + engineering, biological or physical science, or mathematics. Degree + must be supplemented by at least 3 years of related professional + experience. An advanced degree is desirable and may be substituted for + all or part of the experience requirement (master's degree = 1 year, + PhD degree = 3 years). Quality of academic preparation is important. + + o Ability to pass NASA Class II space flight physical (similar to + military and civilian flight physicals) to include the following + specific standards: + + DISTANCE VISUAL ACUITY: 20/100 or better uncorrected; + correctable to 20/20, each eye. + + HEARING LOSS NOT TO EXCEED: + + Frequency (Hz) 500 1000 2000 + + Loss (db) better ear 30 25 25 + worse ear 35 30 30 + + + BLOOD PRESSURE: Preponderant systolic not to exceed + 140, nor diastolic to exceed 90 mm Hg, measured + in a sitting position. + + o Applicants height between 60 to 76 inches. + + +P I L O T A S T R O N A U T C A N D I D A T E P R O G R A M + +Applicants MUST meet the following minimum qualification requirements. + + o Bachelor's degree from an accredited institution in + engineering, biological or physical science, or mathematics. An + advanced degree or equivalent experience is desired. Quality of + academic preparation is important. + + o At least 1000 hours pilot-in-command time in high performance jet + aircraft (an aircraft having at least 3000 pounds of thrust per + engine). Flight test experience is highly desirable. + + o Ability to pass NASA Class I space flight physical (similar to military + and civilian flight physicals) to include the following specific + standards: + + DISTANT VISUAL ACUITY: 20/50 or better uncorrected; + correctable to 20/20 each eye. + + HEARING LOSS NOT TO EXCEED: + + Frequency (Hz) 500 1000 2000 + + Loss (db) 30 25 25 + + + BLOOD PRESSURE Preponderant systolic not to exceed + 140, nor diastolic to exceed 90 mm Hg, measured + in a sitting position. + + o Applicant height between 64 and 76 inches. + + +E D U C A T I O N R E Q U I R E M E N T S + +Applicants for the Astronaut Candidate Program must meet the basic education +requirements for NASA engineering and scientific positions, specifically +successful completion of a standard professional curriculum in an accredited +college or university leading to a bachelor's degree with major study in an +appropriate field of engineering, biological or physical science, or +mathematics. + +The following degree fields which may be related to engineering and the +sciences are not considered qualifying: + + o Degrees in Technology; i.e. Engineering Technology, Aviation + Technology, Medical Technology, etc. + + o Degrees in Psychology (except Clinical, Physiological, or + Experimental Psychology, which are considered qualifying). + + o Degrees in Aviation, Aviation Management, or similar fields. + + +C I T I Z E N S H I P R E Q U I R E M E N T S + +Current regulations require that preference for appointment to Astronaut +Candidate positions be given to U.S. citizens when there is an adequate source +of well qualified citizens available. NASA anticipates that there will be an +adequate source of well qualified U.S. Citizens. + +P A Y A N D B E N E F I T S + +Salaries for civilian candidate will be based on the General Schedule pay scale +of the Federal Government, generally ranging from GS-11 through GS-14. +Candidates will be compensated in accordance with prevailing Federal pay scales +based on their individual academic achievements and experience. + +Other benefits include vacation and sick leave and participation in the Federal +Government retirement, group health, and life insurance plans. + +Selected military candidates will be detailed to the Johnson Space Center but +will remain in an active military status for pay, benefits, leave, and other +similar military matters. + +--- +NASA-JSC, ANNOUNCEMENT NO. 3ACS-83 FOR MISSION SPECIALIST AND PILOT ASTRONAUT +CANDIDATES, 1983. + + +"6_3_2_17.TXT" (441 bytes) was created on 07-08-92 + +ASTRONAUTS & PHYSICAL FITNESS + +Several callers to NASA Spacelink have asked for details of an astronaut +physical fitness training regimen. We have received the following response +from the Johnson Space Center: + +Astronauts stay in shape by running and working out in their fully furnished +gymnasium at the Johnson Space Center in Houston. There is no set training +schedule. Astronauts may exercise as they wish, as long as they stay fit. + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/athletic.txt b/textfiles.com/science/athletic.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..840840e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/athletic.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +What should be our motivation behind athletic activity? + +It is generally assumed that people who participate in sport can be divided into two categories: One consisting of those who engage in sports either motivated by the excitement involved in preferably successful competition; and in the case of professionals, driven by the economic rewards following it, and one much more numerous group consisting of the less serious exercisers for whom the ultimate goal is not the attainment of high athletic abilities, their aim is merely to maintain a modicum of physical fitness for preserving bodily health or relieve stress. + There are sound reasons why one might say that both categories actually fail to optimally reap the potential rewards of regular athletic training. + The people in the first group have a very serious approach, and in most cases they consequently show a high degree of development of their athletic potential. However, a most important negative aspect regarding competitive athletics on the definite upper level is that the motivation of the participants tends to depend on competitive ability, hence all their activity will seem to have no reason if and when their measurable results do not meet the standards defined by levels only attainable for people in the physical prime of their lives. As a result of this rather short-sighted approach, a majority of competitive sportsmen and sportswomen cease to train regularly when the results begin to decline. Then they lose their abilities and gradually are reduced to the average level of the untrained. Seen in a broad perspective, all their efforts have ultimately been wasted. It may therefore be argued that any motivation rooted in the isolated aim to participate in competitions on the highest level is bound to fade away over time, soon to be replaced with absence of any motivation and a concomitant athletic inactivity. One more fact to consider here is that the very extensive preparation required for top-level competition more often than not involves 3 hours or more with training every day. Everybody agrees that this is not permanently practicable. Luckily, it is perfectly possible to maintain an athletic ability immeasurably higher than the untrained level with, as an example, about sixty to seventy minutes five times a week, and some more on Sundays, a total amount of activity which falls in the region of 7-9 hours a week. + People belonging to the second group admittedly have a potentially permanent objective. However, this advantage is largely offset by the deplorable fact that those who solely train for the maintenance of physical health very seldom develop in themselves anything near high abilities. In reality, in most cases they possess a limited athletic level on or near the average level of "normal," untrained people. Typically those less serious keep-fit-exercisers train no more than three times a week, and in a great many cases, even less. Such a level of activity represents the recommendable starting level for people who have not trained before. Later on, a higher frequency and not least regularity is imperatively necessary in order to develop the eminently capable body which ought to be the obligatory companion to a similarly developed and capable mind. Unfortunately, the situation is that these exercisers tend to unnecessarily continue to limit their training to the aforementioned level. This because of the widespread idea that all you need to be "in shape" is this modest activity. It is basically a question of values. When a given milieu or society does not value a particular ability, those who want to develop and possess it are frequently accused of overdoing, and also of selfishness, because devoting time to an "unworthy" activity is by definition a revelation of selfishness. This approach has long ago been irrefutably contradicted by scientific evidence, in addition to the even more significant living proof provided by large numbers of athletes who with themselves show all humanity what you and I can really do, as long as we preserve the undying desire to eliminate and transcend our present limitations, and that the rewards from breaking out of the adaptive limits of the untrained are truly immense. + +What, then, is it all about? I would like to formulate it this way: Our obligation is all our lives to strive to encourage and assist the continuing physical, mental, and spiritual development of not only ourselves as individuals, but of the whole brotherhood of humanity. + +Per Inge Oestmoen, Norway. + + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/batteryn.ews b/textfiles.com/science/batteryn.ews new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d1806542 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/batteryn.ews @@ -0,0 +1,1067 @@ +From uwm.edu!spool.mu.edu!agate!stanford.edu!leland.Stanford.EDU!news Fri Nov 13 14:26:07 CST 1992 +Article: 8049 of comp.sys.laptops +Newsgroups: comp.sys.laptops +Path: uwm.edu!spool.mu.edu!agate!stanford.edu!leland.Stanford.EDU!news +From: avery@scruffy.neuroinformatik.ruhr-uni-bochum.de (Avery Wang) +Subject: Re: NiCad batteries again -- useful hints +Message-ID: <1992Nov13.092439.11529@leland.Stanford.EDU> +Sender: news@leland.Stanford.EDU (Mr News) +Organization: DSO, Stanford University +References: <1992Nov11.030643.21030@schaefer.math.wisc.edu> +Date: Fri, 13 Nov 92 09:24:39 GMT +Lines: 111 + +Here's something I pulled off the net over 4 years ago -- hope it's useful! +-Avery +------------------- +" NICAD BATTERIES - FACTS AND FALLACIES " Published on Radio Communication +May 1988, TT. + +Richargable nickel cadmium batteries, have, with reasons, become a popular +source of power for portable and handportable equipment. They can provide +reliable service over many years if due account is taken of their +peculiarities. Yet it remain true that many amateurs are failing to appreciate +not only the full capabilities but also the limitations of nicad cells used in +battery packs. + +J.Fielding,ZS5JF,in "Nickel cadmium batteries for amateur radio equipment" +(Radio ZS september 1987,pp4-5) provides a useful survey of the facts and +foibles of nicads.The following extracts from his article attack some of the +common myths and also provide some safety hints. + +1) "Rapid charging causes a decline in cell capacity". +NOT TRUE provided that the charge is always terminated at a safe point. + +2) "You should not charge only partially discharged cells as this causes a +loss in capacity." +NOT TRUE. It is not necessary to discharge fully nicad batteries before +charging. In fact, THE OPPOSITE is true. Repeated partial charging gives an +increase in the number of charge/discharge cycles compared with +full-discharged cells. + +3) "White crystals growing on the tops of nicad cells mean that the seal is +faulty and the cell should be scrapped." +NOT TRUE. The electrolyte (potassium hydroxide) is extremely searching and can +penetrate the seals used in minute quantities. These crystals are potassium +carbonate, which is harmless and can be removed with soap and water. The +action of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere reacts with the electrolyte to +form the crystals. After removing the crystals, it is recommended that a smear +of silicon grease is applied to slow down the growth of new crystals. The +amount of electrolyte lost in this way is insignificant. + +4) " I have a cell which appears to take a charge, but after the normal +charging period the open circuit voltage is very low. I have been told I +should throw it away." +NOT TRUE. The reason the cell won't take a charge is usually due to minute +crystalline growth across the internal electrodes, caused by prolonged +storage. A cure that nearly always works is to pass a very high current for +very short time through the affected cell. This fuses the internal "whisker". +Discharging a large electrolytic capacitor is one method of doing this. But +note that in a battery the faulty cell MUST be isolated from the other cells +since zapping the complete battery will not usually result in a cure. Charge +the capacitor to about 30v and then discharge it through the faulty cell. +Several attemps may be required to clear a stubborn cell. + +5) "A battery contains a cell with reversed polarity. The only cure is to +replace it". +NOT TRUE. The reversed cell ca usually be corrected by a similar technique as +that given for 4). After re-polarising the cell, the complete battery can be +recharged in the normal way. Full capacity can be regained after about five +cycles. + +6) "A nicad battery should be stored only in a discharged state". +NOT TRUE. It can be stored in any state of charge. Due to its inherent +self-discharging characteristics it will eventually become fully discharged +after a sufficiently long period of storage. To recharge the battery before +returning it to service, a "conditioning" charge of 20h at the normal charging +rate is recommended. Afterwards charge normally; full capacity can again be +expected after about five cycles. + +7) "It is not advisable to keep a nicad battery on permanent trickle charge as +this causes permanent degradation of the cells". +NOT TRUE. So long as the trickle charge current is adjusted correctly, the +charge can continue indefinitely without loss in cell capacity. The safe +current can usually be obtained from the manufacturer's data, but 0.025C is a +reasonable guide (ie. about 100mA for a 4Ah cell and PRO-RATA). This enables +the battery to remain fully charged. + +ZS5JF also lists seven safety points that should be considered by users: + +1) DO NOT short circuit a fully-charged battery. This if prolonged, can cause +excessive gas production with the danger of possible rupturing of the sealed +case. + +2) Nicads contain a caustic electrolyte: this is perfectly safe as long as +common sense is used in use and handling of the cells. + +3) A nicad can supply a very high current for a short period (a 4Ah cell can +supply over 500A for a few seconds). Sufficient thought should be given when +selecting a fuse between the battery and the equipment. The connecting wire +should be capable of passing enough current to ensure the fuse blows quickly +in the event of a short circuit. + +4) DO NOT use partially-discharged cells with fully-charged ones to assemble a +battery. Assemble the battery with all the cells discharged and then charge +them as a battery. + +5) DO NOT carry a fully- or partially-charged battery on an aircraft without +taking proper safety precautions. A short-circuited battery pack ca be a time +bomb in such situations. Consult the relevant IATA regulations or ask at the +airline check-in. + +6) DO NOT subject battery packs to very high or low temperatures. Never +dispose of a battery pack in a fire or throw it out with domestic waste. +If it cannot be disposed of properly it is probably best to bury it in the +garden in a safe spot. + +7) DO NOT discharge battery packs below about 1V per cell, otherwise there is +a possibility of cell reversal. + +ZS5JF provides a good deal of other information on charging nicad batteries, +and gives as a reference a Varta publication of 1982 "Sealed Nickel Cadmium +Batteries" from which some of his notes may have been derived. (G3VA) + + ----=====***=====---- + + +From uwm.edu!wupost!decwrl!csus.edu!netcomsv!mork!brunette Mon Aug 10 23:18:11 CDT 1992 +Article: 9997 of rec.models.rc +Xref: uwm.edu rec.models.rc:9997 sci.electronics:38540 +Newsgroups: rec.models.rc,sci.electronics +Path: uwm.edu!wupost!decwrl!csus.edu!netcomsv!mork!brunette +From: brunette@netcom.com (Hal Brunette) +Subject: Re: How to dispose of NiCads? +Message-ID: +Date: Tue, 28 Jul 92 20:10:45 GMT +Organization: Netcom - Online Communication Services (408 241-9760 guest) +References: <1992Jul27.161240.4905@nynexst.com> <1992Jul28.140405.28429@gdunix.gd.chalmers.se> +Lines: 88 + +>|> D.C. Myers, "Zap New Life into Dead Ni-Cd Batteries," Popular Electronics, +>|> July 1977, pp. 60-61. +>|> +>|> The article explains internal shorts and how to clear them. + +>If it`s possible, try to rewrite the article in a message here in rec.models. +>rc and sci.electronics. +> +>I`m sure many readers here has many NiCd cells they want to restore. + +The failures the article talks about occur in mutli-cell Ni-Cd battery packs, +and are due to the voltage differences between cells. Say you have four 1.25 V +cells in a pack connected to a 200 ohm load. The load "sees" 5 volts and draws +25 mA. Since each cell must pass the entire 25 mA and each cell's potential is +1.25 volts, Ohm's Law tells us that each cell sees the equivalent load of 50 +ohms. + +But in practice, no four cells in a battery ever exhibit exactly the same output +voltage. Assume that one cell is delivering only 1.2 V, and the others are at +1.25 volts. Now, the 200 ohm load sees 4.95 volts and draws 24.75 mA. Since +all four cells must pass the entire 24.75 mA, each of the strong cells at 1.25 +volts sees an equivalent load of 50.5 ohms; the weak cell sees only 48.5 ohms. +The weak cell works into the heaviest load and as a result will discharge more +rapidly than the other cells. If the pack is charged for only a short period +of time, the weak cell, which has been working the hardest, is also the one +that receives the least charging power. + +This usually doesn't matter if you trickle charge after each day of flying. +The inequality is small for any given charge or discharge cycle, due to the +relatively flat output voltage NiCd cells exhibit over most of their range. +But a combination of incomplete charges and deep discharges will exaggerate +the energy difference between a weak cell and the other cells. Operated +continually in this manner, the weak cell invariably reaches its "knee," the +point at which its voltage decreases sharply, long before the other cells +reach the same point. + +Now comes the problem! Suddenly, the weakest cell sees an increasingly heavy +load, which causes its voltage to drop even faster. This avalanche continues +until the cell is completely discharged, even as the other cells continue to +force current to flow. The inevitable result is that the weak cell begins to +charge in reverse, which eventually causes an internal short. Once an +internal short develops, recharging the cell at the normal rate is +futile. The short simply bypasses current around the cells active materials. +(Even though the cell is apparently dead, most of its plate material is still +intact.) If the small amount of material that forms the short could be removed, +the cell would be restored to virtually its original capacity once again. + + 300 ohm Charge + 5W / Switch +20-40 + O---/\/\/\----o------o o------------o-------------------------o +VDC | | | + | Zap | | + | Switch | +| + | ___|___ | ----------- + o------o o---------o ----- + | | + Shorted | + 6000 micro- | + ------- Cell | + Farad, 40V _________ | | | + Capacitor --------- |_____| Volt | + | | meter | + | | | + - O-------------o----------------------o-------------------------o + +Using the circuit shown, the internal short can be burned away in a few seconds. +In operation, energy stored in the capacitor is rapidly discharged through the +dead cell to produce the high current necessary to clear the short. Current is +then limited by the resistor to a safe charge rate for a small A cell. + +Several applications of discharge current are usually necessary to clear a cell. +During the "zapping" process, it is a good idea to connect a voltmeter across +the cell to monitor results. Momentarily close the normally open pushbutton +switch several times to successively zap the cell, allowing sufficient time +for the capacitor to charge up between zaps, until the voltage begins to rise. +Then, with the toggle switch closed, watch as the potential across the cell +climbs to 1.25 volts. If the potential stops before full voltage is reached, +some residual short remains and another series of zaps is in order. If you +observe no effect whatsoever after several zaps and shorting out the cell and +taking an ohmmeter measurement indicates a dead short, the cell is beyond +redemption and should be replaced. + +Once full cell potential is achieved, remove the charging current and monitor +battery voltage. If the cell retains its charge, it can be returned to charge +and eventually returned to service. But if the cell slowly discharges with no +appreciable load, the residual slight short should be cleared. To do this, +short circuit the cell for a few minutes to discharge it, zap again, and +recharge it to full capacity. + +Good luck. + + +From uwm.edu!cs.utexas.edu!sun-barr!olivea!uunet!infonode!ingr!b11!naomi!lester Mon Aug 10 23:19:34 CDT 1992 +Article: 10011 of rec.models.rc +Xref: uwm.edu rec.models.rc:10011 sci.electronics:38596 +Path: uwm.edu!cs.utexas.edu!sun-barr!olivea!uunet!infonode!ingr!b11!naomi!lester +From: lester@naomi.NoSubdomain.NoDomain (Les Bartel) +Newsgroups: rec.models.rc,sci.electronics +Subject: Re: How to dispose of NiCads? +Message-ID: <1992Jul29.124224.26312@b11.b11.ingr.com> +Date: 29 Jul 92 12:42:24 GMT +References: <1992Jul27.161240.4905@nynexst.com> <1992Jul28.140405.28429@gdunix.gd.chalmers.se> <1992Jul29.084514@ufps9.unifr.ch> +Sender: usenet@b11.b11.ingr.com (Usenet Network) +Reply-To: lester@naomi.b23b.ingr.com +Organization: Dazix, An Intergraph Company +Lines: 56 + +In article <1992Jul29.084514@ufps9.unifr.ch>, waeber@ufps9.unifr.ch (Bernard Waeber SIUF) writes: +|> In article , brunette@netcom.com (Hal Brunette) writes: + +[Text of 'zapper' deleted] + +|> Please correct me if i get this wrong, i guess the above circuit requires +|> to remove the dead cell from the multi-cell pack, right ? + +Maybe not, see below. + +|> +|> Which means, one has to take the Ni-Cd pack appart, and get the dead cell out. +|> The cells are usually connected with a point welded metal plate, which requires +|> you to rip the metal plate off the cell. +|> Now, once you fixed your shorted cell ( you hope ),with the above circuit ,you will have to +|> solder the cell back in place, which isn't that abvious, if you apply to much +|> heat when soldering you may damage the cell, if you don't apply enough heat you get +|> a cold solder spot, in which case it may brake loose, due to vibrations. +|> +|> The point is : You better know what you're doing, when trying to recover a +|> dead Ni-Cd cell. + +Absolutely. + +|> +|> Guess your plane or heli is worth more, opposed to the 20 bucks +|> for a new Ni-Cd pack. +|> +|> So, if you aren't too confident of fixing your Ni-Cd pack, return them to the place +|> where you bourght them. +|> +|> -- +|> ben + +You don't have to remove the cell from the pack (unless it is in parallel +with another cell). Just clip the zapper leads to the terminals of the +cell. In fact, it seems to me that it may even work without isolating +the cell if there is a cell in parallel. The shorted cell should take +most of the current, and the non-shorted cell some current as well. + + Bad cell + | + v + ___ ___ ___ +--|___|----|___|----|___|-- + | | + | | + | | + | | + zapper leads + + - Les + +-- +Les Bartel lester@naomi.b23b.ingr.com +Dazix, An Intergraph Company uunet!ingr!b23b!naomi!lester + + +From uwm.edu!wupost!cs.utexas.edu!sun-barr!ames!data.nas.nasa.gov!splatter.nas.nasa.gov!bross Mon Nov 16 22:36:07 CST 1992 +Article: 8084 of comp.sys.laptops +Newsgroups: comp.sys.laptops +Path: uwm.edu!wupost!cs.utexas.edu!sun-barr!ames!data.nas.nasa.gov!splatter.nas.nasa.gov!bross +From: bross@splatter.nas.nasa.gov (Wilson S. Ross) +Subject: Re: NiCad batteries again +Keywords: Storage, interrupted charging +References: <1992Nov10.062202.14404@schaefer.math.wisc.edu> <1992Nov10.084031.5374@jarvis.csri.toronto.edu> <1992Nov11.030643.21030@schaefer.math.wisc.edu> <1992Nov11.174659.2467@odin.corp.sgi.com> +Sender: news@nas.nasa.gov (News Administrator) +Organization: NAS Program, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA +Date: Tue, 17 Nov 92 03:55:52 GMT +Message-ID: <1992Nov17.035552.16083@nas.nasa.gov> +Lines: 9 + +My Toshiba battery was force-charged by a friend who has some sort +of generic charging equipment. It had reached a point where the machine +would not operate at all with the battery - even plugged in. Now it has +remained plugged & working for months, i.e, I have overcome the problem +of always shuffling batteries for home use. My other battery (still +good, I hope) sits on the shelf for when I travel. The 'dead' battery +isn't good without the power supply. + +Bill Ross + + +From uwm.edu!cs.utexas.edu!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!darwin.sura.net!uvaarpa!murdoch!holmes.acc.Virginia.EDU!lch3e Sun Nov 22 15:10:20 CST 1992 +Article: 8155 of comp.sys.laptops +Newsgroups: rec.video,rec.video.releases,comp.sys.laptops +Path: uwm.edu!cs.utexas.edu!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!darwin.sura.net!uvaarpa!murdoch!holmes.acc.Virginia.EDU!lch3e +From: lch3e@holmes.acc.Virginia.EDU (Lauren C. Howard) +Subject: An easy fix for nicads that REALLY works! +Message-ID: <1992Nov22.143820.13596@murdoch.acc.Virginia.EDU> +Originator: lch3e@holmes.acc.Virginia.EDU +Sender: usenet@murdoch.acc.Virginia.EDU +Organization: University of Virginia +Date: Sun, 22 Nov 1992 14:38:20 GMT +Lines: 47 +Xref: uwm.edu rec.video:41091 rec.video.releases:3862 comp.sys.laptops:8155 + +Easy FIX for NICADS that REALLY works! + +It's simple, it's easy, and it really works well! + + + +First reinforce the battery pack (if in one) with clear cellophane tape. + + + +Then drop the battery, onto it's side, on the floor from about 6 + +ft. up. You want it to be a really HARD drop: but don't break the + +battery. Do this seven or more times for each battery. + + + +If it's in a pack, drop the pack so each battery hits the floor seven + +times. + + + +I know this seems crazy, but it DOES work, and well. If it doesn't + +work the first time, try again; harder! You have nothing to lose, + +since you'd have to replace the battery anyway. + + + +An example: the batteries in my portable printer are 8 years old. + +They were at the point where even after 24 hours charge, and still + +plugged into the charger, the printer wouldn't operate. After + +dropping, I now get three weeks of printing from one charge. + + + +So far, it's never failed. What have you got to lose? Post your + +results so others can benefit, and spread the word! + + + + +From uwm.edu!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!darwin.sura.net!gatech!destroyer!news.iastate.edu!sknapp Sat Nov 28 14:31:51 CST 1992 +Article: 8219 of comp.sys.laptops +Newsgroups: comp.sys.laptops +Path: uwm.edu!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!darwin.sura.net!gatech!destroyer!news.iastate.edu!sknapp +From: sknapp@iastate.edu (Steven M. Knapp) +Subject: Re: T1000SE battery replacement (INSTRUCTIONS!) +Message-ID: +Sender: news@news.iastate.edu (USENET News System) +Organization: Iowa State University, Ames, IA +References: <41667@sdcc12.ucsd.edu> +Date: Sat, 28 Nov 1992 08:37:36 GMT +Lines: 76 + +In article <41667@sdcc12.ucsd.edu> ma90fau@imath1.ucsd.edu (ma90fau) writes: +>Sorry if this has been discussed before. On the recent thread, +>people has been talking about the Radio Shack's replacement nicad +>cell. For people who has done the replacement for T1000SE, can you +>give me the detail instructions(what type of cell to use?..etc) to +>revitalize my old battery? .... just trying to find a cheap method +>to power my cheap notebook... +>Thanks! + +Read me now, or save me for later. (in that imfamous Hans `n' Frans tone) :-) + + +Ok, so you have a T1000SE, and you have found how it does not work if you do +not have a good battery on the back. You called Toshiba, and suddenly felt +woozy. Aftermarket? Shure! $60 for the T1200XE pack (extended life, the only +way to go), but there still has to be a better way, the "college student +method"! + +You call a battery store, and discover that the pack is 'sealed' and can not +be rebuilt. Then again, you never did listen to the 'no user serviceable parts +inside' lables. + +The plan? Open it, replace the cells, and close it up. + +Opening: + + It is sealed, ultrasound welded actually. All you need to do is break +this thin joint. Take the pack off of the computer (back up that hardRAM!) and +place it so that the metal contact squares are faceing you and up. The part +faceing up, or the bottom of the pack, was physically seprate from the rest of +the shell. Note that all 4 metal contact squares are attached to this piece. +Now get 2 THIN screwdrivers or knives(jewlers screwdrivers work GREAT). Pick a +point that is faceing you (so it will not show when the battery is +reinstalled) and push a screwdriver in the small crack/seam between the two +pieces. Continue to CAREFULLY pry apart the rest of the seam, and remember, +the contact squares are comming all together. After having it all opened, make +shure to keep the latch and spring (trust me!). + +Replacement: + + Call you local battery distrubitor, or Mr. Nicad, or TNR-The battery +store (#'s should be in the 1-800 directory), tell them you got it open. Give +them the measurements of one of the cells. I believe they are 4/3A 1700mah, +and should be about $5 a shot. Mr NiCad does know them as T1000SE cells last I +checked. Get 6 of them. Looking at the old pack, replicate it using the new +cells, wire, tape, whatever! DO NOT FORGET THE TEMPRATURE SENSOR! The little +black thing attached to one of the cells in the original pack is VERY +important! After haveing everything hooked up, you are just about done. + +Close it up: + + Check that the contact squares do have voltage around what you would +expect (5-7.2V). Reassemble the case, and hold it shut however you see fit. +Since I use only one pack, having it on the computer holds it together, and +makes it easy to show others my hack. If you have 2 or more, scotch tape +should help, or even super-glue. But be warned, you might want to open the +pack again some time, and super-glue will make that VERY difficult. + +There ya go! Good luck! +Any questions to sknapp@iastate.edu +Flames or insults to /dev/null! + +I hereby declare this to be advice, use at own risk! I am not responsible for +your actions! +________________________________________________________________________ +Steven M. Knapp Computer Engineering Student +sknapp@iastate.edu President Cyclone Amateur Radio Club +Iowa State University; Ames, IA; USA Durham Center Operations Staff + + + +-- +________________________________________________________________________ +Steven M. Knapp Computer Engineering Student +sknapp@iastate.edu President Cyclone Amateur Radio Club +Iowa State University; Ames, IA Durham Center Operations Staff + + +From uwm.edu!cs.utexas.edu!uunet!noc.near.net!news.bbn.com!news.bbn.com!wbe Wed Dec 16 12:28:08 CST 1992 +Article: 8462 of comp.sys.laptops +Path: uwm.edu!cs.utexas.edu!uunet!noc.near.net!news.bbn.com!news.bbn.com!wbe +From: wbe@bbn.com (Winston Edmond) +Newsgroups: comp.sys.laptops +Subject: Very dead T1000SE battery revived +Date: 16 Dec 92 03:01:31 +Organization: Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc., Cambridge, MA +Lines: 87 +Distribution: world +Message-ID: +NNTP-Posting-Host: crystal.bbn.com + + Thanks to suggestions from this newsgroup, and after some experimenting, I +seem to have managed to revive a completely dead T1000SE battery pack. The +message rambles a bit so that others that have experienced the same problem +may compare the solution I found with others that have been discussed in this +newsgroup. + +Completely dead battery = 0V output, 0 Ohms resistance, regardless of how + long it was "charged" on a T1000SE. + +Current state = 7.2V output, and it just powered my T1000SE for 75 minutes + from full charge (green light) to first low charge beep, while + running the screen at medium brightness and using the 2400 bps modem. + +Yes, 75 minutes isn't as good as new, but this is the first full +charge/discharge cycle after revival, so I don't yet know if it will get +better with proper use, or get worse again. + + +BACKGROUND (how I got into this mess and what didn't work): + + My problem started when the battery pack began running out of power much +sooner than it "should have". I tried deep discharging, dropping the battery +pack from a moderately high distance (and other forms of physical bashing +that some people thought might help), and various other tricks over the +course of time. At first, these seemed to help slightly, but the +improvements were only temporary. + + Eventually, while using an auto light bulb to discharge the battery pack, +I forgot the advice to not go below 1 Volt and let the pack discharge +completely. After trying to recharge it, I could get the green light to come +on, but the system would INSTANTLY shut down if the wall-plug power unit was +unplugged. A Voltmeter showed that the battery was only putting out 4.8V. +(NOTE: the green light doesn't mean the battery pack is fully charged -- it +means the battery pack isn't likely to accept any more charge, and that only +means "fully charged" if all the cells are working.) + + Continued attempts to revive the battery pack eventually left me with a +battery pack in which all cells were "dead" (in "cell reversal" mode, I +think, but I don't understand NiCads well enough to be sure) -- 0V, 0 Ohms +resistance, immune to all the simple attempts I tried to charge it. + +WHAT DID WORK: + + Someone on this newsgroup suggested using a large electrolytic capacitor +charged to 8V and discharged through a completely discharged battery pack. I +didn't have a big enough electrolytic capacitor to do the job, so I tried two +alternatives: (1) another battery pack, and (2) an industrial power supply +capable of supplying 10 Volts at 10 Amps. + + Partial success was obtained by connecting a working, fully charged +battery pack's + to the now-completely-dead battery pack's +, and - to -, +with just wires, for a few seconds. This produces a modestly bright spark. +Using a second battery pack was good enough to revive 4 of the 6 NiCad cells +in the pack, but wasn't enough to bring back the last two. It might have +been enough if I'd put some regular batteries in series (and in parallel) to +get the voltage and current capacity up a bit. + + The first industrial power supply I tried could only provide up to 5A at +up to 10V. This wasn't enough. + + The second power supply I tried could supply 10A at up to 20V, and 10A at +just 10-12V was enough. The power supply was a high grade unit with +adjustable current and voltage limits. I connected + to +, - to -, and let +10A at 12V flow through the battery for a few seconds. That brought the +battery pack back up to a full 7.2V! The rest of the charging I did on the +T1000SE, because I think feeding 120W into a few NiCad batteries for more +than a few seconds at a time is unwise. :-) + +DISCLAIMER: + This message provides history and opinions, not advice. If you elect to + try to duplicate this success, you do so at your own risk. I did find + that a Voltmeter for measuring the battery pack voltage (which was always + N * 1.2V) was indispensible. + +COMMENTS ON OTHER SOLUTIONS (given what worked for me): +* The big electrolytic capacitor method probably would work, though it might + take several "zaps". +* Using a 12V car battery probably also works, but is overkill and looks to + be much more dangerous since the current isn't limited and it probably + causes sparks. (The bench supply I used caused no sparks when I touched + the probes to the battery pack, even though it instantly went between 0A + and 10A output.) +* Connecting up a set of 7 1.5V dry cells (or 9 1.2V NiCad cells) in series + to get 10+V, probably with N >= 2 sets in parallel to get sufficient + amperage, should also be able to do the job. I don't know of anyone + that's tried this, though. + -WBE + + +From uwm.edu!cs.utexas.edu!uunet!mcsun!sun4nl!echelon!kees Wed Dec 16 14:55:59 CST 1992 +Article: 8465 of comp.sys.laptops +Newsgroups: comp.sys.laptops +Path: uwm.edu!cs.utexas.edu!uunet!mcsun!sun4nl!echelon!kees +From: kees@echelon.uucp (Kees Hendrikse) +Subject: Re: Very dead T1000SE battery revived +Organization: Echelon Consultancy, Enschede, The Netherlands +Date: Wed, 16 Dec 1992 13:44:06 GMT +Message-ID: +References: +Lines: 22 + +In wbe@bbn.com (Winston Edmond) writes: + +> Thanks to suggestions from this newsgroup, and after some experimenting, I +> seem to have managed to revive a completely dead T1000SE battery pack. + +After writing how he did manage to revive the NiCad, Winston Edmond suggest +other ways to do it, including: + +> * Using a 12V car battery probably also works, but is overkill and looks to +> be much more dangerous since the current isn't limited and it probably +> causes sparks. + +Never ever try this suggestion, as a car battery (especially a healthy one) +is capable of delivering 70-80 Amps through the NiCad, which might cause +the NiCad to explode. Always use a device with controlled current. If you +can't revive the NiCad with about 10 Amps, throw it away, it's really dead. + +-- +Kees Hendrikse | email: kees@echelon.uucp + | +ECHELON consultancy and software development | phone: +31 (0)53 836 585 +PO Box 545, 7500AM Enschede, The Netherlands | fax: +31 (0)53 337 415 + + +From uwm.edu!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!uunet.ca!synapse!peter.latocki Fri Dec 25 17:33:02 CST 1992 +Article: 8578 of comp.sys.laptops +Path: uwm.edu!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!uunet.ca!synapse!peter.latocki +From: peter.latocki@synapse.org (Peter Latocki) +Newsgroups: comp.sys.laptops +Subject: Battert for Old T1000 +Message-ID: <1677.2411.uupcb@synapse.org> +Date: 25 Dec 92 08:53:00 GMT +Distribution: world +Organization: SYNAPSE BBS - GATINEAU, QUEBEC - 819-561-4321 +Reply-To: peter.latocki@synapse.org (Peter Latocki) +Lines: 13 + +TO:gaston@cpsc.ucalgary.ca +FROM:peter.latocki@synapse.org + +I picked up a battery for my T1000 at Battery-Biz, 5530 Corbin Ave. +Suite 215 Tarzana California 91356 (818)774-1678 or (800)848-6782 a year +and a half ago. It sold for $18 and the people there were very nice to +deal with. Also try contacting Toshibs Canada for memory etc. They were +recently listing the RAM upgrade for the old T1000 for $79 but you have +to order through a dealer. Call their Fax line at 1-800-663-0378 to +have a copy of their price list faxed to you. +--- + . SLMR 2.1a . Unable to locate Coffee -- Operator Halted! + + + +From uwm.edu!spool.mu.edu!torn!skule.ecf!drill.me!ie.utoronto.ca!xiao Wed Jan 20 15:38:22 CST 1993 +Article: 8834 of comp.sys.laptops +Newsgroups: comp.sys.laptops +Path: uwm.edu!spool.mu.edu!torn!skule.ecf!drill.me!ie.utoronto.ca!xiao +From: xiao@ie.utoronto.ca (Yan Xiao) +Subject: Another successful story of nursing dead battery +Message-ID: +Summary: Open it up, find the bad cell, reverse its polarity, DONE +Keywords: plyers, fainted +Organization: University of Toronto, Department of Industrial Engineering +Date: Wed, 20 Jan 1993 15:48:07 GMT +Lines: 23 + + +Here is my experience of fixing a dead batter. + +Problem: the battery won't hold any charge, but can be used when AC plug + is in (so what's the use of the laptop) + +Hypothesis: The polarity of one of the cells is reversed somehow. + +Treatment one: use a car battery to reverse the bad cell + potential side effect: explosion +Treatment two: open it up and check for bad cell to see if it can be fixed. + side effect: breaking the nice outfit + +I chose the second method. It required a little resolution to open + the battery case (T1000SE), but not too bad. + Using a simple flashlight bulb, I located the + bad cell. Then I used another 7.2v battery to apply to this + cell, and verified its working by the flashlight. + I had to use tape to bound the battery in good solid condition. + +Results: it now can holds about 90min of charge. + +Xiao + + +From uwm.edu!spool.mu.edu!sol.ctr.columbia.edu!usenet.ucs.indiana.edu!silver.ucs.indiana.edu!wilkr Thu Jan 21 22:06:51 CST 1993 +Article: 8854 of comp.sys.laptops +Newsgroups: comp.sys.laptops +Path: uwm.edu!spool.mu.edu!sol.ctr.columbia.edu!usenet.ucs.indiana.edu!silver.ucs.indiana.edu!wilkr +From: wilkr@silver.ucs.indiana.edu (richard wilk) +Subject: Ideas & Help needed: Running Laptop from Car Battery +Message-ID: +Summary: How can this be done??? +Sender: Richard Wilk (wilkr@iubacs, wilkr@ucs.indiana.edu) +Nntp-Posting-Host: silver.ucs.indiana.edu +Organization: Indiana University +Date: Thu, 21 Jan 1993 19:45:28 GMT +Lines: 53 + +I need some feedback, advice and tech help on the following problem. + +I will be spending the summer living in a tent in Central America, +miles from the nearest power line. I will be spending most of my time +writing on my no-name clone 386SX laptop. This uses a fairly standard +12V nicad battery, and generally gives me about 1.25 hours. + +I have located a couple of photo-volataic trickle-chargers which will +take about 8 hours to charge my battery (the cheapest one I have found +is from a company in Ann Arbor, at 313 453-6746 if you are interested). +But this will only give me an hour of writing a day. + +We have the money to buy a 4000 watt coleman generator (best price +so far about $425), but not enough money to run it more than 2-3 +hours a night (and who wants the noise anyway). We may have enough also +for a small PV array, but I don't know how large or what wattage. + +I am presently thinking about buying a car battery down there, +a battery charger, and an inverter. Then I would charge the car battery +every night, and run the computer off it through the inverter the +next day. Damark has a 100 watt inverter for sale right now for +c. $70. + +Questions: Will this work? Has anyone tried something similar? + +Sub-questions: How long do I have to run the generator to get the +battery charged? + +How big a PV array would I need to replace the generator completely? (we +will be running a few lights and radios in the evenings too) + +How many hours of use can I expect to get out of a car battery if +the computer is drawing about 45 watts (I *think* that is what +the manual says). + +Does it make any sense at all to be going from 110 volts AC (battery +charger) to 12 Volts DC (battery) to 110 volts AC (inverter, computer +power supply) to 12 Volts DC (computer power jack)????? Is there +any way to feed the computer, safely, straight from the car battery?? + +I would appreciate hearing from anyone with experience, ideas or +knowledge (there must be someone with all three). + +Thanks very much + +Rick Wilk + + +-- +Richard Wilk Anthropology Dept. +wilkr@iubacs Indiana University +voice 812-855-8162 Bloomington, IN 47405 +"Things are more like they are now than they've ever been before." + + +From uwm.edu!cs.utexas.edu!sun-barr!olivea!sgigate!sgiblab!pacbell.com!att-out!cbnewsh!colin Fri Jan 22 21:27:51 CST 1993 +Article: 4811 of comp.sys.palmtops +Path: uwm.edu!cs.utexas.edu!sun-barr!olivea!sgigate!sgiblab!pacbell.com!att-out!cbnewsh!colin +From: colin@cbnewsh.cb.att.com (colin.alan.warwick) +Newsgroups: comp.sys.palmtops,sci.physics +Subject: Nickel metal hydride cells in standard form factors +Message-ID: <1993Jan22.195301.22212@cbnewsh.cb.att.com> +Date: 22 Jan 93 19:53:01 GMT +Followup-To: poster +Distribution: usa +Organization: AT&T Bell Laboratories - Holmdel NJ +Lines: 25 +Xref: uwm.edu comp.sys.palmtops:4811 sci.physics:46685 + + +Does anyone have data on nickel metal hydride rechargable cells in +standard form factors? + +I'd like to populate a table like: + +Form Charge Price +factor (mA hr) ($) +====================== +AAA ??? ??? +AA ??? ??? +C ??? ??? +D ??? ??? + +[What ever happened to A and B cells?] + +Also, what is the voltage of a fully charged NiMH cell, under a moderate load? + +Thanx, + +colin.alan.warwick@att.com + +"This is a talk on experimental mathematics, and if that sounds like a +contradiction, it is no more so than `theoretical physics'." + -- F. N. H. Robinson. + + +From uwm.edu!spool.mu.edu!yale.edu!newsserver.jvnc.net!darwin.sura.net!ukma!cs.widener.edu!iggy.GW.Vitalink.COM!nocsun.NOC.Vitalink.COM!indetech!cirrus!pete Tue Feb 9 11:47:44 CST 1993 +Article: 5050 of comp.sys.palmtops +Newsgroups: comp.sys.palmtops +Path: uwm.edu!spool.mu.edu!yale.edu!newsserver.jvnc.net!darwin.sura.net!ukma!cs.widener.edu!iggy.GW.Vitalink.COM!nocsun.NOC.Vitalink.COM!indetech!cirrus!pete +From: pete@cirrus.com (Pete Carpenter) +Subject: Nickel Hydride Sources +Message-ID: <1993Feb8.224131.24812@cirrus.com> +Sender: news@cirrus.com +Organization: Cirrus Logic Inc. Fremont, California +Date: Mon, 8 Feb 1993 22:41:31 GMT +Lines: 50 + + +These two companies sell Nickel Hydride batteries. Both sell AA and C sizes, +and both cost exactly the same (Hmmmm) They call themselves "Alternative +Energy" suppliers, which means they sell solar (photovoltaic or PV) panels, +and other stuff like 12 VDC to 120 VAC inverters, etc. I've bought lots of +stuff from both. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +SUNELCO +100 Skeets St. +P.O. Box 1499 +Hamilton, MT 59840-1499 +order 800-338-6844 +info 406-363-6924 +fax 406-363-6046 + +catalog size amp-hr price +------------------------------------- +NI-AAHY AA 1.0 AH $ 8 +NI-CHY C 3.5 AH $16 + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +Real Goods likes to wear their politics on their sleave, so to speak. If you +think Clinton may ruin the world by being too _conservative_, you'll fit right +in :-) I like their merchandise, not their preaching. + +Real Goods +966 Mazzoni St. +Ukiah, CA 95482-3471 +800-762-7325 + +50-105 AA 1.1 AH $ 8 +50-104 C 3.5 AH $16 + +catalog includes this statement - +"a little fatter than AA batteries, may not fit in very tight spaces" + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +I got some AAs from Real Goods, and they fit in my ZEOS, but unfortunately, +I can't get them to work. Voltage is 1.35, same to Radio Shack AA NiCd.s, +which work fine. + +-- +Pete Carpenter pete@cirrus.com + +Talk about your plenty, talk about your ills, +One man gathers what another man spills. - Robert Hunter + + +From uwm.edu!spool.mu.edu!hri.com!noc.near.net!news.bbn.com!bbn.com!sher Wed Feb 24 13:53:02 CST 1993 +Article: 9312 of comp.sys.laptops +Path: uwm.edu!spool.mu.edu!hri.com!noc.near.net!news.bbn.com!bbn.com!sher +From: sher@bbn.com (Lawrence D. Sher) +Newsgroups: comp.sys.laptops +Subject: Re: T1000SE battery life +Message-ID: +Date: 24 Feb 93 13:18:02 GMT +References: <1993Feb23.201949.858@nas.nasa.gov> +Organization: Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc., Cambridge MA +Lines: 66 +NNTP-Posting-Host: bbn.com + +In article <1993Feb23.201949.858@nas.nasa.gov> proett@tailspin.nas.nasa.gov (Tom Proett) writes: +>Hi, +> +>I have a T1000SE which has a problem with the battery. It will only +>work when it is plugged in now. If I try to unplug it, it will +>shut down right away. I took the battery out and hooked it to a +>flashlight bulb to drain it. It lighted the bulb brightly for +>just under 6 hours. I charged it again and it still would not work. +> +>Is there a setting on the computer itself which tells it to not shut +>down? It seems that the battery is at least fairly good if it can +>light a light for more than 5 hours. +> +>Thanks. +> +>-- +>proett@tailspin.nas.nasa.gov +>NASA Ames Research Center + +This seems to be a common problem. I don't know any definitive answers, +but since I faced the same problem, I had occasion to look into it. + +1. Buy replacement cells, open the pack, and put in the new cells. A +good source for replacement cells (in New England): Gates Energy +Products, Inc. 1 Prestige Drive, Meriden, CT 06450-7105 Tel: (203) 238 +6912, FAX (203) 238 6887 Voice Mail: (904) 462 8725. Attention: David +Childs, sales engineer, Northern Sales Region. He was very helpful for +me. The cells to get: GLF-1700A Ultramax NiCad. (The cell size, +officially, is 4/3A.) Cell cost is around $5.50-6.00 as I recall. + +Opening the pack requires a careful dissection along the ultrasonically +welded perimeter seam, visible with the pack upside down. You can put +it back together again with glue of various flavors. Be sure to put +back the temperature sensor that is nestled in between two of the cells. + +2. Exhume the existing cell(s). Once the pack was open, I found one +cell that was weak (discharged quickly) and one that was zero volts, +zero ohms. (Even so, of course, the remaining cells would easily run +most flashlight bulbs.) Taking a cue from various other posters ("put a +good cell in parallel with the bad one", "discharge a capacitor into the +bad cell") and feeling I had little to lose, I decided that if a little +was good, more would be better. So I connected a 12v automobile battery +charger across each bad cell (one at a time). I set the current level +to "trickle", connected positive-to-positive, negative-to-negative, and +turned on the power for about 3 seconds. Scarey! Longer connections +obvious raise the ante, like inadvertent explosions. An ammeter (on the +charger) showed currents exceeding 10 amperes, tending to decay over a +few seconds to less than 10 amperes, but I wasn't about to get too +academic about this. A voltmeter showed 0 volts before the treatment +and 1.2+ after. I repeated this treatment about 3 times, with a +respectful interval in between, like a minute. Voila, the cell now +looked normal, with an open circuit voltage of about 1.3. I put +everything back together, let the Toshiba charger care for the pack +overnight, and the next morning, it all seemed to run fine. + +Note: I first tried this treatment across several cells in series, only +one of which was bad. It did not help! + +I can hardly guarantee the safety or long-term consequences of this +procedure. But, clearly, there is some rationale to the talk that +a sufficient goosing of these cells can exhume them. + .---------------------------------------------------------------- + /Internet email: sher@bbn.com +Larry Sher < US Mail: BBN, MS 6/5A, 10 Moulton St., Cambridge, MA 02138 + \ Telephone: (617) 873 3426 FAX: (617) 873 3776 + `---------------------------------------------------------------- + + +From uwm.edu!cs.utexas.edu!uunet!ehbbs!joe.george Sun Mar 7 15:29:10 CST 1993 +Article: 5584 of comp.sys.palmtops +Path: uwm.edu!cs.utexas.edu!uunet!ehbbs!joe.george +From: joe.george@ehbbs.com (Joe George) +Newsgroups: comp.sys.palmtops +Subject: HP95LX batteries ? +Message-ID: <1436.616.uupcb@ehbbs.com> +Date: 5 Mar 93 23:01:00 GMT +Distribution: world +Organization: Ed Hopper's BBS - Berkeley Lake, GA - 404-446-9462 +Reply-To: joe.george@ehbbs.com (Joe George) +Lines: 26 + + +SDFW-> What does the '95LX use for batteries ? + +Just about any AA batteries work, with varying results. The HP's +internal battery-level meter is geared to the steady voltage dropoff of +alkaline batteries; the reason NiCd batteries stink out loud in +equipment like this is that when NiCds run out of gas, the voltage drop +off is quick and very steep and _very_ unforgiving. I've not used NiMH +batteries in my HP (but I have one in my laptop, it's got a lot longer +life but an odd voltage drop off. Not bad, just odd.) + +The batteries I now exclusively use in my HP are Eveready Energizer +High-Energy Lithium AA Batteries. Theyre about $1.50 a pair more +expensive than standard Energizers but I get 2-3x the life out of them. +They, too, have a kind of quick drop off (I ran for 3 weeks with the +battery meter on "Full" and went down to "Empty" in a matter of 2 days) + +Joe + + * SLMR 2.1a * TV is a medium; anything well done is rare. + +---- ++---------------------------------------------------------------------------+ +| Ed Hopper's BBS - ehbbs.com - Berkeley Lake (Atlanta), Georgia | +|USR/HST:404-446-9462 V.32bis:404-446-9465-Home of uuPCB Usenet for PC Board| ++---------------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + +From uwm.edu!wupost!howland.reston.ans.net!gatech!news.ans.net!cmcl2!netnews!jan.ultra.nyu.edu!edler Wed Apr 21 15:28:17 CDT 1993 +Article: 10220 of comp.sys.laptops +Path: uwm.edu!wupost!howland.reston.ans.net!gatech!news.ans.net!cmcl2!netnews!jan.ultra.nyu.edu!edler +From: edler@jan.ultra.nyu.edu (Jan Edler) +Newsgroups: comp.sys.laptops +Subject: Re: Getting rid of Nicad memory effect +Date: 19 Apr 1993 17:57:14 GMT +Organization: New York University, Ultracomputer project +Lines: 27 +Message-ID: <1qup5q$scs@calvin.NYU.EDU> +References: <735092474snx@tixel.mv.com> +NNTP-Posting-Host: jan.ultra.nyu.edu + +In article <735092474snx@tixel.mv.com> jarnold@tixel.mv.com writes: +>I had posted a note a few weeks ago about how to "fully discharge" a +>nicad battery pack (that powers my notebook pc) that has apparently +>developed the dreaded nicad memory effect. Brand new, I used to be +>able to get 3+ hours of heads-down work out of a charge, but now +>(same apps, same work habits) I'm lucky to get as much as *one* hour. + +I have been using a resistor to regularly discharge my T1000SE battery +for several years. This is a 7.2V pack. I use a 10 Ohm power resistor +from Radio Shack. I remove the battery, place it upside down, place +the resistor on the battery contacts (I've bent the resistor's leads to +make this convenient), and put a little weight on it to make a good +connection. I normally connect a voltmeter to it, and wait about 10 or +12 minutes for the voltage to drop below 6V. I keep the voltmeter on +my desk, so this is convenient, but otherwise I just time it for about +10 minutes. I use a kitchen timer to remind me when to check the +battery. I go through this procedure almost every time the machine +shuts off, before recharging (i.e., about daily). This arrangement +seems to work well. + +When I started doing this, a few years ago, I drained the battery all +the way (until the resistor was cold). I never had any trouble, but +various people were making arguments that this could damage the cells, +so now I stop somewhere below 6V. So far so good. + +Jan Edler +edler@nyu.edu + + +From uwm.edu!cs.utexas.edu!uunet!olivea!charnel!csusac!sactoh0!mnj Tue May 18 14:40:39 CDT 1993 +Article: 14012 of comp.sys.handhelds +Newsgroups: comp.sys.handhelds +Path: uwm.edu!cs.utexas.edu!uunet!olivea!charnel!csusac!sactoh0!mnj +From: mnj@sactoh0.sac.ca.us (Mark Newton-John) +Subject: Re: Batteries for the Psion Series 3 +Message-ID: <1993May18.083859.12296@sactoh0.sac.ca.us> +Organization: Sacramento Public Access Unix +References: <1993May17.143707.7032@unix.brighton.ac.uk> +Date: Tue, 18 May 93 08:38:59 GMT +Lines: 29 + +In <1993May17.143707.7032@unix.brighton.ac.uk> ah57@unix.brighton.ac.uk (Andrew) writes: + +>Has anybody found it possible to use rechargeable batteries in their +>Psion Series3? I Have tried using rechargeables but they seem only to last +>for about a day before I get lots of Main battery is low warnings. + + +The problem with rechargeables is that they are not the 1.5 volts +that regular alkalines give. (typically 1.2 volts) + +The Psion sees the low voltage and will give the low battery +warning, and if ignored, will start to use the memory battery. + +With the Portfolio, what can happen is that the low battery warning +could be missed, and when the power falls off (rechargebles fall +off rapidly) memory loss will occur. + +The best batteries that I have found to use in handhelds are Maxell +(yes, the tape company) Photo AA (LR6) alkalines. They are a more +powerfull alkaline, designed for high drain useage in camera +flashes and motor drives. They are $3.49 per 4-pack. They have +outlasted a set of Energizers (stupid rabbit) and Duracells. + + +-- +mfolivo@sactoh0.SAC.CA.US SAC-UNIX (916) 649-0161 +The Good Guys! We know our stuff +Audi The Alternate Route +Atari Power without the Price + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/blackhol.nas b/textfiles.com/science/blackhol.nas new file mode 100644 index 00000000..67dde116 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/blackhol.nas @@ -0,0 +1,326 @@ + + + +BLACKHOL.DOC - Article on Black Holes + + + + + The following material was downloaded from the NASA SpaceLink + BBS at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, George C. + Marshall Space Flight Center, Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama + 35812 on 11/16/88. + + + + B L A C K H O L E S I N S P A C E + ------------------------------------------------------------- + + There is much more to black holes than meets the eye. In fact, + your eyes, even with the aid of the most advanced telescope, will + never see a black hole in space. The reason is that the matter + within a black hole is so dense and has so great a gravitational pull + that it prevents even light from escaping. + + Like other electromagnetic radiation (radio waves, infrared + rays, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma radiation), light is + the fastest traveler in the Universe. It moves at nearly 300,000 + kilometers (about 186,000 miles) per second. At such a speed, you + could circle the Earth seven times between heartbeats. +-- more -- + If light can't escape a black hole, it follows that nothing else + can. Consequently, there is no direct way to detect a black hole. + + In fact, the principal evidence of the existence of black holes + comes not from observation but from solutions to complex equations + based on Einstein's Theory of General Relativity. Among other + things, the calculations indicate that black holes may occur in a + variety of sizes and be more abundant than most of us realize. + + + MINI BLACK HOLES + + Some black holes are theorized to be nearly as old as the Big + Bang, which is hypothesized to have started our Universe 10 to 20 + billion years ago. The rapid early expansion of some parts of the + dense hot matter in this nascent Universe is said to have so + compressed less rapidly moving parts that the latter became + superdense and collapsed further, forming black holes. Among the + holes so created may be the submicroscopic mini-black holes. + + A mini-black hole may be as small as an atomic particle but + contain as much mass (material) as Mount Everest. Never +-- more -- underestimate the power of a mini-black hole. If some event caused + it to decompress, it would be as if millions of hydrogen bombs were + simultaneously detonated. + + + HOW STARS DIE + + The most widespread support is given to the theory that a black + hole is the natural end product of a giant star's death. According + to this theory, a star like our Sun and others we see in the sky + lives as long as thermal energy and radiation from nuclear reactions + in its core provide sufficient outward pressure to counteract the + inward pressure of gravity caused by the star's own great mass. + + When the star exhausts its nuclear fuels, it succumbs to the + forces of its own gravity and literally collapses inward. According + to equations derived from quantum mechanics and Einstein's Theory of + General Relativity, the star's remaining mass determines whether it + becomes a white dwarf, a neutron star, or black hole. + + + WHITE DWARFS + +-- more -- Stars are usually measured in comparison with our Sun's mass. A + star whose remaining mass is about that of our Sun condenses to + approximately the size of Earth. The star's contraction is halted by + the collective resistance of electrons pressed against each other and + their atomic nuclei. Matter in this collapsed star is so tightly + packed that a piece the size of a sugar cube would weigh thousands of + kilograms. Gravitational contraction would also have made the star + white hot. It is appropriately called a white dwarf. + + Astronomers have detected white dwarfs in space. The first + discovery was a planet-sized object that seemed to exert a + disproportionately high gravitational effect upon a celestial + companion, the so call dog star Sirius, which is about 2.28 times our + Sun's mass. It appeared that this planet-sized object would have to + be about as massive as our Sun to affect Sirius as it did. Moreover, + spectral analysis indicated the star's color was white. + + Based upon these and other studies, astronomers concluded that + they had found a white dwarf. However, it took many years after the + discovery in 1914 before most scientists accepted the fact that an + object thousands of times denser than anything possible on Earth + could exist. + +-- more -- + NEUTRON STARS AND SUPERNOVAS + + Giant stars usually lose most of their mass during their normal + lifetimes. If such a star still retains 1 1/2 to 3 solar masses + after exhaustion of its nuclear fuels, it would collapse to even + greater density and smaller size than the white dwarf. The reason is + that there is a limit on the amount of compression electrons can + resist in the presence of atomic nuclei. + + In this instance, the limit is breached. Electrons are + literally driven into atomic nuclei, mating with protons to form + neutrons and thus transmuting nuclei into neutrons. The resulting + object is aptly called a neutron star. It may be only a few + kilometers in diameter. A sugar-cube size piece of this star would + weigh about one-half a trillion kilograms. + + Sometimes, as electrons are driven into protons in atomic + nuclei, neutrinos are blown outward so forcefully that they blast off + the star's outer layer. This creates a supernova that may + temporarily outshine all of the other stars in a galaxy. + + The most prominent object believed to be a neutron star is the +-- more -- Crab Nebula, the remnant of a supernova observed and reported by + Chinese astronomers in 1504. A star-like object in the nebula + blinks, or pulses, about 30 times per second in visible light, radio + waves, and X and gamma rays. The radio pulses are believed to result + from interaction between a point on the spinning star and the star's + magnetic field. As the star rotates, this point is theorized + alternately to face and be turned away from Earth. The fast rotation + rate implied by the interval between pulses indicates the star is no + more than a few kilometers in diameter because if it were larger, it + would be torn apart by centrifugal force. + + + PULSARS + + Radio telescopes have detected a large number of other objects + which send out naturally pulsed radio signals. They were named + pulsars. Like the object in the Crab Nebula, they are presumed to be + rotating neutron stars. + + Of these pulsars, only the Vela pulsar--which gets its name + because of its location in the Vela (Sails) constellation--pulses at + wavelengths shorter than radio. Like the Crab pulsar, the Vela + pulsar also pulses at optical and gamma ray wavelengths. However, +-- more -- unlike the Crab pulsar, it is not an X-ray pulsar. Aside from the + mystery generated by these differences, scientists also debate the + reasons for the pulses at gamma, X-ray and optical frequencies. As + noted earlier, they agree on the origin of the radio pulses. + + + BLACK HOLES + + When a star has three or more solar masses left after it + exhausts its nuclear fuels, it can become a black hole. + + Like the white dwarf and neutron star, this star's density and + gravity increase with contraction. Consequently, the star's + gravitational escape velocity (speed needed to escape from the star) + increases. When the star has shrunk to the Schwarzschild radius, + named for the man who first calculated it, its gravitational escape + velocity would be nearly 300,000 kilometers per second, which is + equal to the speed of light. Consequently, light could never leave + the star. + + Reduction of a giant star to the Schwarzschild radius represents + an incredible compression of mass and decrease in size. As an + example, mathematicians calculate that for a star of 10 solar masses +-- more -- (ten times the mass of our Sun) after exhaustion of its nuclear + fuels, the Schwarzschild radius is about 30 kilometers. + + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + According to the Law of General Relativity, space and time are + warped, or curved, by gravity. Time is theorized TO POINT INTO THE + BLACK HOLE FROM ALL DIRECTIONS. To leave a black hole, an object, + even light would have to go backward in time. Thus, anything falling + into a black hole would disappear from our Universe. + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + + The Schwarzschild radius becomes the black hole's "event + horizon", the hole's boundary of no return. Anything crossing the + event horizon can never leave the black hole. Within the event + horizon, the star continues to contract until it reaches a space-time + singularity, which modern science cannot easily define. It may be + considered a state of infinite density in which matter loses all of + its familiar properties. + + Theoretically, it may take less than a second for a star to + collapse into black hole. However, because of relativistic effects, + we could never see such an event. This is because, as demonstrated + by comparison of clocks on spacecraft with clocks on Earth, gravity +-- more -- can slow, perhaps even stop, time. The gravity of the collapsing + star would slow time so much that we would see the star collapsing + for as long as we watched. + + Once a black hole has been formed, it crushes into a singularity + anything crossing its event horizon. As the black hole devours + matter, its event horizon expands. This expansion is limited only by + the availability of matter. Incredibly vast black holes that harbor + the crushed remains of billions of solar masses are theoretically + possible. + + Evidence that such superdense stars as white dwarfs and neutron + stars do exist has supported the idea that black holes, representing + what may be the ultimate in density, must also exist. Potential + black holes, stars with three or more times the mass of our Sun, + pepper the sky. But how can astronomers detect a black hole? + + + HOW BLACK HOLES MAY BE INDIRECTLY DETECTED + + Scientists found indirect ways of doing so. The methods depends + upon black holes being members of binary star systems. A binary star + system consists of two stars comparatively near to and revolving +-- more -- about each other. Unlike our Sun, most stars exist in pairs. + + If one of the stars in a binary system had become a black hole, + the hole would betray its existence, although invisible, by its + gravitational effects upon the other star. These effects would be in + accordance with Newton's Law: attractions of two bodies to each other + are directly proportional to the square of the distance between them. + The reason is that outside of its event horizon, a black hole's + gravity is the same as other objects'. + + Scientists also have determined that a substantial part of the + energy of matter spiraling into a black hole is converted by + collision, compression, and heating into X- and gamma rays displaying + certain spectral characteristics. The radiation is from the material + as it is pulled across the hole's event horizon, its radiation cannot + escape. + + + WORMHOLES + + Some scientists speculate that matter going into a black hole + may survive. Under special circumstances, it might be conducted via + passages called "wormholes" to emerge in another time or another +-- more -- universe. Black holes are theorized to play relativistic tricks with + space and time. + + + NASA ORBITING OBSERVATORY OBSERVATIONS + + Black hole candidates--phenomena exhibiting black hole + effects--have been discovered and studied through such NASA + satellites as the Small Astronomy Satellites (SAS) and the much + larger Orbiting Astronomical Observatories (OAO) and High Energy + Astronomical Observatories (HEAO). The most likely candidate is + Cygnus X-1, an invisible object in the constellation Cygnus, the + swan. Cygnus X-1 means that it is the first X-ray source discovered + in Cygnus. X-rays from the invisible object have characteristics + like those predicted from material as it falls toward a black hole. + The material is apparently being pulled from the hole's binary + companion, a large star of about 30 solar masses. Based upon the + black hole's gravitational effects on the visible star, the hole's + mass is estimated to be about six times of our Sun. In time the + gargantuan visible star could also collapse into a neutron star or + black hole or be pulled piece by piece into the existing black hole, + significantly enlarging the hole's event horizon. + +-- more -- + BLACK HOLES AND GALAXIES + + It is theorized that rotating black holes, containing the + remains of millions or billions of dead stars, may lie at the centers + of galaxies such as our Milky Way and that vast rotating black holes + may be the powerhouses of quasars and active galaxies. Quasars are + believed to be galaxies in an early violent evolutionary stage while + active galaxies are marked by their extraordinary outputs of energy, + mostly from their cores. + + According to one part of the General Theory of Relativity called + the Penrose Process, most of the matter falling toward black holes is + consumed while the remainder is flung outward with more energy than + the original total falling in. The energy is imparted by the hole's + incredibly fast spin. Quiet normal galaxies like our Milky Way are + said to be that way only because the black holes at their centers + have no material upon which to feed. + + This situation could be changed by a chance break-up of a star + cluster near the hole, sending stars careening into the hole. Such + an event could cause the nucleus of our galaxy to explode with + activity, generating large volumes of lethal gamma radiation that +-- more -- would fan out across our galaxy like a death ray, destroying life on + Earth and wherever else it may have occurred. + + + BLACK HOLES AND GALACTIC CLUSTERS + + Some astronomers believe that the gravity pulls of gigantic + black holes may hold together vast galactic clusters such as the + Virgo cluster consisting of about 2500 galaxies. Such clusters were + formed after the Big Bang some 10 to 20 billion years ago. Why they + did not spread randomly as the Universe expanded is not understood, + as only a fraction of the mass needed to keep them together is + observable. NASA's Hubble Space Telescope and AXAF Telescope, + scheduled for a future Shuttle launch, will provide many more times + the data than present ground and space observatories furnish and + should contribute to resolving this and other mysteries of our + Universe. + + + BLACK HOLES AND OUR UNIVERSE + + Our universe is theorized to have begun with a bang that sent + pieces of it outward in all directions. As yet, astronomers have not +-- more -- detected enough mass to reverse this expansion. The possibility + remains, however, that the missing mass may be locked up in + undetectable black holes that are more prevalent than anyone + realizes. + + If enough black holes exist to reverse the universe's expansion, + what then? Will all of the stars, and galaxies, and other matter in + the universe collapse inward like a star that has exhausted its + nuclear fuels? Will one large black hole be created, within which + the universe will shrink to the ultimate singularity? + + Extrapolating backward more than 10 billion years, some + cosmologists trace our present universe to a singularity. Is a + singularity both the beginning and end of our universe? Is our + universe but a phase between singularities? + + These questions may be more academic than we realize. + Scientists say that, if the universe itself is closed and nothing can + escape from it, we may already be in a black hole. + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/blackhol.txt b/textfiles.com/science/blackhol.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..b3c46aa1 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/blackhol.txt @@ -0,0 +1,325 @@ + Combat Arms + 2869 Grove Way + Castro Valley, California 94546-6709 + Telephone (415) 538-6544 + + + The following material was downloaded from the NASA SpaceLink +BBS at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, George C. +Marshall Space Flight Center, Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama +35812 on 11/16/88. + + + +B L A C K H O L E S I N S P A C E +------------------------------------------------------------- + + There is much more to black holes than meets the eye. In fact, +your eyes, even with the aid of the most advanced telescope, will +never see a black hole in space. The reason is that the matter +within a black hole is so dense and has so great a gravitational pull +that it prevents even light from escaping. + + Like other electromagnetic radiation (radio waves, infrared +rays, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma radiation), light is +the fastest traveler in the Universe. It moves at nearly 300,000 +kilometers (about 186,000 miles) per second. At such a speed, you +could circle the Earth seven times between heartbeats. + + If light can't escape a black hole, it follows that nothing else +can. Consequently, there is no direct way to detect a black hole. + + In fact, the principal evidence of the existence of black holes +comes not from observation but from solutions to complex equations +based on Einstein's Theory of General Relativity. Among other +things, the calculations indicate that black holes may occur in a +variety of sizes and be more abundant than most of us realize. + + +MINI BLACK HOLES + + Some black holes are theorized to be nearly as old as the Big +Bang, which is hypothesized to have started our Universe 10 to 20 +billion years ago. The rapid early expansion of some parts of the +dense hot matter in this nascent Universe is said to have so +compressed less rapidly moving parts that the latter became +superdense and collapsed further, forming black holes. Among the +holes so created may be the submicroscopic mini-black holes. + + A mini-black hole may be as small as an atomic particle but +contain as much mass (material) as Mount Everest. Never +underestimate the power of a mini-black hole. If some event caused +it to decompress, it would be as if millions of hydrogen bombs were +simultaneously detonated. + + +HOW STARS DIE + + The most widespread support is given to the theory that a black +hole is the natural end product of a giant star's death. According +to this theory, a star like our Sun and others we see in the sky +lives as long as thermal energy and radiation from nuclear reactions +in its core provide sufficient outward pressure to counteract the +inward pressure of gravity caused by the star's own great mass. + + When the star exhausts its nuclear fuels, it succumbs to the +forces of its own gravity and literally collapses inward. According +to equations derived from quantum mechanics and Einstein's Theory of +General Relativity, the star's remaining mass determines whether it +becomes a white dwarf, a neutron star, or black hole. + + +WHITE DWARFS + + Stars are usually measured in comparison with our Sun's mass. A +star whose remaining mass is about that of our Sun condenses to +approximately the size of Earth. The star's contraction is halted by +the collective resistance of electrons pressed against each other and +their atomic nuclei. Matter in this collapsed star is so tightly +packed that a piece the size of a sugar cube would weigh thousands of +kilograms. Gravitational contraction would also have made the star +white hot. It is appropriately called a white dwarf. + + Astronomers have detected white dwarfs in space. The first +discovery was a planet-sized object that seemed to exert a +disproportionately high gravitational effect upon a celestial +companion, the so call dog star Sirius, which is about 2.28 times our +Sun's mass. It appeared that this planet-sized object would have to +be about as massive as our Sun to affect Sirius as it did. Moreover, +spectral analysis indicated the star's color was white. + + Based upon these and other studies, astronomers concluded that +they had found a white dwarf. However, it took many years after the +discovery in 1914 before most scientists accepted the fact that an +object thousands of times denser than anything possible on Earth +could exist. + + +NEUTRON STARS AND SUPERNOVAS + + Giant stars usually lose most of their mass during their normal +lifetimes. If such a star still retains 1 1/2 to 3 solar masses +after exhaustion of its nuclear fuels, it would collapse to even +greater density and smaller size than the white dwarf. The reason is +that there is a limit on the amount of compression electrons can +resist in the presence of atomic nuclei. + + In this instance, the limit is breached. Electrons are +literally driven into atomic nuclei, mating with protons to form +neutrons and thus transmuting nuclei into neutrons. The resulting +object is aptly called a neutron star. It may be only a few +kilometers in diameter. A sugar-cube size piece of this star would +weigh about one-half a trillion kilograms. + + Sometimes, as electrons are driven into protons in atomic +nuclei, neutrinos are blown outward so forcefully that they blast off +the star's outer layer. This creates a supernova that may +temporarily outshine all of the other stars in a galaxy. + + The most prominent object believed to be a neutron star is the +Crab Nebula, the remnant of a supernova observed and reported by +Chinese astronomers in 1504. A star-like object in the nebula +blinks, or pulses, about 30 times per second in visible light, radio +waves, and X and gamma rays. The radio pulses are believed to result +from interaction between a point on the spinning star and the star's +magnetic field. As the star rotates, this point is theorized +alternately to face and be turned away from Earth. The fast rotation +rate implied by the interval between pulses indicates the star is no +more than a few kilometers in diameter because if it were larger, it +would be torn apart by centrifugal force. + + +PULSARS + + Radio telescopes have detected a large number of other objects +which send out naturally pulsed radio signals. They were named +pulsars. Like the object in the Crab Nebula, they are presumed to be +rotating neutron stars. + + Of these pulsars, only the Vela pulsar--which gets its name +because of its location in the Vela (Sails) constellation--pulses at +wavelengths shorter than radio. Like the Crab pulsar, the Vela +pulsar also pulses at optical and gamma ray wavelengths. However, +unlike the Crab pulsar, it is not an X-ray pulsar. Aside from the +mystery generated by these differences, scientists also debate the +reasons for the pulses at gamma, X-ray and optical frequencies. As +noted earlier, they agree on the origin of the radio pulses. + + +BLACK HOLES + + When a star has three or more solar masses left after it +exhausts its nuclear fuels, it can become a black hole. + + Like the white dwarf and neutron star, this star's density and +gravity increase with contraction. Consequently, the star's +gravitational escape velocity (speed needed to escape from the star) +increases. When the star has shrunk to the Schwarzschild radius, +named for the man who first calculated it, its gravitational escape +velocity would be nearly 300,000 kilometers per second, which is +equal to the speed of light. Consequently, light could never leave +the star. + + Reduction of a giant star to the Schwarzschild radius represents +an incredible compression of mass and decrease in size. As an +example, mathematicians calculate that for a star of 10 solar masses +(ten times the mass of our Sun) after exhaustion of its nuclear +fuels, the Schwarzschild radius is about 30 kilometers. + +--------------------------------------------------------------------- + According to the Law of General Relativity, space and time are +warped, or curved, by gravity. Time is theorized TO POINT INTO THE +BLACK HOLE FROM ALL DIRECTIONS. To leave a black hole, an object, +even light would have to go backward in time. Thus, anything falling +into a black hole would disappear from our Universe. +--------------------------------------------------------------------- + + The Schwarzschild radius becomes the black hole's "event +horizon", the hole's boundary of no return. Anything crossing the +event horizon can never leave the black hole. Within the event +horizon, the star continues to contract until it reaches a space-time +singularity, which modern science cannot easily define. It may be +considered a state of infinite density in which matter loses all of +its familiar properties. + + Theoretically, it may take less than a second for a star to +collapse into black hole. However, because of relativistic effects, +we could never see such an event. This is because, as demonstrated +by comparison of clocks on spacecraft with clocks on Earth, gravity +can slow, perhaps even stop, time. The gravity of the collapsing +star would slow time so much that we would see the star collapsing +for as long as we watched. + + Once a black hole has been formed, it crushes into a singularity +anything crossing its event horizon. As the black hole devours +matter, its event horizon expands. This expansion is limited only by +the availability of matter. Incredibly vast black holes that harbor +the crushed remains of billions of solar masses are theoretically +possible. + + Evidence that such superdense stars as white dwarfs and neutron +stars do exist has supported the idea that black holes, representing +what may be the ultimate in density, must also exist. Potential +black holes, stars with three or more times the mass of our Sun, +pepper the sky. But how can astronomers detect a black hole? + + +HOW BLACK HOLES MAY BE INDIRECTLY DETECTED + + Scientists found indirect ways of doing so. The methods depends +upon black holes being members of binary star systems. A binary star +system consists of two stars comparatively near to and revolving +about each other. Unlike our Sun, most stars exist in pairs. + + If one of the stars in a binary system had become a black hole, +the hole would betray its existence, although invisible, by its +gravitational effects upon the other star. These effects would be in +accordance with Newton's Law: attractions of two bodies to each other +are directly proportional to the square of the distance between them. +The reason is that outside of its event horizon, a black hole's +gravity is the same as other objects'. + + Scientists also have determined that a substantial part of the +energy of matter spiraling into a black hole is converted by +collision, compression, and heating into X- and gamma rays displaying +certain spectral characteristics. The radiation is from the material +as it is pulled across the hole's event horizon, its radiation cannot +escape. + + +WORMHOLES + + Some scientists speculate that matter going into a black hole +may survive. Under special circumstances, it might be conducted via +passages called "wormholes" to emerge in another time or another +universe. Black holes are theorized to play relativistic tricks with +space and time. + + +NASA ORBITING OBSERVATORY OBSERVATIONS + + Black hole candidates--phenomena exhibiting black hole +effects--have been discovered and studied through such NASA +satellites as the Small Astronomy Satellites (SAS) and the much +larger Orbiting Astronomical Observatories (OAO) and High Energy +Astronomical Observatories (HEAO). The most likely candidate is +Cygnus X-1, an invisible object in the constellation Cygnus, the +swan. Cygnus X-1 means that it is the first X-ray source discovered +in Cygnus. X-rays from the invisible object have characteristics +like those predicted from material as it falls toward a black hole. +The material is apparently being pulled from the hole's binary +companion, a large star of about 30 solar masses. Based upon the +black hole's gravitational effects on the visible star, the hole's +mass is estimated to be about six times of our Sun. In time the +gargantuan visible star could also collapse into a neutron star or +black hole or be pulled piece by piece into the existing black hole, +significantly enlarging the hole's event horizon. + + +BLACK HOLES AND GALAXIES + + It is theorized that rotating black holes, containing the +remains of millions or billions of dead stars, may lie at the centers +of galaxies such as our Milky Way and that vast rotating black holes +may be the powerhouses of quasars and active galaxies. Quasars are +believed to be galaxies in an early violent evolutionary stage while +active galaxies are marked by their extraordinary outputs of energy, +mostly from their cores. + + According to one part of the General Theory of Relativity called +the Penrose Process, most of the matter falling toward black holes is +consumed while the remainder is flung outward with more energy than +the original total falling in. The energy is imparted by the hole's +incredibly fast spin. Quiet normal galaxies like our Milky Way are +said to be that way only because the black holes at their centers +have no material upon which to feed. + + This situation could be changed by a chance break-up of a star +cluster near the hole, sending stars careening into the hole. Such +an event could cause the nucleus of our galaxy to explode with +activity, generating large volumes of lethal gamma radiation that +would fan out across our galaxy like a death ray, destroying life on +Earth and wherever else it may have occurred. + + +BLACK HOLES AND GALACTIC CLUSTERS + + Some astronomers believe that the gravity pulls of gigantic +black holes may hold together vast galactic clusters such as the +Virgo cluster consisting of about 2500 galaxies. Such clusters were +formed after the Big Bang some 10 to 20 billion years ago. Why they +did not spread randomly as the Universe expanded is not understood, +as only a fraction of the mass needed to keep them together is +observable. NASA's Hubble Space Telescope and AXAF Telescope, +scheduled for a future Shuttle launch, will provide many more times +the data than present ground and space observatories furnish and +should contribute to resolving this and other mysteries of our +Universe. + + +BLACK HOLES AND OUR UNIVERSE + + Our universe is theorized to have begun with a bang that sent +pieces of it outward in all directions. As yet, astronomers have not +detected enough mass to reverse this expansion. The possibility +remains, however, that the missing mass may be locked up in +undetectable black holes that are more prevalent than anyone +realizes. + + If enough black holes exist to reverse the universe's expansion, +what then? Will all of the stars, and galaxies, and other matter in +the universe collapse inward like a star that has exhausted its +nuclear fuels? Will one large black hole be created, within which +the universe will shrink to the ultimate singularity? + + Extrapolating backward more than 10 billion years, some +cosmologists trace our present universe to a singularity. Is a +singularity both the beginning and end of our universe? Is our +universe but a phase between singularities? + + These questions may be more academic than we realize. +Scientists say that, if the universe itself is closed and nothing can +escape from it, we may already be in a black hole. +e. +Scientists say that, if the universe itself is closed and nothing can +esc \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/blkholes.fun b/textfiles.com/science/blkholes.fun new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a6a9db3d --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/blkholes.fun @@ -0,0 +1,106 @@ + +WHAT ARE BLACK HOLES? By Andrew Fraknoi and Sherwood Harrington + + JUST TWO DECADES ago, black holes were an interesting footnote to our +astronomical theories that few non-specialists had heard about. Today, black +holes have "arrived" - one hears about them in Hollywood thrillers, in cartoon +strips, and more and more on the science pages of your local newspaper. + + What exactly are these intriguing cosmic objects and why have they so +captured the imagination of astronomers and the public? + + A black hole is what remains after the death of a very massive star. +Although stars seem reasonably permanent on human time scales, we know that +over the eons all stars will run out of fuel and eventually die. When smaller +stars like our own Sun burn out, they simply shrink under there own weight +until they become so compact they cannot be compressed any further. (This will +not happen to the Sun for billions of years, so there is no reason to add a +rider to your home owners policy at this time!) + + When the largest (most massive) stars have no more fuel left, they have a +much more dramatic demise in store for them. These stars have so much material +that they just cannot support themselves once their nuclear fires go out. +Current theories predict that nothing can stop the collapse of these huge +stars. Once they begin to die, whatever remains of them will collapse FOREVER. + + As the collapsing star falls in on itself, pull of gravity near its surface +will increase. Eventually its pull will become so great that nothing - not +even light - can escape, the star will look BLACK to an outside observer. And +anything you throw into it will never return. Hence astronomers have dubbed +these collapsed stellar corpses "black holes." + + Alert readers will quickly note that this expanation of black holes does not +bode well for finding one. How do we detect something that cannot give off any +light (or other form of radiation)? You might suggest that we can spot a black +hole as it blocks the light of stars that happens to lie behind it. That might +work if the black hole hovered near the Earth, but for any black holes that are +a respectful distance away in space, the part of the sky it would cover would +be so small as to be invisible. + + To make matters worse, the sort of black hole that forms from a single +collapsing star would be only 10 or 20 miles across - totally insignificant in +size compared to most objects astronomers study and much too small to help a +distant black hole hunter on Earth. + + The size of a black hole, by the way, is not the size of the collapsing star +remnant. The stuff of the former star does continue to collapse forever inside +the black hole. What gives the hole its "size" is a special zone around the +star's collapsing core, called the "event horizon." If you are outside this +zone, and you have a powerfull rocket, you still have a chance to get away. +Once you passed inside this zone, the gravitational pull of the collapsing +stuff is so great, nothing you can do can help you from being pulled inexorably +to your doom. The name "event horizon" comes from the fact that once objects +are inside the zone, events that happen to them can no longer be communicated +to the outside world. It is as if a tight "horizon" has been wrapped around +the star. + + How then could we detect these bizzare objects and verify the strange things +predicted about them? It turns out that far away from a black hole the only +way to detect it is to "watch it eating." + + If a black hole forms in a single star system, there is very little material +close to the collapsed remnant for its enormous gravity to pull in. But we +believe that more than half of the stars form in double, triple or multiple +systems. When two stars orbit each other in proximity, and one becomes a black +hole, the other one may have some difficult times ahead. + + Under the right circumstances, material from the outer regions of the normal +star will begin to flow toward its black hole companion. As particles of this +stolen material are pulled into a twisting, whirling stream around the black +hole's event horizon, they are heated to enormous temperatures. They quickly +become so hot that they glow - not just with visable light, but with far more +energetic X-rays. (Of course, all this can be seen only above the event +horizon; once the material falls into the horizon, we have no way of ever +seeing it again.) + + Astronomers began searching in the 1970s for the tell-tale X-rays that +indicate that a black hole is consuming a part of its neighbor star. Since +cosmic X-rays are blocked by the Earth's atmosphere, these observations became +possible only when we could launch sensitive X-ray telescopes into space. But +in the last decade and a half, at least three excellent candidates for a +"feeding" black hole have been identified. + + Probably the best-known case is called Cygnus X-1, a system in the +constellation of Cygnus the swan, in which we see a normal star that appears to +be going around a region of space with nothing visable in it. Smack dab from +the middle of that region, we see just the sort of X-rays that reveal the +stream of material being sucked into the hole. + + While this sort of indirect evidence is not quite as satisfying as seeing a +black hole "up close," for now (and perhaps fortunately) it will have to do. +What is intriguing astronomers these days is the posibility that enormous black +holes may have formed in crowded regions of space. These may not just eat part +of a companion star, but may actually consume many of their neighbor stars +eventually. What we would then have is an even larger black hole, able to eat +even more of the material in its immediate neighborhood. + + In the most populated areas of a galaxy - for example, its center - black +holes may ultimately form that contain the material of a million or billion +stars. In recent years, astronomers have begun to see tantalizing evidence +from the center of our own galaxy and from violent galaxies in the distant +reaches of space indicating that such supermassive black holes may be more +common than we ever imagined. If this evidence is further confirmed, we may +find that the strange black hole plays an important role not only in the death +of a few stars but even in the way entire galaxies of stars evolve. + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/breast.txt b/textfiles.com/science/breast.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..99465955 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/breast.txt @@ -0,0 +1,571 @@ +QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ABOUT BREAST LUMPS + +(NOTE: This publication was produced by the: U.S. Department of +Health and Human Services - Public Health Service - National +Institutes of Health - National Cancer Institute - NIH +Publication No 92-2401 - For a free copy, send your name and address +to: Consumer Information Center - Dept. 553Z - Pueblo, CO 81009) + +To contribute to the National Cancer Institute, write to: Gift +Fund, Box P, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Maryland 20892. + +QUESTIONS & ANSWERS +About Breast Lumps + It's natural to be concerned if you've found a lump in your +breast. But . . . 80 percent of all breast lumps are benign, +which means no cancer is present. After reading this booklet, you +will know more about the normal changes that can occur in a +woman's breasts. And you'll learn what to do if you find a lump +or other change in your breasts. + Most lumps are found by women themselves, either through +regular breast self-exam or just by accident. Others are +discovered during routine breast exams by a health professional +and through mammograms, special x-rays of the breast. + About 20 percent of breast lumps are malignant (cancerous). +However, if cancer is found at an early stage and treated +promptly, the outlook is good. In fact, 85 to 95 percent of women +with early breast cancer will be alive 5 years after diagnosis. +Most of them will be free of breast cancer for the rest of their +lives. + It is normal to be afraid when you find a lump in your +breast. But don't let fear stop you from seeing a doctor right +away if you think something is wrong. You will feel more +confident about finding a breast lump early by: + +* Having regular mammograms (see the guidelines in this text). + +* Having a regular breast exam by a health professional. + +* Doing a monthly breast self-exam (BSE)--as illustrated in this +booklet. + +Q. What is the difference between having a lump in the breast +and simply having "lumpy" breasts? + +A. The breasts are made up of ducts, lobes, and fat. Under the +breasts are muscles and ribs. These normal features may make the +breasts feel "lumpy" or uneven. + In addition, many women have changes in their breasts that +are related to their monthly menstrual cycle. Swelling, +tenderness, and pain in the breasts may occur before and +sometimes during the menstrual period. At the same time, one or +more lumps or a feeling of increased "lumpiness" may appear in +the breasts. These symptoms are caused by extra fluid collecting +in the breast tissue, which is normal. If the "lumpiness" or +lumps do not go away after the end of your period, it is +important to see a doctor. + If you are past menopause and you find any new lump or +thickening in your breast, you should see your doctor. + +Q. What am I looking for when I do BSE? + +A. You are looking for a lump that stands out as different from +the rest of your breast tissue. Many women are confused about BSE +because their breasts generally feel "lumpy." Becoming more +familiar with your breasts by doing BSE each month will help you +tell the difference between your normal "lumpiness" and what may +be a change. + Ask your doctor or other health professional to do a breast +exam with you and to explain what you are feeling in your +breasts. They can make sure you are doing BSE correctly and +thoroughly, which will make you feel more confident. + +Q. What should I do if I find a lump in my breast? + +A. If you notice a lump in one breast, examine the other one. +If both breasts feel the same, then what you feel is probably a +normal part of your breast. You should, however, mention it to +your doctor at your next visit. + If a lump of any size appears in either breast and does not +go away after your menstrual period, see your doctor. The doctor +may refer you to a specialist to discuss the need for further +tests. + If you do not have a doctor of your own, your local medical +society or the Cancer Information Service (CIS) may be able to +help you find a doctor or breast clinic in your area. The toll- +free telephone number of the CIS is 1-8004-CANCER. + +Q. How is a breast lump I evaluated? + +A. Your doctor can evaluate a lump in a number of ways. + +1. Palpation is a physical exam of the breast. The doctor +examines each breast and underarm by feeling the tissue. Although +a doctor can tell a lot by the way the lump feels, no one can be +certain what a lump is just by palpation. + +2. Aspiration, also called fine needle aspiration can help the +doctor discover whether the lump is a cyst (fluid-filled) or a +solid mass of tissue. Aspiration is usually done in the doctor's +office. First, the doctor uses a local anesthetic to numb the +area. Then, the doctor inserts a needle into the lump and tries +to withdraw fluid. If it is a cyst, removing the fluid will +collapse it. The fluid may be sent to a laboratory for testing to +be sure no cancer cells are present. When the lump is solid, the +doctor sometimes removes a sample of cells with the needle. These +cells are then sent to a laboratory for analysis. + +3. A mammogram is a type of x-ray that creates an image of the +breast on film or paper. It can help determine whether a lump is +benign or cancerous. In fact, it often can detect cancer in the +breast before a lump can be felt. The National Cancer Institute +(NCI) suggests that beginning at age 40, all women should have a +mammogram every 1 to 2 years. When a woman reaches 50, she should +have a mammogram each year. A doctor may also recommend a +mammogram if any sign or symptom of breast cancer is found, +regardless of age. + Several other methods also are being studied. None is now +reliable enough to be used alone, but they may be helpful when +combined with other methods. + +* Ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to get an image of the breast and can help determine +if a lump is a cyst or a solid mass. It is usually used along +with palpation and mammography. + +* Diaphanography, or transillumination, shines a light through +the breast to show its inner features. + +* Thermography measures the heat patterns in the breast to +produce an image. + +4. A biopsy is the only certain way to learn whether a breast +lump or suspicious area seen on a mammogram is cancer. In a +biopsy, the doctor surgically removes all or part of the lump and +sends it to the laboratory for analysis. There are several biopsy +methods that a doctor may use: needle biopsy, incisional biopsy, +excisional biopsy, and mammographic localization with biopsy. + Occasionally the doctor will do a needle biopsy to remove a +small amount of tissue from the lump. A needle biopsy can be +performed in the doctor's office. This is most often done when +cancer is suspected and the doctor hopes to confirm the diagnosis +immediately. If cancer is not found, a more thorough biopsy will +follow. + Once, it was thought that inserting a needle or cutting into +a breast lump might cause cancer to spread. This is not true. + An incisional biopsy is the surgical removal of a portion of +a lump. This procedure is often used when the growth is very +large. Again, if no cancer is found, a more thorough biopsy may +follow to make sure the entire lump is free of cancer. + In an excisional biopsy the doctor removes the entire lump. +This is currently the "standard" biopsy procedure and the most +thorough method of diagnosis. Incisional and excisional biopsies +are usually done in the outpatient department of a hospital. +Either a local or general anesthetic may be used. + Mammographic localization with biopsy (also known as needle +localization) is used for suspicious areas such as +microcalcifications (tiny specks of calcium) that cannot be felt +but can be seen on a mammogram. During this procedure the breast +is x-rayed and small needles are placed to outline the suspicious +area for the surgeon who then removes the tissue for biopsy. +This can be done using a local anesthetic in the outpatient +department of a hospital. + Your doctor may suggest one or more of these procedures to +evaluate a lump or other change in your breast. The doctor may +also suggest watching the suspicious area for a month or two. +Because many lumps are caused by normal hormonal changes, this +waiting period may provide additional information. + However, if you feel uncomfortable about waiting, speak with +your doctor about your concerns. You also may want to get a +second opinion, perhaps from a breast specialist or surgeon. Many +cities have breast clinics where you can get a second opinion. +The Cancer Information Service also may be able to help you +locate doctors to consult. + +Q. What will the doctor be able to learn from a biopsy? + +A. The biopsy can tell the doctor whether your lump is benign +or malignant. If it is cancer, your doctor will talk with you +about choices of treatments, and you may be advised to get a +second opinion. (You can call the Cancer Information Service for +other NCI publications that deal with breast cancer treatment.) + If no cancer is found, you may be told that the lump or +suspicious area is the result of a fibrocystic condition, +fibrocystic disease, benign breast disease, or one of many other +conditions. Remember, 80 percent of all breast lumps are not +cancer. + +Q. What is a fibrocystic condition, fibrocystic disease, or +benign breast disease? + +A. Unfortunately, doctors do not agree on standard terms for +benign breast changes. We prefer to use the term benign breast +condition for those changes in a woman's breasts that are not +cancerous. These include normal changes that occur during the +menstrual cycle as well as benign lumps that can appear in the +breast. If your doctor uses a different term, or one you do not +understand, ask for an explanation. + +Q. How many women have a benign breast condition? + +A. It is estimated that at least 50 percent of all women have +irregular or "lumpy" breasts. In addition, many doctors believe +that nearly all women have some benign breast changes beginning +at age 30. A woman is more likely to have these breast changes if +she has never had children, has had irregular menstrual cycles, +has a family history of breast cancer, or is thin. Women who have +had more than one child and women who are taking birth control +pills have a reduced risk. + +Q. What are the symptoms of a benign breast condition? + +A. Women may have increased "lumpiness" with tenderness, pain, +and swelling just before their period begins. These symptoms +lessen after the menstrual period, only to reappear the next +month. Many women find that these symptoms disappear after +menopause. + Benign breast lumps may appear at any time. Some cause pain, +others don't. They may be large or small, soft or rubbery, fluid- +filled or solid, and movable. In addition, some benign breast +conditions may produce a discharge from the nipple. + +Q. What kinds of benign breast conditions are there? + +A. 1. Normal hormonal changes may A cause a feeling of fullness in +the breast, which goes away after the menstrual period. This +condition is most common in women 35 to 50 years of age. + +2. Cysts are fluid-filled sacs that often enlarge and become +tender and painful just before the menstrual period. Cysts are +found most often in women 35 to 50 years of age. They usually are +found in both breasts. There may be many cysts of different +sizes. Some cysts are so small that they can't be felt: others +may be several inches across. + +3. Fibroadenomas are solid, round, rubbery, and freely movable +breast lumps. Usually they are painless. They appear most often +in young women between 15 and 30 years of age. Fibroadenomas +occur twice as often in black women as in others. They are benign +but should be removed to be certain of the diagnosis. +Fibroadenomas do not go away by themselves and may enlarge during +pregnancy and breast-feeding. + +4. Lipomas are single, painless lumps that are sometimes found in +older women. They are made up of fatty tissue and are slow- +growing, soft, and movable. They can vary in size from a dime to +a quarter. Lipomas should be removed or biopsied to make sure +that they are not cancerous. + +5. Intraductal papillomas are small wartlike growths in the +lining of a duct near the nipple. They usually affect women +between 45 and 50 years old and can produce bleeding from the +nipple. + +6. Mammary duct ectasia is an inflammation of the ducts that +causes a thick, sticky, gray-to green discharge from the nipple. +Without treatment, the condition can become painful. + +7. Mastitis (sometimes called "postpartum mastitis") is most +often seen in women who are breast-feeding. It is an inflammatory +condition in which the breast appears red and feels warm, tender, +and lumpy. + +8. Traumatic fat necrosis occasionally appears in older women +and in women with very large breasts. The condition can result +from a bruise or blow to the breast, although the woman might not +remember the specific injury. The trauma causes the fat in the +breast to form lumps that are painless, round, and firm. +Sometimes the skin around them looks red or bruised. Again, a +doctor should examine the area. + A word of caution: If you find a change in your breast, do +not use these descriptions to try to diagnose it yourself. There +is no substitute for a doctor's evaluation. + +Q. What is the treatment for a benign breast condition? + +A. Treatment varies, depending on the type of condition a woman +has. If you have a single lump, it is usually removed in the +biopsy. Most cysts are aspirated, and if they don't disappear, +they are removed by surgery. Although there is no treatment for +normal monthly breast changes, some studies have looked at +various ways of treating the uncomfortable symptoms. The results +of those studies do not all agree. You may wish to discuss the +treatments described below with your doctor. + For a long time doctors thought that eliminating beverages +and foods that contain caffeine such as coffee, tea, cola, and +chocolate (all of which also contain a substance called +methylxanthine) would reduce monthly breast pain and tenderness. +Recent studies have been unable to prove that such a change in +diet affects symptoms. However, women continue to report to +doctors that when they stop drinking coffee or eating chocolate, +the pain and swelling in their breasts is less. + Vitamin E is another treatment that has been suggested. It +is generally accepted that taking this vitamin may help reduce +the symptoms of breast pain and tenderness. You should speak with +your doctor before taking vitamin E. + Occasionally doctors will suggest an antihormone treatment +(Danazol) when a woman has severe symptoms. Danazol may relieve +pain and tenderness and decrease "lumpiness"; however, serious +side effects are possible, and you should discuss all aspects of +this treatment with your doctor if it is recommended. + +Q. Do doctors ever suggest more extensive surgery for benign +breast disease? + +A. In cases where a woman's breasts are extremely difficult to +examine, when there have been many biopsies or there are biopsy- +proven tissue changes that place that woman in a high-risk +category and there is a family history of breast cancer, a doctor +may suggest a prophylactic mastectomy. In this surgery, both +breasts are removed. Some women then choose to have breast +reconstruction. + If your doctor suggests this treatment, you should consider +getting a second opinion, preferably from a breast specialist. +Remember that there is no reason to hurry into this decision. You +should be comfortable with your choice and learn everything about +the procedure, its possible side effects, and your risks of +future problems. Prophylactic mastectomy is a controversial +treatment, and many doctors prefer instead to schedule frequent +exams to check for any breast changes. + +Q. Will insurance pay for the diagnosis and treatment of a +benign breast condition? + +A. Talk with your doctor about your diagnosis and call your +insurance company to ask about their coverage for benign breast +conditions. Only a very small percentage of women with a benign +breast condition are at greater risk of developing cancer. +Despite this fact, some insurance companies have canceled +policies or raised premiums for women who have been diagnosed +with "fibrocystic disease." + +Q. Can benign lumps turn into cancerous ones? + +A. Benign lumps do not turn into cancer. However, cancerous +lumps can develop near benign lumps and can be hidden on a +mammogram. This is another reason why removal of a benign lump is +usually recommended. + +Q. What are microcalcifications? + +A. They are tiny specks of calcium in L the breast tissue that +are sometimes detected by a mammogram. They can be related to a +benign breast condition or breast cancer. In some cases, +microcalcifications are seen when there is no lump present. The +pattern and location of microcalcifications help the doctor +determine if additional tests are needed. + +Q. What causes a discharge from the nipple and should I be +concerned? + +A. You should see your doctor A whenever you notice a +spontaneous discharge from the nipple (when something comes out +without the breast being squeezed). The fluid may be clear, +milky, bloody, or even green. If you have a discharge when you do +BSE, you should also check with your doctor. + Many conditions can cause a discharge. The doctor will take +a sample of the discharge and send it to a laboratory to be +analyzed. Occasionally, the doctor may order special tests to +help in diagnosing the cause of the discharge. Your doctor can +then recommend treatment. + If you are pregnant, breast-feeding, or have recently had a +baby, a milky fluid that comes out of both breasts is most likely +related to your pregnancy. If you have questions or if the fluid +is bloody, talk to your doctor. + +Q. What if I notice a lump in my breast during pregnancy? + +A. During pregnancy, the milk-producing glands become swollen +and the breasts might feel lumpier than usual. It can be +difficult to examine your breasts when you are pregnant, but you +should continue to do so. Although not common, breast cancer has +been diagnosed during pregnancy. So, if you have a question about +the way your breasts feel, talk to your doctor. + +Q. Does every new lump need to be biopsied? + +A. Not necessarily. If a new lump appears, you cannot be sure +that it is benign, even if you have had a benign lump removed in +the past. Your doctor should evaluate it and decide whether a +biopsy is needed. + +Q. Is a biopsy going to change the shape of my breast? + +A. Generally, a breast biopsy leaves only a minor scar, but +this depends on the location and size of the lump and how deep it +is in the breast. You should discuss the procedure with your +doctor so you understand just what is going to be done and what +the result is going to look like. + +Q. Does having a benign breast change mean I am at greater risk +of developing breast cancer? + +A. Generally, no. Most benign breast changes do not increase a +woman's risk of getting breast cancer. Recent studies show that +only certain, very specific breast changes, which are detected by +biopsy, put a woman at higher risk of developing breast cancer. +Most important, 70 percent of the women who have a breast biopsy +for a benign condition are not at any increased risk of cancer. +About 26 percent of breast biopsies show changes that slightly +increase the risk of developing breast cancer, and only 4 percent +show breast changes that moderately increase the woman's risk. + If your biopsy shows benign changes, discuss with your +doctor what kind of changes were found and whether those changes +increase your risk of developing breast cancer. + +Q. What other factors cause a woman to be at increased risk of +getting breast cancer? + +A. Age is a factor. The older you are, the greater your chance +of getting breast cancer. About one in five women diagnosed with +breast cancer has a family history of the disease. Other risk +factors include having your first child after age 30, never being +pregnant, getting your first period at an early age, or having a +late menopause. Do not place too much faith in being safe" if you +have none of these risk factors--what puts you at risk for +getting breast cancer is that you are a woman. The majority of +women who are diagnosed with breast cancer do not fall into any +special high-risk" category. + +QUESTIONS TO ASK YOUR DOCTOR + We hope that this booklet has answered many of your +questions about noncancerous breast lumps. However, no booklet +can take the place of talking with your doctor. Feel free to ask +the doctor any questions you have. If you do not understand the +answer, ask your doctor to explain. + It is helpful to write down questions as you think of them. +The questions below are some of the most common that women have; +you may have others. Jot your questions down and take this list +with you when you see your doctor. + +1. Do I need to have a mammogram? If yes, how often? + +2. How often should I make an appointment to see you? + +3. Will you teach me how to do breast self-examination (BSE) and +check to see that I'm doing it properly? + +4. What should I look for when I do BSE? + +5. How can I distinguish lumps from the other normal parts of my +breast? + +6. What kind of lumps do I have? + +7. Do you think I need to have a biopsy? If no, why not? + +FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION +For answers to questions you may have about breast lumps or +breast cancer, call the following toll-free telephone number and +you will be automatically connected to the Cancer Information +Service office serving your area: + + 1-800-4-CANCER+ + ++Spanish speaking CIS staff members are available. + +GLOSSARY +Anesthetics: Drugs or gases that cause complete or partial loss +of feeling or sensation. When local anesthetics are used, the +patient is usually awake. General anesthetics put the patient to +sleep. + +Aspiration: Withdrawal of fluid from a cyst with a hypodermic +needle. + +Benign: Not cancerous. + +Benign breast condition: Noncancerous changes in the breast that +can cause pain, lumpiness, or other problems. Also called +fibrocystic condition. + +Biopsy: The removal and microscopic examination of cells or +tissues for diagnosis. Breast self-exam (BSE): A method for women +to check their own breasts for changes in appearance or feel. + +Cancer: A general name for over 100 diseases in which abnormal +cells grow out of control. Cyst: A fluid-filled sac or cavity. + +Discharge: Any fluid coming from the nipple. It may be clear, +milky, bloody, gray, or green. + +Duct: A pathway in the breast through which milk passes from +lobes to the nipple. + +Fibrocystic condition: Breast irregularities or lumpiness that +are not cancerous; sometimes referred to as "fibrocystic disease" +or "benign breast disease." + +Lobes: Group of glands in the breast that produce milk. + +Malignant: Cancerous. + +Mammogram: An x-ray of the breast. + +Mastitis: Inflammation of the breast causing pain and tenderness. + +Menopause: The time of a woman's life when her monthly menstrual +periods stop, sometimes called "change of life." + +Microcalcification: A small deposit of calcium in the breast that +can appear on a mammogram and may sometimes indicate breast +cancer. + +Normal hormonal changes: Tissue changes that occur in response to +the changing levels of female hormones during the menstrual +cycle. + +Palpation: Feeling the breast for any abnormalities. + +Pathologist: A doctor with special training in diagnosing disease +from samples of tissue. Prophylactic mastectomy: Removal of the +breast when no disease is present in order to prevent breast +cancer from developing. + +BREAST SELF-EXAMINATION (BSE) INSTRUCTIONS + Please open and tear out the BSE chart. For easy reference, +tape it on your medicine cabinet or any convenient location to +remind yourself to do BSE. Women taking charge of their own +health are doing BSE regularly; they are also eating healthy +foods, exercising, and not smoking. + + REMEMBER, BSE IS NOT A SUBSTITUTE FOR ROUTINE + MAMMOGRAMS OR REGULAR BREAST EXAMS BY A DOCTOR. + BREAST SELF EXAMINATION + + Breast self-examination should be done once a month so you +become familiar with the usual appearance and feel of your +breasts. Familiarity makes it easier to notice any changes in the +breast from one month to another. Early discovery of a change +from what is "normal" is the main idea behind BSE. The outlook is +much better if you detect cancer in an early stage. + If you menstruate, the best time to do BSE is 2 or 3 days +after your period ends, when your breasts are least likely to be +tender or swollen. If you no longer menstruate, pick a day such +as the first day of the month, to remind yourself it is time to +do BSE. Here is one way to do BSE: + +1. Stand before a mirror. Inspect both breasts for anything +unusual such as any discharge from the nipples or puckering, +dimpling, or scaling of the skin. The next two steps are designed +to emphasize any change in the shape or contour of your breasts. +As you do them, you should be able to feel your chest muscles +tighten. + +2. Watching closely in the mirror, clasp your hands behind your +head and press your hands forward. + +3. Next, press your hands firmly on your hips and bow slightly +toward your mirror as you pull your shoulders and elbows forward. +Some women do the next part of the exam in the shower because +fingers glide over soapy skin, making it easy to concentrate on +the texture underneath. + +4. Raise your left arm. Use three or four fingers of your right +hand to explore your left breast firmly, carefully, and +thoroughly. Beginning at the outer edge, press the flat part of +your fingers in small circles, moving the circles slowly around +the breast. Gradually work toward the nipple. Be sure to cover +the entire breast. Pay special attention to the area between the +breast and the underarm, including the underarm itself. Feel for +any unusual lump or mass under the skin. + +5. Gently squeeze the nipple and look for a discharge. (If you +have any discharge during the month-- whether or not it is during +BSE--see your doctor.) Repeat steps 4 and 5 on your right breast. + +6. Steps 4 and 5 should be repeated lying down. Lie flat on your +back with your left arm over your head and a pillow or folded +towel under your left shoulder. This position flattens the breast +and makes it easier to examine. use me same circular motion +described earlier. Repeat the exam on your right breast. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/chemburn.ana b/textfiles.com/science/chemburn.ana new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3a8c5b17 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/chemburn.ana @@ -0,0 +1,59 @@ +The following question and answer might be of value to some of your users + +DEAR SIR. + I WORK FOR ONE THE THE LARGE ELECTRONICS COMPANY'S HERE IN THE +VALLEY. I WORK AROUND VERY HAZARDIS CHEMICALS SOME KNOWN TO ME +AS E-6, HF. I ALSO WORK AROUND RF. EVERY DAY WHILE IN WORK MY +EYES WATER, BURN, I HAVE TO BLINK VERY OFTEN TO KEEP MY EYES FROM +FALLING OUT. PEOPLE AROUND ME ASK WHY I BLINK AND SWINT SO MUCH. I ONLY +DO THIS AT WORK DURING MY 8 HR SHIFT. COULD THIS HAVE TO DO WITH THE +WORK AREA. ALSO I WORK UNDER YELLOW LIGHTS ALL DAY AT WORK ALSO. + + + =========================================================================== + Various chemicals have, from time to time, been implicated in causing + irritation of the eyes. Solvent fumes such as E-6 and etchants such as HF + are known cuses of this problem. The fumes of HydroFlouric acid combine + with water to form a very caustic solution which is strong enough to etch + glass. Solvents, especially degreasers, can alter the tear film layer of + the eye by dissolving out the lipid component of tears. When the lipid + (fat) portion of tears is reduced, the eyes will feel dry and more tearing + results. These tears will also be acted upon by the solvent and the cycle + will continue. Immediate treatment of such cases is removal from the + causative environment. The symptoms are treated with artificial tear agents + which act to stabilize the tear layer allowing the eye to come back to + normal. The accompanying blood vessel reaction is treated with an anti- + inflammatory agent which also acts to reduce the cellular response which + resembles an "allergic" reaction. Generally relief is immediate but the + total response time depends upon the duration and amount of exposure. + + Continued exposure can lead to the usual signs and symptoms of chronic + contact reactions with the appearence of scarring, pterygia formation, + thickened lids and drying of the skin. Continued tearing leads to glare + and to skin irritation. Atopic dermatitis is sometimes seen in severe + cases and sensitization of the eyes to other chemicals can occur. + + The eye is not the only part of the body to be involved. The mucous + membranes of the mouth and nose as well as the lining of the air passages + and lungs are also reacting to this insult. Some of this material will + find passage into the circulation as well and thereby affect distant, + internal organs. The information on such dispersal is not great. In short, + not much is known. To respect the unknown is prudent and a survival trait + of great value. + + OSHA has very clear guidelines to the safety levels of such chemicals + however, these reccomendations are general and do not take into + consideration individual sensitivity. The wearing of contact lenses in + such an environment and under such circumstances is not reccomended. + + Electronics fabrication facilities, especially those involved in + manufacturing circuit boards use a variety of exotic solvents. This fact + coupled with the fumes from fluxes and soldering makes such an area a + real eye hazard. It is becoming readily apparent, that while the human + animal is very adaptable and hard to destroy, there is a limit to the + toxicity levels that can be tolerated. We continue to produce "aerosols" + of increasing toxicity with no thought to their longterm effects. + "Guidelines" from OSHA and others not-with-standing, the levels set as safe + are far to high. My advice to the questioner is to demand transfer to a + healthier portion of the plant. + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/choosing.cat b/textfiles.com/science/choosing.cat new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a6a5710c --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/choosing.cat @@ -0,0 +1,1099 @@ + + + + CHOOSING A CAT + + R. Roger Breton + Nancy J Creek + + ------------------------------ + + Making the Decision + + So! You've decided you want a cat, have you? Before taking the + plunge there are a few things to take into account. The first and + most important of these is so obvious, so self-evident, that we hesi- + tate to mention it, and wouldn't were it not for the fact that it is + so often overlooked. + + Your new cat will be a living, breathing, caring, cuddling, and fairly + intelligent member of the family with many special needs and desires, + not all of which are necessarily pleasant to fulfill. If you are not + ready to meet the requirements of being a cat person, then consider a + stuffed cat (polyester doesn't shed and kapok doesn't require a lit- + terbox). + + The lifespan of a cat is typically fifteen to twenty years, all of + which will be spent as a member of the family: this is roughly the + same length of time a human child would be in residence. A cat is, in + many ways, a perpetual small child: it has certain simple but ex- + tremely necessary requirements (food, shelter, etc.), gives and re- + ceives love, provides pleasure and amusement, does certain household + chores (better than "other kids" at pest control, but lousy at washing + dishes), and, like most small children, minds when it wants to. + Unlike a small child, however, a cat doesn't require a baby sitter, + doesn't demand the latest in toys or fashions, and never needs ortho- + pedic shoes. + + In effect, a cat provides a maximum of pleasure to its people with a + minimum of trouble, if only the people follow a few simple guidelines. + + One extremely important thing to consider: never obtain a cat (or any + other living creature) as a gift for someone else unless you are + absolutely certain that the recipient really wants and is able to care + for it. Many a Christmas kitten is discarded in September when the + "new" has worn off and kittenhood is no longer evident. In a like + manner, never obtain a cat as a status symbol, or for any reason other + than love. Neither you nor the cat will be happy in the long run. + + Choosing a Cat + + When obtaining a cat there are several things for which to look: Is + it the desired breed? Is it suitable for your lifestyle? Will it do + well with other members of the household? Is it healthy? Is it + friendly? What is its past? Does it wish to be a member of your + household? And, last but far from least, are you ready to get your + new cat? + + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 1 + + + + Be Prepared + + Before obtaining your new cat, there are a few preparatory steps to + take. The first of these is paramount, do you have the needed arti- + cles? + + The minimum a prospective cat owner should have in the way of equip- + ment is: food and water dishes, litter box, carrier, flea/tick sham- + poo, food, and litter. Prepare your prospective pet's eating and + elimination areas ahead of time, the less hustle and bustle that needs + to be done during its first few hours in its new home, the better. + + Crockery + + Place your cat's food and water in plain sight, but off the major + traffic pattern of the household. A corner of the kitchen is usually + satisfactory. Cats, while neat, are rarely Emily Post graduates, so + place the food and water on a washable surface, such as tile or lino- + leum. + + By placing the food and water in plain sight, it will be easy for you + to check for their presence at any time (and harder to forget to + check), and will also instill in your cat the sense that eating is a + public activity. This last is especially important should your cat be + the indoor/outdoor type, which often has a tendency to bring home the + occasional snack. Trust us, it is far better to find half of a mouse + in the middle of the kitchen than behind the living-room sofa: the + latter usually being discovered by nose. + + Most soft plastic dishes (polyethylene or polypropylene) exude chemi- + cals slowly, which your cat will be able to smell. This odor will + turn off most cats, besides which the exuded chemicals are often + harmful. If the dish has a slick, slightly slimy feel (as many plas- + tics do), or has a detectable odor, don't use it. + + Hard plastics, such as styrenes and their derivatives (Melmac, Mela- + mine, and similar materials) are good choices. Inexpensive hard + plastic dishes such as those designed for babies are excellent. + + Stainless steel dishes are excellent, but do not use other metals such + as aluminum, copper, brass, bronze, iron, or non-stainless steels, as + they will often react with the food and water, producing oxides and + other chemicals which your cat will then ingest. One drawback to + stainless steel dishes are that they are light in weight. Only those + with a broad non-tip base should be used. + + Glass or non-porous or glazed ceramic dishes are best all around, as + they are heavy and completely odor-neutral. + + A simple rule of thumb can be followed here: buy only dishes that you + yourself would not hesitate to eat out of. + + + + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 2 + + + + Food + + The choice of food for your cat may be based upon several criteria, + the least of which is price. Commercial cat food comes in three + types: canned (moist), soft-moist, and dry, all of which are suitable + for feeding your cat. Do not feed your cat a diet of dog food or + people food: both lack certain nutrients that are essential to a cat. + + Canned food has the most flavor, the highest price, and the most + offensive odors (to humans, not cats). As a rule, good canned food + contains a well-balance mixture of protein, fats, carbohydrates, and + minerals. Exceptions to this are the "premium" or "gourmet" foods, + which are often balanced for taste rather than nutrition. Be certain + the food you use as a staple (treats are a separate issue) has the + words "total" or "complete" nutrition, which are governed by law (the + word "balanced" is not). + + Soft-moist foods have the advantages of minimal odor and long shelf + life. They are good for about a day in the bowl, and should not be + left out longer than that. Be aware that most soft-moist foods con- + tain an abundance of preservatives to prevent spoilage, so labels + should be read carefully. + + Dry foods have two strong advantages over other types: very long + shelf and bowl life and an integral tooth-cleaning action during + consumption. Most commercial dry foods are complete, well-balanced + diets, though some brands, including at least one very popular nation- + wide brand, contain what in our opinion is an excessive amount of dye. + While shape is of importance to a cat, color is important only to + people (people, of course, are the ones advertising is aimed at). + + One last note on foods: do not automatically be suspect of a catfood + that shows a high percentage of fat: cats require a lot of fat in + their diet. A well balance cat diet would turn the "other pet" into a + canine blimp. + + Water + + Water is vitally important for your cat. Always keep a supply of + fresh water to hand, especially if semi-moist or dry foods are being + fed. + + All tap water should be allowed to stand for a considerable time (an + hour or two) before serving. This allows the chlorine we humans put + in our water to evaporate, thus making the water more palatable to our + furry friends. If you serve tap water immediately, don't be surprised + if your cat decides that the bowl contains something not nice and + prefers to take its water from the "other bowl" in the small room with + all the porcelain fixtures, where the water has been standing for a + while. + + An important note here: milk is not water and should not be substi- + tuted for water, even for kittens (after weaning, of course). Always + provide plenty of water. + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 3 + + + + The Litterbox + + What goes in must come out, making the litter box an absolute necces- + sity. Any commercial litterbox is suitable, though covered litter + boxes are best for both esthetic and effluvial reasons. Place the + litter box in a quiet out of the way place, as cats like privacy when + the need arises. + + Be certain the litterbox is sufficiently large for your cat. A too- + small litterbox will often cause an "overhang" problem. Your cat + should be able to enter the box and comfortably turn around in it. + This is especially critical with covered boxes. A rule of thumb + should be the width should be at least as long as the cat (not count- + ing tail), and the length about half again as long. Most boxes are + made on a 3:4 ratio (three inches in width for every four inches in + length), though some commercial boxes are as oblong as 3:5, while + others are as square as 4:5. All are suitable if large enough for the + cat. + + An emergency or temporary litterbox can be easily made by placing a + shallow cardboard box of the proper size inside of a large trash bag. + After use, place the whole thing in another trash bag for disposal. + + One cautionary note: if your new cat is a small kitten, don't get a + litterbox with a "stoop" higher than the kitten can manage easily. + Don't depend upon the kitten's ability to jump to get it in the box: + remember it will have a full bladder or bowel, and jumping is not the + recommended activity at such times. In a pinch, a brick or block of + wood may be used as a stoop to assist the kitten into the box, allow- + ing it to jump out, but a temporary low-sided box is a better solu- + tion. + + Any commercial cat litter, or even shredded newspaper, is satisfacto- + ry, especially for the short term. Cleanliness is critical. If the + box becomes filled with "cat exhaust," your cat will be reluctant to + enter it (wouldn't you?). In such cases, the carpet may suffer. + + If at all possible, obtain a small quantity of soiled litter from the + breeder. This should be sprinkled over your new, fresh litter to + transfer the home smell to the new box. If for some reason it is + impractical to transfer soiled litter, watch your cat closely until + you are certain it has recognized the box for what it is. Usage is + the only certainty. If it starts to investigate a corner, pick it up + and transfer it immediately to the box while speaking softly and + petting it. After it has used the box, praise it highly: this is + much the same approach used to potty-train a human child, but is + faster and easier. + + Travel + + Do not attempt to travel with your cat, new or otherwise, without re- + straint: the best restraint is a good cat carrier. Never attempt to + simply hold your cat, especially a new cat who has not yet learned to + trust you completely. Always remember that a cat is still an animal + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 4 + + + + and cannot understand strange or loud sounds, rapid motions, etc. If + you are holding it and it panics, you may suddenly find yourself with + an armful of teeth and claws. + + If you anticipate a lot of travel (vet trips count as travel), a + sturdy plastic carrier is best, and can be obtained from any pet store + and most breeders and veterinarians. An inexpensive cardboard carrier + can be used for short, infrequent trips. A cardboard box with ample + air holes can be used in an emergency. + + If travel must be accomplished without a carrier or box, wrap the cat + securely in several layers of towel or a heavy pillowcase until it is + completely immobilized, then transport it with a hand firmly but + gently holding the scruff of its neck to prevent biting in the event + of panic. Talk constantly to the cat in a soft loving tone to relax + it as much as possible. The chances of panic in this case are in- + creased by the cat's inability to move its legs. Under no circum- + stances allow a child to hold a cat so restrained, as the child may + actually lack the strength (or nerve) to hold onto the cat in a panic + situation: cats are surprisingly strong for their size and can often + escape from the grasp of an adult, much less a child. + + If the cat is ill or injured, especially with broken bones, call your + vet immediately for advice on immobilization befor transporting it. + + Choice of Breed + + Of all the things to be considered when obtaining a cat as a general + pet, the least important is the breed. After all, when choosing a + friend, is it really important if he or she is blond or brunette? We + do acknowledge that there is something special about an all-white cat, + an all-black cat, or one with unusual markings. Likewise, each breed + has certain characteristics that are often very desirable: one would + attempt to take away our Abyssinian, Tut, at their own peril (and a + dire peril it would be). + + For households with active children, especially small children, a + mixed-breed cat has a distinct advantage over its purebred cousins. + Children being children, they are often unintentionally cruel. The + mixed-breed is usually a heartier, sturdier animal than the purebred, + both physically and psychologically, and can often tolerate small + childhood cruelties and indignities (such as being carried by the neck + while dressed in doll clothes). + + On the other hand, if your desire is to raise cats, the question of + breed is paramount. In this case, the choice becomes which breed and + which members of that breed to choose. + + Suitability + + Choose a cat suitable for your lifestyle. If you are an outgoing + individual and lead a fairly active life, you should choose a fairly + active cat such as a Siamese or Maine Coon. Conversely, if you are a + quiet or shy person, a Persian or Ragdoll might be a better choice. + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 5 + + + + If your lifestyle or business takes you away from home a lot, choose a + sturdy, self-sufficient cat such as an American Shorthair or Char- + treux. If you are housebound or suffer from limited mobility, one of + the tranquil breeds such as the Ragdoll or Turkish Angora, might be + best. In the matter of personality, the selection of a specific breed + of cat can be a good starting point in the overall choice of compan- + ion. + + Adaptability to Others + + Like any other creature, individual cats vary widely in their response + to adults, children, and other pets. As a rule, a cat will learn to + accept all human members of the household, though many will express a + definite preference for one particular human (and not always the + obvious one at that). Most cats will also adapt to other non-human + family members, such as another cat or "the other pet." The period of + adjustment is usually from one to four weeks, though there are some + individuals who simply will not adapt, particularly if a territorial + dispute should occur. + + When there are other pets, a new kitten will usually fair better than + an adult cat, and a neuter better than a whole animal (particularly + among males). + + One other point: if a member of the family suffers from allergies or + respiratory disorders, a non-shedding cat, or even a hypo-allergenic + cat, may be a preferred choice. + + Having the Decision Made for You + + Occasionally, a cat may decide to adopt a human, rather than the other + way around. When this occurs, the human is faced with two choices: + fight or give in gracefully. A cat can be surprisingly tenacious + towards its adopted "owner," often tolerating out and out abuse rather + than leave or, perhaps, admit it made a bad choice. + + To be so selected is an honor. Unfortunately, it is an honor that not + all people appreciate. If you feel you simply cannot accept this + honor, it is best to transfer the cat's devotion to another, rather + than to drive it away. If drive it away you must, then one of the + most successful yet humane methods is the white-vinegar squirtgun. + Cats loathe the taste and smell of vinegar, and it will do them no + harm. + + If you can, take it in temporarily and try to find a friend or other + who would be willing to provide a loving home. Your veterinarian may + be of some assistance here, as he or she often knows of various adop- + tion agencies or individuals who will welcome the animal. + + As an absolutely last resort, you may have the cat taken to your city + or county animal shelter. Be aware that most shelter cats are de- + stroyed after a short availability period. While most shelters these + days use a humane method of euthanasia, such as lethal injection, + there are still some shelters in the U.S. that use decompression, a + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 6 + + + + truly excruciating way to die (but very cheap). + + Some shelters also ship excess animals to research laboratories. + While we appreciate the bona-fide need for animals in medical research + and recognize the valuable contributions such animals have given + mankind (witness insulin), we are also aware that much research is + profit or vanity oriented, such as that done by some cosmetics houses, + and would just as soon that cats not be involved. + + The best alternative to the "you have been chosen" problem is to meet + it head on...and give in. Some of the all-time greats in catdom chose + their own humans, and that scruffy-looking alleycat scratching at your + back door may be but love and a bath away from being another Morris. + Once the newcomer has been accepted, it should immediately be de- + ticked (maybe), de-mited (probably), de-fleaed (almost definitely), + and taken to the vet for a thorough examination. + + Health + + One very important criteria for obtaining a new cat is to choose a + healthy animal. A sick or injured animal may appeal to your sympa- + thies, and may, in the long run, make an excellent and rewarding cat, + but be prepared for extensive veterinary bills and special handling + should the cat be seriously or chronically ill, injured, or deformed. + We feel that any condition in which the cat is in constant pain might + best be dealt with via euthanasia. A "special" cat, however, can be + much like a special child: extra love for extra care. Your veteri- + narian is the best one to advise you on making a rational and proper + decision concerning the adoption of an unwell animal. + + Normally, you should check a prospective cat carefully before making a + decision to adopt, and reject any animal that is not "perfect." This + is not always easy to accomplish, since adoption is primarily an + emotional experience and love at first sight is common between cats + and people (those who say you can't buy love have never been to an + animal shelter). + + The need to check the animal's health goes up with its cost. Reputa- + ble breeders always offer a no-risk period wherein you may have the + cat examined by your own veterinarian, and always offer a reasonable + guarantee of good health, varying from two weeks to ninety days. Most + states also allow recovery through the courts, regardless of time, + should the animal have an undetectable chronic condition or birth + defect (a queen that cannot carry, for example). We have found, + however, that most courts limit recovery to a replacement or buy-back + of the animal, and by the time the case comes to court most people + have become so attached to their cat as to opt to keep it, even with + whatever condition it might have. + + The Initial Examination + + To make a preliminary check of a potential adoptee, start with its + behavior and appearance. In behavior, the cat should be alert and + responsive around strangers (you). It should be curious, cautious but + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 7 + + + + unafraid, and should come up to sniff an outstretched hand. Use no + incentives for this test: after all you're checking the cat's re- + sponse to you, not to a Kitty Munchie. After making initial introduc- + tions, the cat should permit itself to be petted and "skritched" + behind the ears. + + When offered a string or piece of crumpled paper, the cat should show + curiosity and a willingness to play. A lack of interest may indicate + an ill or jaded animal. This is not super conclusive, however, as the + cat may be simply tired (which should show as yawns, cats not being + especially bashful). + + In posture, the cat should walk smoothly, with no sign of limping or + favoring a foot, with tail erect and head high. A drooping tail + and/or head indicate a nervous or possibly ill cat. The play of + muscles under the skin, visible in shorthaired animals, should be + smooth and beautiful. If possible, have the cat walk over obstacles, + such as the lap of a person sitting on the floor, and observe the + placement of feet and overall stride. There should be no hesitation + or uncertainty in its movements even though the surface is irregular. + + The legs and tail should be firm and strong, with no signs of scabs, + lumps, or tenderness. The abdomen and groin should be free from lumps + and swellings. Lumps, especially around the navel or in the groin, + may be indicative of hernia. The ribs should be easily felt, but not + obvious under the fur. If the ribs cannot be felt, the cat is proba- + bly obese: if obvious, it may be undernourished. + + The anus should be relatively clean and dry, free from discharge. It + should be pink or pale brown: a red, swollen, or draining anus usual- + ly indicates diarrhea and/or a parasitic infestation. + + The genitals should also be clean and free from discharge. In males, + a draining or swollen penis indicates a definite problem, possibly + urolithiasis or FUS. In females, a discharge may indicate a gyneco- + logical disorder. A reddish or slightly swollen vulva may indicate + the imminent onset of estrus (heat): the latter is a normal condition + for females in season. + + There should be six to eight nipples (technically, there are eight, + but one or two sometimes don't develop fully), all of which should be + small and pale pink in males, slightly larger in non-pregnant, non- + lactating females. In pregnant or nursing queens, the nipples will be + considerably larger and pinker, often with a definite "breast." It is + not unusual for nursing queens to have an irregular breast pattern, as + each kitten picks a specific nipple for exclusive use, and any nipple + not chosen will dry up and lose its breast. In either males or fe- + males a tender or abnormally swollen nipple or breast may indicate a + possible blocked teat, mastitis, or gynecomastia, all of which are + problems. + + The coat should be clean and glossy, free from fleas and other para- + sites. It should have a faint and spicy odor, slightly stronger in + males. A distinctly strong or musty odor may be a sign of problems, + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 8 + + + + possibly a fungal infection. + + The feet and nails should be clean and strong, with no encrustations + and no soft or spongy pads. Beware of the cat with tender feet. + Polydactylism (extra toes) is common and poses no problem unless you + plan to breed the cat. Cats normally have five toes on each front + foot and four on each rear. + + The eyes should be clear and bright, free from cloudiness or dis- + charge. A little easily-cleaned dirt in the corner is normal, but + sticky or encrusted dirt indicates a discharge, which could be a sign + of a blocked tear duct, conjunctivitis, sinusitis, or an upper respi- + ratory infection. The haw (third eyelid) should be fully retracted. + A visible or exposed haw indicates illness. + + The ears should be clean and held forward, fully pricked or erect + (except, of course, for the Scottish Fold and American Curl, which + have unique ears). Beware the cat with a droopy ear or that shakes + its head or scratches at its ear, it probably has ear mites. A dark + or waxy encrustation or discharge in the ears may also be a sign of + ear mites. While ear mites are relatively easy to control, it is a + time-consuming process and is likely to spread to other animals in the + household. The symptoms of ear mites may also be produced by other + parasites or other forms of otitis. + + The cat should respond to a sudden behind-its-head and out-of-sight + clap of the hands by darting forward a few feet (getting out of dan- + ger) then turning to identify the sound. A cat that promptly disap- + pears is overly nervous. + + White cats with blue eyes are often deaf. A deaf cat may make a very + good pet, but must absolutely be kept indoors. Be prepared for a + seemingly aloof cat, as it will not respond when called (the true test + of a deaf cat versus an aloof one is a lack of response to the "cat- + signal," commonly called a canopener). + + The nose should be slightly moist and cool to the touch. It will + seldom be as wet as that of the "other pet," and on occasion may be + dry, especially immediately after a face washing, but should always be + cool. A hot nose may be a sign of fever and, since cats rarely have + a non-specific fever (unlike humans), may be a sign of severe disorder + or illness. + + The nose should also be clean and free from discharge or encrustation, + either of which may be a symptom of upper respiratory infection. + Obviously, since cats seldom use a tissue, there may be a small amount + of residual encrustation, especially inside the nostrils where the cat + cannot reach. + + The mouth is usually pink overall, with no coating on the tongue. In + some individuals, the inside of the mouth may be pigmented, making + assessment more difficult. The teeth should be clean and white with + no excessive tartar buildup and the gums should be firm and pink. + When lightly pressed with the tip of a finger (not the fingernail), + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 9 + + + + the gums should be pale under pressure and promptly return to normal + when the pressure is released. Abnormally pale, bluish, or red or + dark gums, or gums the bleed when pressed or return to color very + slowly, may be a sign of gingivitis, periodontal disease, respiratory + distress, toxicity problems, or other illness. + + Except immediately after eating, the breath should not be unpleasant. + Bad breath, especially sour breath, can be a sign of mouth, respirato- + ry, or gastric problems. + + The palate should, like the rest of the mouth, be a healthy pink. It + should not be cleft. Cleft palate is a common but serious birth + defect. + + The teeth, especially the canines and carnassials, should be firm and + unbroken. When very gently tapped with a pencil, there should be no + pain (evidenced by a sudden violent jerk of the cat's head): the + presence of pain indicates possible abscesses. Missing or broken + incisors are of no consequence, as long as there is no pain, since the + cat doesn't use them for much and can get along quite nicely without + them (the only "damage" is cosmetic, but we've never yet met a cat + whose vanity required false teeth). + + History + + Once your layman's examination has determined that the cat is probably + healthy, you should check into its past. Has it had its shots? Which + specific shots of which specific vaccines? Obtain a copy of the shot + record, if possible. Has it been tested for feline leukemia and the + feline immunodeficiency virus and is it FeLV and FIV negative? If it + is FeLV or FIV positive, you should perhaps think twice before bring- + ing it into contact with any other cats you may have. + + Also important is identification of any kittenhood illnesses, in- + juries, etc. Basically, an entire medical history should be obtained + whenever possible, as this will assist the veterinarian in his/her + evaluation of overall health. + + A casual check into its family history, personalities and sizes of its + parents, longevity of its immediate ancestors, etc., will give a good + indication of its ultimate personality, size, and lifespan. + + Choosing a Veterinarian + + Choose a good veterinarian. First and foremost, be certain that + he/she is a fully license and certified Doctor of Veterinary Medicine + (DVM). Avoid any "veterinarian" who is the least bit reluctant about + showing his/her credentials. Like other doctors, most veterinarians + proudly display their credentials on their office walls (and rightly + so, considering the years of study and training they require). + + In some areas, the local "vet" may not be a doctor, but rather a + "natural" or "holistic" healer. Such people are not veterinarians and + may not legally call themselves such. While some of you as individu- + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 10 + + + + als may prefer a holistic approach to medicine (and such is certainly + your right and prerogative), such choices are matters of faith, and + entirely beyond the grasp of a cat. Use a licensed veterinarian. + + The Veterinary Examination + + If possible, arrange with your vet so that you may bring in the cat + directly from the breeder, original owner, animal shelter, or wherev- + er. Be prepared to leave the cat with the doctor overnight, if neces- + sary, until a complete physical and all needed tests have been per- + formed and the vet pronounces the cat fit. If the breeder does not + have an FeLV and FIV negative cattery, be certain to have the appro- + priate tests performed before mixing the new cat with your others (if + there are no others, the tests should still be performed, but the + urgency is gone). Obtain a fresh stool sample from the breeder so the + doctor may check for internal parasites (worms). + + With a little care, a healthy mature cat can make a wonderful addition + to any home. + + George or Georgette + + One simple detail that many people overlook for one reason or another + is a determination of the sex of your new family member. It really is + rather simple. Be not embarrassed, the cat won't care that you looked + at its "privates" (which are, after all, not private to other cats). + + First, with the tail up and the suitable end towards you, the anus + should be easy to spot. The fur stops short of the anus at the White- + all line, forming a circular bald spot about the size of a shirt + button. + + In a male cat, the scrotum, containing the testicles, is directly + below the anus. Except in white cats or white-and-colored cats with + white rears, the scrotum is often covered in short, fine, black or + dark brown fur. These "badges" are quite prominent in pale-colored + cats, such as the Siamese. In neutered males, the scrotum may be + smaller, but is usually still obvious. The penis is a little below + the scrotum, and is usually completely withdrawn in its sheath. The + tip is sometimes visible. + + In a female cat, the vulva is directly below the anus. The anus and + vulva together form an inverted exclamation point. Again, except in + white cats, it is usual for the vulva to be covered or surrounded by + short, fine, black or dark brown fur. The exact shape of this fur + pattern will vary among individuals. + + If you still cannot determine the animal's sex, or for final confirma- + tion, ask your vet. + + Heinz -- Perhaps the Best Breed of All + + One of the most maligned of all cats is the mixed-breed, or Heinz + (after the H.J. Heinz Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, famous for + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 11 + + + + "57 Varieties" of pickles). If there is one thing the Heinz does not + deserve, its the constant bad press. + + What goes into the Heinz? Well, like all cats, it must follow the + rules of genetics and environment. What a given Heinz will be like + depends upon its basic stock, how many generations of interbreeding + and crossbreeding there have been, and the environment in which it has + been reared, with this last factor the most critical. + + To illustrate the point, lets assume a single-father litter of four + marmalade (orange and white) toms. We would expect, then, that since + they all have the same basic genetic makeup, they should be pretty + much alike. Genetically, this may be true, but if each is raised in + an entirely different environment, we will end with radically differ- + ent cats. + + Tom number one leaves the nest at an early age, and takes up residence + in a copse. He must survive by his wits, in direct competition with + skunks, raccoons, and the local feral cats. After, say, four years, + we could expect him to be completely feral, effectively a wild animal. + He would be completely untamable in the normal sense. + + Tom number two also leaves the nest at an early age, but takes up + residence in an alley. He also must survive by his wits, but does + have constant exposure to mankind. After the same four years we could + expect him to be semi-feral, cautious and wary around man. If a + person were to show patience and kindness, especially in the form of + food, he could be won over, but would never make a good indoor-only + pet, as his roaming and territorial instincts would be fully de- + veloped. + + Tom number three stays in the nest for a full twelve weeks and is + taken to a home as a gift for a child. Unfortunately, neither the + child nor its parents really care for the cat after the "new" has worn + off, even though it has a "good" home with plenty of food, clean + litter, proper medical care, etc. We would expect this tom to become + a housecat, aloof and somewhat cold with little interaction with his + human companions: no love given, no love returned. While he may be + friendly and not run when approached, he is definitely not a member of + the family. + + Tom number four stays in the nest for a full twelve weeks and is taken + home by hard-core ailurophiles (such as your authors). We can expect + him to become a friendly, loving animal, full of life and vigor, and + constantly in the center of whatever the family is doing. + + As we said, environment is all-important. + + Assuming that you the reader are an ailurophile (if not, you're read- + ing the wrong stuff), what can you expect your Heinz to be like? + Almost anything, which is part of the beauty of the breed! + + When a child is born, its adult appearance can usually be determined + with some degree of accuracy by looking at its parents and grandpar- + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 12 + + + + ents (cousins don't count, as they have other genes in their blood). + This will help determine its physical appearance, but what about its + personality? Again, look to its parents and, to a lesser degree, its + grandparents. As any psychologist will tell you, child beaters are + most often themselves beaten children. + + The same holds true for kittens. Ignoring for the moment the physical + characteristics, which are, after all, easily determined, you can look + to its parents and grandparents for probable disposition (especially + its mother). A shy, fearful queen will raise shy, fearful kittens, + who may never become full-fledged pets, whereas a friendly, outgoing + queen will raise friendly, outgoing kittens. + + All these possibly inherited psychological characteristics pale, + however, when confronted with environment. We once met a mean, vi- + cious Abyssinian, a breed known for its loving disposition. Baring + some gross physical ailment such as a brain tumor, only a human could + have made that cat that way (it was always a housecat, never feral or + semi-feral), and the human that destroyed the psyche of that poor + animal was himself mean and vicious, no matter how polite and smiling + he may have been. + + On the other hand, one of your authors has spent years "gentling" + various Heinz cats into pets for the elderly, and in all that time has + had only one cat he couldn't gentle: a black and white feral female + with a litter of very sick kittens. While the mother was unsalvage- + able, the sole surviving kitten, Brownnose, is still in residence. + + There are a couple of distinct advantages of the Heinz over the pure- + breds. First, since they are mixes, they are not limited to any given + colors or patterns, creating a broad spectrum of truly unique individ- + uals. + + Second, they are usually free (or nearly so). + + It is hoped that those of you seeking a new cat will not overlook the + obvious charms and beauty of the Heinz, as they quite often make the + best of pets. + + Kitten versus Cat + + Choosing a kitten instead of an adult cat poses a slight variation on + the selection routine. The first thing to remember is that a kitten + is not a cat: it has differing needs, just as the needs of a human + baby are different than those of an adult. + + Age of Separation + + The first thing to consider in choosing a kitten should be its kitten- + hood: let it have one. Under no circumstances should a kitten be + taken from its mother and littermates before it is six weeks old. + Eight weeks is better and ten weeks is even better. Most reputable + breeders will not allow the purchase of a kitten before it is twelve + to thirteen weeks of age. Quite a range of ages: six to thirteen + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 13 + + + + weeks. How is one to know which is best? Twelve to thirteen weeks is + best, beyond doubt, but most people with an unwanted litter on their + hands aren't willing to wait that long (to a breeder, it's not an + unwanted litter). + + During the first six weeks of a kitten's life it is totally dependent + upon its mother (natural or surrogate). It is weaned during the sixth + week. To remove such a kitten from maternal care at age six weeks is + roughly equivalent to removing a human child from maternal care at age + 2-1/2. Such a kitten (or child) is just not ready to make it on its + own. + + Immediately after weaning, the mother cat begins her kittens' life + training. By eight weeks, the kittens have learned that food must be + hunted and killed, that other cats are not always potential enemies, + and has advanced in intra-litter social graces. By ten weeks, the + kittens have learned the rudimentary basics of hunting and have begun + to fine-tune and develop their social skills. By twelve weeks the + kittens have developed a full set of social and hunting skills, lack- + ing only practice to perfect them, and are ready to begin leaving + home. In the wild, such sojourns are short trips, gradually increas- + ing in length until about age six months, unless another litter comes + along and they are driven out. + + The thirteenth week required by most breeders allows them to be cer- + tain that the kittens have their shots and are sound of body and + spirit. The kittens' inherited maternal immunities wear off during + the twelfth and thirteenth weeks, and if they are sensitive to some + endemic disease or virus, the illness will develop at that time. In + the wild only 30 per cent of all kittens born make it to adulthood. + + Sexing a Kitten + + Sexing a kitten is often much more difficult than sexing an adult cat, + and even the best of us may occasionally make the embarrassing error. + In male humans the genitalia are external at all periods during a + lifetime, but there have been initial errors made in the sexing of + newly born babies (really!); this in our own species, with which we + are most familiar. How much greater the possibilities for error in a + different species, and at that one where the obvious male genitalia + are internal in the very young! + + In a kitten, especially a very young kitten, the anus and the genita- + lia are very close together. In six-week male kittens, the testes are + internal and the scrotum is often undeveloped. In this case the penis + (in its sheath) is the first "whatever" encountered below the anus, + and is typically about three-eighths of an inch below the anus, ex- + panding to about five-eighths of an inch by ten weeks. In appearance, + the anus and penis resemble a colon: one dot over another. + + In six-week female kittens, the vulva is seen as a short line about + one-quarter of an inch below the anus, expanding to about three- + eighths of an inch by ten weeks. In appearance, the anus and vulva + form an upside-down exclamation point: a dot over a short line. + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 14 + + + + + In some kittens, especially longhairs, the genitalia are often hidden + in the fur and are very hard to see clearly. This problem may be + eliminated by wetting the area thoroughly and parting the fur so that + the shape of the genital organ itself can be seen: a round dot for + males and a short line for females. + + By twelve weeks the male's testes have descended and sexing is as for + an adult cat (just smaller). The dark fur around the genital area + does not normally develop until puberty. + + Cat versus Kitten + + When it comes to selecting a new pet, the majority of people opt to + choose a kitten over a full grown cat. The reasons for this are, we + feel, rather obvious: kittens are cute, and kittens have not yet + developed any bad habits (presumably). + + Both of these reasons disregard several basic points in favor of + adults. An adult cat has already made it past the deadliest time in a + cat's life, the twelfth and thirteenth weeks wherein the mother's + immunities cease and the kitten must make it in this germ- and virus- + laden world strictly on its own merits. As said before, only 30 + percent of kittens survive in the wild, with about half of those that + die (35 percent of all feral cats) succumbing to post-weaning immune + deficiencies. In housecats the odds are about twelve percent for + death from this cause. + + On a different but equally deadly basis, most adult cats in animal + shelters are doomed creatures unless someone adopts them. + + An adult cat is a mature cat, and has already proven its survivabili- + ty. It is able to adapt to and cope with situations and things that + could be harmful to a kitten. Kittens are often seriously injured or + killed by such seemingly innocent entities as a swinging kitchen door, + which can easily break the neck or back of a small kitten should it be + caught between door and jamb. + + An adult cat is often much better able to tolerate children, who, + without intent, often smother, choke, or squeeze a kitten to death. + An adult cat, being stronger, is able to get away from a serious + situation, or survive simply because it can take more squeezing. + + Psychologically, an adult cat is stronger as well. If a child is + overly aggressive and should hurt a kitten, the kitten, being young + and unable to understand will often develop a homophobia towards + children or all of one sex of people. An adult cat usually knows + better and can soon put that aggressive child in its place (cat + scratches are a great object lesson and are rarely serious medically) + without permanent hostilities setting in. + + As an aside on the subject of scratches: the proper treatment is a + thorough cleansing with soap and water, followed by the application of + a mild antiseptic, such as hydrogen peroxide, mercurichrome, iodine, + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 15 + + + + or an antibacterial ointment, and a covering of a light, breathable + bandage to keep dirt out. Check the scratches again in six to eight + hours. They should be well on the way to healing by then. In the + unlikely event there is inflammation or swelling, or if pain still + persists, foreign matter may have entered the wound and you should + seek medical attention for possible infection. + + It is important to remember that kittens are children in their own + right, and therefore not responsible for their actions. They often + bite or scratch without even being aware that they are doing so, thus + inflicting unnecessary pain and injury upon their playmates, cat or + human. Other kittens have a layer of fur to protect them, human + children do not. Also, since such bites or scratches are unconscious- + ly inflicted, there is no aiming or care exercised, and injury can + occur to a lip or eye as easily as elsewhere. Adult cats usually + place their scratches (or bites) exactly where they "belong": if they + are near an eye, it's because the injury being done to the cat was + severe, so it was giving maximum warning. Cats have an instinctive + knowledge of the value of eyes, and an uncannily accurate aim. Except + under a literal life-or-death situation, a cat will not attack the + eyes, but may well place scratches aside an eye as a strong warning: + it is in effect saying, "see, if you continue to hurt me I could blind + you." + + An exception is, as with all animals (and a whopping lot of people, + too), unintentional injury done in panic. Don't be caught holding a + cat or kitten in your arms when the neighbor's dog decides to jump up + and bite its tail! + + More seriously, a badly frightened or injured animal is dangerous: + never, never handle such an animal without protection and without + restraining it first. + + For many people, a cat is often a far better choice than a kitten, as + its personality is fully developed and can be matched to that of the + human quite easily. + + In summation, don't immediately assume that because your pet is "new" + it must be new. + + Hair and Dander + + Allergies are caused by allergens, which are almost always proteins. + Common allergens are pollen, spores, hair, dander, oils, and saliva. + Ragweed allergies and other hayfevers, for example, are usually pol- + len-based, while a rash or other dermatitis (skin problem) is often + oil-based. The vast majority of people who are allergic to cats are + sensitive to either cat hair or cat dander (skin flakes). There is + also a very small percentage of allergy sufferers who are allergic to + cat saliva. Since cats groom themselves thoroughly, they are, in + effect, covered in a layer of dried saliva. + + People or anything else suffering from allergies usually do so because + they lack some enzyme necessary to break down the offending protein, + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 16 + + + + or lack the mechanism necessary to produce the required enzyme. Most + humans are "allergic" to poison ivy because we lack anti-poison-ivy + enzymes: the ability to eat or even handle poison ivy was not neces- + sary to the survival of the human species and either never evolved or + was lost. + + For those who are allergic to anything, cats included, the first step + should be a trip to a qualified physician specializing in the treat- + ment of allergies. Most allergies can be safely and effectively + controlled these days: medical science has made great strides in this + direction, and people who could only suffer a decade ago can live + quite normal, comfortable lives today. It is always better to fit the + world around you than to be forced to live in a small portion of that + world. + + Should medical science fail and the individual be sensitive to cat + hair or dander, the obvious solution would be to avoid cats. We feel + this to be too great a sacrifice to ask of anyone if there is any + alternative at all. Fortunately, there are several breeds of cats + that qualify as hypo-allergenic. + + In theory, such a hypo-allergenic cat would be non-shedding: the + shedding of hair and the shedding of dander are related, and will be + considered together. With only a single exception (the hairless + sphinx breed), cats are fur-bearing animals, and fur-bearing animals + shed: cats shed, period. The question is how do they shed and what + do they shed. + + Cat Fur + + Cats have four types of hair: vibrissae (whiskers), located on the + cheeks, over the eyes, beneath the ears, and on the elbows; guard + hairs, which are the longest and oiliest and give the coat its sheen + and water repellency; awn hairs, which are almost as long as guard + hairs and give the coat its density and color; and the short, extreme- + ly fine down hairs, which act as an insulating layer to keep the cat + warm or cool as conditions require. In a typical coat there are about + eight to ten times as many down hairs as awn hairs and about six to + eight times as many awn hairs as guard hairs. + + Despite the vast preponderance of down hairs, almost all the hair a + cat sheds is awn hairs and guard hairs. When an awn or guard hair is + shed, it often causes a slight chipping of the dead skin around the + hair follicle. These little flakes of skin are dander. A cat, like a + human, may also suffer from a dermatitis or other skin condition + causing it to shed skin flakes not related to the shedding of hair. + Such dander is evidence of a medical condition, outside the norm, and + should be treated as such. + + Non-Shedding Breeds + + A few breeds, most notably the Rex's (Cornish Rex, Devon Rex, Oregon + Rex, and Si-Rex), have few or no guard and awn hairs, and are classed + as non-shedding or hypo-allergenic cats. Another and unrelated breed, + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 17 + + + + the Sphinx, has virtually no hair (possibly a very short fuzz on parts + of its body), and carries non-shedding to an extreme. + + Primitive Breeds + + From an alternative line of attack, so to speak, those people who are + allergic to cat fur often find that either the Abyssinian or the + Egyptian Mau (the true Egyptian Mau, not the "Mau" or "Egyptian" cat + of Britain, which is really a spotted Oriental Shorthair) may cause + little or no allergic reaction. This is because these two breeds are + "primitives," representing, as they do, the closest domestic breeds to + the original African Wildcat. (Both the Abyssinian and Egyptian Mau + claim direct and immediate lineage, with the Egyptian Mau's claim + being slightly stronger.) Being primitives, they literally have a + genetically simpler hair structure, containing less complex proteins. + Evidently, as mankind bred cats for differing textures and colors, he + also unintentionally altered the very structure of the hair and creat- + ed his own problems (another example of it's not nice to fool with + Mother Nature). People who are allergic to many things, including + cats, are often not allergic to Abyssinians and Egyptian Maus. + + Hypo-Allergenic Breeds + + If allergies are a problem, the breeds of choice should be the Sphynx, + the Cornish Rex, Devon Rex, Oregon Rex, or Si-Rex, or the Abyssinian + or Egyptian Mau, all of which also have the distinction of being + unique in appearance. + + Do not seek the longhair version of these breeds, such as the Somali, + as the very trait you seek would be missing. For a similar reason, + mixed or partial breeds should also be avoided. + + For people with only slight allergies, the difference between a shor- + thaired and longhaired breed may be sufficient (we wouldn't be sur- + prised if a really sensitive person sneezed at the very thought of a + Persian). As the hair became longer and silkier, it became genetical- + ly more complex as well, and more of a problem for our noses. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Choosing a Cat Page 18 +  \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/circadia.txt b/textfiles.com/science/circadia.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..f066bac5 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/circadia.txt @@ -0,0 +1,216 @@ +OWL AND LARK QUESTIONNAIRE + +Reprinted from the book 'Wide Awake at 3:00 am. By Choice or by Chance ' +by Richard M. Coleman. The questionnaire was adapted from an article +entitled "A Self Assesment Questionnaire to Determine +Morningness-Eveningness in Human Circadian Rhythms" by J. A. Horne and +O. Ostberg. The original article appeared in International Journal of +Chronobiology, Vol. 4, 97-110, (London: Gordon and Breach Publishers +Ltd., 1976) + +Instructions: +1. Please read each question very carefully before answering. +2. Answer ALL questions. +3. Answer questions in numerical order. +4. Each question should be answered independently of others. Do NOT go +back and check your answers. +5. All questions have a selection of answers. For each question choose +one answer only. Some questions have a scale instead of a selection of +answers. Note the time of the appropriate answer on the scale and select +the corresponding number below the scale as your answer. + + +Questions + +1. Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, at what time would +you get up if you were entirely free to plan your own day? + +5 am 6:30 7:45 9:45 11:00 12 pm +<--- 5 --> <---4 ---> <-------3-------> <----2---> <---1---> + + +2. Considering only your own "feeling best" rhythm, at what time would +you go to bed if you were entirely free to plan your evening? + +8 pm 9:00 10:15 12:30 am 1:45 3 am +<---5---> <----4----> <--------3--------> <----2---><----1----> + + +3. If there is a time at which you have to get up in the morning, to +what extent are you dependent on being woken up by an alarm clock? + +Not at all dependent -> 4 +Slightly dependent -> 3 +Fairly dependent -> 2 +Very dependent -> 1 + +4. Assuming adequate enviromental conditions, how easy do you find +getting up in the mornings? + +Not at all easy -> 1 +Not very easy -> 2 +Fairly easy -> 3 +Very easy -> 4 + +5. How alert do you feel during the first half-hour after having woken +in the morning? + +Not at all alert -> 1 +Slightly alert -> 2 +Fairly alert -> 3 +Very alert -> 4 + +6. How is your appetite during the first half-hour after having woken in +the morning? + +Very poor -> 1 +Fairly poor -> 2 +Fairly good -> 3 +Very good -> 4 + +7. During the first half-hour after having woken in the morning, how +tired do you feel? + +Very tired -> 1 +Fairly tired -> 2 +Fairly refreshed -> 3 +Very refreshed -> 4 + +8. When you have no commitments the next day, at what time do you go to +bed compared to your usual bedtime? + +Seldom or never later -> 4 +Less than one hour later -> 3 +1-2 hours later -> 2 +More than two hours later -> 1 + +9. You have decided to engage in some physical excercise. A friend +suggests that you do this one hour twice a week and the best time for +him is between 7:00 - 8:00 am. Bearing in mind nothing else but your own +"feeling best" rhythm how do you think you will perform? + +Would be in good form -> 4 +Would be in reasonable form -> 3 +Would find it difficult -> 2 +Would find it very difficult -> 1 + +10. At what time do you feel tired and as a result in need of sleep? + + +8 pm 9:00 10:15 12:45 am 2:00 3 am +<---5---> <----4----> <---------3---------> <----2--- > <---1---> + +11. You wish to be at your peak performance for a test which you know is +going to be mentally exhausting and lasting for two hours? You are +entirely free to plan your day and considering only your own "feeling +best" rhythm which ONE of the four testing times would you choose? + +8:00 - 10:00 am. -> 4 +11:00 am. - 1:00 pm. -> 3 +3:00 - 5:00 pm. -> 2 +7:00 - 9:00 pm. -> 1 + +12. If you went to bed at 11:00 pm. at what level of tiredness would you +be? + +Not at all tired -> 0 +A little tired -> 2 +Fairly tired -> 3 +Very tired -> 5 + +13. For some reason you have gone to bed several hours later than usual, +but there is no need to get up at any particular time the next morning. +Which ONE of the following events are you most likely to experience? + +Will wake up at usual time and will NOT fall asleep -> 4 +Will wake up at usual time and will doze thereafter -> 3 +Will wake up at usual time but will fall asleep again -> 2 +Will NOT wake up until later than usual -> 1 + +14. One night you have to remain awake between 4:00 - 6:00 am. in order +to carry out a night watch. You have no commitments the next day. Which +ONE of the following alternatives will suit you best? + +Would NOT go to bed until watch was over -> 1 +Would take a nap before and sleep after -> 2 +Would take a good sleep before and nap after -> 3 +Would take ALL sleep before watch -> 4 + +15.You have to do two hours of hard physical work. You are entirely +free to plan your day and considering only your own "feeling best" +rhythm which ONE of the following times would you choose? + +8:00-10:00 am -> 4 +11:00am -1:00pm -> 3 +3:00-5:00pm -> 2 +7:00-9:00pm -> 1 + +16. You have decided to engage in hard physical exercise. A friend +suggests that you do this for one hour twice a week and the best time +for him is between 10:00-11:00pm. Bearing in mind nothing else but your +own "feeling best" rhythm how well do you think you would perform? + +Would be in good form. -> 1 +Would be in reasonable form. -> 2 +Would find it difficult. -> 3 +Would find it very difficult. -> 4 + +17. Suppose that you can choose your own work hours. Assume that you +worked a FIVE-hour day (including breaks) and that your job was +interesting and paid by results. Which FIVE CONSECUTIVE HOURS would you +select? + +12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 +Midnight Noon Midnight +<-----1-----> <----5---->4<-------3--------> <----2---> <----------1----------> + + +18. At what time of the day do you think that you reach your "feeling +best" peak? + +12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Midnight Noon Midnight +<-----1-----> <---5--> <-4-> <----------3-----------> <------2------> <---1---> + +19. One hears about "morning" and "evening" types of people. Which ONE +of these types do you consider yourself to be? + +Definitely a "morning" type? -> 6 +Rather more a "morning" than an "evening" type? -> 4 +Rather more an "evening" than a "morning" type? -> 2 +Definitely an "evening" type? -> 0 + +Scoring This Questionnaire + +The scores are added together and the sum converted into a five-point +Morningness-Eveningness scale: + + + Morning-Evening Scale Score + + Definitely Morning Type 70-86 + Moderately Morning Type 59-69 + Neither Type 42-58 + Moderately EveningType 31-41 + Definately Evening Type 16-30 + + +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X + + Another file downloaded from: NIRVANAnet(tm) + + & the Temple of the Screaming Electron Jeff Hunter 510-935-5845 + Rat Head Ratsnatcher 510-524-3649 + Burn This Flag Zardoz 408-363-9766 + realitycheck Poindexter Fortran 415-567-7043 + Lies Unlimited Mick Freen 415-583-4102 + + Specializing in conversations, obscure information, high explosives, + arcane knowledge, political extremism, diversive sexuality, + insane speculation, and wild rumours. ALL-TEXT BBS SYSTEMS. + + Full access for first-time callers. We don't want to know who you are, + where you live, or what your phone number is. We are not Big Brother. + + "Raw Data for Raw Nerves" + +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/coldfuse.pat b/textfiles.com/science/coldfuse.pat new file mode 100644 index 00000000..5354b82b --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/coldfuse.pat @@ -0,0 +1,1027 @@ +From LISTSERV@VM1.NoDak.EDU Sun Mar 1 16:51:37 1992 +Flags: 000000000000 +Return-Path: +Received: by world.std.com (5.61+++/Spike-2.0) + id AA09790; Sun, 1 Mar 92 16:51:31 -0500 +Received: from VM1.NoDak.EDU (via [134.129.111.1]) by relay1.UU.NET with SMTP + (5.61/UUNET-internet-primary) id AA25283; Sun, 1 Mar 92 16:49:18 -0500 +Message-Id: <9203012149.AA25283@relay1.UU.NET> +Received: from NDSUVM1.BITNET by VM1.NoDak.EDU (IBM VM SMTP V2R2) + with BSMTP id 9439; Sun, 01 Mar 92 15:47:34 CST +Received: by NDSUVM1 (Mailer R2.07) id 3275; Sun, 01 Mar 92 15:47:31 CST +Date: Sun, 1 Mar 1992 15:47:26 -0600 +From: Revised List Processor (1.7b) +Subject: File: "FUSION CNF-PAT" being sent to you +To: fhapgood@WORLD.STD.COM + +----------------------------------------------------------------- + COLD NUCLEAR FUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY + ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + Dieter Britz alias britz@kemi.aau.dk + Kemisk Institut, Aarhus Universitet, DK-8000 Aarhus C + +Section 3 (Patents); 85 entries; latest update: 26-Feb-92 +----------------------------------------------------------------- +This bibliography is in five parts: +1. Books. +2. Articles published in journals; no patents, preprints or + conferences. +3. Patents +4. News, reports, comments in scientific magazine/journals (like + Science) +5. Published articles peripheral to cold fusion (background facts + etc) +6. Unpublished writings, preprints, supplied by Vincent Cate, and + available from him and (18-Jul-91) a collection of palladium + hydride references plus abstracts and annotations supplied by + Terry Bollinger, and copyrighted by him. + +In most cases, the customary publication citation system is +followed, i.e. author(s), journal name, volume, year, page number +and title, if any. Unless otherwise stated, the papers are in +English. Some comments are appended to each citation; these are +the compiler's and may reflect a given personal interest. Where +the compiler has not actually seen the article the citation +source is stated (mostly Chemical Abstracts), and the comments +taken from it. Many of the items are marked with /. + +================================================================ + +Section 3: Patents +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ +---------------------------------------------------------------- +Assmann H, Hofer G, Hoffmann R, Martin J; +Ger. Offenl. DE 39163397 A1, 19-May-89. +"Verfahren und Einrichtung zur Fusion von leichten Atomkernen" +(Method and apparatus for the fusion of light nuclei) +** .. especially of deuterium nuclei, from an electrolyte +containing these, or tritium, or lithium ions, in heavy water or +superheavy water, etc. The special feature here is that the anode +is made out of a material, such as Au, Pt or Pd, and is heated to +over 100 degC, preferably to 1000 degC, in order to partly +dissolve and deposit on the Pd cathode, so as to activate it. +---------------------------------------------------------------- +Bagnulo L; Eur. Pat. Appl. EP 402,988 19-Dec-90. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:216542 (1991). +"A process, with relevant plants and devices, for the production +of energy through the industrial application of plausible +dynamics concerning controlled cold nuclear fusion". +** "...nuclear fusion in metals, esp. Pd and Ti, which readily +absorb H and its isotopes. The process is based on the absorption +by these metals, through electrolysis of [sic; 'or' meant?] +gas-pressurising, of D or its mixts. with T or He, followed by +their consequent liberation within cracks, created in the metal +mass either by mech. or metallurgical means." +---------------------------------------------------------------- +Belton GR; PCT Int. Appl. WO 90 13,124, 21. April 1989. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:17343 (1991). +"Cold nuclear fusion method and apparatus". +** "A method and app. are described for generating thermal energy +by cold fusion by increasing the activity of a monoat. D species +to a level at which there is significant cold fusion. The method +and the app. comprise contacting Pd or any other material capable +of taking up D with a gaseous atm. comprising D and subjecting +the gaseous atm. to an elec. field to generate a sufficiently +high activity of the monoat. D species to achieve nuclear fusion +reactions in the Pd". (Quoted from Chem. Abstr.) +---------------------------------------------------------------- +Brumlik, GC, Cvijanovich GC, Johnson K; + PCT Int. Appl. WO 90 16,070, 27-Dec-90. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:216545 (1991). +"Catalyzed nuclear fusion of heavy isotopes of hydrogen". +** A nuclear fusion device and method for D or T are described +having a solid/ liq. phase of noble metals in contact with +another phase contg. D or T where the nuclei of D or T are moved +into the lattice of the liq. or solid noble metal by means of +diffusion, mech. forces, or by elec. or magnetic means to undergo +temp.- and lattice-assisted nuclear fusion".?/Nov-90 +---------------------------------------------------------------- +Coupland DR, Doyle ML, Potter RJ, McGill Ir; +PCT Int. Appl. WO 90 15,415, 13-Dec-90. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:216546 (1991). +"Cold-fusion support". +** "Materials are described which are effective to support cold +fusion when loaded with D, e.g. Pd modified to change the local +environment for D under cold fusion conditions. Particular +modifications are alloys or dispersions of Pd with Ce, Ag, LaNi5, +and Ti. Other modifications concern the grain size. Excess heat +and T and n have been detected".?/Dec-90 +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Dies KF; Ger. Offenl. DE 3913002 A1, 25.10.1990 (in German). +"Process for the generation of fusion energy by the use of +Fe-(2)M alloys, which are produced by electrolysis as well as by +lysis (etching)". +** The title has "Fe-(2)M" but the abstract has the more probable +"(2)H-Fe", i.e. Fe-D compounds ("alloys"). There may be additions +of such iron-group metals as Cr, Ti, Zr, Mn etc, to enhance +deuteride stability. Pt or Pd can also be used. Both with +electrolysis and etching in deuterated acids such as DCl, DF, +DBr, D2SO4 and HNO3, the metal is infused with deuterium, and we +have "etch fusion", a new word. Fe, Ni or Co rods can be used +either normal or in the austenitic form. +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Drexler J; PCT Int. Appl. WO 91 02,359, 21-Feb-91. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:2554494 (1991). +"Distributed accumulator for energy conversion". +** "A cell is described for producing thermal energy by +absorption or adsorption of D and lithon into D ion-permeable and +li-ion-permeable particulates supported on a surface of an +accumulator in the form of a mesh, rods, sheets, or membranes, or +within a gelatin-like matrix. Deuterons and lithons are produced +by electrolyte ionization in a liq. contg. high purity D2O, and +net elec. charge on a D-permeable and lithon-permeable +particulate is controlled by allowing neg. charged OD- radicals +to accumulate on the surface of the particulates that balance out +the pos. charged deuterons and lithons". (Quoted from CA). +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Dufour J; S. African ZA 90 05,389, 11-Jul-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(22):242246 (1991). +"Energy source system". +** "Energy is produced by: loading a body with >=1 H isotope +where at least a part of the body comprises >=1 metal capable of +forming a metal hydride-type lattice system; arranging the body +as an electrode of a capacitor means in an elec. circuit along +with another electrode connected with an externally controllable +voltage supply means; operating the voltage supply means; and +recovering energy produced in the body by operating the voltage +supply means. The system produces energy by a process commonly +known as cold fusion". (Direct quote from CA). +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Forrat F; Fr. Demande FR 2,647,943 06-Jun-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(10):101349 (1991). +"Reactor for electrolytic nuclear fusion in solid electrolyte". +** "The title reactor comprises a solid electrolyte, e.g. glass, +crystal, ceramics, electrolytically or chem.-vapor deposited +film. An a.c. current is applied to generate fusion and heat +energy is recovered by a fluid. The reactor can be used for +isotope prodn." (Quoted direct from CA). +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Fujishima A, Ito K; + Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03 06,490, 5-Jun-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:59226 (1991). +"Controlling cold nuclear fusion based on electrochemistry". +** "In controlling cold nuclear fusion based on electrochem., a +cathode contg. a temp.-controlling device is used to adjust the +temp. of the anode". (Quoted from CA). +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Fukami A, Kumafuji H; + Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03,35,193 3-Jul-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:80705 (1991). +"Lanthanum nickel cathode for electrolytic exothermic tritium +formation". +** "The cathode consists of Pd-coated LaNi5 alloy used in +(3)H-formation by electrolyzing an electrolytic soln. contg. D2O +and small amt. base with a Pt anode and a cathode to produce +larger energy than required for the electrolysis. The cathode may +be built in a porous Al2O3 container instead of Pd-coating. The +cathode had high H absorption". (Direct quote from CA) +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Gamo T, Niikura J, Taniguchi N, Hatoh K, Adachi K (Matsushita + Electric Industrial Co. Ltd.); + European Pat. Appl. EP 0 395 066 A2, 26.04.1990. +"Apparatus for cold nuclear fusion". +** Prepared by a German representative (patent lawyer?), this +incredibly badly written patent application claims a number of +"preferred embodiments" for cold fusion. One is electrolysis at a +cathode of an alloy capable of occluding hydrogen isotopes, such +as Ti, Zr, and the like, in an electrolyte containing a compound +of hydrogen isotope and oxygen such as heavy water including +alkali metal ions such as Li+, K+ and the like. "Tritiums", +"noutrons" may be produced by making use of "lithiums" and by the +"tonnel" effect. There is a list of example alloys for use as +cathode, all having larger hydrogen occlusion ability than "Pb" +and the like. An example shows that at the end of an +electrolysis, 5 times the starting concentration of T is found, +proving that cold fusion had taken place. Also, 500 neutrons of +2.45 MeV were detected or 10 times the background. In the second +preferred embodiment, some amorphous alloys are used, not having +"a crystal lattice rule of a long period", meaning (presumably) +no long-range order. Some of these appear to have a rather high +hydrogen uptake. Crumbling was never observed and again, excess +tritiums are seen. The third embodiment uses a large (7 mm +diameter) spherical cathode. In this way, the collision +probability for deuterons is enhanced in the centre of the +electrode and in this way, the nuclear fusion reaction was caused +easily and an enormous energy was obtained (I am quoting). Two to +ten times the background neutron count was detected in an +example. In another example, two spherical alloy samples were +charged with D2 gas, and then a high-frequency discharge passed +between them. Neutrons at 1000 times the background was observed; +using pure H2, the neutron flux was the same as the background. +Temperature cycling was also tried, and neutrons detected. +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Hagelstein PL; Int. Pat. Appl. WO 90/13129, 1-Nov-90. +"Fusion apparatus". +** "Fusion apparatuses for coupling fusible material to a +quantized mode in coherent fusion are provided. Method for +optimization of reactor operation, control of the coherent fusion +reaction and extraction of usable energy generated are provided". +Some of the means of doing this are: containing the fusible +material (deuterium) in an electrically conductive radially +symmetric vessel and initiating fusion through coupling to +plasmon modes or by radially polarizing insulating crystals, or +by lining the vessel with radially disposed rod-like projections +electrically connected in series with an oscillator and in series +with a computer controlled variable load for extracting the +energy; acoustic excitation or excitement by alpha particles or +cosmic rays. The inventor's theory is given (twice), p.48 shows a +letter to Florence and Sam and there are 138 claims. +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Hasegawa M, Hosono N; Eur. Pat. Appl. EP 414,399, 27-Feb-91. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:255493 (1991). +"Process for storing hydrogen, and apparatus for cold nuclear +fusion and method for generating heat energy, using the process". +** "A process for storing H comprises placing a H storing member +in a H gas atm. and generating a discharge in the H gas atm., +thereby occluding the H in the H storing member. An app. for cold +fusion by using the above process is also claimed". (Quoted from +CA). +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Hora H, Miley GH; Ger. Offenl. DE 3810806 A1, 11.10.1990 +(in German). +"Verfahren und Anordnung zu Kernverschmelzungsreaktionen bei +tiefen Temperaturen" (Method and apparatus for nuclear fusion +reactions at low temperatures). +** Professors Hora and Miley (editor of Fusion Technology) write +that the electrolytic charging of Pd or Ti with deuterium leads +to surface contamination. This is avoided by charging with +deuterium gas under pressure, which is one of their inventions +here laid bare. The 9 claims widen this concept to include any +metallic element in "the eighth group of the periodic table" +being exposed to H2, D2 or T2 gas, temperature control during +such a process, absorption of neutrons, alpha or beta emission, +the admixture of such isotopes as (11)B, (6)Li and (7)Li to the +metals, attainment of high hydrogen isotope concentration in the +metal, the use of electric discharge towards this end, the use of +high-surface forms of the metals or mixtures thereof, control of +the metal hydrides' compressibility and finally, the use of these +processes for initiating an explosive nuclear fission [sic] +reaction. Since this is an Offenlegungsschrift and not (yet) a +full patent, no details are given of how all this is implemented. +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Hosono N; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03,215,785, 19-Jan-90. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 116:12355 (1992). +"Thermal-energy generators based on cold nuclear fusion". + +** "A thermal-energy generator based on cold nuclear fusion, +contains: (1) a container of D gas; (2) a pair of electrodes, at +least 1 of which is formed of a H-storing metal; (3) a means to +apply voltage on the electrodes to cause elec. discharge in the +presence of D gas between them; (4) a thermal conductor to +transfer heat generated at the electrodes to a coolant; and (5) a +converter, to heat, of the kinetic energy of n generated by cold +nuclear fusion on the H-storing metal". (Direct quote from CA). + +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Hosono N; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03,215,786, 19-Jan-90. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 116:12356 (1992). +"Apparatus for on cold nuclear fusion using solar energy". +** "The app. contains: (1) a solar-energy-based elec. generator; +(2) a means to generate D by electrolysis of heavy H2O using +electricity from the generator; (3) a means to adsorb D using a +metal; (4) a means to contain D generated by (2); (5) a +cold-nuclear-fusion device in (4), which comprises a pair of +discharge electrodes, at least 1 of which is made of the +H-adsorbing metal; and (b) [sic] a device to apply voltage to the +electrodes to cause elec. discharge". (Direct quote from CA). +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Igarashi M; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,280,086, appl. 21-Apr-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstracts 115:37282 (1991). +"Cold nuclear fusion and apparatus". +** "In cold nuclear fusion based on the electrolysis of heavy +H2O, an ionic conductor placed between anode and cathode contains +D+, and the cathode is formed of a material (e.g. Li) which can +store H. The ionic conductor may also contain T+". (Quoted from +Chem. Abstr.). +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Ishikawa A, Katsumi M; + Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03 78,691, 23-Aug-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 116(6):47853 (1992). +"Power generation by cold nuclear fusion". +** "Thermal energy is generated by implanting D in a substance +(e.g. Pd) to cause cold nuclear fusion, and the thermal energy is +converted into elec. power by thermoelec. means". (Direct quote +from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------ +Ishikawa Y, Ogata H, Saho N, Mihara Y; +Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,276,990, 13-Nov-90. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:255488 (1991). +"Nuclear fusion at room temperature". +** "In the nuclear fusion based on the electrolysis of heavy H2O, +a D-absorbing cathode has a porous structure. To increase the +absorption rate of O [sic], small amt. of As, CN-, S2- and/or Cl- +is added to the heavy H2O". (Quoted from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------ +Ishikawa Y, Ogata H, Saho N, Mihara Y; +Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,276,992, 13-Nov-90. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:255487 (1991). +"Deuterium absorption in nuclear fusion". +** "In nuclear fusion, D is absorbed, in vapor phase, by a +neg.-biased material (e.g. Pd). The material may be a film formed +by chem.-vapor or sputter deposition in a D atm." (Quoted from +CA). +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Iwamatsu S; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,298,891, 15-May-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:80698 (1991). +"Nuclear fusion reactor". +** "A nuclear fusion reactor includes (1) a compartment for +forming a plasma >From O2O [sic] or D, (2) a compartment for +accelerating D ions in the plasma, (3) a compartment for +projecting this D ion beam toward a metal target (e.g. Pd), and +(4) a target support as well as a heat exchanger." (Direct quote +from CA) +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Iwamatsu S; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,304,393, 18-May-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:59228 (1991). +"Cold nuclear fusion based on heavy-water electrolysis". +** "Cold nuclear fusion is based on the electrolysis of D2O and +uses cathodes >From Ni or a Ni-Pd alloy". (Quoted from CA). +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Iwamatsu S; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,306,193, 19-May-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(12): 122213 (1991). +"Cold nuclear fusion based on heavy-water electrolysis". +** "In cold nuclear fusion based on D2O electrolysis, a cathode +bar from a H absorbing metal (and Pd) is used, and a Pt coated Ti +anode plate is placed around the cathode bar". (Direct quote from +CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------ +Iwamatsu S; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,307,093, 22-May-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:59227 (1991). +"Cold nuclear fusion based on heavy-water electrolysis". +** "In cold nuclear fusion, pressured O or its plasma is +introduced into a container made of Pt, Ti or a Pd-Ti alloy. +Nuclear fusion is caused on the inner wall of the container. +Alternatively, the container is filled with a powder of Pt, Ti, +or the Pd-Ti alloy before the introduction of D or its D plasma. +Voltage may be applied to the D plasma, forming D ions". (Quoted +from CA). +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Iwamatsu S; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,311,792, 27-Dec-90. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:255498 (1991). +"Method of cold fusion". +** D2 gas or plasma state D or ionized D gas is absorbed into a +H2-absorbing alloy. Pd may be loaded inside and/or on the surface +of the alloy. The method does not necessarily require +electrolysis. Thus, a H2-absorbing alloy is exposed to D2 gas to +absorb as much as 1000 times the vol. of the alloy, to cause cold +nuclear fusion The heat evolved by the cold fusion can be extd. +via heat exchangers". (Quoted from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------ +Iwamatsu S; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,297,093, appl. 11-May-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstracts 115:37284 (1991). +"Method of cold fusion". +** "A cathode consisting of a Pd container or Pd tube contg. +pressurized D2 is exposed to D+ ions or D plasma atm. or +subjected to accelerated driving of D. Thus, an elec. current is +applied to a Pt anode and a Pd pipe cathode contg. pressurized D +gas, then cold fusion occurs at a high probability at the surface +or inside of the Pd pipe cathode. The same effect can be achieved +by exposing the Pd cathode to D2O or D plasma gas and accelerated +driving of D ions." (Quoted from Chem. Abstr.) +------------------------------------------------------------------ +Iwamatsu S; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,306,192, appl. 19-May-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstracts 115:37287 (1991). +"Method of cold fusion". +** "At least the cathode plate to be immersed in heavy water is +of Ti material. The electrodes can be an alternative to precious +metal electrodes. Thus, a Ti plate, preferably porous Ti cathode +and a Ti plate of Pt-plated Ti plate anode are immersed in heavy +water, and elec. current is applied to the electrodes to cause +cold fusion at the cathode. The cathode can be a Pd-plated Ti +plate". (Quoted from CA) +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Jones SE, Palmer EP, Czirr JB, Rafelski J, Price R; +PCT Int. Appl. WO 90 13,125, 26. April 1989. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:17342 (1991). +"Piezonuclear fusion" +** "Several methods of loading a host material with D and +promoting nuclear cold fusion either by elec. current or heating +and cooling are claimed. The loading methods include electrolysis +of D2O, exposure to D, thermal cycling of host material under D, +catalytic infusion etc". (Quoted from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------ +Joshi AV; PCT Int. Appl. WO 90 13,127 18-Apr-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:80697 (1991). +"Electrolytic apparatus for dissociation of compounds containing +hydrogen isotopes". +** "An improved app. is described for high temp. electrolytic +decompn. of compds. contg. H isotopes, e.g. D. The app. includes +a solid state electrolyte capable of conducting O, H+, Li or Na +ions, an anode porous to O adherent to one surface of the solid +state electrolyte, and a H-absorbing cathode such as Fe, Ti, Mg, +Ni, Pd or their alloy, adherent to another surface of the solid +state electrolyte. The app. is placed in a H isotope medium and +1-2 V of d.c. passed through the electrodes. Upon application of +this voltage D2 is absorbed in the cathode. Once the satn. of D2 +in cathode occurs fusion begins to take place, thus releasing +heat energy. A cold fusion process using a molten electrolyte is +also claimed". (Direct quote from CA). +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Kanno Y; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,281,185, appl. 21-Apr-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstracts 115:37283 (1991). +"Acceleration of cold nuclear fusion by ultrasound". +** "Cold nuclear fusion based on electrolysis of D2O is +accelerated by applying ultrasound to D2O" (quoted from CA). +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Kasahara M, Negishi H; + Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03 53,194, 21-Jul-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(18):192159 (1991). +"Power generators based on cold nuclear fusion". +** "A power generator based on cold nuclear fusion utilizes heavy +H2O, a Pt anode, a Pd cathode, and an elec. power source, is +characterized in that the Pd cathode is porous". (Direct quote +from CA). +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Kasahara M, Negishi H; + Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03 53,195, 21-Jul-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(18):192158 (1991). +"Power generators based on cold nuclear fusion". +** "A power generator based on cold nuclear fusion, which +utilizes heavy H2O, a Pt anode, a Pd cathode, and an elec. power +source, is characterized in that the Pd cathode is porous, and it +is under vibration". (Direct quote from CA). +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Kumafuji H, Fukami A; + Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03,35,192 3-Jul-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:80704 (1991). +"Uranium cathode for electrolytic exothermic tritium formation". +** "The cathode consists of Pd-coated U used in (3)H-formation by +electrolyzing an electrolytic soln. contg. D2O and small amt. +base with a Pt anode and a cathode to produce larger energy than +required for the electrolysis. The cathode may be built in a +porous Al2O3 container instead of Pd-coating. The cathode had +high H absorption". (Direct quote from CA) +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Kuwano Y, Nasako K, Fujitani S, Yonezaki T, Furukawa A, Yonezu I, +Moriwaki K, Kameoka S, Saito T, Furukawa S; +Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,280,088, 20-Apr-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:59220 (1991). +"Systems for cold nuclear fusion, heat transport, and +thermoelectric cells". +** "In a cold-nuclear-fusion-system, in which an anode from an +O-generating metal (e.g. LaNi5), and a H-absorbing cathode are +placed in electrolyte-contg. D2O: (1) the cathode is formed of a +H-occluded alloy; and (2) an elec. field is applied between the +electrodes. A D-compd. (e.g. D2S) may be added to the +electrolyte. A heat-transport system uses heat generated by the +cold-fusion system, and the H gas adsorbed [sic] and released by +the H-occluded alloy is employed as a heat-transfering [sic] +medium. A thermoelec.-cell system comprises the cold fusion +system and a thermoelec. cell". (Quoted from CA) +----------------------------------------------------------------- +Martin J; Ger. Offenl. DE 3915153 A1, 15.11.1990 (in German). +"Process and apparatus for the uptake of hydrogen in a solid". +** Expressed very generally, this invention is about the uptake of hydrogen +isotopes in a solid that is capable of taking it up. This could be, for +example, a palladium cathode in a cold fusion arrangement, or a hydrogen +storage material in a vehicle. The essence of the invention is to solve the +problem of an active layer, that enables hydrogen uptake; such a layer is here +generated continuously by means of, e.g., a dilute palladium salt in the +electrolyte (causing Pd deposition in a spongy, active form), or by means of +surface radiation treatment of the material. Various other means are covered. +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Mikami A, Kuroki K, Furukawa S, Nasako K, Yonezu I, Moriwaki K; +Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,306,194, 19-May-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:59223 (1991). +"Apparatus for cold nuclear fusion and heat-transport system". +** "The app. consists of a cathode-comprising tank from a H-absorbing metal, +D2O contg. an electrolyte, and a cathode immersed in the D2O, while elec. +insulated from the tank. Nuclear fusion of D is conducted in the cathode with +the application of an elec. field between the electrodes. A heat-transport +system is based on the absorption and releasing of H (heat-transfering medium) +by the H-absorbing metal". (Quoted from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Mills RL; PCT Int. Appl. WO 90 13,126 Nov. 1990; US Appl. 341,733, 21-Apr-89. +Cited in: Chem. Abstr. 114:173685 (1991). +"Energy/matter conversion methods and structures". +** "A method and app. for releasing energy comprise: selecting a 1st and a 2nd +atom; detg. the resonance orbital shrinkage nergy levels of the e orbitals of +the 2 atoms; providing 2 energy holes substantially equal to each of the +shrinkage energy levels of the atoms; and juxtaposing the atoms and energy +holes to produce nuclear fusion of the atoms. The cold fusion takes place when +the energy is removed from the electron orbitals of atoms by the energy holes +permitting redn. of the at. orbitals and attractive nuclear forces to act. The +energy holes can be provided by using a catalytic ion-pair, each ion having +ionization energy close to the resonance orbital shrinkage energy of one of +the ions. A table of numerous such ion-pairs is also presented." +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Mizugai T; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,271,288, 6-Nov-90. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:216547 (1991). +"Nuclear fusion employing heavy fermion effect within a solid material". +** "Deuterium ((2)D, or (2)D and (3)T) is made to be absorbed by a heavy +fermion compd. or a composite of the heavy fermion compd. and a H-storing +material, to cause nuclear fusion. The method uses electrons with +extraordinary heavy mass due to the heavy fermion effect in solid state to +shield elec. charge of the deuteron to cause nuclear fusion with a small +unit". ?/Nov-90 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Motomiya T; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,293,692, 04-Dec-90. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:255491 (1991). +"Cold nuclear fusion" +** "Cold nuclear fusion includes: (a) introducing a D gas (ca. 1E-03 Torr) +into a vacuum chamber contg. a planar or curved cathode plate from an elec. +conductor (e.g., P2) which is likely to form a hydride, and a needlelike anode +>From a refractory elec. conductor; (b) applying d.c. to form an elec. field of +ca. 30 V/Angstrom between the electrode tips for the ionisation of D; and (c) +accelerating D ions toward the cathode plate; so that the plate absorbs and +enriches D ions". (Quoted from CA) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Nakanishi F, Tatsumi M, Tada K; +Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,287,289, 27-Nov-90. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:255490 (1991). +"Power generator based on cold nuclear fusion" +** "A power generator based on cold nuclear fusion which involves electrolysis +of D2O is characterized in that D and O generated by the electrolysis are +burned back to D2O, which is returned to the electrolysis tank". +(Quoted from CA) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Nakano H; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03 02,690, 31-May-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:59224 (1991). +"Deuterium-absorbing materials in cold nuclear fusion". +** "A D-absorbing material (e.g. Pd) used in cold nuclear fusion has an +amorphous structure. Nuclear fusion of D atoms has increased efficiency". +(Quoted from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Neeb KH, Hoffmann R, Martin J; Ger. Offen. DE 3,920,312, 3-Jan-91. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:216543 (1991). +"Method and apparatus for fusion of light particles in solid getter". +** "The title method of fusion of H and/or its isotopes in a solid getter +comprises an electrode, e.g. Pd, a center electrode, and an electrolyte where +the getter and the light particles are irradiated and/or bombarded with +radiation and/or particles, e.g., n, alpha-particles, or (3)He ions. One of +the ways to implement the above process is incorporating an alpha-emitting +nuclei [sic] in the cathode material. The above process increases cold fusion +probability. ?/Jan-91 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Nishiyama I, Nanbu Y; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03 51,794, 19-Jul-89 +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(20):217010 (1991). +"Cold nuclear fusion apparatus". +** "The app., equipped with a device for heavy-H2O electrolysis, is +characterized in that the cathode of the device is formed at a +graphite-alkali-metal interlayer compd. (e.g. C8K)" (Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Nobunaga H; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,297,094, appl. 11-May-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstracts 115:37285 (1991). +"Method for hydrogen nuclear fusion". +** "In cold fusion by applying elec. voltage between a pair of electrodes +immersed in heavy water, an elemental metal selected from alkali metal, alk. +earth metal, rare earth elements, Sc, V, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Nb, Hf and Ta is used +as the cathode material. Thus, a Au anode and a La cathode are set in a +container holding heavy water contg. a metal salt. When 20 V const. potential +was applied between the electrodes, H2 (sic) bubble appeared on the cathode +surface in several minits [sic] suggesting initial sorption of D+ ions within +the cathode, and emission was obsd. of n, gamma-rays and heat. When Mn was +used as the cathode, bubbles appeared immediately, but no n and gamma-emission +were obsd. Metals capable of forming hydrides seemed to be able to cause cold +fusion". (Quoted from Chem. Abstr., including "(sic)" but not "[sic]"). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Nobunaga H; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,297,095, appl. 11-May-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstracts 115:37286 (1991). +"Method for hydrogen nuclear fusion". +** "In nuclear fusion by applying elec. voltage between a pair of electrodes +immersed in heavy water to cause cold fusion at the cathode, an alloy contg. +>=1 of rare earth elements, Mg, Ni, Co, Fe and Ti is used as the cathode +material. Thus, a Au anode and a LaNi5 cathode are set in a container holding +heavy water contg. a metal salt. When 20 V const. potential was applied, H +bubbles appeared on the LaNi5 cathode surface suggesting initial sorption of +D+ ions in the cathode, and emission was obsd. of n, gamma-rays and heat. No n +and gamma-rays were obsd. with a stainless steel (SUS 304) cathode. Metal +capable of forming hydrides seemed to be able to cause cold fusion". (Quoted +>From Chem. Abstr., including "(sic)" but not "[sic]"). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Noninski V, Noninski Kh; PCT Int. Appl. WO 91 01,493, 20-Jul-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:2554496 (1991). +"Method and device for the determination of the obtained energy during +electrolytic processes". +** "A method and app. for use in detg. the quantity of energy obtained during +electrolytic processes is disclosed. The app. includes a Dewar vessel contg. +a measured quantity of H2O. An electrolyte cell is hermetically sealed in the +vessel. A plurality of thermocouples is positioned within the vessel for +purposes of measuring temps. within the vessel. A magnetic stirrer is mounted +in the bottom of the vessel. The app. can be used in cold fusion exts.". +(Quoted from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Ogata H, Saho N, Ishikawa Y, Mihara Y; +Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,276,989, 5-Apr-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:59218 (1991). +"Apparatus for nuclear fusion at room temperature". +** "The app. comprises a container for heavy H2O, electrodes placed in the +heavy H2O, an elec. power source, a means to circulate the heavy H2O between +the container and a heat exchanger, and a system of a heating medium, which +comments [sic] the heat exchanger and a power-extn. compartment". +(Quoted from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Ogino S; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03,194,493, 22-Dec-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:289488 (1991). +"Cold nuclear fusion apparatus". +** "The app. comprises an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte bath contg. +heavy H2O, where the cathode is formed of V, Sr, Y, Nb, Hf or Ta, and adsorbs +D produced by the electrolysis of heavy H2O". (Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Ogino S; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03,194,494, 22-Dec-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:289489 (1991). +"Cold nuclear fusion apparatus". +** "The app. comprises an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte bath, and a means +to expose cathode metal, where the electrolytic bath contains heavy H2O, the +cathode is formed of a D-adsorbing metal, and the means keeps active the +surface of the cathode metal". (Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Ojiri H, Nakamura M; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03,150,284, 20-Sep-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(22): 242242 (1991). +"Apparatus for cold nuclear fusion". +** "An app. for cold nuclear fusion includes: (a) a chamber with a means to +guide a D-contg. gas into it, and a exhaust means; (b) a plasma-generating +means; and (c) a reactive substrate on which is a H-absorbing metal (e.g., +Pd). Nuclear fusion is caused by contacting a plane of the gas with the +reactive substance". (Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Omori, T; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03,105,494, 07-Nov-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(22): 242243 (1991). +"Apparatus for cold nuclear fusion". +** "The app., which includes a reaction tank contg. D2O, a pair of discharge +electrodes in the tank, and a power source to apply pulsed voltage on the +electrodes, and which causes nuclear fusion based on D ion generation by +pulsed voltage, and a pressure wave produced by underwater plasma discharge, +is equipped with a partition structure around the plasma-discharge area, which +controls the pressure of the wave". (Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Onchi M, Tarui H, Kuroki K; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03 07,113, 5-Jun-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:59225 (1991). +"Cooker based on cold nuclear fusion". +** "The title cooker comprises an outer container and an inner container for +cooking materials, where the space between the 2 containers is filled with +D2O. An anode (e.g. Pt) to generate O and a cathode from a H-absorbing +material (e.g. Pd) are placed in the D2O, close to the inner container, and an +elec. field is applied between the 2 electrodes to cause the electrolysis of +D2O". (Quoted from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Pons S, Fleischmann M, Walling CT, Simons JP; +World Pat. Appl. WO 90/10935. 12 March 1990. +"Method and apparatus for power generation". +** about 100 pp.; it starts off by naming 7 earlier US pat. applications, +going back to March 13, 1989, of specific claims such as heat generation, +neutron beam method, power generation. This one combines all of these, and +"relates to methods and apparatuses for generating heat, neutrons, tritium or +electrical power, and in one illustration, to an apparatus which utilises heat +produced by compressing low atomic weight nuclei in a metal lattice under +conditions which produce excess heat, possibly involving nuclear fusion". +A number of materials, preferably palladium or other metals, are suggested, +as well as deuterium, to produce heat, tritium and "neutron beams" by +collimation; these can then be used for neutron radiography, - diffraction, +- activation, etc. In all, 50 claims are made. New ideas, not previously +exposed in the authors' publications, are the formation of the isotopic +hydride by transfer from another hydride (LiD etc) to the metal; and the use +of radioactive dopants in order to knock the PdD lattice with neutrons, alpha +or beta particles. +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Rabinowitz M, Worledge DH; Int. Pat. Appl. WO 90/13128, 1-Nov-90. +"Enhancing nuclear fusion rate in a solid". +** Methods for increasing the collision rate of light isotopes in a carrier +(i.e. deuterium in Pd, Ti etc). One way is to constrain the isotope to one- +dimensional motion by making the carrier in the form of thin filaments, or by +providing thin channels, or thin layers, within it. This is done by a number +of techniques such as vapour deposition, sputtering and ion bombardment or by +using material that has such channels or layers naturally. The use of heavy +fermion material will yield electrons with large effective mass, which will +aid in overcoming the Coulomb barrier between deuterons and the like. Other +suggestions are made. 21 claims are made. +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Rabinowitz M, Santucci J, Worledge DH; Int. Pat. Appl. WO 90/14670, 29-Nov-90. +"Isotope deposition, stimulation, and direct energy conversion for nuclear +fusion in a solid". +** The invention provides techniques for deposition of light isotopes in a +hydrogen absorbing solid and their stimulation to accelerate their fusion, +in various embodiments such as a metal with planar, channel construction, +thermal (laser) stimulation to produce high hydrogen isotope concentration, +laser ablation to produce a shock wave, and the use of ultrasonics for aiding +with the loading and stimulation. Techniques for the conversion of the energy +to electricity are included. The metal is loaded by alternate vapour +deposition of metal, deuterium, metal, etc, in thin layers. 16 claims. +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Sadoway DR; PCT Int. Appl. WO 91 06,959, 16-May-91. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(18):192160 (1991). +"Media for solid state fusion". +** "Apps. for electrochem. as well as thermochem. fusion are provided. +Material systems consisting of D storage intermetallic compd., transition +metal/rare earth metal intermetallic compd. and elemental material cathodes +are combined with compatible electrolytes including solid deuteride +electrolytes, cryogenic electrolytes, and supercrit. D in electrochem. fusion +app. wherein a magnetic field may be provided to enhance fusion initiation in +the cathodes. The invention enables the operation of these electrochem. and +thermochem. fusion apps. over a wide range of temps. and pressures which may +be adjusted to optimise the efficiency of the solid state fusion reaction". +(Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Saho N, Ogata H, Ishikawa Y, Mihara Y; +Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,276,991, 5-Apr-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:59219 (1991). +"Apparatus for nuclear fusion at room temperature". +** "The app. which comprises a heavy-H2O container, electrodes placed in the +container, and an elec. power source, is characterized in that: (1) a coolant +fills the cathode interior; and (2) the coolant-circulation system includes +means to condense the coolant vapor, and to ext. power. The b.p. of the +coolant may be set lower that that of heavy H2O". (Quoted from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Scaramuzzi F, De Ninno A; Podda S, Frattolillo A, Lollobattista G, Martone M, +Mori L, Martinis L; Eur. Pat. Appl. EP 0 394 204, 11-Apr-90. +"A system for producing neutrons and heat by nuclear fusion in a gas absorbed +on a metal". +** A system, and "an equipment" for pressurised gas-phase deuterising of +metals, and temperature cycling, so as to produce cold fusion. Some neutron +emission results are shown. +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Schoessow GJ; PCT Int. Appl. WO 91 02,360, 30-Jun-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:2554497 (1991). +"Electrochemical nuclear process and apparatus for producing tritium, heat, +and radiation". +** "A process for the prepn. and recovery of T, heat energy, and radiation +energy by electrolysis of a liq. medium contg. D2O in an electrolytic cell +having a cathode of Pd, or certain other elements by operating the process at +ca. 10-300 degC and an app. for this process are described the cathode +comprises a central solid geometrical mass and the anode is an open top +cup-shaped vessel positioned adjacently below and encircling the cathode. +(Quoted from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Shaffer G; PCT Int. Appl. WO 91 01,037, 13-Jul-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:2554492 (1991). +"Chemo-nuclear fusion methods". +** "A method of causing D mols. to combine to become He atoms in the presence +of a Pd catalyst comprises providing a reactor chamber contg. D2O and a Pd +catalyst, introducing controlled amts. of D into the chamber so that the D +mols. are absorbed by the Pd catalyst where the Pd catalyst executes a +simultaneous shift of 2 electrons, leaving 2 stripped D nuclei trapped in +single Pd clathrate cages. The juxtaposed D nuclei in a single cage and having +the effect of the absorption energy exerting tremendous compressive forces +collapse to form an alpha-particle and release relativistic energy as +gamma-ray or kinetically as heat. Finally, the evolved heat is transferred to +perform useful work". (Quoted from CA) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Steinert C; Ger. Offenb. DE 3,923,468, 15-Jul-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(14):146547 (1991). +"Fusion reactor". +** "A nuclear fusion reactor concept based on cold fusion is described. The +reactor comprises a series of fusion chambers sepd. by expansion chambers. +Electrodes serve as hydrodynamic seals for the entrance and outlet of +electrolytes from the fusion chambers. The fusion chambers also connected to +each other, e.g. by capillary tubes. The expansion rooms have +pressure-sensitive windows for irradn. with laser beams, surrounding the +fusion chambers is moderator". (Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Takahashi A; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03 06,491, appl. 04-Jun-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstracts 115:37288 (1991). +"Nuclear fusion device". +** "Ti or Pd adsorbed H, D or T is irradiated with electromagnetic wave, or +exposed to an elec. field or magnetic field to cause nuclear fusion. Thus, a +cyclindrical cathode composed of Au or Pt is covered with a light-transmitting +cover such as heat-resistant glass, and sealed with a heat-resistant bottom +plate. The anode consisting of Ti or Pd is placed in an environment mainly +composed of H, D or T. D.c. is applied to the electrodes. D2 evolved by the +electrolysis is adsorbedinto the anode, and compacted among the elemental +lattices up to a level of 10**2, and when irradiated at the specific +condition, causes nuclear fusion producing (3)He and n". +(Quoted from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Tanaka M, Hattori S; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,278,189, 19-Apr-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 114:255489 (1991). +"Power generator and heater based on cold nuclear fusion". +** "A power generator based on cold nuclear fusion comprises: (1) a device for +electrolysis of D2O; (2) a steam generator utilizing hot D2O; (3) a steam +turbine; (4) a steam condenser; (5) a pump to send H2O from the condenser to +the steam generator; (6) a means to burn D with O; (7) A steam heater; and (8) +a pump to send D2O from the steam generator and the steam heater to the +electrolysis device. A heater based on cold nuclear fusion comprises: (1) a +device for electrolysis of D2O; (2) a 1st means to heat a fluid with hot D2O +or D2O steam from the electrolysis device; (3) a means to burn D with O; (4) a +2nd means to heat the fluid or a 2nd fluid requiring higher temp., with the +D2O steam from the combustion means; and (5) a pump to send D2O from the 1st +and 2nd heating means to the electrolysis device" (Quoted from CA) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Taniguchi N, Gamo K, Niikura J, Adachi K; +Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03,107,791, 21-Sep-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:289486 (1991). +"Apparatus for cold nuclear fusion". +** "The app. includes a cathode to adsorb (in crystal lattices or on the +surface) a H isotope(s), an anode from a metal, its oxide, or its hydroxide, +and an electrolyte contg. at least a H isotope. The electrodes are +film-shaped. Nuclear fusion is caused based on the electrolysis of the +electrolyte." (Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Tokunaga H; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03 69,504, 04-Aug-89 +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(20):217011 (1991). +"Preliminary treatment of hydrogen holder". +** "Before adsorbing D (for cold nuclear fusion), a H holder (e.g. Pd) is +either heated or placed in vacuum. The process can ext. H from the H holder, +and adsorb highly pure D". (Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Tosaka S; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03,33,687 13-Feb-91. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:80703 (1991). +"Laminated electrode structure for cold fusion". +** "The electrode consists of >= 1 Pd layer and >= 1 Pt layer via a continuous +pore-having porous elec. insulating layer. The Pd layers may be connected with +outer electrode layers. The electrode had wide Pd area for high-efficiency +cold fusion". (Direct quote from CA) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Tsuda S, Nakamura N, Nakano S; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 02,302,693, 17-May-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:59221 (1991). +"Apparatus for cold nuclear fusion using solid bodies". +** "The app. comprises a solid body contg. a large amt. of D, and a means to +supply excitation energy to the body. The solid body may be of C, Si, Ge, Sn +or Pb. The energy may be supplied by heating, elec.-field application, +electromagnetic-wave application, and/or supersound application". (Quote from +CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Van Noorden PJ; Neth. Appl. NL 89 02,962, 01-Dec-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(22):242244 (1991). +"Process and apparatus, and the use of the apparatus in electrolysis-nuclear +fusion". +** "The process comprises the application of a magnetic field. The app., +comprising an electrolytic cell equipped with 2 electrodes, addnl. comprises +means for generating a magnetic field in the electrolytic cell. The use of the +app. comprises filling the cell with an electrolyte comprising LiD dissolved +in heavy water. The use of the magnetic field increases the rate at which the +alleged cold fusion occurs in the D-loaded Pd electrodes. The electrodes (Pt +anodes and Pd and Ti cathodes) are connected to one elec. source, and the +means for generating the magnetic field, i.e., a cooled, hollow coil, is +connected to another elec. source, i.e. a battery". (Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Van den Bogaert J; Belg. BE 1,002,781, 5-Jun-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 116:12357 (1992). +"Energy production by nuclear fusion". +** "In this process, in which a fusible material is absorbed in the crystal +lattice of a H-absorbing material that has a neg. elec. polarity, the fusible +material is, or is being, absorbed by a H-absorbing material in the form of +individual particles having a neg. electrostatic charge, after which the +polarity of the particles is changed from neg. to pos. This process is esp. +aimed at the controlled fusion of D, optionally mixed with T, in the crystal +lattice of the H-absorbing material, at high efficiency. The H-absorbing +material is a metal or alloy consisting of, or contg., >=1 element selected +from, Pd, Ti, Zr, V, Th, Nb, Ta, Ni and Fe. A turbulent aerosol or suspension +of colloidal or cryst. particles (av. particle size 0.1-0.001 mu) in D is +supplied in an upflow through a vertical quartz tube internally coated with an +elec. conductive coating or metal foil, e.g., Al or Cu, connected to the neg. +electrode of a d.c. source. A cooled pos. charged plate (anode) is located +above the tube, the polarity of the particles contg. the absorbed D is changed +upon contact with the anode, and the pos. ions, e.g. triton, formed by nuclear +fusion are then expelled from the Pd particles. The ions then flow downwards, +are neutralised at the cathode in the conical bottom of the reactor, and the +Pd particles are then sepd. from the aerosol in, e.g., a hydrocyclone. The Pd +particles may be elec. charged in an insulating oil, e.g. a silicone oil. The +heat generated by the fusion is removed by the heat transfer medium with which +the anode is cooled". (Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Wada N; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03 160,395, 18-Nov-89 +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(20):217014 (1991). +"Cold nuclear fusion in solids, and apparatus therefor". +** "The process includes: (a) evaluating a reaction chamber; (b) activating a +solid body (e.g. Pd) which adsorbs a nuclear-fusion-causing gaseous material +(e.g. D); (c) supplying a predetd. amt. of the gaseous material; and (d) +allowing the body to adsorb the gaseous material close to satn. The surface of +the solid body may be cleaned in short time by glow discharge. An app. for the +process includes means to take out heat caused by the nuclear fusion". +(Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Wada N; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03 160,396, 18-Nov-89 +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(20):217013 (1991). +"Cold nuclear fusion in solids". +** "The process includes: (1) allowing a solid to adsorb a nuclear-fusion- +-causing material (as an eutectic element) to almost satn.; and (2) exciting +the solid (by, e.g., elec. discharge) to cause sudden supersatn., which +creates high local concn. of the material". (Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Wada N; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03 160,397, 18-Nov-89 +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(20):217012 (1991). +"Forming elements by cold nuclear fusion in solids". +** "The process includes: (a) evacuating a reaction chamber; (b) activating a +gas-adsorbing body (e.g. Pd) in the vacuum chamber; (c) supplying a +nuclear-fusion-causing gaseous material into the chamber; (d) allowing the +body to adsorb the gaseous material to satn.; (e) causing nuclear fusion by +the material adsorbed in the body; and (f) recovering the fusion product". +(Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Wadsworth ME; Guruswamy S, Byrne JG, Li J; +Can. Pat. Appl. CA 2,023,216, 15-Aug-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(10):100641 (1991). +"Method of preparing electrodes for use in heat-generating apparatus". +** "An improved method of treating material for use in a heat-generating +method involving the absorption of H isotope into the material comprises +treating the material to substantially remove impurities in the surface region +and then depositing a thin film of a substance capable of absorbing on the +surface of the material. An optional addnl. treatment is to substantially +remove H already absorbed in the material, then heat the material in an atm. +of H isotope to percharge the material with the H isotope. A method of +producing electrode and method of enhancing absorption are also claimed". +(Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Watanabe M, Takahashi A, Sumita K; Eur. Pat. Appl. EP 0 394 980, 31-Oct-90. +"Cold nuclear fusion apparatus". +** First, a metal must be used that can absorb deuterium to high +concentrations; then, the deuterium's harmonic oscillation energy in the metal +must be raised, preferably "by discharge of deuterium gas, optical irradiation +or supersonic energy". In another embodiment, a pair of parallel metal plates +are subjected to pulsed voltages to induce gas charge and discharge, so as to +enhance cold fusion. +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Yamaguchi E, Nishioka T; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03,20,696 19-Jun-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:80700 (1991). +"Cold nuclear fusion". +** "D ions are generated in vacuum (<= 1E-4 torr), accelerated at >= 1 keV, +and projected at a fixed target contg. Pd, Ni, Ti, graphite and/or B nitride +so that nuclear fusion of D is caused at <= 1000 degC. An app. for cold +nuclear fusion contains means to generate and accelerate D ions and a fixed +target". (Direct quote from CA) +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Yamaguchi E, Nishioka T; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03,183,987 14-Dec-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:289487 (1991). +"Cold nuclear fusion process". +** "In the process, pressure gradient is applied across a Pd or Ti plate which +is covered, on one side, with a thin film (e.g. Au) having a small D-atom +diffusion coeff., so that D pressure on films becomes greater than the other, +accumulating D atoms at the interface of the plate and the film." (Direct +quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Yamaguchi E, Nishioka T; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03,183,988, 14-Dec-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115:265199 (1991). +"Cold nuclear fusion process". +** "The process includes: (1) placing in a container a D-adsorbed Pd or Ti +plate, which is covered on 1 side, with a 1st film (e.g. Si oxide) having a +small D-atom diffusion coeff., and on the other side, with a 2nd film (e.g. +Au), having a large D-atom diffusion coeff., and (2) decreasing the pressure +inside the container to increase D concn. at the interface of the plate and +the 1st film". (Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Yamazaki S, Miyanaga A, Wakaizumi K, Takemura Y; +Eur. Pat. Appl. 0 393 461, 09.04.90 +"Plasma nuclear fusion method". +** This patent sets out to solve several problems with "conventional" cold +fusion apparati and thereby give us reliable cold fusion. These problems are: +a) the use of "solusion", allowing little chance for cold fusion; +b) creation of deuterons in the same place as that in which they are to fuse; +c) poisoning of the Pd, leading to no more deuteride; +d) much deuterium is wasted as D2 gas and not used for fusion. +The invention produces a dense plasma (10-1000 times as dense as plasma formed +by high frequency fields) from gaseous D2, and then accelerates the deuterons +towards the Pd target by means of a voltage field. The plasma is generated by +resonance of microwave and magnetism. The gas is >= 98% pure D2 plus a little +H2 and He. There are further details of heat exchange for the heat produced, +prevention of overheating of the magnets etc. +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Yamazaki S; Eur. Pat. Appl. 0 393 463, 09.04.90 +"Electrode for nuclear fusion and method for using the same". +** This patent, as the previous patent of the same inventor (with others) +tries to provide reliable cold fusion. Here, instead of microwave resonance +with magnetism, a high frequency electric field ("500 KHz to 500 MHz, for +example 13.56 MHz") produces the plasma, again beaming it at the Pd (or Ti) +target. +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Yamazaki S, Miyanaga A, Takemura Y; Eur. Pat. Appl. 0 393 464, 09.04.90 +"Apparatus for plasma nuclear fusion". +** This patent appears to this abstractor to concern the same invention as +Pat. Appl. 0 393 461 of the same day, same inventors (+ one), but with a more +detailed and more carefully expressed description. +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Yamazaki S, Miyanaga A, Takemura Y; Eur. Pat. Appl. 0 393 465, 09.04.90 +"Method for producing plasma nuclear fusion". +** This patent appears to this abstractor to concern the same invention as +Pat. Appl. 0 393 463 of the same day, same inventors (-2), but with a more +detailed and more carefully expressed description. +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +Yamazaki S; Euro. Pat. Appl. EP 0 392 324, 3-Apr-1990. +"Electrochemical nuclear fusion method". +** Yamazaki (working for the Semiconductor Energy Laboratory Co., Japan) +starts by summarising what is wrong with the way Jones+(89) carry out +electrolytic cold fusion. The use of atmospheric pressure reduces the +probability of cold fusion; the reaction tends to occur at a localised section +of the electrode from the rise in temperature at that point; poisoning of the +cathode leads to side reactions and product decomposition, and the deuterium +ends up in the atmosphere, so the amount used for fusion is small; says Y. +The invention describes a pressurised cell, with the evolved gases (which are +kept separate) providing the pressure. A heat exchanger removes the excess +heat, thus keeping the cell temperature down. The cathode is either Pd or Ti, +the electrolyte being a mixture not unlike that of Jones+(89). Neutrons are +measured by a detector; nuclear fusion "is obviously accelerated when the +reaction at the cathode is implemented under high pressure". Up to 200 atm +can be used. The neutrons released can cause subsequent nuclear fusion by +breeding, so there is some danger of an atomic explosion, which can be +prevented by controlling the extent of electrolysis. This is done by pulsing +the current, to a level not exceeding the critical nuclear fusion value. +Two example experiments showed that the neutron flux is proportional to the +pressure, and can be controlled by the duty ratio of the pulsed current. +Excess heat was also observed. +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Yamazaki S; Euro. Pat. Appl. EP 0 392 325, 3-Apr-1990. +"Electrochemical nuclear fusion method". +** This appears to be the same as EP 0 392 324, but phrased a little more +formally. Note that Chem. Abstracts has this under the name Shunpei, Yamazaki; +this is probably because the inventor's name is given as "Shunpei Yamazaki" +here, as opposed to "Yamazaki, Shunpei" in the other patent application. +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +Yoshimura S; Jpn. Kokai Tokkyo Koho JP 03 82991, 25-Aug-89. +Cited in Chem. Abstr. 115(22): 242241 (1991). +"Energy converters based on electrochemical nuclear fusion". +** "The app. contains an electrolytic cell comprising a cathode from an +alkali-metal-doped pi-electron-type compd., a noble-metal anode, heavy H2O, +and an electrolyte contg. a support material, where the cathode and anode are +immersed in the electrolyte". (Direct quote from CA). +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/coldfusn.txt b/textfiles.com/science/coldfusn.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7b5b75f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/coldfusn.txt @@ -0,0 +1,286 @@ + + THE CONSEQUENCES OF CLEAN COLD FUSION + +Copyright (c) 1989 by Martin L. Buchanan. Permission to +reproduce this entire article in free publications or +postings is granted. + +This posting predicts the economic, political, and social +consequences of clean cold fusion. It predicts dates for +particular consequences and gives free investment advice. + +This article refers to a Fleischmann-Pons fusion reactor +as a "Puff" reactor (Pons/Utah/Fleischmann/fusion). The +associated process is the Puff process. + + +PREMISES + +1. The Puff process works as claimed. +2. The amount of ionizing radiation produced can be made + low enough that use in vehicles, homes, and offices + is practical. + + +PREDICTION #1: RAPID DEVELOPMENT + +Puff experiments can and will be done by garage shop operations. +The Puff process will be well-characterized in a few months. +Experimental Puff engines will be constructed this year. An +experimental Puff vehicle will be constructed by the end of '89. + +By the end of 1990 there will be working prototypes of Puff +cars, trucks, light aircraft, and home heating/electrical plants. + + +PREDICTION #2: POLITICAL OPPOSITION THAT FAILS + +Threatened economic interests will wage fierce battles to restrict +use of Puff technology. The first U.S. battles will be in +federal regulatory agencies and then the Congress: + +* Appeals for the federal government to restrict experimentation + and access to deuterium and certain metals. + +* Proposed federal laws that would forbid the use of Puff in + vehicles or homes, or that would impose such stringent radiation + limits that shielding makes Puff impractical. + +Supporting restrictions will be oil companies, electric utilities, +some environmentalists, and Congress-critters from oil- and +coal-producing states. Opposing restrictions will be auto +manufacturers, airplane manufacturers, general business lobbies, +businesses with high energy costs, and advocates of the free +market, such as the Libertarian Party. The public will decide +with a deluge of mail and phone calls supporting Puff 10:1. + +When the battle to forbid Puff fails in Congress, there +will be these new federal legislative ideas: + +* Federal tax/license fees on Puff reactors to reduce the + deficit and fund the new Federal Fusion Administration. + +* Federal taxes on Puff inputs such as deuterium, heavy water, + and certain metals. + +* Transition assistance from taxpayers for certain impacted + industries and workers. + +* Billions for cold fusion research so that we stay ahead of + the Japanese. There will be hundreds of grant proposals + from unemployed Tokamak jockeys. + +The battle will also move to state and local governments where +state laws and local ordinances banning Puff, regulating Puff, +or requiring licenses will be fought. Some short-lived ordinances +will be passed in places like Cambridge, Mass. or Berkeley, CA. +Licensing could become commonplace. However, bans or radiation +restrictions beyond what health requires will eventually be +repealed. + + +PREDICTION #3: F/P PATENT GRANTED AND UPHELD + +Fleischmann and Pons will be granted a broad patent covering +all use of cold fusion in a metal lattice to generate energy. +The University of Utah and probably the University of +Southampton will share in the largess. + +The patent-holders will license the patent on very generous +terms, seeking a one-time payment for each Puff built in +proportion to its power output. For example, a $.001/W capacity +(tenth of a cent per Watt = $1.00 per Kilowatt capacity) license +fee could generate a revenue stream of billions of dollars per +year within a few years. + +The universities, the inventors, and the inventors' heirs will +be among the richest institutions and persons in the world +as we enter the 21st century. + + +PREDICTION #4: SCHEDULE + +1989 Process characterized. + + Experimental Puff engine and vehicle. + +1990 Forecasters dub the new decade "The Fusing Nineties." + + Working prototypes of Puff cars, trucks, light aircraft, + home heating plants, and home electrical plants. + +1991 Auto companies introduce Puff models. Puff vehicle + prices are initially high but drop rapidly. + + Puff hot water heater on the market. + +1992 Portable computer appears powered by Puff and + thermocouple. + + Puff home electrical power system on the market. + +1993 Light aircraft manufacturers introduce Puff models. + + First large Puff ship puts to sea. + +1994 First Puff central power station with more than + 100M Watts capacity. + + First Boeing Puff 797F ("F" for fusion) enters + commercial service. + +1995 Puff-powered ion-electric rocket deployed in + orbit (for orbital transfers, not surface to orbit). + + +PREDICTION #5: INVESTMENTS + +These investments will benefit: + + Companies involved in extracting heavy water or in building + new heavy water plants. + + Mining companies extracting the metals used, such as + Palladium. + + Vehicle manufacturers including auto-makers, airplane-makers, + ship-builders, truck-builders, and locomotive-builders. + + Companies that build electric generating plants; they have + the expertise to build Puff-based plants. + + Companies that can manufacture cheap and very sensitive + radiation detectors. + + Companies that can build cheap Puff-based desalination plants. + + Energy-intensive industries, such as aluminum + companies + + Real estate and retail businesses around the University of + Utah and possibly the University of Southampton. + + +These investments will suffer in the long run: + + Fossil fuel (oil and coal) extracting, refining, + distributing, and retailing. + + The preexisting nuclear energy industry (based on fission). + + Companies manufacturing solar-electric, hydro-electric, + and wind-electric equipment. + + Parts manufacturers and anything related to internal + combustion engines. This includes tuneup shops, + vehicle repair shops, and so on. + + Electric utilities and natural gas utilities. + Electric utilities won't disappear but will be under + price pressure due to home or business direct generation + of power from their own Puff plants. + + +PREDICTION #6: GEOPOLITICAL CONSEQUENCES + +Economies based on fossil-fuel extraction will decline in +relative wealth (though their absolute wealth may be greater +in a more abundant world) and in relative power: Saudi +Arabia, Iran, Iraq, the Persian Gulf states, Brunei, Mexico, +Venezuela, Texas, Louisiana, Alaska, West Virginia. Those +economies with large financial reserves and small populations, +such as Saudi Arabia, will do much better than those with +large populations and no financial reserves, such as Mexico. +(Note that the list of affected areas does not pretend to be +complete.) A diverse economy such as Texas will handle +the transition much better than a one-product economy. + +Japan and the U.S. will be stronger, eventually freed from +any dependence on imported fossil fuels (total dependence in +Japan's case), and with market-oriented cultures that will +quickly take advantage of these new developments. The same +will be true of Korea and Taiwan. + +The growing economic pie/increased abundance made possible +by Puff technology will aid the process of perestroika/glasnost/ +restructuring in the communist nations, from the Soviet Union +to Eastern Europe to China. + + +PREDICTION #7: MACROECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES + +Puff will fuel an economic boom as the world replaces a large +part of its capital stock. Of course some investments and +areas will fare poorly in the transition. + + +PREDICTION #8: POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CONSEQUENCES + +Puff will result in: + +* More positive attitudes towards science and technology + +* More young people interested in science and technology + +* More positive attitudes towards markets, freedom, and + classical liberal/libertarian ideas + +* More openness to entrepreneurs, crackpots, and others + with new ideas + +* More skepticism about the value of government-funded + science + +* Less "zero-sum" thinking = less trade protectionism + and less anti-immigration sentiment + + +PREDICTION #9: CONTINUED INNOVATION + +Puff will lead us to a new understanding of nuclear processes. +This new understanding and the innovative efforts of thousands +of engineers and scientists will overcome initial Puff +limitations if physically possible. Some possible innovations +include: + +* Desktop deuterium factory. Someone will build a miniaturized + device to separate heavy water or deuterium from water. + +* Air-powered Puff plant. An advanced Puff plant may take water + vapor out of the air and extract the deuterons that it needs + to power itself. + +* Cold fusion-powered Earth to orbit rocket. The initial Puff + has relatively low operating temperatures, because the palladium + lattice must be solid. Presently unknown cold fusion techniques + may allow much higher power densities and operating temperatures. + Such a rocket could use plain water for its reaction mass if + a high-enough exhaust velocity is achieved. + +* Miniaturized Puff plants. For example, a Puff-powered artificial + heart. + + +PREDICTION #10: OPENING THE HIGH FRONTIER + +Even without direct cold fusion surface to orbit rockets, cold +fusion will help open the high frontier of space in these ways: + +* Low power costs for laser launching or launch loops or LINAC + (linear-accelerator)-assisted launching or antimatter production + if antimatter is used for energy storage on such vehicles + (see Forward's "Mirror Matter" book). + +* Unbounded power for ion drive ships in space. + +* It *may* be profitable to mine the Moon or asteroids for + certain metals. + +* With a wealthier global civilization on Earth and much lower + space travel costs, millions of people will be able to afford + space travel for pleasure. + +I'll close with a final prediction: within 30 years, you will +be able to buy a personal spaceship that will take you and your +family to the Moon and back. Its price will be under one +million 1989 dollars. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/crystal1.asc b/textfiles.com/science/crystal1.asc new file mode 100644 index 00000000..6826be6e --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/crystal1.asc @@ -0,0 +1,132 @@ + + + + + (word processor parameters LM=8, RM=75, TM=2, BM=2) + Taken from KeelyNet BBS (214) 324-3501 + Sponsored by Vangard Sciences + PO BOX 1031 + Mesquite, TX 75150 + + There are ABSOLUTELY NO RESTRICTIONS + on duplicating, publishing or distributing the + files on KeelyNet! + + December 22, 1990 + + CRYSTAL1.ASC + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + + Scanning Masers for Information Retrieval + + This file is inspired by the TV show, "Science Fiction Theatre". + One of their segments had to do with spying on a conference. The + method used was unknown and was traced to what appeared to be a + bottle of ant poison. + + The show used the term "Crystal of Deception". Unfortunately, I do + not remember the EXACT technique although it can be narrowed down to + only two. + + The first technique used a clear fluid placed in the bottle of ant + poison. This fluid hardened (crystallized) over time. As the fluid + crystallized, the matrix thus formed recorded the sonic waves + present just as recordings are made in plastic or wax. + + The second technique used a seed crystal onto which the new fluid + accumulated. Much like the saturated solutions used to "grow" + crystal formations. Since the absorption was somewhat regular over + time, it would also record sonic patterns. + + Of the two, I think the seed crystal technique to be the most + logical since the initiator of the growth process would already be + present. + + By using M.A.S.E.R. (molecular amplification by stimulated emission + of radiation) energy in a scanning pattern, the sounds could be + recovered. + + When the molecules are excited, they produce modulations in the + audible spectrum which can be recovered much like radio signals are + broadcast on the AM (amplitude modulation) bands. + + Scanning is done by raking the focussed beam over the area in an X + and Y pattern (vertical and horizontal to produced a 2 dimensional + pattern). Of course, by adding a Y vector (through phase + conjugation) we could scan a 3 dimensional matrix. + + For a twist, the show used a rock which when scanned yielded voices + and screams. Of course, the rock was a piece of lava from Mt. + Vesuvius and had "captured" the screams of the dying inhabitants as + the lava cooled. A very interesting concept. + + + Page 1 + + + + + + Needless to say, the aggregation rate and the size and thus response + time of the particles would play a distinct part in the clarity, + fidelity and resolution of the recording. + + Note that Star Trek used a credit card size piece of plastic to + record both video and audio. Science fiction it might be FOR NOW + but it does have possibilities. + + Also remember the claims of Richard Shaver regarding what he said + were images recorded in stone geodes by some ancient civilization. + + The geodes were sliced into thin plates which could be projected + onto a wall to see the images. + + I have seen photos of these images and they are somewhat reminiscent + of intelligible patterns. By today's standards they have almost no + merit, however. + + Bear in mind that most images, either audible or visual, are direct + reproductions of ANALOG patterns (amplitude variations). + + This crystal recording technique simply points to another phenomenon + that might produce a useable technology. + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + + If you have comments or other information relating to such topics + as this paper covers, please upload to KeelyNet or send to the + Vangard Sciences address as listed on the first page. + Thank you for your consideration, interest and support. + + Jerry W. Decker.........Ron Barker...........Chuck Henderson + Vangard Sciences/KeelyNet + + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + If we can be of service, you may contact + Jerry at (214) 324-8741 or Ron at (214) 242-9346 + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Page 2 + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/dark.txt b/textfiles.com/science/dark.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..34ef3fa6 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/dark.txt @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ + D A R K + Rewritten by The Quantum Mechanic + (author unknown) + + For years it has been believed that electric bulbs emitted light. However, + recent information has proven otherwise. Electric bulbs don't emit light, + they suck dark. Thus we call these bulbs dark suckers. The dark sucker + theory proves the existence of dark, that dark has mass heavier that that + of light, and that dark is faster than light. + + The basis of the dark sucker theory is that electric bulbs suck dark. Take + for example, the dark suckers in the room where you are. There is much + less dark right next to them than there is elsewhere. The larger the dark + sucker, the greater its capacity to suck dark. Dark suckers in a parking + lot have a muck greater capacity than the ones in this room. As with all + things, dark suckers don't last forever. Once they are full of dark, they + can no longer suck. This is proven by the black spot on a full dark + sucker. A candle is a primitive dark sucker. A new candle has a white + wick. You will notice that after the first use, the wick turns black, + representing all of the dark which has been sucked into it. If you hold a + pencil next to the wick of an operating candle, the tip will turn black + because it got in the way of the dark flowing into the candle. + Unfortunately, these primitive dark suckers have a very limited range. + There are also portable dark suckers. The bulbs in these can't handle all + of the dark by themselves, and must be aided by a dark storage unit. When + the dark storage unit is full, it must be either emptied or replaced + before the portable dark sucker can operate again. + + Dark has mass. When dark goes into a dark sucker, friction from this mass + generates heat. Thus it is not wise to touch an operating dark sucker. + Candles present a special problem, as the dark must travel into a solid + wick instead of through clear glass. This generates a great amount of + heat, Thus it can be very dangerous to touch an operating candle. Dark is + also heavier than light. If you swim just below the surface of a lake, you + see a lot of light. If you slowly swim deeper and deeper, you notice it + getting slowly darker and darker. When you reach a depth of approximately + fifty feet, you are in total darkness. This is because the heavier dark + sinks to the bottom of the lake and the lighter light floats to the top. + The immense power of dark can be utilized to man's advantage. We can + collect the dark that has settled to the bottom of lakes and push it + through turbines, which generates electricity and helps push the dark to + the ocean, where it may be safely stored. Prior to turbines, it was much + more difficult to get the dark from the rivers and lakes to the ocean. The + Indians recognized this problem, and tried to solve it. When on a river in + a canoe travelling in the same direction as the flow of dark, they paddled + slowly, so as not to stop the flow of dark; but when they travelled + against the flow of dark, they paddled quickly, so as to help push the + dark along its way. + + Finally, we must prove that dark is faster than light. If you were to + stand in an illuminated room in front of a closed, dark closet, then + slowly open the closet door, you would see the light slowly enter the + closet; but since dark is so fast, you would not be able to see the dark + leave the closet. + + In conclusion, I would like to say that dark suckers make all of our lives + much easier. So the next time you look at an electric bulb, remember that + it is indeed a dark sucker. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/disable.rd b/textfiles.com/science/disable.rd new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3cf6fcb2 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/disable.rd @@ -0,0 +1,1744 @@ +From: patth@sci.ccny.cuny.edu (Patt Bromberger) +Newsgroups: misc.handicap +Subject: Paper on Reading Disabilities +Message-ID: <27023@handicap.news> +Date: 8 Jan 93 20:00:12 GMT +Originator: wtm@sheldev.shel.isc-br.com +Lines: 1736 + +Index Number: 27023 + + NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATIONAL DISABILITIES + + Implications for Diagnosis and Remediation + + Expert Paper Submitted to the United Nations + Disability Unit, Vienna + February, 1990 + + Robert Zenhausern, Ph.D. + Professor of Psychology + St. Johns University + Jamaica, NY 11439 + USA + + INTRODUCTION + + The paragraphs below are in the form of a satire based on the +essay by Jonathan Swift entitled "A Modest Proposal" in which he +presented a solution to the "Irish Problem". The parallel here is +Learning Disability and the inflexible ways these children are +taught. It is the objective of this paper to show that the problem +of the learning disenfranchised is one that can be solved by +increasing the flexibility with which we teach. + Another Modest Proposal: + A Swift Response to an Old Problem + The purpose of this essay is to examine the possibility that we +are systematically doing a disservice to a large segment of the +school population. Students who have auditory or visual +impairments have been allowed to use artificial means, such as +glasses or hearing aids, to correct their deficits. Indeed, it is +considered praiseworthy to identify such problems early and then +use the services of professionals who prescribe optical or +electronic devices which alleviate the deficiencies. + The consequences of such actions, however, have not been +considered fully. Such children may become lazy and make no +attempt to overcome their problems. What motivation will they have +to strengthen their perceptual weaknesses when such devices make +it unnecessary for them to do so? What will such people do if, for +whatever reason, such devices are not available? It is the +contention of this paper that artificial devices are crutches which +interfere with the complete development of the child. As such, +they should be eliminated. + Some might argue (and not without a modicum of validity) that +by eliminating those "support systems," such children may not +progress beyond the elementary rudiments of learning. That, +however, should be secondary to the point that we are not dealing +directly with a serious problem. The fact that our present state +of knowledge does not allow us to correct such deficiencies should +not dissuade us from this course of action. Eventually specific +techniques will be developed to meet the problems of poor eyesight +and hearing in much the same way that techniques were developed to +alleviate reading and mathematical difficulties -- and probably +with as much success. There is a minor problem in the fact that +many of the authority figures in the child's environment use those +same artificial devices and thus do not serve as good role models. + Aside from the educational wisdom of this proposal, it has the +added advantage of eliminating the possibility of charges of +discrimination. Consider, for example, if someone raised the point +that a deficit in vision or hearing might be compared to a deficit +in arithmetic computation. They might argue that if vision can be +corrected by glasses why can a calculation deficit not be corrected +by the use of a calculator? It is difficult to counter these +arguments since the two deficits have so much in common. Even the +poor role model problem has a parallel since most of the authority +figures whom the children contact would have some difficulty in +taking a square root or doing long division of decimals by hand. +The conclusion is clear: take away glasses and hearing aids and +give the children with sensory defects the same advantages given +to children with calculation defects! + * * * + The essay is clearly satirical, but its point is clear. In +this Decade of the Disabled it is essential to consider the human +rights of the Learning Disabled to an education that more closely +fits their capabilities. The problems of the Learning Disabled are +unique because this is the only disabled group which is held +responsible for its disability. "If he worked harder, he could do +it", says the frustrated teacher. No one expects a blind person +to see, if he or she "worked harder". Furthermore, to call a child +"learning disabled" is to put the burden of responsibility on the +wrong person! It is our responsibility to teach much more than it +is the responsibility of the child to learn. It is we who should +be called teaching disabled. The purpose of this paper is to focus +attention on individual differences among both normal and learning +disabled children and to consider alternative approaches to +education and thus eliminate our teaching disability. The major +emphasis will be on the theory and remediation of reading +disability based on a 10 year program of research within a +neuropsychological framework. The initial Chapter will introduce +the concepts of cerebral asymmetry and hemisphericity and put them +in perspective for education today. The second Chapter will +discuss behavioral and physiological measures of individual +differences in neuropsychological functioning. The third Chapter +will describe a study that underlines the importance of these +individual differences in an educational setting. The fourth and +fifth Chapters will describe a series of studies dealing with the +theory, diagnosis and remediation of reading disability that has +been based on these neuropsychological concepts. The final Chapter +will be a summary that includes the basic information on the Direct +Access approach to reading with specific recommendations. It can +serve as an abstract of the whole paper. + This Introduction ends with a short quote, found hanging on +the walls of an elementary school in Greensboro, North Carolina and +attributed to Ken Dunn. + +If children cannot learn the way we are teaching them, +then we must teach them the way they can learn. + + CHAPTER 1 + THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES OF THE BRAIN AND THE NEW PHRENOLOGY + + Recent work in the areas of neuropsychology, especially that +of Sperry who won the Nobel Prize, has popularized the notion of +cerebral asymmetry. That is, the two hemispheres of the brain are +different in terms of the cognitive processes in which they excel. +There is clear evidence that the Left Hemisphere has unique control +of expressive speech and operates using a sequentially organized +system. The Right Hemisphere, on the other hand, has systems that +are more capable of spatially and pictorially oriented processing. + + While there are clear differences between the hemispheres, +these differences have been overgeneralized into a new phrenology +of brain functions. A typical list of "Left Hemisphere Functions" +reads something like: logical, verbal, analytic, inductive, +controlled; the Right Hemisphere is often called: synthetic, +emotional, deductive, intuitive, and abstract. Some of these +labels are self-contradictory. The Left Hemisphere is called both +analytic and inductive and the Right Hemisphere both synthetic and +deductive. The term "abstract" has two diametrically opposed +meanings: an article abstract versus abstract art. These +inconsistencies aside, this neo-phrenological approach must be +rejected on the grounds that it is atomistic. A hemisphere is +neither verbal, logical, emotional, nor creative; it is a person +who has these characteristics! All behavior flows from the +integrated functioning of the whole brain. This does not mean, +however, that there are no individual differences associated with +the brain. The concept of Hemispheric Related Strategies provides +a framework on which to base an individual difference variable. + For the most part, the two hemispheres do the same things but +do them using different approaches. Cerebral asymmetries reflect +relative efficiency rather than a "can do-can't do" dichotomy. +There seems to be one exception to this relative rather than +absolute difference between the hemispheres: for most people, only +the left hemisphere is capable of speech and of phonetic +representation (Levy, 1974). The isolated Left Hemisphere can tell +whether the two words "though" and "blow" rhyme but the isolated +Right Hemisphere can not, even though it may understand their +meaning. Rhyming demands that the written word be converted to an +auditory form and only the left hemisphere has this capability. + A second factor that differentiates the two hemispheres is their +type of processing systems: sequential for the left hemisphere and +parallel for the right hemisphere (see Bradshaw and Nettleton, 1981 +for a review.) Compare these two situations: 1) You are given a +description of someone and must then identify that person; and 2) +You are shown a picture of the person and then must select the +person. The first task demands the sequential system of the left +hemisphere--the words, descriptive of the various facial features, +are read in sequence and must be combined into an overall +perception. The latter situation reflects the parallel system of +the right hemisphere -- the picture is seen as a whole and various +facial features can be extracted. The picture is seen all at once +in parallel while the verbal description must be sequentially +processed. The sequential processing system of the Left +Hemisphere and its ability in speech production are the +characteristics that underlie the notion that the Left Hemisphere +is the verbal hemisphere. Language, by its very nature, is +sequential. Word order and syntax are essential to meaning-- +language cannot be easily processed in parallel. Thus the left +hemisphere has been labeled the "verbal" hemisphere because its +sequential processing system is compatible with the sequential +nature of language, and its control of auditory linguistic +processes makes it essential for speech. + For other tasks, even though the processing system of either +hemisphere is compatible with the task, one hemisphere is clearly +superior. The example of face recognition shows intuitively that +the Right Hemisphere pictorial approach is better than a Left +Hemisphere written description. Note, however, that the task can +be done using Left Hemisphere strategies, but it takes a thousand +words to describe one picture. Spatial relations tasks are +also more easily handled using Right Hemisphere processes. Other +tasks can be handled equally well using the strategies of either +hemisphere. For example, a list of words could be learned by +converting and storing them as visual representations or in an +auditory form. The term Hemispheric Related Strategies can be used +to describe this relationship between observable behavior and its +underlying neuropsychological bases. + +Hemispheric Cognitive Style + Two individuals, when faced with the same task, do not +necessarily use the same strategies, that is, people do things in +different ways. Sometimes those different approaches can be +associated with processing differences between the two cerebral +hemispheres. These different approaches can be termed Hemispheric +Related Traits. Hemispheric Cognitive Style is the tendency of an +individual to use distinct patterns of Hemispheric Related Traits. +It does not imply that one hemisphere is used exclusively, but that +individuals tend to approach tasks in unique and consistent ways. +For example, if a group of individuals were asked to remember the +words "dog, cat, tree, table, chair", few would have difficulty. +If these same individuals were asked what strategies they used, +there would be wide variation. Some would report they repeated +the words to themselves, others that they "saw" the written form +of the word, and others would create images of the words. + These differences in memory strategies can be related to +Hemispheric Related Traits. A person who would be more likely to +use imaginal strategies could be said to use a right Hemispheric +Related Trait, and a person who used auditory strategies could be +said to use a left Hemispheric Related Trait. Some individuals +tend to use the Hemispheric Related Traits associated with one +hemisphere more than those of the other hemisphere and others show +little or no bias. Those who do favor the Hemispheric Related +Traits of one hemisphere can be said to have a Right or Left +Hemispheric Cognitive Style. It is important not to +overgeneralize the scope of Hemispheric Cognitive Style. The fact +that a person tends to use particular strategies implies neither +a disuse nor deficiency in one hemisphere of the brain. On a very +simple level, a right Hemispheric Cognitive Style individual has +access to the speech centers of the left hemisphere just as a left +Hemispheric Cognitive Style individual has access to the prosody +centers of the right hemisphere. Thus both right and left +Hemispheric Cognitive Style individuals rely on the integrated +functioning of both hemispheres for expressive speech, and, in +fact, all behavior. In an intact individual, no task can be +accomplished without the integrated functioning of both +hemispheres. To call an individual "left or right brained" is to +ignore the fact that all activity depends on the integrated +functioning of the whole brain. These differences, however, can +be related to different strategies with which people approach +specific tasks. One purpose of this paper is to show how these +strategy differences can affect the educational system. The next +chapter will describe how differences in Hemispheric Related Traits +can be measured. The following chapters will focus on the +application of these traits to mainstream and learning disabled +education. + + CHAPTER 2 + THE MEASUREMENT OF HEMISPHERIC COGNITIVE STYLE + + Two distinct tools have been used in the measurement of +Hemispheric Cognitive Style, one behavioral and the other +physiological. The behavioral measure is a self rating +questionnaire and the physiological measure relies on the +predominant direction of Lateral Eye Movement (LEM). + +The Hemispheric Preference Questionnaire + There are many questionnaires that have been used to measure +"hemisphericity" including many from popular magazines. Over the +past 12 years I have developed an instrument that has been +successfully used to separate right and left Hemispheric Cognitive +Styles. A copy of the questionnaire and its scoring key has been +included. The following studies used the instrument successfully. +Coleman and Zenhausern (1979) compared those who used right and +left Hemispheric Related Traits on a memory retrieval task. They +found the two groups differed on processing speed and the extent +of a left hemisphere bias induced by a verbal memory load. The +bias was four times stronger for the those who use left Hemispheric +Related Traits than for those who use right Hemispheric Related +Traits. Zenhausern and Nickel (1979) found that Right style +individuals learned a finger maze in fewer trials, in less time and +with fewer errors than Left style individuals. Zenhausern, Notaro, +Grosso, and Schiano (1981) presented right and left style +individuals with auditory messages in which there was a conflict +between verbal content and emotional tone of voice. Overall, those +who used right Hemispheric Related Traits responded significantly +more often to the inflection cues and those who use left +Hemispheric Related Traits significantly more often to the verbal +content. Zenhausern and Dunivin (1981) found that left style +subjects were more obsessive compulsive, while right style subjects +had more hysterical traits. Zenhausern and Parisi (1983) have +found that schizophrenics rate themselves as using left while +depressives rate themselves as using right hemisphere related +strategies. The instrument has been used in the area of +reading disability to distinguish two separate syndromes. Oexle +and Zenhausern (1980), Golden and Zenhausern (1981), Zenhausern +and Sinatra (1983), Maxwell and Zenhausern (1983) have found that +85% of reading disabled children rate themselves as using more +right than left hemisphere strategies. A copy of the test and its +scoring key can be found in Table 2.1. + +Lateral Eye Movements + Research into the phenomenon of lateral eye movements (LEM) +as a behavioral measure of neuropsychological activity has been +pursued along two separate dimensions. LEM have been considered +a measure of both individual differences and task demands. From a +neuropsychological perspective, the individual difference aspects +have been associated with the concept of cognitive style and the +effects of task demands with hemispheric asymmetry. There is, +however, considerable controversy as to whether LEM do indeed have +neuropsychological relevance. The importance of LEM has been +overgeneralized to the point of faddism, which has led to a general +reluctance on the part of the scientific community to give them +credence. In addition, researchers in the area have sometimes +failed to distinguish between these two different aspects of LEM. + + Table 2.1 + The Preference Test for Hemispheric Related Strategies + +Indicate your choice by assigning a number from 1 to 10 (with 1 +being the lowest) on each question. To score the test, refer to +the scoring key below. Add the ratings for all the items that are +to be scored right and those that are to be scored left, subtract +the two and divide by 10. The larger number shows the predominant +preference and the greater the difference the larger the HRS +preference. You should then develop your own local norms, but as +a rule of thumb a score of .7 or higher can be considered a clear +indication of a preference for a Hemispheric Related Strategy. + + Test Items + +1) Do you base your decisions on objective facts rather than + feelings? +2) Are you psychic? +3) Do you like using symbols or images in solving problems? +4) Are you artistically or musically creative? +5) Are you logical? +6) Are you good at solving crossword puzzles? +7) Can you read quickly? +8) Are your daydreams vivid? +9) Can you think of synonyms for words easily? +10) Do you remember dreams? +11) Are your dreams vivid? +12) Are you fluent in using words? +13) Are you good at using images in remembering and thinking? +14) Do you use a playful approach to problem solving? +15) Do you use a serious, all business approach to problem +solving? 16) Do you like to keep experiences planned and +structured? +17) Do you like to read or think while sitting upright? +18) How much does your thinking consist of words? +19) How much does your thinking consist of mental imagery? +20) Do you like to explain something using visual presentation? + + SCORING KEY + + Item Scoring + 1 L + 2 R + 3 R + 4 R + 5 L + 6 L + 7 L + 8 R + 9 L + 10 R + + Item Scoring + 11 R + 12 L + 13 R + 14 R + 15 L + 16 L + 17 L + 18 L + 19 R + 20 R +Individual Differences and LEM + Research into whether LEM +reflect individual personality differences was initiated by Day +(1964), who reported that the direction of LEM was related to +individual styles of coping with anxiety. Bakan (1971) was the +first to propose that the direction in which a person consistently +shifted gaze was related to which of the cerebral hemispheres an +individual used more often. + The relationship between LEM and various dimensions of +individual differences has been explored. Tucker and Suib (1978) +found that left-movers had higher scores on the Performance tests +of the WAIS and did better with imagery oriented questions while +right-movers had better scores on the Verbal subtests of the WAIS +and with questions that were letter and number oriented (e.g., how +many letters are in the word house). Gur and Gur (1975) +showed a relationship between direction of LEM and defensive style. +Predominantly rightward movers more often reported using projection +and "turning against others" as their main defenses, while +predominantly leftward movers reported using repression and denial +more often. LEM were again shown to be related to defensive styles +in males as measured by the Defense Mechanism Inventory (Krikorian +and Rafales, 1983). This effect was not replicated with females, +however (Thompson, Greenberg, Fisher, 1982). In addition, subjects +who moved their eyes bidirectionally rather than predominantly to +the left or the right were shown to have better adaptive coping +styles ratings on the adjective check list (Parrott, 1984). + Smokler and Shevrin (1979) showed that normal subjects with +hysterical tendencies made more leftward LEM than subjects with +obsessive compulsive tendencies. The latter group was more likely +to show rightward LEM. Gur (1978) and Schweitzer (1979) found that +schizophrenics had predominantly leftward LEM. + The relationship between LEM and cognitive styles has also +been explored. Subjects, who scored as left or right style +oriented on the Laterality Preference Schedule, were shown to have +consistent patterns of LEM, indicating the existence of consistent +patterns of information processing (Breitling and Bonnet, 1985; +Bruce, Herman, and Stern, 1982). When using the Your Style of +Learning and Thinking Test (SOLAT) to measure style of thinking, +however, no relationship was found between LEM and thinking style +preference (Alberts and McCallum, 1982). In addition, Owens and +Limber (1983) found no relationship between cognitive style and +LEM. + One area of interest in the cognitive style research is the +relationship between what are considered right style ways of +thinking (holistic and broad) and left style ways of thinking +(analytic and narrow) based on proposed functions of the individual +hemispheres. In support of the theory that eye movements indicate +hemispheric activation, and that left hemisphere activation is +associated with more analytic and narrow styles, Huang and Byrne +(1978) showed that narrow categorizers based on the Pettigrew's +Category Width Scale made more leftward LEM than broad +categorizers. + Another area of interest has been the relationship between the +ability to recall dreams and LEM. Predominantly leftward LEM have +been associated with the ability to vividly recall dreams in male +subjects (Leboeuf, Mckay, Clark, 1983), but the same has not been +found with females (Van Nuys, 1985). A related issue is that of +creativity and LEM. Leftward eye movement has been associated with +thinking of more uses of objects on the Uses Test, which is often +used as a measure of creativity (Falcone and Loder, 1984). +Zenhausern (1987) has shown that LEM can differentiate between two +different types of reading disabled children. Specifically, +rightward LEM are characteristic of reading disabled children who +are unable to derive meaning from the written word despite being +able to say it. Leftward LEM are characteristic of reading +disabled children who are unable to pronounce the word despite +understanding what it means. This sampling of research indicates +the scope of individual differences that have been associated with +LEM. In their critique of the LEM literature, Ehrlichman and +Weinberger (1978) concluded that LEM are reliable measures of +individual differences. They found that despite differences in +methodology and experimental situations the direction a person +moves his or her eyes is a consistent behavior of that individual. +The individual difference studies above indicate their behavioral +relevance. + +Functional Hemispheric Asymmetry and LEM + A second perspective on the nature of LEM was introduced by +Kinsbourne (1972) who proposed that LEM reflect the task demands +on the subject. He suggested that those tasks that require input +predominantly from the left hemisphere resulted in rightward LEM, +the direction away from the left hemisphere; those tasks that +required predominantly right hemisphere functions resulted in +leftward LEM, away from the right hemisphere. There has been +mixed support for this relationship between LEM and question type. +The critical variable has usually been whether rightward LEM are +associated with verbal questions, indicating a relationship between +a verbal task and left hemisphere activation. A wide variety of +what have been called "verbal" questions have been used, however. + Galin and Ornstein (1974) reported a relationship between +rightward LEM and logical problems and leftward LEM and visual +imagery tasks. Proverb interpretation has been shown to be +related to rightward LEM (Kinsbourne, 1972; Gur, 1975). Schwartz, +Davidson and Maer, 1977, found a relationship between LEM and task +demands. There have been recent reports of relationships +between both rightward LEM and verbal questions (Hugdahl and +Carlgren, 1981; Ogorman and Siddle, 1981) and leftward LEM and +visual spatial tasks (Swinnen, 1984). In addition to the +verbal/non-verbal dichotomy, emotionally laden questions were used +to elicit predominantly leftward LEM (Krikorian and Rafales, 1983; +Jamieson and Sellick, 1985). + Not all studies have resulted in significant findings. In +fact, Ehrlichman and Weinberger concluded that the evidence for a +relationship between LEM and question type was not convincing on +both empirical and theoretical grounds. From the empirical point +of view, they noted that of the 21 studies reviewed, 10 resulted +in rightward movement in response to verbal questions, and 11 +resulted in no difference in LEM to verbal and non verbal +questions. The authors concluded that the literature thus did not +offer strong support that LEM were related to question type. + A re-evaluation of the empirical studies, however, indicates +that there is a consistent relationship found between the type of +question asked and the direction of LEM. In only one of the 21 +studies reported by Erhlichman and Weinberger did verbal questions +lead to leftward LEM. While the conclusion that verbal questions +lead to rightward LEM may be in question, the conclusion that +verbal questions do not lead to leftward LEM is strongly supported. +There may be a relationship between task demands and LEM, but it +is not a simplistic "verbal question leads to rightward LEM +relationship". + There is clear evidence that LEM are related to both the type +of question asked and individual difference factors. Therefore, +in any situation, LEM reflect the type of question asked +interacting with the individual differences and it is essential to +separate the two effects. + Two distinct tasks were used in a study by Zenhausern and +Kraemer (1989) to investigage the dual nature of LEM. One task is +purely informational and cannot be uniquely connected with either +hemisphere of the brain. The second task involves rhyming of non- +words which clearly demands the speech centers of the left +hemisphere. Two experimental questions were addressed. 1) Is the +direction of LEM consistent within an individual both across time +and across tasks? 2) Does the type of question asked have an +effect on the direction of LEM? + A total of 50 adult subjects were tested. There were 16 males +and 34 females, with an average age of 27 and a range of 16 to 50. +The stimuli for the rhyme task were four to five letter nonsense +words printed in black ink on white index cards and a series of +prepared questions. + The subjects were informed that they were participating in a +study involving the different ways in which people think. They +were asked two kinds of questions in a face to face encounter with +the experimenter. The subject responded yes or no with a nod or +shake of the head and the initial direction of eye movement to each +of 40 questions was recorded for each subject. These non-verbal +responses were used to eliminate left hemisphere involvement +through speech which was unrelated to the task. The 20 +informational questions did not call on any clearly defined brain +areas (Is Miami the capitol of Florida?). The 20 rhyme questions, +on the other hand, clearly demanded the auditory linguistic +capabilities of the left hemisphere. The subject was shown a +nonsense word on an index card and told to remember it. The card +was removed and another nonsense word was verbally spelled by the +examiner and the subjects were asked whether the two words rhymed. +The subjects were tested in two blocks of 20 trials separated by +30 minutes. Within each block 10 informational and 10 rhyme +questions were asked. + The data were first explored by means of a correlational +analysis. Both test-retest and split half reliabilities for +informational questions and for rhyme questions are shown in Table +2.2. In addition, the correlation between rhyme and informational +questions is also presented. LEM are clearly a consistent measure +of individual differences with reliability coefficients averaging +approximately .80 for the same type of question. When the type of +question was changed, however, there was a dramatic drop in the +consistency of LEM although the correlations were still +significant. The direction of LEM changed as a function of task +demands, but not to the extreme that would result in no +correlation. + +Table 2.2 +Intercorrelations Among LEM for Information and Rhyme Questions + + Split Half Test Retest +Rhyme .85 .78 +Information .79 .83 +Rhyme with Information .59 + + An initial analysis on the two 20 question blocks indicated +no significant differences and the two were collapsed into a single +set of questions. The data were then analyzed by means of a split- +plot analysis of variance with LEM Group (whether a subject had +predominantly rightward or leftward movement) as a between factor +and Task (Rhyme and Informational questions) and Direction of +Movement (Right, Left, and Stares) as between factors. Since the +scores are ipsative and the Grouping factor and dependent variable +are related, only the interactions are of interest in this design. +There was a significant interaction between the Direction of +Movement and Task. The results are shown in Table 2.3 below. + +Table 2.3 +Number and Direction of LEM as a Function of Type of Question + +Task Direction of LEM + Right Left Stare + +Rhyme 6.82 7.64 4.92 +Information 5.50 7.50 6.50 + + Simple effects analysis indicated that the number of leftward +LEM to informational and rhyme questions were not significantly +different, but there were significantly more rightward LEM than +leftward LEM to rhyme questions. There were no interactions +involving the LEM Group factor, indicating that the effects of the +type of question were the same for both groups. + These results lead to two conclusions. The first is a +verification of the Ehrlichman and Weinberger (p 1093) conclusion +"...that LEM patterns are reliable characteristics of persons." +Individuals do move their eyes in a consistent direction and +direction of LEM is a reliable measure of individual differences. +The questions, however, remain as to whether LEM differences can +be related to behavior and whether these behaviors have +neuropsychological implications. Some of the research reported +above has shown the scope of the variables that have been related +to differences in LEM. (A fuller listing can be found in Beaumont, +Young, and McManus, 1984). Not every study has shown that LEM +differences were related to differences in performance, but no one +should expect LEM to be related to all behavior. + The final question remains, however, as to whether LEM have +neuropsychological implications. In a very general sense, all +behavior results from brain activity and thus all behavior has +neuropsychological implications. From a more focused point of +view, LEM have been related to behaviors that neuropsychologists +have associated with the brain. The problem has been, however, +that the association of the behavior with the brain has not always +been clearly specified. Logical problems, proverbs, and spelling +have all been used as verbal tasks. These tasks are extremely +complex and clearly involve both hemispheres of the brain, even +though there may be a portion of the task that is especially +dependent on left hemisphere processing. This was clearly shown +in the present study since the rhyming task demanded the unique +ability of the left hemisphere to create the sound of the printed +word. The information task had no such clear connections to either +hemisphere of the brain. Both the correlations and analysis of +variance results pointed to the fact that LEM were different for +the two tasks, with an increase in the number of rightward +movements for the rhyming task. This change, however, was +relatively subtle. Even though the task demanded specific left +hemisphere input, subjects did not make predominantly rightward +LEM; there was only a shift in that direction. A subject who made +predominantly leftward movement continued to do so, but the number +of rightward movements increased and the number of stares +decreased. + Lateral Eye Movements have been shown to be a reliable measure +of individual differences, as well as a response to the type of +questions asked. The importance of both aspects, however, should +not be overemphasized. The individual difference aspect must be +investigated from a more behavioral point of view. Rather than +comparing a lawyer or a scientist with an artist, determine whether +a courtroom lawyer has more in common with an actor or a corporate +lawyer, or whether a geometrician has more in common with an artist +or an algebraist. + The LEM response to task demands must also be considered in +conjunction with the fact that any task demands the integrated +functioning of the whole brain. The variable extent to which a +task places special emphasis on one hemisphere must be considered +within this integrated functioning. LEM can be a useful tool, but +their value and meaning can be misunderstood all too easily. The +next Chapter provides evidence of the usefulness of LEM within a +normal classroom setting. + This chapter has presented the evidence that Hemispheric +Related Strategies can be measured by means of questionnaires and +LEM. The following chapters will provide evidence that this +individual difference variable has significance for education. + + Chapter 3 + THE INTERACTION OF HEMISPHERIC RELATED STRATEGIES + AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES + + The purpose of this Chapter is to provide evidence that the +individual difference aspect of LEM has meaningful behavioral +correlates in an educational setting. No assumptions were made as +to the neuropsychological substrate of LEM. They were used simply +as a means of dividing subjects into two groups: those who move +their eyes predominantly to the right and those who move them +predominantly to the left. Half of the right movers were taught +a learning strategy involving verbal rehearsal and the other half +a learning strategy involving imagery. The same procedure was +followed for the left movers. The question was whether there is +a relationship between the typical direction of LEM and the +effectiveness of the two learning strategies. + The subjects were drawn from a pool of 120 average or above +average fifth and sixth graders in a suburban school system. A +series of verbal, spatial, imaginal, and informational questions +were asked in a face to face situation and the 72 subjects who had +the most extreme number of left movements and the most extreme +number of right movements participated in the study. The subjects +were divided into equal numbers of male and female right and left +movers. + Seventy-two words appropriate to fifth and sixth graders and +matched for abstractness, concreteness, and imagery were chosen +from the list provided by Pavivo, Yuille, and Madigan (1968). Two +equivalent sets consisting of 18 pairs, created from this list, +served as the learning stimuli. Two distractor lists of 12 pairs +each were also created using the same procedure. Each pair was +then photographed and developed as 35mm slides. + Each subject, tested individually, was seated approximately +4 ft. from a screen on which the 18 pairs of words were presented +by means of a slide projector for 4 sec. The child was then asked +to recall as many pairs of words as possible and the number of +correct pairs served as one dependent variable. The subjects were +then shown 24 pairs of words, half of which they had already seen +and half of which were distractors. These slides were then +presented and the subject had to indicate by switch closure whether +they had seen the word pair. Both accuracy and response time (in +milliseconds) were measured. Following this pre-training +procedure, half of the subjects whose LEM were predominantly +leftward and half whose LEM were predominantly rightward, were +taught a verbal rehearsal strategy in order to improve performance. +They were instructed to repeat the pairs of words as many times as +possible during the 4 sec interval between pairs. They were then +given six practice trials. The remaining subjects were instructed +on how to form an integrated image from the word pairs. They were +also given six practice trials. The subjects were then tested on +18 new pairs of words using the same procedures as in the pre- +training condition. This effectively created four groups: right +movers taught to use either imagery or verbal rehearsal strategies +and left movers taught the same strategies. + There were three dependent measures that were analyzed in this +study: the number of pairs recalled, the number of pairs +recognized, and the response time for recognition. The design for +all three variables was a split plot factorial with Direction +(leftward or rightward LEM) and Strategy (verbal rehearsal or +imagery) as the between factors and Time (before or after +training) as the within factor. The mean number of correct pairs +recalled under all conditions is shown in Table 3.1. + +Table 3.1 +Mean Number of Word Pairs Recalled for Right and Left Movers Under +Verbal Rehearsal and Imagery Instructions + + Set Pre Test Post Test + +Verbal + Left Movers 3.39 1.78 + Right Movers 1.89 2.61 +Imagery + Left Movers 2.61 3.28 + Right Movers 2.39 2.56 + + The analysis of variance indicated no significant differences +involving Direction or Strategy, but there was a significant +interaction of Direction, Strategy. and Time. Simple effects +analysis indicated that children with rightward LEM did not change +as a result of imagery instructions, but made a significant +improvement as a result of verbal rehearsal instructions. Children +with leftward LEM made a significant improvement as a result of +imagery instructions, but showed a significant decrement as a +result of verbal rehearsal instructions. + Mean performance for the recognition scores is presented in +Table 3.2. The analysis of variance again indicated a significant +interaction between Direction, Strategy and Time. + +Table 3.2 + + Set Pre Test Post Test + +Verbal + Left Movers 29.28 27.61 + Right Movers 28.11 29.44 +Imagery + Left Movers 29.56 30.67 + Right Movers 29.89 29.44 + + The simple effects analysis indicated that children with +rightward LEM showed a significant improvement using a verbal +rehearsal strategy and children with leftward LEM showed a +significant decrement using a verbal rehearsal strategy. The mean +reaction times for the recognition task is shown in Table 3.3. The +analysis of variance indicated that there was an overall decrease +in reaction time from pre to post testing and the same significant +three way interaction of Direction x Strategy x Time. + +Table 3.3 +Mean Reaction Times (in milliseconds) for the Recognition Task + +Set Pre Test Post Test + +Verbal + Left Movers 2059 2118 + Right Movers 2447 1894 +Imagery + Left Movers 2244 1829 + Right Movers 1846 1627 + + Statistical analysis indicated that children with rightward +LEM were significantly faster using a verbal rehearsal strategy and +children with leftward LEM were significantly slower using a verbal +rehearsal strategy. The analyses of the three variables lead to the +single conclusion that children who have predominantly leftward LEM +should not be taught by a verbal repetition strategy. + From the theoretical perspective, these results support the +findings of Ehrlichman and Weinberger that LEM are a reliable +measure of an individual difference variable. It also provides +evidence of the validity of LEM; individuals who differed on LEM +showed differences on a relevant behavioral measure -- verbal +learning. The most important question, however, is whether LEM +have any relationship to brain organization. Individuals who had +predominantly rightward LEM showed better retention when using the +left hemisphere oriented strategy of verbal rehearsal and +individuals who had predominantly leftward LEM showed decreased +retention when using the left hemisphere oriented strategy. These +are the facts, and while it is premature to draw firm conclusions, +these facts are consistent with the existence of a relationship +between LEM and brain organization. The clearest conclusion +from these findings is that children differ in the extent they can +benefit from a verbal repetition strategy in learning. From the +educational perspective it is clear that there are children in +schools who not only do not benefit from a verbal rehearsal +strategy, but whose performance is actually decreased. Spelling +and arithmetic tables are examples of subjects that usually stress +a rote memorization based on oral repetition. One alternative +would be to have the child repeatedly image the letters of the word +or number facts without verbalizing them. When it came time to use +the word or number fact the child would recall the image. +Educators must become more aware of the individual differences in +the way people learn. This becomes even more evident in the next +chapter where these individual differences can be seen to be at the +heart of what has been called reading disability. + + Chapter 4 + THE DIAGNOSIS OF READING DISABILITY + + Although there is general agreement that reading disability +is not a single entity, there is considerably less than a consensus +as to the number of different syndromes that actually exist. +Neuropsychological assessment, the types of errors made with verbal +material, cognitive tests, and differences in processing strategies +have all been used in the classification of the reading disabled +into symptom-related subtypes. As many as five different subtypes +of reading disability have been found through the use of +neuropsychological tests. + For example, Mattis, French and Rapin (1978) reported three +groups and Doehring, Honshko, and Byans (1979) distinguished four +types. Fisk and Rourke (1979) Petroskas and Rourke (1979) have +identified subgroups which were consistent. These subtypes, +however, can be considered in terms of the presence or absence of +auditory linguistic deficits, a distinction reported throughout the +reading disability literature. Subtypes that include auditory +linguistic deficits comprise 80 to 90 percent of the total +population of reading disabled children. The smaller group has +usually been reported to show deficits in visual spatial +processing. + Boder (1973) examined the nature of the spelling errors made +by reading disabled children. She used the term dysphonetic to +describe the type of reading disability marked by linguistic and +phonetic difficulties; and the term dyseidetic to describe the type +which had difficulties with the overall visual spatial aspects of +the written word. Boder estimated that the dysphonetic group was +four to five times more prevalent than the dyseidetic group. +Pirozzolo (1979) used ratings, writing samples, and psychological +and neuropsychological tests to separate two reading disability +groups that were similar to those suggested by Boder. Bakker +(1982) proposed a similar distinction that he related to +hemispheric functioning. The auditory linguistic disabled reader +was not effective in the use of left hemisphere related tasks. +There was also an association of the visual spatial disabled reader +and the effective use of right hemisphere related strategies. + Zenhausern (1987) distinguished these two types on the basis +of both reading related tasks and the predominant direction of +their lateral eye movements. He found that the majority of +children with leftward lateral eye movements had difficulty +determining whether words in their sight vocabulary did or did not +rhyme. He also found that a group of children with predominantly +rightward lateral eye movements had no difficulty in determining +whether two words rhymed, but were deficient in determining whether +words and pictures represented the same concept. The auditory +linguistic group had difficulty converting a word to its sound and +the smaller group showed deficits in converting a word to its +meaning. He used the terms Phonetic and Semantic to describe this +distinction. From a behavioral perspective, phonetic disabled +readers are the children who struggle with every word when they +read aloud and thus lose continuity in the text. They are +frequently anomic and have a general difficulty with the auditory +linguistic aspects of reading, especially the grapheme to phoneme +conversion. The Semantic disabled reader, on the other hand, is the +child who will give a perfect word for word rendition of text, but +has no comprehension of the meaning of that text. The Semantic +disabled readers can convert words into their phonetic +representation, but this representation is not converted into its +meaning. They have no problems with the sound of a word but are +at deficit for tasks involving the meaning of words. + The original study was based on 13 Phonetic and 13 Semantic +readers from the second to fourth grades. One purpose of this +research was to determine whether these Phonetic and Semantic +subtypes would replicate across the entire elementary school +population. A second goal of this study was to replicate the +second finding of the original study. The Phonetic disabled readers +moved their eyes predominantly to the left and Semantic disabled +readers predominantly to the right. This second purpose was an +attempt to determine whether lateral eye movements can be used as +a marker variable for the two types of reading disability. + The subjects in this study were 160 children from the second +to the eighth grades. All were of at least average intelligence. +Forty children were selected at grades 2 or 3, grades 4 or 5, +grades 6 or 7, and grade 8. Of the 40 children at each age level, +20 were at or above grade level and 20 children were at least one +year below grade level in reading. Half of each group were chosen +on the basis of showing rightward LEM and half leftward LEM. The +predominant direction of LEM was determined individually for each +child. A series of 20 informational questions were asked in a face +to face situation and the predominant direction of LEM was noted. +Normal readers split evenly between right and left movers, but 84% +of the disabled readers were left movers. + There were four kinds of reading related tasks that used words +selected from the individual sight vocabulary of each child. A +rhyme task stressed the auditory linguistic aspects of the written +word and the remaining three tasks placed more emphasis on the +meaning of the words. + 1) The rhyme stimuli consisted of 10 each of four types of +word pairs: a) words which neither rhymed nor had similar +orthography (tree/eats); b) words which were both phonetically +and orthographically similar (pool/cool); + c) words which were orthographically similar, but did not +rhyme (bone/gone); and d) words which were orthographically +dissimilar, but rhymed (by/tie). 2) The word match stimuli +consisted of 20 word pairs, one in upper case the other in lower +case which did or did not represent the same word (TREE/tree, +TREE/eats).3) The word/picture stimuli consisted of 20 word and +picture pairs, in which the word and picture did or did not +represent the same concept. + 4) The synonym/antonym pairs consisted of words which meant +either the same or the opposite. + Each stimulus was presented on 35 mm slides and projected for +130 ms. The subjects were tested individually and responded +verbally as to the whether the words rhymed in the rhyme condition +and whether they matched or meant the same in each of the three +other conditions. All words used in the study were determined to +be in the sight vocabulary of all subjects on the basis of prior +testing. + The number of correct responses for all children on the four +grade levels was subjected to an analysis of variance for each of +the four tasks. The grouping factors included Grade Level, Reading +Ability, and Eye Movement Direction. The normal readers achieved +virtually perfect performance on all tasks and their results were +not included in the tables. The interaction of eye movement group +and the rhyme task was significant. The mean number of correct +responses for the interaction are presented in Table 4.1. + +Table 4.1 +Mean Number Correct on the Rhyme Task for Disabled Readers with +predominately Right and Left LEM at Four Grade Levels + +LEM Grade Similar Dissimilar + Rhyme Non-Rhyme RhymeNon-Rhyme + +Right 2-3 17.80 15.20 14.80 14.00 + 4-5 17.80 17.80 16.40 17.89 + 6-7 17.80 18.60 18.60 19.30 + 8 19.90 19.80 19.10 19.70 +Left 2-3 16.10 5.90 7.40 14.40 + 4-5 16.10 10.30 10.20 17.30 + 6-7 16.80 13.60 12.50 18.50 + 8 9.60 12.00 10.40 17.60 + + On the basis of the simple effects analysis, those children who +had predominantly leftward eye movements were significantly more +impaired than those who moved predominately to the right. This was +particularly true on those conditions for which the orthography and +phonology of the words were inconsistent (bye/tie or bone/gone). +Those children with predominantly leftward lateral eye movements +are the Phonetic disabled readers who have difficulty with the +auditory linguistic aspects of reading. The analyses of +variance for the semantic tasks indicated a significant difference +between disability groups. The results from the three tasks are +presented in Table 4.2. Table 4.2 +Mean Number Correct on the Uppercase/lowercase, Word/picture and +Synonym/antonym tasks for Disabled Readers with Right and Left LEM +at Four Grade Levels + +LEM Grade Case Word Synonym + +Right 2-3 15.70 7.90 8.65 + 4-5 17.50 7.80 6.55 + 6-7 18.80 13.40 13.05 + 8 15.90 15.90 15.00 + Left 2-3 19.00 17.50 17.15 + 4-5 19.30 19.30 17.45 + 6-7 18.10 19.10 18.75 + 8 17.40 19.70 17.40 + + Again the normal readers performed almost flawlessly and the +disabled readers were inferior at every grade level. It was the +reading disabled readers with predominantly rightward LEM who were +the significantly more disabled group for these tasks. They were +significantly inferior on the word matching task, the word picture +task and the synonym antonym task. These children could create the +sound of a word from its orthography, but did not understand the +meaning of that word. This is a replication of a second type of +disabled reader, a Semantic subtype whose deficit involves the +meaning of words rather than their phonology. Rightward lateral +eye movements are a marker for this subtype. In the past, this +subtype has often been identified with visual spatial and +perceptual problems. This may be true but it is incidental to +their reading disability since they had no difficulty in perceiving +the words in the rhyme task. These results support the existence +of two subtypes of reading disability. The Phonetic disabled +reader has difficulty converting the written form of a word to its +phonetic counterpart. The Semantic disabled reader can convert a +word to its sound, but not its meaning. + There were two distinct patterns of errors made by the Phonetic +and Semantic disabled readers, but what is the relationship between +these patterns and reading disability? The answer to this question +lies in the way we teach reading. The next chapter is a discussion +of how these two deficits interact with current reading methods and +the effectiveness of a different approach to the reading process. + + CHAPTER 5 + THE THEORY AND REMEDIATION OF READING DISABILITY + + Current teaching methods almost invariably use an indirect +phonological route to meaning in which the written word is +converted to its phonological counterpart so that meaning derives +from auditory comprehension. In practice, a child comes to school +with auditory comprehension, that is, hearing the word "ball" leads +to the concept of "a round, bouncy thing". In reading, the letters +b-a-l-l must lead to the concept of "a round, bouncy thing". In +virtually every case, the child is taught to see the word, say it, +and understand it from its sound. This is an effective technique +for two reasons. First, it takes advantage of the existing auditory +comprehension of children; second, it provides the background for +the future decoding of new words. As effective as this procedure +is for most children, a significant number of individuals are not +able to learn under this protocol and they comprise the majority +of the children we term "reading disabled." + The Phonetic disabled reader has difficulty with the first step +of this indirect phonological route to reading, converting the +graphemic form of the word into its phonological counterpart. The +Semantic reading disabled readers have no difficulty with this +first step; they can make the grapheme to phoneme conversion. For +whatever reason, however, the sound of the word does not lead to +its comprehension. + The standard methods of teaching reading are well-entrenched and +educators sincerely believe that this indirect phonological route +to meaning is the best. Therefore, remediation for these "disabled +readers" means an intensification of what was not successful in the +past. Extensive drilling in phonetic skills has led to an emphasis +on teaching to weakness, rather than strength. The imbalance is +reflected in reading curricula and standardized tests that stress +phonetic decoding at the expense of comprehension. Phonetic +decoding is a means to the end of comprehension; it has become an +end in itself. + A new approach, Direct Access, has been developed which achieves +comprehension without the necessity of decoding. The Direct Access +method has one basic principle: the meaning of the printed word +should not be derived from the sound of that word. Any procedure +that avoids the grapheme to phoneme conversion is consistent with +this approach. The child is never required to read aloud, but +asked to explain what a passage meant. Trivial deviations in +verbiage, e.g., "jet" for "plane", are de-emphasized. The stress +is on comprehension rather than a slavish word for word decoding. + One of the simplest procedures used in the method involves +pairing words and pictures until the written word triggers a +concept directly, rather than indirectly through its sound. The +child can then construct sentences composed of pictures in parallel +with sentences composed of words. Children automatically fill in +words like "a", "the", "in", etc. when they comprehend the +sentence. In a very short period, the pictures are no longer +needed and the written word is understood on its own. + Several techniques are available for more abstract concepts. +One possibility involves a class discussion of, for example, our +legal system. The teacher can then show the class the word +"justice" and ask the children to draw a picture of justice. It is +not the picture itself that is important, but it serves as a link +between the written word and its conceptualization by the child. +Another possibility is a homework assignment requiring the child +to bring pictures to school that represent specific concepts. +Direct Access places only one constraint on the creativity of +teachers: Do not teach reading by deriving the meaning of a word +from the way it sounds. Phonic decoding is a skill that should be +developed, but it should not serve as the usual reading strategy +for these two groups of readers. + Maxwell and Zenhausern (1983) applied the method to First Grade +children who were "at risk" during the second semester. After 25 +half-hour sessions, the children increased their comprehension +scores from the 26th to the 56th percentile on the Metropolitan +Achievement Test and increased their sight vocabulary by over 100 +words. A comparable control group showed no gain in comprehension. +Minardi, Zenhausern, and Maxwell (1984) found similar results with +Junior and Senior High School children. Using the same regimen of +25 half-hour sessions, the Junior High School students gained an +average of 7 months and the Senior High School students an average +of 1.4 years. + The previous research on the Direct Access method of reading has +been limited to a small number of children taught by a single +teacher. The purpose of this study was to apply the method in a +large scale basis, using a broad range of grades and teachers. +A total of 209 children from grades 1 through 10 (with the +exclusion of Grade 9) who were at least one year below grade level +in reading and 240 children who were reading at least on grade +level were the subjects in this study. + A workshop explaining the theory and practice of the Direct +Access reading method was presented to teachers throughout a 32 +school District in suburban North Carolina. After the workshop was +completed, those teachers who were interested were given further +experience. There were no absolute procedures specified, but the +teachers were shown various possibilities and were told to use any +techniques that did not depend on the indirect phonological route +to meaning. Following these sessions the children in the classes +taught by the teachers were given the Metropolitan Achievement Test +Form L as a pretest measure of their reading ability. The teachers +then used the Direct Access method exclusively for 10 weeks, after +which time the children were retested on the Metropolitan +Achievement Test Form M. + The results of the reading disabled children and a control group +are presented in Table 3. The average gain across the whole group +was almost 1 year and several grades showed gains of over 2 years. +Individual gains of 4 or more years were not uncommon. Given that +these results were obtained during only a 10-week period, the +Direct Access approach is clearly an effective strategy to use with +Phonetic and Semantic reading disabled children. In addition to +these objective gains, the teachers reported an extremely positive +reaction on the part of the students and have commented on the +effects of the method on both spelling and writing composition. + During the past year (1988-89) Greensboro and High Point, North +Carolina used the Direct Access approach. The average gain on the +State mandated California Achievement Test was over 20 percentile +points for those children. As a result, High Point has mandated +the Direct Access approach as the treatment of choice for children +who are "at risk" for reading. The approach has been used in +Currituck, North Carolina since September, 1989 and at Public +School 102 in New York City since January, 1990. There are plans +for incorporating Direct Access into a psychiatric hospital for +children, a Parochial school in New York City, and a school system +in East Greenwich, Rhode Island by February, 1990. + +Table 1 +Total Gains in Percentile and Grade Equivalent Scores for Direct +Access and Controls + + Pre Post Gain + Per Grade Per Grade Per Grade + +Grade 1 +DA (38) 7 1.09 32 1.55 25 0.46 +Control (27) 46 1.79 56 2.13 10 0.34 +Grade 2 +DA (21) 17 1.76 32 2.15 15 0.39 +Control (36) 54 2.89 58 3.19 40 0.3 + +Grade 3 +DA (28) 16 2.33 31 2.99 15 0.66 +Control (28) 56 4.49 61 4.94 5 0.45 + +Grade 4 +DA (52) 15 2.59 31 3.28 16 0.69 +Control (53) 60 5.82 61 5.97 1 0.15 +Grade 5 +DA (20) 21 3.63 38 5.01 17 1.38 +Control (38) 56 6.53 60 7.09 4 0.56 + +Grade 6 +DA (13) 3 2.36 15 3.68 12 1.32 +Control (17) 71 9.58 74 9.9 3 0.32 +Grade 7 +DA (21) 8 3.39 26 5.45 18 2.068 +Control (18) 35 6.57 36 6.64 1 0.07 +Grade 8 +DA (9) 5 3.38 21 5.61 16 2.23 +Control (10) 34 6.94 35 7.36 1 0.42 +Grade 10 +DA (7) 17 5.58 26 6.65 9 1.07 +Control (13) 15 5.25 18 5.6 3 0.35 + +Total +Exper.(209) 12 2.27 29 3.22 17 0.95 +Control (240) 52 5.35 56 5.71 4 0.36 + + This chapter has outlined some of the successes that have been +attributed to the Direct Access approach. The next Chapter is a +discussion of some of the methods that are consistent with Direct +Access. + + CHAPTER 6 + SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS +Summary + Current teaching methods almost invariably use an indirect +phonological route to meaning in which the written word is +converted to its phonological counterpart so that meaning derives +from auditory comprehension. A child comes to school knowing that +the sound "ball" means the concept "a round, bouncy thing". In +reading, the letters b-a-l-l must lead to the concept of "a round, +bouncy thing". In virtually every case, the child is taught to see +the word, say it, and understand its meaning from its sound. This +is an effective technique for two reasons. First, it takes +advantage of the existing auditory comprehension of children; +second, it provides the background for the future decoding of new +words. As effective as this procedure is for most children, a +significant number of individuals are not able to learn under this +protocol and they comprise the majority of the children we term +"reading disabled." + Kaliski, Zenhausern, and Andrews have shown that there are two +groups of children who have unique deficits that interact with +these standard strategies used for teaching reading. It is this +interaction that directly leads to reading disability. All the +children in grades 1 to 8 who were reading at least one year below +grade level were screened for inclusion in the study. The majority +of the reading disabled group (85 per cent) fall into the category +of children who have to struggle to pronounce every word and thus +lose all continuity in reading. They were termed Phonetic disabled +readers. The smaller group of reading disabled children can "read" +aloud fluently, but do not comprehend what was "read". These +children were called Semantic disabled readers. The final sample +consisted of 80 children, 40 Phonetic and 40 Semantic disabled +readers, spread evenly across the 8 grades. The authors showed +that the Phonetic children could not determine whether two words +(which were known to be in their sight vocabulary) did or did not +rhyme. The Semantic group had no difficulty with a rhyme task, but +made considerably more errors than the normal readers and Phonetic +disabled readers in determining whether a word and a picture +represented the same concept. These two deficits can be directly +related to the indirect phonological approaches to the teaching of +reading. The Phonetic disabled reader can not convert the word to +its sound and thus can not take the first step required by these +reading methods. The Semantic disabled reader can perceive the +words and translate them to their sound but has difficulty in +comprehending the meaning of the written word from this sound. This +disabled reader can take the first step and convert the written +word to its phonological counterpart, but the sound does not lead +to meaning. The results of this study can be seen in Figures 1 and +2. + + The standard methods of teaching reading are well-entrenched +and educators sincerely believe that this indirect phonological +route to meaning is the best. Therefore, remediation for these +"disabled readers" means an intensification of what was not +successful in the past. Extensive drilling in phonetic skills has +led to an emphasis on teaching to weakness, rather than strength. +The imbalance is reflected in reading curricula and standardized +tests that stress phonetic decoding at the expense of +comprehension. Phonetic decoding is a means to the end of +comprehension; it has become an end in itself. An alternative +approach to reading which does not depend on an indirect +phonological approach to comprehension, called Direct Access, has +one basic principle: the meaning of the printed word should not be +derived from the sound of that word. Any procedure that avoids the +grapheme to phoneme conversion is consistent with this approach. +The child is never required to read aloud, but is asked to explain +what a passage meant. Trivial deviations in verbiage, e.g., "jet" +for "plane", are de-emphasized. The stress is on comprehension +rather than a slavish word for word decoding. Specific Direct +Access techniques will be discussed later in this chapter. + The first study involving Direct Access was by Maxwell and +Zenhausern (1982) who applied the approach to First Grade children +"at risk" in reading by the second half of the year. After 25 half- +hour sessions, the children increased their scores from the 26th +to the 56th percentile on the Metropolitan Achievement Test and +increased their sight vocabulary by over 100 words. A comparable +control group showed no gain. Minardi, Zenhausern, and Maxwell +(1983) found similar results with Junior and Senior High School +children. Using the same regimen of 25 half-hour sessions, the +Junior High School students gained an average of 7 months and the +Senior High School students an average of 1.4 years on the Reading +Comprehension scale of the Metropolitan Achievement Test. + During the Spring of 1988, over 200 reading disabled children +in grades 1 through 10 from 8 schools within the Guilford County +School System in Greensboro NC used the Direct Access approach. +The children were tested on the Metropolitan Achievement Test +before and after 10 weeks of using the approach. The average gain +was .95 years and every grade from Grade 6 onward gained at least +1 year, with the 7th and 8th grades showing gains of over 2 years. +In the Fall of 1988, High Point NC used the approach with 73 +reading disabled children. After 7 weeks, there was an average +gain on the Woodcock Johnson of 15 months. The Kindergarten group +showed a 12 month gain; the primary, a 7 month gain, and the middle +school a 21 month gain. Both Greensboro and High Point, North +Carolina used Direct Access for the past year. On their State +mandated California Achievement Test, those children on Direct +Access instruction showed an average gain of 17 percentile points +above last year's scores. + + SELECTED DIRECT ACCESS TECHNIQUES + The results of the demonstration project and the use of Direct +Access in the past year in North Carolina clearly show that reading +disabled children can benefit from the Direct Access method of +teaching reading. To be able to read means that one can get +meaning from the printed word. The indirect phonological route +attempts to accomplish this by having the reader convert the +written word to its phonological counterpart and from this sound +derive meaning. Converting the word to its sound is a means to the +end of comprehension, not the comprehension itself. Direct Access +attempts to derive the meaning of the printed word not via its +sound, but directly. The stress is on comprehension, not decoding. + One of the first and most basic Direct Access techniques +consists of pairing an index card which contains a word and one +that contains a picture so that the child can consistently make the +pairing. At that point the child can read the word, that is, the +child can comprehend the printed word. Note that this is true +whether or not the child can say the word correctly or not. The +pictures can be provided by the teacher, cut from magazines for +homework by the child, or even drawn by the child. The question +of abstractions and hard to picture words at first seems +insurmountable, but it is surprising how easily a child will +develop and remember appropriate pictures. In connection with this +aspect, games can be developed to strengthen the connection between +the words and the pictures. Variations of Concentration and Old +Maid have been used successfully. + This pairing, however, is only the beginning of the Direct +Access approach. The typical reaction at this point is, "This is +nothing new." or "We tried that 20 years ago and it did not work." +The next step is the most critical. The words and pictures must +be combined into sentences. A word sentence can be covered by the +appropriate picture and vice versa. The child should not be asked +to read the sentence aloud, word for word. Rather, have the child +summarize the sentence, point to a picture from a series that +corresponds to it, or even draw a picture of the sentence. The +stress should always be on whether the child has understood the +basic meaning of the sentence rather than a word for word rendition +of it. + There are two important side benefits of this approach. One +is an increase in spelling skills. The second advantage is the +ease with which children can do creative writing using the cards. +It is a simple way to separate penmanship from writing. The child +could be asked to write the funniest (most exciting, etc.) sentence +they can from their words. The step from sentences to paragraphs +is minimal. + There are two basic approaches to class recitation within a +Direct Access framework. The phonetic disabled reader would be +asked to summarize a passage for the class and the teacher and +classmates could discuss the errors of omission and commission. +It also opens the door for class discussion on any relevant issues. +The semantic disabled reader would read aloud, but be required to +do so with expression to assure that the meaning and not only the +words were being read. Of course, any child could be given the +opportunity to use either approach. + Flash cards are a standard part of the classroom and can be +used within a Direct Access framework. Let the children have their +pictures in front of them when the words are flashed. They will +serve as a cue and minimize the chance of failure. As the children +progress, they can turn the pictures face down on the desk and only +turn them over as needed. This will strengthen skills and continue +to minimize the chance of failure. This technique could easily be +converted into a game where more points accrue if a card is not +turned over, but the child will always get some points. + What happens when children come across a word they have never +seen before? This is the usual response of people who first +encounter Direct Access. There are several approaches to this. +First and foremost, the child should be encouraged to determine the +meaning of the word from the context of the whole passage. + Second, the teacher can tell the child the word and immediately +have the child cut out or draw an appropriate picture for that +word. + Third, the child can be encouraged to look it up in the +dictionary just like anyone else who comes across a word with which +they are unfamiliar. The child may not be able to pronounce the +word, but its meaning will be known. + Fourth, phonetic decoding should be an essential part of any +reading program. It is an important skill and should not be +neglected. On the other hand, it should not be the main approach +to deriving meaning from the printed word for some children. +There is a temporary remediation procedure to use with Semantic +disabled readers. Have the child read aloud into a tape recorder. +Then the child can play back the tape while reading from the text +material. Although this is an awkward procedure it will allow the +child to get meaning from the printed word. Direct Access has a +technique for the teaching of spelling and number facts. It has +been shown that some children not only do not learn by verbally +repeating the word and letters (e.g. "cat, C-A-T, cat", "6 times +3 is 18") but this procedure can actually interfere with learning. +As an alternative have the child look at the word and practice +forming an image of the letters without saying anything (This is +essential!!). When it comes time to spell the word, have the child +bring back the image of the letters and copy them. + The Direct Access approach does not depend on a rigid structure +that the teacher must follow slavishly, but is a general principle +that can lead to unique and creative techniques. Furthermore, the +method is not limited to the disabled population, but may be an +effective strategy for all readers since it has some similarities +to "speed reading" techniques. + + SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS +Summary + Reading Disability is as much a physical disability as +blindness, deafness and paralysis but a person with such a +disability has not received the help offered to those suffering +from the latter disorders. The reading disabled child is +considered responsible for the disability. The purpose of this +paper is to point out that these children can learn to read if only +we are willing to change the methods with which we teach reading. + + The standard approaches to reading demand that the child +convert the written word to its sound and, from that sound, derive +the meaning. It was shown that 85% of the children we call reading +disabled have difficulty making that first step and the remaining +15% can convert the word to its sound, but this still does not give +them meaning. The Direct Access approach to reading can help both +types of children because meaning is not derived by converting the +printed word to its sound. Rather, the sound of the word is +derived from its meaning. Several specific techniques using this +approach have been discussed earlier in this Paper. + Our brain is capable of many fascinating and wondrous things. +Our conscious awareness of our surroundings is somehow derived from +light of various wavelengths falling on our retina and causing +neurons to fire and not fire. It is this pattern of neuronal +activity that gives us conscious experience. Even more amazing is +the ability to create literary, musical, and visual works of art. +It is the brain that is responsible for all of this. The brain +also has a rather obscure function. It can take an arbitrary +series of symbols (printed words) and convert them into an equally +arbitrary set of sounds (spoken words). This function pales +alongside literary and artistic masterpieces. Why have we made it +the basis of our educational system? +Recommendations + There are two major administrative recommendations that flow +from this paper. The first concerns the establishment of a centre +for learning disability to be associated with the Centre for Social +Development and Humanitarian Affairs. The second concerns the +development of a pilot project to investigate the effectiveness of +the Direct Access approach to reading. +1) A center for the dissemination of information and training in +learning disabilities should be established which would be called +the Learning Enhancement Centre of the Disabled Persons Unit. + The purpose of the Learning Enhancement Centre would be to +research and disseminate information on the theory and remediation +of educational disabilities and to provide training in the +remediation of these disabilities. The scope of this training +would include all educational approaches that stress the individual +styles of learning with a particular emphasis on the Direct Access +approach in reading. There would be two main educational foci: + 1) ongoing workshops open to teachers from all member +countries; and 2) visiting teams which would provide on-site +training for those teachers who cannot travel to the Centre. In +addition, new teaching techniques would constantly be developed +and evaluated in real classroom situations. These teaching +techniques would take advantage of the latest technology, but the +effective use of more basic strategies would also be investigated. +The Centre would publish a newsletter to promulgate its activities +and share the latest innovations in teaching techniques. +2) A large scale pilot study should be initiated by the Learning +Enhancement Centre to evaluate the effectiveness of the Direct +Access approach across a wide variety of cultures. The Learning +Enhancement Centre would provide a series of workshops to train +teachers in the theory and practice of Direct Access. These +teachers would consist of individuals from various countries who +would then develop Direct Access projects in their country. +Consultants from the Learning Enhancement Centre would visit the +project sites to provide ongoing feedback to the teachers. These +same teachers can provide on site training for countries who are +unable to send teachers to the Centre. In addition to these +administrative recommendations, there are several educational +recommendations that are aimed at eliminating all forms of learning +disability. The aim of the Learning Enhancement Centre is to +implement these recommendations. 3) Individual preferences in +learning strategies should be taken into consideration in selecting +teaching strategies. + Both lateral eye movements and Hemispheric Preference Test data +should be collected on all children. Strategies of teaching that +are compatible with the learning strategies associated with these +Hemispheric Related Strategies should be incorporated into the +classroom. In addition, other measures of individual differences +in learning styles should be incorporated into the framework of the +Centre. + 4) A testing program aimed at identifying individual differences +in learning styles should be developed at the Centre and +disseminated among the various member nations. Children can be +tested for Phonetic and Semantic reading disability by means of a +test derived from the results presented in Chapter 4. The Phonetic +Semantic Reading Scale (PSRS) requires a child to match written and +pictorial material on the basis of their sound or on the basis of +their meaning. The point would be to identify individuals who do +well on one portion of the test and poorly on the other to make a +differential diagnosis between the Phonetic and Semantic disabled. + +5) The techniques described in the Selected Direct Access Technique +section above should be applied to these children. + These would include, but not be limited to: +a) Alternative forms of class recitation +b) De-emphasis of phonics +c) Use of word picture vocabulary cards +d) Emphasis on comprehension rather than decoding +6) The criteria for success should reflect the capabilities of the +child in conjunction with the demands of the culture rather than +artificial restrictions. + These would include, but not be limited to: +a) Speed should be de-emphasized +b) Tests should be given on an "open book" basis. +c) Calculators should be allowed on mathematics tests. + Note that these changes actually reflect the way people operate +in the real world. No successful business places unrealistic time +limits on workers or denies them use of tools and references. +7) An essential aspect of the Centre will be to develop new and +creative techniques aimed at the elimination of all forms of +learning disabilities. + While the emphasis at present is on developmental disabilities, +it is expected that this will expand to cover acquired +disabilities, especially those related to head injuries. The same +principles of educational remediation will be applied to cognitive +remediation. The major recommendation of this paper is that +learning disability should be recognized as a true disability and +treated in the same way as the more physical disabilities such as +deafness, blindness and paralysis. The learning disabled child +should not be considered at fault for the disorder, but should be +recognized as a person in need of special help. 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Eastern +Psychological Association, Philadelphia. + +---- +For more information contact: +Robert Zenhausern, Ph.D. Internet: drz@sjuvm.stjohns.edu +St. John's University Bitnet: drz@sjuvm.bitnet +SB 15 Marillac Phone: 718-990-6447 +Jamaica, NY 11439 Fax: 718-990-6705 diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/discover.txt b/textfiles.com/science/discover.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7dfc22b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/discover.txt @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ + THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF MINOR PLANET DISCOVERY + + Frederick Pilcher + Illinois College + Jacksonville, IL 62650 USA + + This file of minor planet discovery data has been prepared in machine +readable form for NSSDC and in hardcopy for ASTEROIDS II, (1988), ed. R. P. +Binzel, T. Gehrels, and M. S. Mathews (Tucson: Universiy of Arizona Press). +The machine readable list contains complete data for all numbered minor planets. +The hard copy contains complete data only for planets 2125 and forward, and +notes pertaining to these planets. Those for the preceding planets were listed +by the writer in ASTEROIDS, (1979), ed. T. Gehrels (Tucson: University of +Arizona Press), pp 1130-1154. A few mistakes in the first book have since been +found and corrected in the machine readable version, and the reader will note +small changes in the numbering of some of the NOTES. Diacritical marks for the +names of planets, increasingly omitted from machine readable lists, have been +added by hand to the hardcopy. + + The first column, 4 characters, contains the permanent number; the second, +l6 characters, the official name; the third, for planets 330 and forward, the +provisional designation attached to the discovery apparition; the fourth, the +year, month, and day of discovery according to criteria explained below; the +fifth, the name of the discoverer, discoverers, or institution of discovery; +the sixth, the discovery place. The seventh column is used when needed for +notes referencing two or more discoverers with names of combined length too +great to fit in the discoverer column, to give a more complete description of +programs involving several persons, and to reference cases in which two +numbered planets were subsequently discovered to be identical and the number +and name of one of these was reassigned to a newly-discovered planet. Notes +have also been used to reference conflicting discovery claims and list +important independent discoveries which are no longer regarded as official. + + The discovery date is in local mean time prior to 1 January 1925, and +in UT thereafter, and refers to the time of mid-exposure for planets discovered +by photographic means. In many cases the permanent number was assigned only +when several unnumbered planets observed in different years were found to be +identical, often many years after the discovery photographs were made. In +these cases the discovery date is the first of that series of photographic +observations from which the preliminary orbit was computed, and the provi- +sional designation is that associated with this particular set of observations. +Often earlier observations exist, but they are considered prediscoveries. +In some cases the discovery and subsequent observations permitted images to be +found on photographs obtained at the same observatory earlier in the discovery +apparition; these earlier observations are considered prediscoveries. + + The following literature has been examined comprehensively to determine +the discovery data: + + STRACKE, G., Identifizierungsnachweis der Kleinen Planeten (Berlin, 1938). + HERGET, P., Names of Minor Planets (University of Cincinnati Observatory, + 1957, 1967). + Astronomische Nachrichten. + Astronomische Nachrichten Indices. + Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. + Rechen-Institut Circulars. + Beobachtungs Zircular. + Minor Planet Circulars. + Lick Research Surveys on Minor Planets. + Turku Informo. + +Acknowledgments. The authors wish to thank the following people for valuable +contributions to this work. B. Marsden has arduously searched the literature, +resolved various errors and discrepancies, and has passed judgment on con- +flicting discovery claims. J. Meeus and M. Combes have prepared an earlier +list of discovery data from which the present list was adapted and expanded, +and J. Meeus has provided a complete list of diacritical marks of names of +minor planets. K. Kelly and J. LoGuirato have proofread the material, and +provided coninuing advice and counsel. + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/electric.bas b/textfiles.com/science/electric.bas new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d4e74717 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/electric.bas @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +From P.Rocha@ucl-cs.UUCP Fri Jul 7 15:29:24 1989 +From: P.Rocha@ucl-cs.UUCP +Subject: Electricity Basics + +From: P.Rocha@uk.ac.ucl.cs + + +I found this on 'The Institute', the IEEE news supplement to +IEEE Spectrum (V13, N4, April 1989). It really made me revise +my concepts of Electricity. I hope you will enjoy it ! + +Paulo + ++-----------------------------+---------------------------------------------+ +Paulo Valverde de L. P. Rocha | JANET:procha@uk.ac.ucl.cs +Department of Computer Science| BITNET:procha%uk.ac.ucl.cs@UKACRL +University College London |Internet:procha%cs.ucl.ac.uk@nsfnet-relay.ac.uk +Gower Street | ARPANet:procha@cs.ucl.ac.uk +London WC1E 6BT | UUCP:...!mcvax!ukc!ucl-cs!procha ++-----------------------------+---------------------------------------------+ + + + PRIMER FOR HOMEOWNERS: THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM + -------------------------------------------- + + The most important thing to find out about the +electrical system is whether it cointains enough "volts", which +are little tiny pieces of electricity shaped like arrows so you +can tell which direction they're moving ... + + The standard measurement for volts is "amps", also +called "watts", which travel around in what is called a +"circuit" . + + A typical circuit works as follows: + + At the electrical company, fuel oil is burned to set +fire to a generator, which gives off electrical energy in the +form of sparks, which are put into wires and sent to your home, +where the electricity waits in the wall until you turn on your +toaster, at which point it rushes through the wire abd into the +English muffin and from there into your stomach, where it +remains until a cool, dry day when you are walking down a hall +scuffing your feet on a carpet and you go to open a door, +causing the electricity to leap into the doorknob, where it +remains forever, building up over time to tremendously high +levels, which os why scientists are now concerned that some +unscrupulous entity such as Libya or God forbid an adolescent +male ever figures how to release this power, he could, using +only the latent doorknob energy contained in a singleolder +ranch-style home, vaporize Oregon. + + But your immediate concern, as a potential buyer, is +making sure that the house has the right number of volts . +Following is a chart depicting the most popular voltages +currently available in the housing market: + + POPULAR HOME VOLTAGES + + 120 + 220 + 9* + * Requires 9-volt battery + (not included) + + Which voltage is right for you? This, more than +anything else, is a matter of taste; and like most matters of +personal taste, it is best left in the hands of a qualified +interior designer. + + +(Primary source of text: "Homes and Other Black Holes", by Dave +Barry and Jeff MacNelly, Random House, New York, 1988) + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/energy.fr b/textfiles.com/science/energy.fr new file mode 100644 index 00000000..39a74f81 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/energy.fr @@ -0,0 +1,1869 @@ +From: lpb@florida.swdc.stratus.com (Len Bucuvalas) +Newsgroups: alt.alien.visitors +Subject: A Summary Thesis on Free Energy +Keywords: cia, mj12, bush, rockefeller, rothschild +Message-ID: <8837.19857@stratus.SWDC.Stratus.COM> +Date: 8 Jan 93 23:41:17 GMT +Lines: 1861 + +Hmmmm.... seems like you all are interested in the topic. And +quite a topic it is as there is on-going work in the field that +obviously you won't read about in your newspaper. The following +file was written by a PhD Physicist who, due to the security +nature of his establishment, prefers to maintain his anonymity. + +Up front...this is close to 2000 lines long. If you pay for +your own connection I recommend you download prior to reading +it. + +Enjoy......Len +=============================================================== + +A REVIEW OF ZERO POINT ENERGY AND FREE ENERGY +THEORY, PROGRESS, AND DEVICES + +Presented to the +International Forum on New Science +1304 S. College Avenue +Ft. Colins, CO 80524 +(303) 482-3731 + +The Videotape of the Speech is Also Available + + +September 19, 1992 + + +Abstract + +A review is presented of the theory and experimental evidence relating +to Zero Point Energy and Free Energy Devices. This review is based on a +two year study of the information and data available in these fields, +and also upon the information presented by various key researchers in +these fields at three recent conferences. It is found that there is +increasing momentum and a growing network of researchers taking place in +these fields, despite reported efforts to suppress this information. +Examples of such past and present suppression activities are included. +Nevertheless, sound theoretical foundations for understanding so-called +"Zero Point Energy" and "Free Energy" devices have been documented and +are available. There are several reports by various authors of +experiments that indicate a much higher than normal operation +efficiency, and even over-unity operation. Unfortunately, these results +have to date not been replicated by other researchers. Since energy is +conserved, pure perpetual motion cannot exist. However, several +examples are known to exist where energy efficiency can appear to be +over-unity, and the motion can appear to us to be perpetual. For these +types of systems, the idea of "Free Energy" can be applied, and lessons +learned. Several experiments are discussed that have demonstrated the +possibility of obtaining energy from space, and utilizing that energy in +a way different from the normal laws of electricity. These experiments +and results are being tracked down and closely examined. Valuable +references with real mailing addresses and telephone numbers are +included herein. Replications of these encouraging results are +desperately needed. + +Introduction + +"Let God kill him that does not know, yet presumes to show the other the +way!" This quote from a Persian dervish in the movie and videotape of +"Meetings with Remarkable Men" by Gurdjieff (1963) pretty much +summarizes my feelings toward the whole area of science, and living as +well. It's a jungle out there. The dividing line between truth, +fiction, what is best, and what sells has never been less clearly +defined. Since the advent of the digital information explosion, the sea +of information has been growing at a pace that few can follow. However, +if we are to be responsible and seek the truth, we must persevere. I am +dedicated to finding the truth. My fields of interest are Nature, +religion, and science, and their beneficial applications to the human +race. + +To learn about the foundations and current technical knowledge in the +Zero Point and Free Energy fields is to open a very large Pandora's Box. +One finds non-believers, strong supporters, dissenters, and active hard- +nosed suppressers. My interest was aroused as a teenager by reading +about the life and contributions of Nikola Tesla, now available in the +books by Walters (1961) and Cheney (1981). He is the one individual +responsible for creating the entire alternating current network that +powers the world today. He defied the science of his day, and designed +and built the AC generator that transforms "potential" energy into +"electrical" energy. Yet, he is not in many school texts, and his basic +theories and ideas for larger projects and applications were nearly lost +to the world. Why was he not supported? Why is Thomas Edison such a +well known name and Nikola Tesla is not? Why was his research not +actively continued? Why does the academic community, within the US, +continually ignore the possible applications of his theories? + +Tesla was unceremoniously thrown out of the best technical school in +Yugoslavia for believing that he could build a generator that would +extract electrical power from a running stream of water. His professor +called it: "Perpetual Motion!" This is not so unfamiliar. We have +heard other such convenient explanations, such as: "Heavier than air +machines will never fly" (Lord Kelvin, 1890s); "We threw out all of the +textbooks, and then we built the airplane" (the Wright Brothers); "The +human body will not survive speeds of over 40 miles per hour" (early +1900s); and "Airplanes can not go faster than the speed of sound" +(1940s). Other example abound, all spoken by the out-spoken "leaders" +of their day. My view is that science continues to grow and mature. +Nature is fixed. Only our understanding of Nature continually unfolds. +Sometimes this growth has been only painful, and sometimes it has +provided great shocks to the system. Fear of change is not an adequate +excuse for not actively pursuing the development of our full +capabilities as human beings, as individuals or as groups. + +Areas Of Related Interest + +The study of the "Free Energy" field overlaps with quite a number of +other areas of science and technology that are not well understood, and +are usually called "fringe areas." I believe that responsible +investigations in these areas do uncover important information and data +that can relate to various questions that occur in the study of Free +Energy. These questions include: Why is this research not conducted? +Is it suppressed? Why is it suppressed? Are there other examples of +such suppression? Where can I get more information? Are there any +examples of such advanced related technologies? If such energy sources +exist, has anyone found out how to use them? How do they work? Can I +use them, and can I use them in a responsible manner? + +There is a great outcry by those familiar with our current energy policy +and the public electricity utility network for need of a new +breakthrough in the technology of energy production. Dr. Gary Johnson +(1992), a college professor and IEEE Senior Member, recently published a +short review of the researchers in this area in a noted US technical +journal and concluded his four page report with the statement: + +"There is a great deal of noise in the literature. Some concepts are +obviously nonsense. Others will prove to be in error. But is there any +signal in all the noise? There is if Tesla, Moray, and Bearden are +correct. The potential payoff is enormous, so the search should be +continued if there is any chance at all of success." + +Also, Llewellen King (1991), publisher of The Energy Daily, Defense +Week, and Environmental Week Newsletters in Washington DC recently +strongly and dramatically stated in a speech to an international +technical conference: + +"We have failed with energy to come up with the 'Great Big +Breakthrough!' 'The Major Change.' 'The Radically Different Thing.' +'The Quantum Leap Forward.' Where is the jump from a copper wire to a +fiber or to a cable? Where is the equivalent of fiber optics for +electricity? ... The new technologies (discussed at this conference), +such as magnetohydrodynamics, (are advancing and coming forth), and yet +these things have not fostered - and we are still boiling water! It is +theoretically possible that we could at some point take this 'Quantum +Leap Forward.' ... And in order to do that, I believe that you will +need new institutions to deploy new technology. They won't be deployed +by the extant of the old institutions. ... The Challenge in Technology +is to find It, and then sell It, and finally to deploy It." + +Since the status and results in energy technologies and in these other +fringe areas are seen differently by different persons, many +misunderstandings take place, people become frustrated, emotions become +heated, and eventually someone gets sorely offended. People can range +from Apathy, to Denial, to Anger, and finally to Acceptance. So as to +not offend anyone in this paper, I will limit the areas of my summary +introduction investigations to Politics, Religion, and Sex. + +Politics + +"Never give a sucker an even break." I became very concerned when I +became aware of first hand and second hand accounts of actual physical, +emotional, and legal harassment being made to inventors, investigators, +and writers in these scientific fringe areas. And I thought all of +these suppression stories were nonsense. Upon investigation, harassment +always follows those who promote a new paradigm. Galileo spent a lot of +time in jail. So did Royal Rife, who demonstrated a cure for cancer in +the 1930s, summarized in the books written by Barry Lyons (1989, 1989), +published, of course, in Canada. Christopher Bird (1991) writes of the +persecution of Gaston Naessens for his radical and effective treatments +of diseases. America West Publishers has available many books that list +actions that have been taken by various authorities to diffuse or bury +"politically embarrassing" events and situations. Paul Findley wrote a +best seller (1985) that summarizes the effectiveness of large political +pressure groups. Fortunately today, there are many who do not conform +to the "party line" in many political areas, such as the "Center for +Action" in Nevada. In the area of AIDS research and information +transfer, Dr. Robert Strecker has produced a videotape (1988) and Dr. +Taki Anagnoston (1991) has published a book that promotes a view far +different than is advertised nationally to the American people. "The +Cutting Newsletter" by William Douglass also serves as a source for +alternate information. + +In my view, there is not a determined effort by the government to +suppress information - because there is no government. I see instead a +collection and network of vested interest groups that seem to tightly +band together for mutual financial survival. The actions taken by any +of these groups may be completely independent from the others. +Therefore, I find the "government suppression" and "world domination" +theories proposed by some to be interesting, and probably not +applicable. However, some sort of control and suppression in the press +seems very evident. Coleman (1992) has summarized that certain groups +are actively controlling all other groups. The "Project Censored +Newsletter" and their student staff at Sonoma State University, CA, are +actively pointing out US news stories that seem to be actively +suppressed in this country. So, how does this all relate to the topic +of Free Energy? Ken MacNeill (1983) published a very disturbing article +entitled "Insights into the Proprietary Syndrome" in which he points out +that over 3,000 patents have been suppressed! It is reprinted in the +Appendix of this paper. READ IT! + +Two historical events are worth including here regarding possible +suppression and inability to commercialize Free Energy devices. These +are the Over-Unity Device of T. Henry Moray (Resines, 1988), and the +Hindershot Motor (Brown, 1988). Both of these devices were publicly +demonstrated to the US press in the 1930s, and carefully conducted tests +were made to assess these devices. From the newspaper reports and +clippings, it appears that both devices passed all tests, only to fall +into oblivion. What exactly happened to the devices, their inventors, +and the technology is not known. It also appears that the secrets of +the devices died with their inventors. + +If information deemed sensitive by certain governmental agencies can be +actively suppressed, then what are the other possible ways of obtaining +such information? One method that has gained popularity in recent years +is through the use of channeling. + +Religion + +"Ask and you shall receive". I was surprised to hear that a grandmother +("dharma") who said she could channel Nikola Tesla had been given a +formal test in front of some very influential people in Los Angles, and +she passed the test with very few errors. I was told that the questions +were prepared by a small knowledgeable group, and about half of the +questions were reported to be trick questions. Well, if this method can +work to get advanced technical information let's try it. After all, +where do our ideas come from in the first place? Both Tesla and Edison +are reported to have made their respective amazing discoveries while +daydreaming - not actually thinking! + +Upon investigation, there is a morass of spiritual and channeled +information being published out there. From my point of view, it is all +applicable to a person, depending upon where that person is at in his +life, and of course it is not all true, applicable, or valid +information. The magazine "Connecting Link" summarizes a lot of this +information. Just for purposes of reference, I will list the names of +those channeled intelligences that I have researched, by either reading +their communications or personally conversing with them through their +physical host. (The references are organized by the name of the +intelligence, or collective intelligence, with the name of the host or +channeler in parentheses.) From what I currently know, I give this list +is given in order of increasing importance to me for personal +information transfer: + +Ramtha, Lazaris, Seth, Bashar, Korton, Ashtar, Soltec, Cosmic Awareness, +The Pleiadians, Hatonn, Ra, Hilarion, St. Germain, Thoth, Mary, Sananda, +Aton. + +To me, any information is valid only when it constructively supports or +fits into the puzzle that I am trying to solve. What is valid for each +person varies with each person, and their puzzle of the moment. I have +noticed that I receive more valid information from hosts who are in +unconscious trance during the communications. If the host can remember +anything of the communication, I feel there is always the possibility of +tampering with the information during reception and transmission, thus +producing "tainted" information. This has historically occurred with +many popularized channelers that have elected to use their talents and +such communications primarily for their personal profit. + +Also, I find one needs to separate the substance of the message from any +given dates. To hear an intelligence say that "at this time a truck is +gathering speed and is coming this way that will cross this intersection +here in three hours," does not necessarily mean the truck will ever get +there. If it does, great. Then that is a measure of predictability. +If not, so what! Was that the point? Neither of these issues is +demonstrable science. I find it is best to gather the substance of the +information and relate it to my puzzles. Those that believe and act on +all of the details of every channeled communication may be in for quite +a shock, as described in the book When Prophecy Fails by Festinger, +Riecken, and Schachter (1956). + +I do know that some of the channeled information recently received is +extremely accurate. A case in point is the book channeled by Sananda +through "dharma" (1989) regarding the life of Jesus . While persons +affiliated with America West Publishers, then in southern California, +were trying to decipher the German text of the first few chapters of +this material (originally translated into German from the Aramaic script +found in 1963) with very little success, a complete translation in +English was given in 1989 through "dharma" by Sananda (1989). Two years +later, the original German manuscript was translated by J. H. Ziegler +and B. L. Greene, authored by Rashid (1992), and published by Wild +Flower Press in Oregon. Neither party knew of the existence of the +other until after the material was typeset. The contents are nearly +identical. I can personally attest to other cases of receiving +extremely accurate information and being allowed to be involved in +"unexplainable" physical events. + +Whether one needs to be out-of-body to receive information, I am not +sure. Robert Monroe (1971, 1985) has spent years in this field with the +Monroe Institute in Virginia, and he and his co-workers have all +received personal knowledge. I do not know if they have received any +higher technical knowledge that is of interest here. J. J. Hurtak +(1978) received a vast amount of technical knowledge out-of-body when he +channeled the extensive work The Keys of Enoch. + +Why haven't these intelligences just given us the secrets of advanced +technology on a silver platter? I don't know. Perhaps we as a +collective society are not ready for it. Some technical information is +being given out from these intelligences and is slowly being published. +Perhaps, as Hatonn, The Pleiadians, and other intelligences have +suggested: that if we told you that, then "they" would kill our +vehicle. Perhaps, waiting is. + +Perhaps the goal of life is not to pursue the engineering of an easier +life style solely for the comfort of living our lives through +technology, but to finally realize what our personal mission here is, to +become in touch with that mission, and then to perform that mission. +That phrase from college: "God has a plan for my life" makes very good +sense here. The problem actually may be that most of us are not taking +the time to find out what our personal mission is, and how to +responsibly perform it. If you wish to pursue this, the most Holy +course, I highly recommend the books by Dion Fortune (1957), Gaetan +Delaforge (1987), and Fred and Pam Cameron (1991). The latter book, +Bridges of Light, includes step-by-step instructions, all specifically +channeled, on how you can receive your own accurate information. So Be +It. + +Sex + +"It takes two to Tango." Potentially, things are very interesting. It +seems to take two at different potentials to make something happen: +male/female, up/down, positive/negative, north/south. The view being +taught today is primarily simply given in one or two dimensions. +Electricity is caused by the electrons going one way on a wire, and the +holes going the other way. Electrical energy is created by chemical +reactions that have a lower chemical ground state than the reactants. +Chemical reactions are caused by electron bonding where electron orbits +are finally filled and then higher orbits can be filled. Atomic energy +is caused by electrons and nucleons dropping into lower energy states +(gamma rays and lasers), or by differences in the binding energy of the +nuclei (fission and fusion). The Sun gives and the Earth receives. + +For energy creation, we have developed the catch-all term: potential +energy. The water behind a dam is said to have a great deal of +potential energy, so the electricity is said to come out of the power +plant. A battery has a stored electrical potential, so it powers your +radio. Men and women all have stored potential, and we all know what +trouble that can cause. However; no one ever talks about magnets, and +the possible potential energies within magnets and electromagnetic +fields. Light is such an electromagnetic (EM) field. The motions of +the electrical component and the magnetic component of alternating +current, similar to light, are three-dimensional as they travel along a +wire, and at several points, each is zero. Where did they go? How is +EM energy stored and transmitted? Can usable amounts of energy be +extracted from already existing large and massive EM fields? + +I have found only two sources that reference the modeling of EM fields +in three spatial dimensions: the works of Walter Russell (1926, 1947, +1989), and material channeled by Hatonn et. al. (1991). The idea that +energy exists in male and female vortices that form between this +dimension and other dimensions is not new. The idea just hasn't been +very useful, yet. Russell and Hatonn describe three dimensional +elemental EM fields that can be classified as male and female by the +spin of their 3-D EM fields, much the same way that we describe the +poles of a bar magnet. Russell developed and tested counter-wound sets +of coils, each in the shape of overlapping (male/female) cones. Such a +coupling and cancellation of these fields would open up a whole new way +of thinking about electricity and EM fields in general. Also, a new +investigation of the physics of rotating permanent magnets and rotating +EM fields would be very interesting. All reported research in these +fields seems to stop in the early 1950s. I wonder why. + +UFOs and Crop Circles + +"We are living in Lies." This statement was made by both Colin Andrews +and Linda Moulton-Howe during their presentations during the Whole Life +Expo (WLE) in San Francisco, April 1991. It speaks for itself. If +examples of advanced technology are being demonstrated all around us +nearly every day, shouldn't we be interested? Well, if it does not +impact our daily life, and our personal finances, maybe we don't care. +We could say, let the government figure it out. Well, evidently, "they" +don't, can't, or won't care. Besides, what you don't know won't hurt +you. Right? However; it may stunt your growth. + +If you really want to know, you are going to have to rely on yourself. +This is all very interesting to me, because it allows for the +possibility of several examples of advanced technology here and now. +And from my experiences, these phenomena are real, reoccurring, and +getting more numerous and in-your-face outrageous all the time. + +Without diverting from our main topic for too long, I will list the best +sources of UFO craft pictures and crop geometrical formation material I +have found. (They are not just dots in the sky, and circles, any more. +Sorry.) The UFO craft pictures began in the 1950s with those taken by +George Adamski and published in his book in by Leslie in 1953. (These +pictures could have been faked, and I recall someone telling me that +Adamski was said to have declared his whole photograph library a fraud +on his death bed; and I do not know.) The pictures taken and thousands +of sightings reported in the New York Hudson Valley region in the 1980s +cannot be denied (Hynek, 1987). Pictures from around the world have +been compiled in two books by Wendelle Stevens and August Roberts +(1985). Other UFO book sources are listed. And, the UFO Video +Clearinghouse in California has just about all the movie footage and +video taken of UFOs and TV programs produced that are available world- +wide. "UFO's the Best Evidence" is a two-hour video produced by KLAS, +Channel 6 in Las Vegas, that should be seen by everyone! + +Close-up photographs, movie footage, and videotapes are much more +disturbing to some people than the usual lights in the sky. The +photographs by Billy Meier in Volume 1 of the books by Elders (1979) are +apparently all actual photographs of large disk craft. (I was told that +a few of the pictures in Volume 2 (1983) were of models that were made +in order to compare to Meier's craft photographs, and then the photos +were inadvertently mixed). For those that disagree with this, I +recommend that you carefully read the technical photographic analyses in +Volume 1 that were performed on some of the photos by disinterested +scientists in the US using electron microscopes, laser scanning, and +computer analyses and enhancements; and then read the book by Gary +Kinder (1987), who set out to visit Meier, his family, and the people in +the local community there in Switzerland in order to prove the Meier +story a hoax. Also, we have the pictures from Gulf Breeze, Florida, in +the book by Ed and Francis Walters (1990). (Some say they faked the +pictures, but not to the hundreds of local eye witnesses that claimed to +have seen the same thing, including most of the city officials.) + +Robert (Bob) Lazar presents an interesting story in his videotape (1992) +of how he became involved with some disk craft while working in the +power propulsion area. His story is summarized as one of the six +viewpoints in the book by Lindemann (1991), as is Linda Moulton-Howe's. +Lazar states that the craft he worked on were powered by a matter- +antimatter (potential energy) reaction with a near-stable element of an +atomic number of 115, which has not yet been found or produced on Earth. +Such a nuclide could give off power in a manner similar to Cobalt-60, +which emits very high energy and deadly gamma radiation, thus the need +for lead shielding in nuclear fission power plants. How the El-115 +power would be utilized is unknown. More to the point, how would such +craft be able to levitate above the Earth? Perhaps it could utilize an +interaction of engineered variable frequency EM fields with the Earth's +local gravity and EM fields. That could explain the very complex and +time-dependent harmonics found by expert sound researchers when they +analyzed the sound of a hovering craft as recorded on audio tape by +Meier while making movies of a craft. These are all available. + +For additional information regarding what these craft are, who are +coming, and why, I would recommend the material from Stanton Friedman +(1991) and Sananda (1989). Additional viewpoints are found in the book +by Lindemann (1991) and in the transcription of the wonderful talk given +by Linda Moulton-Howe at the April 1991 SF WLE. It appears we are being +visited by more than 50 alien cultures on the physical plane, all +different, yet related, each having their own version of their "sports +car or RV," and each with their own purposes and motivations. It also +appears that this is nothing new, has been going on for what appears to +be a very, very long time, and so what! What is interesting is the +apparent lack of advanced technology transfer, which could be likened to +a possible violation of the "Prime Non-Interference Directive" +popularized in Star Trek. Unless such advanced data is being given to +the privileged few. Unless we, in the US and in other parts of the +world, as individual societies are being allowed the information as fast +as we can (financially) safely absorb it and properly utilize it for our +benefit and not our mutual destruction. That is what I would hope. +That is where I want to be. + +The crop formations are another and perhaps a more advanced topic +altogether. The books by Colin Andrews (1989), Alick Bartholomew +(1991), and Ralph Noyes (1990) stimulate the imagination. As Colin +would say: "I'm sorry. It just isn't Doug and Dave, as the British +Press would have you believe!" These formations have become quite +complex, such as the Barbury Castle formation that appeared overnight in +July 1991. It contains three "circles" of about 35 feet in diameter +located at the apex of a nearly equilateral triangle that measures about +180 feet on a side, with three internal circles and spokes within the +triangle. I highly recommend Colin Andrew's (1991) videotape +"Undeniable Evidence." + +Background Material + +It is important that I include as much quality reference material as I +am able. These areas of interest have grown so large and confusing that +it is difficult to know where to turn for the best or most meaningful +information. So I will include a list of the most applicable patents, +the best books, reports, conference proceedings, and the most up-to-date +papers that I know of in the Zero Point Energy and Free Energy fields. +I also have included in the references the complete names and addresses +of several technical societies, groups, and book sources. + +Patents + +There are several patents of phenomena and devices that are of interest. +Rather than discuss them here, I will list them in the references. They +may be referred to later. + +It is important to note that you can quickly obtain any patent from a +local US patent clearinghouse, such as the one in Sunnyvale, California, +by a telephone call or a FAX once an account has been set up for you. +If you are not in a hurry, you can order a copy of any patent for $3.00 +(three dollars) each from the Commissioner of Patents and Trademarks in +Washington DC, although it may take 2-6 weeks. Just provide the long +patent number. + +Books and Reports + +Many books and reports have been published that relate to the Free +Energy fields. I have listed the ones I have looked at in the +references in this section. I have included all of Lt. Col. Tom +Bearden's books and reports. It should be pointed out that Tom's book +entitled AIDS: Biological Warfare (1988) probably has the best +description of the pumped phase conjugate mirror wave theory model of +any of his books. The book by Moray B. King (1989) gives an excellent +overview of the definition of Zero Point Energy. Several books and +reports have recently emerged regarding gravity and the Earth's apparent +energy grid network. Books regarding the Orgonne Accumulator and ether +vortex mechanics are also included. The book by Hans Nieper (1981) is a +great reference book, and sometimes hard to find: use the source +listed. The theories promoted by Richard Hoagland and the Mars Mission +are also interesting, including the fact that a solid tetrahedron placed +in a sphere will intersect the sphere at 19.5 degrees latitude, which is +the same Earth latitude upon which Tesla was constructing his +Wardenclyffe Tower in New York. The theories of Victor Schauberger +(Alexandersson, 1982) are also very interesting, including his +descriptions of Natural energy vortices, the changing properties of 4 +degree C water with the phases of the moon, as descriptions of other +Natural wonders. + +Conferences + +I am familiar with only a few of the many technical conferences held +that deal with the Zero Point and Free Energy fields. The one's I have +recently attended are the 26th Intersociety Energy Conversion +Engineering Conference (IECEC), held in August 1991 in Boston, MA; the +1992 International Tesla Symposium, held in July 1992 in Colorado +Springs, CO; and the 27th IECEC held in August 1992 in San Diego, CA. +As I organized the authors and papers for both the 26th and 27th IECECs +in the "Innovative Concepts" sessions for the "New Technologies for +Energy Utilization Area," I am more familiar with their papers and +contents. The material presented in other conferences, such as the bi- +annual International Tesla Society conferences, do relate and overlap +with much of the material presented in the recent IECEC conferences. It +is my desire that future authors will network and exchange information +before they write their next paper, so we can accelerate and converge +the work that is being performed in these fields. + +Societies and Publications + +All the ones that I feel are of importance are listed in the references +for your use. Make multiple photocopies of all of the six pages of the +references and distribute them. + +Free Energy Theory, Experiments, and Devices + +"Come on, let me show you where it's at." Well, I can show you what I +have been able to find out from the referenced sources within the past +three years anyway. I have learned that there is a lot of very sound +scientific theory that supports the existence of additional energy +sources, ways of interacting with those potential energies, and +extracting energy for use. There is also a lot of experiments, devices, +and just good ol' fooling around going across the country to try to +measure new ways of measuring these new energy sources. There are also +devices that have been built, tested, demonstrated, and provided for +testing by others - that seem to have passed all of the tests. These +will be discussed below. First some truths and definitions. + +Energy exists. It can not be created nor destroyed. Energy can only be +converted from one form into another. In that conversion process, some +energy is lost, in the form of friction or heat, so the efficiency of +the energy transfer process is always less than 100 percent. The +process (you can envision a box) will always give less energy out than +energy goes in. The ratio of "energy out" to "energy in" is always less +than one: under-unity. An over-unity device cannot exist. Perpetual +motion does not exist. All motion eventually will run down. (Whether +you live to be here when it does run down is another matter.) So, let's +see. A car battery is a good example. It has so much energy to start +with, and it eventually runs down from starting the starter motor and +friction in the wire. Draw a larger box. The car runs and recharges +the battery because the engine converts the potential energy within the +fuel during combustion into crankshaft motion, which is then used to +recharge the battery, until it runs out of gas. Draw a larger box. The +car can go downhill with the engine off by transforming the potential +energy of the hill into kinetic or moving energy at the bottom of the +hill. OK. But what about Hoover Dam? It just sits there and creates +energy. We don't put any energy into it, except when we built it. And +we sure didn't put as much energy into it as we have gotten out of it. +And it for sure is not going to last forever. But it's doing just fine +now. So is that an example of a Free Energy device with an energy +conversion factor of over-unity? Yes or No? + +To handle such mind benders, workers in the Zero Point and Free Energy +fields have, for better or worse, and probably for the near term worse, +have adopted a simple way of describing the results of their research, +in terms of what they can immediately measure and see. So there are +three categories that are generally expounded upon: "Free Energy Under- +unity," "Free Energy, Over-unity," and "Zero Point Energy." (1) "Free +Energy Under-unity" would be when I get more energy out than before and +I only made a small change to my design, like to increase the overall +system efficiency. An example might be those magnets that when placed +onto a car gas line give 5 miles extra per gallon. That's Free Energy +dude! This appears to be the case for several motors and generators +that utilize magnets on their rotating shafts. (2) "Free Energy Over- +unity" would be where I seem to get more energy out than I know am +putting in. Period. An example would be pushing a car over the top of +a hill. When it takes off without you, it appears additional energy is +coming from somewhere. And, in all cases, of such experiments, the +energy MUST be coming from somewhere in some form. It just hasn't been +figured out yet, and the researcher has probably not drawn a large +enough box. (3) "Zero Point Energy" refers to the energy that comes +from outside your influence: the wiring in the wall; the transmission +lines nearby; a large EM signal on a specific FM radio station; the +Earth's EM or gravitational field; solar EM energy; or possibly +directed energy from outer space. Just because we can't measure it, +doesn't mean it's not there. + +With these definitions in mind, we see that Hoover Dam is a good example +and could be considered by some Dam Engineer to be an over-unity device. +A good Dam Scientist would probably point out that the Sun evaporates +the oceans and lakes, moves the vapor, makes the rain that fills the +Dam, and the potential energy of the water produces the electrical +power. The Dam Engineer could probably care less, and could also say +that the Dam is a perpetual motion machine that will last forever; +which means at least until he retires and his kids are out of college. +The Dam Engineer would say: "The Dam thing runs on Free Energy out of +the air! The city of Los Angles believes it!" But: you know it won't +last forever. Neither will the Sun. + +So we need to be careful in our choice of words. For the purposes of +this paper, a Free Energy device will appear to produce more energy than +it uses, because it is not known from what form of potential energy +source the other required input energy comes from. Thus, we will allow +system efficiencies over 100%, and over-unity energy conversion until we +are either proven wrong, or we finally draw a larger box and understand +what is happening inside that box. + +It is very important here to be a Fair Witness. (Thank you Robert +Heinlein!) That is a person who reports exactly what he or she sees; +no more, no less. Researchers and investors really do not give a (guess +what) about what you think is going on. They want the facts of exactly +what you observed. If a device appears to be promising: say so, and +report it to be so. If it has a problem, say it seems to have a +problem. Only after extensive support, testing, and cross-examination +should an experiment or a device be classified or labeled a fraud or a +failure. Once labeled as such, they will not easily obtain further +support. Be responsible. + +Free Energy Theoretical Considerations + +Harold Aspden from the United Kingdom (1991) shared insights into the +basic factors involved with vacuum field or zero point energy so that: +"the 'free energy' challenge to win through and revolutionize the energy +scene can involve more people with design skills and resources." He +proposes a frontal attack on currently accepted physics, urging: "a +theoretical and experimental program to follow projects in five +classifications: (1) Non-relativistic energy theory; (2) Ferromagnetic +vacuum energy generation; (3) Electrodynamic vacuum energy generation; +(4) Electromagnetic vacuum energy generation; and (5) Gravitational +vacuum energy generation." He also pointed out the need for much of the +work to be proprietary in order to attract investment funds, but +eventually the published literature would be augmented by disclosure +arising by development on these projects. Aspden (1992) this year +described a foundation of a new technology for converting environmental +heat energy into electricity. The structure involved, whether in the +tested thermoelectric device or the suggested radiation concentration +device, uses thin film metal films separated by non-conductive +materials. An efficiency of 70% of the Carnot maximum has been +demonstrated for the thermoelectric device operating at ambient +temperatures with a 20 degree temperature differential. + +Moray B. King (1992) presents a very good detailed review of the +"Progress and Results in Zero-Point Energy Research" in his paper with +the same title, available from Tesla Inc. Moray states: + +"Since the advent of quantum mechanics, modern physics has supported the +view that the fabric of totality of empty space is not void but contains +a plenum of energy called the zero point energy (ZPE). The energy +consists of fluctuations of electric field energy that persists even at +zero degrees Kelvin. A question applicable to engineers is can the ZPE +be tapped as an energy source? At first this idea seems to be a blatant +violation of conservation of energy, but if the zero-point energy really +exists as is suggested by modern physics, energy is present and its +conversion would not be the issue." + +"The surprising cold current effect has been associated with other +inventions, such as T. Henry Moray's, using number 30 wire within his 50 +kiloWatt device. It might be explained by the hypothesis that the +coupling of synchronous ion oscillations with the ZPE can manifest +macroscopic vacuum polarization displacement currents, which can +surround a conductive wire and be guided by it. Conduction band +electrons, lacking stable, radially convergent vacuum polarization +lines, have a minimal interaction with these displacement currents, and +the wires remain cold. If engineers could replicate this effect, zero- +point energy research would receive widespread interest." + +"Another area where coherent ion motion is associated with energy +anomalies involves abrupt electrical discharges. (This is apparent in +controlled water explosion experiments.) Hyde's device was faced with a +similar problem of absorbing large voltage pulses in his patented +invention. He solved the problem and created an advanced embodiment +which produced over 20 kiloWatts of net output power while free +running." + +"From the concentrated vacuum polarization of atomic nuclei arises the +possibility of triggering a macroscopic ZPE coherence with the +synchronous motion of many nuclei. Further supporting evidence arises +from inventions that utilize coherent ion motions and output excessive +energy. The sharp voltage spikes that arise from ion-acoustic activity +can be converted by use of circuits such as Hyde's voltage divider. The +largest effects might be produced by solid state methods that manifest +dual, counter-rotating, acoustical, lattice spinor waves. If +synchronous ion-acoustic activity coheres the zero-point energy, there +will be many more inventions forthcoming, and a new energy source will +be recognized." + +It should be pointed out that the voltage divider circuit in Hyde's +patent (patent Fig. 6) has been questioned by several engineers. Moray +King is assisting a network of scientists and engineers who are +redesigning this circuit to replicate and produce a working model of +this device. + +For some years, Tom Bearden (1991) has worked on an extended +electromagnetics theory, involving the scalar component of the +quaternion. (A scalar is a number with no vector direction, like speed. +A vector has numerical values in each defined direction, like velocity. +A quaternion is like a 4-component vector in a real-complex plane +space). In MAXWELL'S ORIGINAL QUATERNION THEORY, this scalar component +often remains when the directional components zero. Further, it enfolds +vectors and functions of vectors inside, in a hidden variable manner. +Specifically, Tom has patterned a unified field theory concept upon the +previously unnoticed but remarkable early work of E. T. Whittaker. "In +1903 and 1904, Whittaker showed that all present day vector EM can be +replaced by scalar potential interferometry, and that bidirectional +harmonic EM plane wave sets could be used to produce a standing wave of +force-field-free potential. In modern terms, this shows how to turn EM +wave energy into electrogravitional potential energy, then how to +interfere two such scalar potentials to recover the EM energy, even at a +distance. This unrecognized work is of great importance: when applied +to modern physics, it produces supersets of quantum mechanics, classical +electromagnetics, and general relativity. Further, all three extended +disciplines unify on their common Whittaker subset, in a testable and +engineerable fashion." All of Tom's theories to unify electromagnetics, +general relativity, and quantum mechanics are summarized in his 1991 +paper, which is only six pages long! These are all available from the +Association of Distinguished American Scientists. + +Bearden (1992) this year points out that: "By utilizing fundamental new +definitions for energy, potential, and scalar potential, the mass of the +atomic nucleus may be considered a powerful electrostatic scalar +potential, referred to as the mass potential. The Whittaker EM biwave +structure of the scalar potential then becomes a new and universal +internal EM structure for mass, including the atomic nucleus. This +structure can be directly manipulated electromagnetically, which allows +direct EM alternation of the mass potential, and the nucleus itself. +This totally new class of nuclear interactions is briefly explored, and +several hypothesized mechanisms advanced for neutralizing or processing +nuclear wastes. Additional applications are hypothesized for +experimental falsification or verification. We have previously pointed +out two successful experiments by Sweet, one for extracting useful EM +energy from the vacuum, and one for the production of unilateral forces, +including antigravity. We have also pointed out the implications of the +approach for possible testable unification of electromagnetics, general +relativity, and quantum mechanics. The cited Whittaker theory +establishes a greatly expanded but engineerable EM, with external +(spatial) and internal (hyperspatial) subsets. Scientists and engineers +are urged to seriously study the two cited Whittaker papers and their +implications, and to set up experiments to falsify or verify the +hypotheses advanced." + +A new paradigm and a theoretical analysis supporting experimental tests +of the N-Machine was given by Shiuji Inomata from Japan (1991). He +points out that H. A. Lorentz's treatment, in which a stationary ether +is assumed, gives the correct answer. Even in this case, a new paradigm +of science is necessary for the full understanding of the functioning N- +Machine. + +Kurt Van Voorhies (1991) is conducting his graduate work at a well known +state university in the prospects of world-wide wireless power transfer, +as first proposed by Tesla. Tesla had designed and was building the +Wardenclyffe tower on Long Island in 1900, featuring a 187 foot wooden +tower designed to support a 68 foot diameter copper hemisphere. While +Tesla intended to use the facility publicly for communications, his +secret aim was to implement wireless power transmission. The +transmitter was to have operated at 30-100 megaVolts, which Tesla +claimed was sufficient for worldwide power distribution. However, when +Marconi demonstrated transoceanic wireless communications with much +simpler equipment (illegally using Tesla's patents in the process), J. +P. Morgan withdrew funding for Tesla's project. Research indicates that +the power receiver requires the most development to demonstrate Tesla's +early theories. + +Toby Grotz (1991) also presented theory and results of Project Tesla to +determine if the Earth's electrostatic (atmospheric) Schumann Cavity can +be resonated, if the power that is delivered to the cavity propagates +with very low losses, and if power can be extracted at other locations +within the cavity. The theory, bases of operation of a transmitter, +related computer programs, and component values are all given in Toby's +paper. + +A theoretical analysis of Tesla's "Death Ray" was also presented by Toby +Grotz (1991). By carefully examining historical records, this 1937 +design was probably the first attempt to construct a high voltage +particle beam device. Tesla's estimates indicate that a 5 meter +diameter metal sphere charged to 60 million volts could project a high +energy charged particle beam up to 60 kilometers through the air in a +given direction. + +Oliver Nichelson (1991) summarized two of Tesla's later energy +generation device designs, including a turbine-shaped Unipolar Dynamo +design for a machine that can continue to produce electricity after +being disconnected from an outside power source. This paper is also +important because it also describes Tesla's "Coil for Electro- +Magnetics," patented in 1893. This coil looks exactly the same as would +the counter-wound conical coils of Walter Russell, if Russell's coils +were drawn on a piece of paper in two dimensions. (Surprise.) + +Don Kelly (1991) examined the theory and operation of an enhanced tank +circuit from two dated Soviet papers translated from the Russian. The +experiments suggest that the full band of a tank circuit can be utilized +to take advantage of a full EMF output over an extended period of time, +and then periodically and uniformly re-exciting the circuit as an +effective electrical energy conservation method. Don suggests that +over-unity operation may be possible by proper adjustment of the +resonant driver frequency and time-varying component reactances. + +Paul LaViolette (1991) suggested taking a more lenient interpretation of +the First Law of Thermodynamics and allowing the possibility that free +energy devices could operate at efficiencies exceeding 100%. He +evaluates several ways of generating free energy in the context of +subquantum kinetics gene energy (photon blueshifting), zero-point +fluctuations, Ampere law forces, and electrogravitic gravity field +manipulations. + +Lynn Surgalla (1991) presented a tutorial on non-linear resonance +phenomena which describes the mathematical theoretical techniques she +feels necessary for modeling the design, tuning, and control of +nonlinear effects. + +Jose Zoleta from the Philippines (1991) proposed his TAF-13 device: +Triac Alternator Flywheel Motor, as an alternate source of energy. By +carefully choosing the components and resonant frequency of operation, +he expects to produce 150% or more energy than input into his motor- +generator system. However, I feel that more details and data on his +design are necessary to expect his system to provide over-unity +operation. + +In discussing plans for the quad-disc electrostatic generator, Donald +Kelly (1992), described the basic principles of the Wimshurst twin +counterrotating electrostatic (E/S) disks, and in addition a twin rotor- +to-stator E/S generating factor is included in this composite generator. +The positive and negative stator discs on each side of the rotor disc +receive E/S transfer from the multiple conductive segments on the outer +side of each rotor. The voltage and current amplification functions +would be accomplished by twin, large capacitive transformers, similar to +those used in the Swiss M-L converter, discussed in the next section +below. + +An improved method of winding inductors, transformers, and motors was +publicized by Toby Grotz (1992). This invention greatly enhances the +ability to generate magnetic fields with a given amount of wire. This +invention may be as fundamental to the use of magnetic fields as was +Nikola Tesla's use of rotating magnetic fields for the generation of +alternating current. + +George Hathaway in Canada (1991, 1992) has suggested the engineering +requirements necessary to begin to investigate and demonstrate zero +point energy. He draws together the most practical theoretical aspects +of this work, and explains how they are already at a sufficiently +advanced stage to allow initial experiments to be designed. He states +that the extraction of energy from such sources is really not an ivory +tower pipe dream, but more a matter of nuts and bolts. Thus, his +suggestions should serve as a sound basis for those engineers and +researchers to keep a close watch on vacuum energy physics. + +The Integrity Institute is interested in providing the new measurement +devices and instrumentation that will be needed to conduct meaningful +experiments in these new advanced energy machine areas. Tom Valone +(1991) presented an overview of the interests of the Institute, and the +various technical areas they have supported and hope to support in the +future. + +Finally, in the important related area of theoretical financing, +Professor Charles Berg (1991) pointed out the relationship between +available investment capital in the current conventional energy resource +and conservation areas, and possible funding in these new innovative +technologies. He points out that: "an innovative concept, as initially +applied, usually results in only a small rise in productivity. However, +immediately afterward, there follows a wave of rapid improvement in the +implementation of the new concept. This wave is responsible for almost +all the improvements in productivity that the innovation brings to +society. Still; without the introduction of the innovative concept, +there would be nothing upon which to improve." To me, his message to +investors is: plan on very little return in the short term, and through +licensing and networking agreements, reap a harvest that benefits all +the World in the near term and thereafter. + +Reports on Experiments and Working Devices + +John and Kevin Moray (1956, 1991) were kind to allow publication of a +portion of their book The Sea of Energy: the history of T. Henry Moray +and his devices, who from the early 1900s to the 1930s demonstrated to +the US press's satisfaction massive over-unity energy conversion. + +"In 1901, T. Henry Moray theorized that energy was coming from within +the earth. Through continuous experimentation and in spite of the +doubts held by the scientific community of the day, he discovered that +the energy was not coming from the ground but from an outside source +away from the earth. The energy came in continuous surges, like waves +of the sea, more in the daytime than at night. At this time Moray had +enough power to light a 16-candle power carbon lamp at about one-half +capacity. He labeled and defined his "Radiant Energy: The source of +energy coming from the cosmos to the earth and radiating back from +whence it came." + +"Upon completion of his first Radiant Energy Device, many tests and +experiments were conducted for the scientific and public communities. +Channeling the waves of energy was done by way of an antenna. When set +up and connected to the ground, priming and then tuning, the device +would draw electrical energy. Results of this experimentation proved +that the power generation had not originated from within the device. +The device, through channeling radiant energy, produced up to 50,000 +Watts of power and worked for long periods of time. For political +reasons many people, organizations, and agencies of the day opposed him +strongly. Despite the deliberate destruction of the R. E. Device, +threats against his work and his family, and armed attacks by unknown +assailants, T. Henry Moray continued with his dream of harnessing a +usable energy that the world could benefit from, and the same time save +the earth from the many methods of energy retrieval which now scar and +pollute its land, air, and seas." + +(As a side note, Moray's first germanium solid-state device +(semiconductor) was submitted to the U. S. Patent Office in 1927, and +was rejected on the basis that it would not work without a heated +cathode.) (Boy. Am I glad times have changed. Whew!) (That's a sick +joke folks!) Wake Up! + +A complete description of operational electrostatic motors is given in +the book by Oleg Jefimenko (1973). Some small electrostatic motors can +be operated using only Earth-field antennas. + +Paul Brown (1992) describes recent developments in materials technology +that now make it possible to fabricate nonthermal thin-film isotopic +energy converters with a specific power of 24 kiloWatts/kilogram and 5 +to 10 years working life at 5 to 10 Watts. He states: "This creates +applications never before possible, such as placing the power supply +directly on integrated circuit chips. The efficiency of the converters +is about 25%, which is two to three times greater than the 6 to 8% +capabilities of current thermoelectric systems." + +In a very impressive and I feel extremely important paper, Paul Brown +(1991) described his ability to place radioactive nuclear isotope +material into a resonant tank circuit and extract energy from the +decaying nuclide. He writes: "A phenomena known as the 'Beta Voltaic +Effect' is used to directly convert radioactive decay energy into +electricity without going through a thermal cycle. A great attraction +of isotopic power sources is that radioactive decay energy is several +orders of magnitude greater than chemical energy." Specifically Paul +uses a strong beta-emitting nuclide, like Krypton-85 or Strontium-90 as +the radioactive material and places it directly into a tunable LC tank +circuit. He claims that results of 50% conversion efficiencies have +been demonstrated, and greater efficiencies are hoped for in the future. +I have heard that T. Henry Moray had used radioactive substances in his +device in the 1930s. I wonder if charged particles or charged ions play +an important role in these effects. Moray King (1992) thinks they do. + +Recent research has been conducted by Toby Grotz, Tim Binder, and Ron +Kovac (1992) in order to verify Walter Russell's theories and +experiments. They write: "The experiments that Russell conducted in +1927, which were verified by Westinghouse laboratories, have been +repeated. + +Russell at that time thought that he had found a novel way to change the +ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in a sealed quartz tube containing water +vapor. Russell's data indicated that, where there had only been water +vapor consisting of hydrogen and oxygen in the tube, the addition of +inert gasses in the amount of 69% were detected. The use of magnetic +fields was shown to produce this effect. The end result of the +experiment was to demonstrate a cheap and efficient method of hydrogen +production for a hydrogen based fuel economy." Russell also developed +and tested counter-wound sets of coils, each in the shape of overlapping +cones. The device was based on the "power multiplication principle" +discussed in the many books that he had written. According to a memo +dated in 1961, the device worked: "because of the false concept of +gravity which assumes it to be force of attraction which pulls inward +from within instead of a cyclic force which controls the expansion of +cold into heat, and the expansion of heat into cold... Nature's first +principle of power production and the construction of matter is to +produce heat from the cold of space. The heat thus generated radiates +back into cold to complete the wave cycle which automatically repeats +itself in this ageless universe of infinite continuity." (This is very +similar to the theories of Victor Schauberger; Alexandersson, 1982). +On September 10, 1961, Walter and (his wife) Lao Russell reported to +their contacts at NORAD, that the coils had worked and that the +President of the United States could announce to the world that a +"greater, safer power than atomic energy" could be provided for industry +and transportation. The Russell's were convinced that they had found +and demonstrated a new source of energy and a conversion process for +what is now known as the zero point energy. + +Bill Muller has developed the Muller Motor/Generator and presented a +very good review of the theoretical principles in his 1991 referenced +paper. His motors utilize super powerful permanent magnets with +amorphous metal parts that have practically zero hysteresis losses! +Utilizing their design, based upon an odd-even magnetic pole design +developed in 1852, they describe the creation of a magnetic balance in +the motor which eliminates the work required to remove one pole from the +other no matter how large or how strong the magnetic surface would be. +I liked how Bill talked about powerful permanent magnets: "It is only +because these super powerful magnets carry enormous ampere pressures +within themselves that they are now able to lift their own weight." +This supports my view that permanent magnets, including planets, are +vast sources of potential energy. The Muller's are very excited about +the operational characteristics of their motors and generators, and +demonstrated one large motor at the 26th IECEC in Boston, MA. Their +paper includes a detailed description of their circuits with voltage and +current analyses. They have obtained very high system efficiencies, and +state that "Up to this point, there is no reason to expect what is +called over-unity either on the motor or the generator." Bill has +promised to continue his experiments and keep in contact with interested +parties. + +The Reed (1991) Magnetic Motor is an electromechanical device that Troy +Reed says runs on magnetic power. The author has developed a small +prototype and a larger unit that have both undergone several +demonstrations and testing programs. He has also filed for a Patent +with the Patent Office and the Foreign PTO/EPO. In his design, eight +permanent magnets are placed on each of four disks. Two outer disks +remain stationary while the two inner ones are mounted on a common shaft +and are allowed to turn freely. Videotapes and other information are +available. + +The electrical dynamo patented by Barbara Hickox (1991) is an +interesting device. The design includes a central rotating non- +conductive cylinder into which small cylindrical permanent magnets are +placed. The interesting part is that the magnets are all positioned +with one pole outward, and located on two spiral lines down the surface +of the rotating cylinder. Barbara claims that when properly designed, +single-wound coils in the proximity of these rotating magnets will +exhibit power transfers much higher than the power required to turn the +cylinder. Again, here is the idea of a spiral or cyclic texture within +the substance of existing energy fields. + +It must be pointed out here that accurate measurements of high frequency +power can be difficult to make and results can be inferred that are very +much in error (Triner & Hansen, NASA, 1977). All measurements of input +and output voltages and currents must be very carefully performed. + +The Bedini free energy generator (1991) was also discussed. Complete +plans are given for the construction of a free energy system. While not +an over-unity device, the battery recharging circuit does allow a +battery to operate for a much longer period of time than it normally +would, thus giving the user that much more energy for free. However, it +was pointed out that certain circuit components, such as the transistor +numbers, may be in error in these plans, and that a brand new battery +must used. Refer to Moray King's 1992 paper for more details. + +Gary Johnson (1992) reported that electrically induced explosions in +water exhibiting free energy are relatively easy to produce with a 2 +micro-farad capacitor charged to 10 kiloVolts. "Expanding steam does +not seem to be the main cause for the explosions. Similar explosions +are obtained with significantly different peak currents, which raises +questions about the longitudinal Ampere forces being the primary cause. +It is therefore conceivable that we are tapping a new energy source." +(Of course, this technique may not be the optimum one to extract this +energy. But it could lead us toward a better understanding of this +source.) + +Professor P. T. Pappas from Greece gave an informative review of the +theory and his experiments with the creation of energy in sparks and +discharges. Pappas points out that in Maxwell's theory, it is assumed +that there is continuity and the closeness of the path for the flow of +every current. He examines the Cardinal current force law of Ampere, +and claims that energy creation is considered as not binding, but as +possible, according to this Cardinal law as an alternative principle to +the continuous creation hypothesis of Astronomy. Various inherent arc +oscillations are presented as direct evidence of energy creation. + +Wingate Lambertson (1991) discussed the WIN Process as a solid state +method for converting zero-point energy into electrical energy that has +been developed over the past 19 years. He places a semiconductor +ceramic barrier with a parallel capacitance between an oscillating tank +circuit and a power supply. He has included test results that indicate +a power input of 84 Watt-sec producing an output of 810 Watt-sec, for an +over-unity ratio of 9.6. + +Rhetta Jacobson (1991) summarized an evaluation of Tesla Bladeless pumps +and turbines. As these pumps use the fluid friction to operate, she +finds that: "no other pump or engine can match the longevity, economy, +size, safety, silence and vibration free performance of these devices." + +While not specially related to energy conversion devices, Glen Rein +(1991) presented results of his research with cell culture bioassays and +the effects of time varying quantum potentials. I feel this work is +extremely important. A modified caduceus coil was used to test the +hypothesis that bucking (opposite) electromagnetic fields can cancel +their vector fields and generate a time varying quantum potential (the +"A field," for those in the know). These experiments prove the +existence of the "A field" that Tom Bearden and others refer to that has +been excluded from the simplified EM equations (thanks to the +simplifications of Heavyside) taught in physics today. The coil was +shown to dramatically stimulate the growth of lymphocytes in culture +cells, both directly in proximity and indirectly through storing its +information in water. For those in the health fields: think very +carefully about what is being said here! Then contact Glen! + +Bruce dePalma (1991) points out that the key to understanding and +explaining the baffling situation of anomalous excess electrical energy +generation in free energy machines lies in a re-interpretation of +magnetism as not being a property of the magnet, but of space itself. +The Primordial Energy Field is then also distorted as a consequence of +the spatial reaction to the centripetal force field existing within a +ROTATING magnetized conductor. Bruce says that a N- machine/Space Power +Generator is an electrical machine which has the capability of producing +electrical energy with significantly less mechanical power input than +the presently employed induction machines. In 1978, he constructed such +a rotating device, the Sunburst machine. In 1985, tests were performed +under the direction of a well-known Professor Emeritus of Electrical +Engineering at Stanford University. The test report quotes: "Known for +over 150 years, the Faraday homopolar generator has been claimed to +provide a basis for so-called free energy generation, in that under +certain conditions the extraction of electrical output energy is not +reflected as a corresponding mechanical load to the driving source. +During 1985 I was invited to test such a machine. While it did not +perform as claimed, repeatable data showed anomalous results that did +not seem to conform to traditional theory. ... DePalma may been right +in that there is indeed a situation here whereby energy is being +obtained from a previously unknown and unexplained source." + +While my research estimates that N-machines usually report over-unity +conversion ratios of 1.00 to 1.20, Bruce reports design improvements +that could result in a machine with an output/input power ratio of 5:1. +Many fundamental questions in electromagnetics are reopened by the +implications of the experiment with a rotating magnetic conductor. For +those interested in delving more deeply into these questions, I +recommend reading Bruce's paper, and his paper reference's 14-18. + +Tom Valone (1991) also presents theoretical and experimental data that +he has obtained with a Faraday disk, or homopolar generator. He +obtained a measured back torque of 0.17 N-m for a 25 Watt generator +which is in agreement with his theory. Tom is one of the few +researchers who has been doing accurate measurements on such devices +within the US today. George Hathaway (1991, 1992) is also continuing to +perform various experiments in Canada. + +Richard (Scott) McKie (1991) has designed and tested a small model of a +PODMOD device: a Power On Demand MODule. The circuitry invokes Tesla's +theories of electron flow, resonance, and magnetism, combined with +modern theories on high frequency electronics and radio antennas to +generate power directly, without the inefficient conversion of energy +from other sources. A US patent has been filed and granted. Scott +claimes to be able to generate output power as much as 4,000 times the +input power. Prototypes have been built and tested, including +independent tests by accredited specialists. Plans are currently +underway to build full-scale commercial PODMOD units, to be housed in +standard 40 foot shipping containers, each having a continuous base-load +generating capacity of 10 megaWatts. + +Don Kelly (1991) presented a very good review of the Methernitha free +energy machine, also known as the Swiss M-L Converter, or the "Thesta- +Distatica." The spiritual and communal group of Methernitha is located +in Switzerland, and a videotape might be available from Don at the Space +Energy Association that summarizes their community and shows the device +in operation. An English transcription of that video is also available +(Methernitha, 1989). The device contains two counterrotating disks +(about two feet in diameter) that are set in motion by hand. They +continue to spin thereafter, and the machine generates usable power that +lights or powers small tools. The device appears to operate +continuously and generates a continuous 3 to 4 kiloWatts power at about +220 Volts and about 10 Amps DC. From an analysis of Wimshurst +electrostatic generators, this would require a power increase factor, or +over-unity factor of about 20. Groups of investigative scientists from +Europe and Japan have been allowed to examine the device in the 1980s, +and have all verified these claims without understanding the machines +principles of operation (Nieper, Hans A., 1981). + +Methernitha is committed to not release details on their device, as they +believe that present mankind is not ready for such advanced energy +technology. Their point of view is adequately summarized in a quote +from a typed letter from Methernitha in 1988: + +"To surprise present mankind with a free-energy device would literally +mean to pour oil into a world which is already set on fire in too many +places and domains of human life. What mankind needs is peace, peace of +mind to start with, to have a chance to find back to nature and god, and +not more and further technological support in his strife for pleasure, +which would rather drown him in an ocean of noise, over-action and +pollution in general. If you can not accept this point of view please +discover a new 'free'-energy device by yourself. The responsibility for +its publication with all of its consequences will then be yours only. +May peace be with you. Methernitha." + +>From the videotape (or the transcription published in 1989), Methernitha +states: + +"This wondermachine is lurked from nature, nothing else. Nature is the +greatest source of power as well as knowledge which man has, and it +still conceals many secrets, which are only revealed to those, who +approach and tie in them with highest respect and responsibility." "In +order to understand nature and to perceive its voice, man is obliged to +experience silence and solitude, and it was there, where the knowledge +about this technology was obtained." "To the educated physicist many a +thing of this machine may seem impossible, maybe even crazy. Maybe he +is also offended by the conceptions used to explain the whole. Only +partly we could use the concepts of conventional physical terminology in +order to explain and define only approximately the functions and +properties of the various parts of the machine." "It has to be +remembered that the established sciences were already many times forced +to change or give up some of their very fundamental concepts. Think +about Galileo Galilei, in order to name only one example. Our human +society almost condemned this man as a sorcerer and magician, just +because he investigated and discovered a truth which seemed unacceptable +by the established science of the days." "The book of knowledge is not +wrong, but it is incomplete, and therefore allows to draw wrong +conclusions." "We are part of a new era which brings to light many new +facts and new knowledge. The clothes of nowaday science have become too +tight and should be stripped off, just like the larva of an insect does +with its skin. Only this will allow a true metamorphosis to take its +course, and finally, at the limits and at the destination of all worldly +knowledge, a universal and unlimited spiritual science, radiating and +beautiful, just as the completed imago of an insect, may give its +blessings and benediction to a renovated humanity." + +Tom Bearden (1991) described a Vacuum Triode developed by Sweet. I have +seen Tom's videotape of this device in operation, when it was operating. +Tom considers the highly nonlinear nucleus of the atom as a pumped phase +conjugate mirror (PPCM). He likens this effect to a triode tube since +the amplified phase conjugate replica of the signal wave is much like +the amplified output of a triode, and the input to a PPCM is much like a +triode's grid signal input. + +Sweet has developed working devices based upon this vacuum triode +concept utilizing paired barium ferrite magnets and resonant circuits. +It should be noted that in order for the device to work, the magnets +were preconditioned by an undisclosed process. Devices have been +reported and demonstrated to reliable witness that have produced +continuous 6, 500, and 5,000 Watts output from a nine volt DC battery. +Through Tom's theoretical suggestions, the circuit was modified to test +possible antigravity effects. The test results performed by Sweet alone +indicated a 90% weight reduction of the device itself, from 6 pounds to +about 20 ounces on a spring scale, when the external load was increased +from 0 to 10 Watts. To my knowledge, no further tests have been +performed with this device, as Sweet has had severe heath and family +difficulties. + +Devices Worthy of Future Study + +It is difficult to separate which devices should be considered as more +important or better to research than the others listed in this paper. +All have potential merit and application. However; for a first step, +what is really needed is repeatable experimental evidence of a new +potential source, to produce the so-called zero point energy, free +energy, or over-unity effects. As funding is presently limited, the +lack of resources limits our research to simple and uncomplicated +devices. I would recommend the following devices, in order of +increasing complexity and financial commitment, as worthy of careful +attention and rapid duplication: + +Kelly's Soviet Resonant Circuit, A Computer Model and Analyses; +Bedini Free Energy Generator (Brand new motorcycle battery); +Hickox's Electric Dynamo (US Patent No. 4,249,096); +Kelly's Soviet Resonant Circuit; +Russell's Counter-wound Overlapping Conical Coil Designs; +dePalma's and Valone's Homopolar Polar N-Machine Generator; +Brown's Radioactive Decay Resonant Circuit (US Patent No. 4,835,433); +Hyde's Electrostatic Energy Field Power Generating System, (US Patent +No. 4,897,592); +Sweet's Vacuum Triode; +McKie's PODMOD Generation Device; and +Methernitha's Swiss M-L Converter. + +Summary + +Of all of the devices reported herein, I know of none that have been +adequately tested and accepted to allow unconditional support of their +claims, nor have any of these devices been replicated or reproduced by +another party to confirm their operation. The devices that appear most +promising appear to be held as proprietary or secretive for financial, +legal, or philosophical reasons. This very frustrating situation is +being actively overcome by the creation of a dedicated and growing +network of interested scientists and engineers, that are providing +accurate and honest information transfer, pooling resources, and looking +ahead to create, organize, and provide adequate financial support that +works. + +Business Plan + +What is needed is an international organization that is committed to the +study of these fields and the support of its researchers. Such an +organization cannot survive within the United States alone. What is +proposed is a three step plan: (1) The creation of an annual advanced +energy conference to bring together those who will openly discuss ideas, +experiments, and devices; (2) The creation of an international non- +profit corporation that would support these activities and extend and +network these conferences internationally; and (3) The creation of a +financial dividend structure that would allow all participants to gain +from the success of others. Research and advancement done at the +expense of others must become a thing of the past. + +Acknowledgments + +I thank all of the researchers and authors that have promoted these +ideas and have placed themselves on the line in the face of so-called +adversity. I also thank the staff and promoters of the IANS for +conducting this conference, and I thank Tom Bearden for allowing me to +take his place during this conference in his absence. Finally, I thank +myself and my higher guides for allowing me to be able to continue to +increase my consciousness, to learn to accept knowledge without fear, +and to accurately transmit that knowledge to others. + +APPENDIX + +INSIGHTS INTO THE PROPRIETARY SYNDROME + +By KEN MacNEILL + +Cadake Industries +Winter Haven, Florida + +PART I + +To give you some background on myself, I have been interested in the +energy situation since I can remember. I have built all kinds of +devices, solar energy panels, windmills, photovoltaic arrays, flywheel +devices, and also carburetors of which I will talk on Sunday. In my +background I am an accomplished tool and diemaker, moldmaker, been +involved in Design Engineering for the past 12 years, primarily in the +automation area. + +My first real involvement with other people in this alternate energy +area was at the Toronto Symposium in 1981 where I met George Hathaway as +well as over 100 other people that believe in the impossible according +to orthodox science. Since that time I have made myself aware of just +about everything that is happening in this field, and believe me there +are some really fantastic things going on. The rediscovery of some of +the technology that was lost in the past is finally coming to +realization, for instance the Tesla technology, the Hubbard device, the +Moray approach to tapping into the free energy supply that we're sitting +in without even knowing it. + +A friend of mine gave me a real insight possibly without even knowing +it. He said the problem could only be solved by just considering the +problem of weighing a glass of water at 500 feet under water. Here you +are under water with a glass of water: how do you weigh it??? + +The analogy is the same for us. Here we sit in the vastness of the +cosmos on top of one of the biggest magnets known to us and we are like +the glass of water. We are in the vast ocean of energy. Look around us +and watch just the weather for instance, the next thunderstorm, think of +all the electrical potential being wasted. That energy is there; it is +very real. + +Tom Bearden, one of our upcoming speakers, may have illustrated it quite +well by the bird sitting on top of the wire with 13,000 volts going +through it. We all know that it could kill him but it doesn't. I am +positive that within this group will be the ways and means for making +the energy situation of the future change. + +Now to the other side of this coin. Why has not this technology been +allowed to become established? We have to look at the 'profit motive' +involved. If we have free energy, how will they charge for it? What +will happen to the billions of dollars that the utilities and oil +companies and the government backing these establishments do if we can +give the people independence from the chains of having to pay for +energy? + +One question that has been uppermost in my mind for the last year has +been the rhetoric given by our elected representatives about the energy +situation and the amount of money given to small researchers who could +possibly give us a viable approach to becoming energy independent. Who +gets the government money?? Let me get a little audience participation +in the question. How many of you have all the money you need for +research in the energy area? Everyone who has please stand!!!!! Now +let me mention a few of the names of the companies that get the money. +See if you recognize them: Exxon, Gulf Oil, General Electric, +Westinghouse, TRW, Exide Storage Battery, all manufacturers or producers +of fossil fuel products. We need to get away from the fossil fuels for +the future and get into something that can indeed give us a future +because we are rapidly depleting not only our natural resources but our +air and water. All because of burning fossil fuels. We fund our +universities and colleges in the most directed of ways. If you want to +explore the possibilities in some of the more esoteric areas, for +instance the ones you will be hearing about in the next three days, +there is no money for that. WHY??? Because of the possibility that we +might succeed. What would our government do if all the American people +could go back and forth to work, heat their homes, run their businesses +without paying taxes on gas and oil? Consider the fact that all of the +gas stations would go out of business or would have to find other ways +of making money. Many complimentary businesses would also fold. But +alas, this is America. What are we here for??? To perpetuate Big +Business, Big Government, or to advance toward the future, not expending +all of our natural resources but to save them to make the goods of the +future. Coal and oil both can be used for making all kinds of things +besides fuels; the list is endless. + +It is my feeling that the technology may be already here and may have +been shown to the government. It even may have been introduced to our +patent office and turned down. Because as you know, there is no such +thing as a perpetual motion device. And I agree with the premise +because forever is a long time. + +But there are surely some of the devices or parts thereof that have been +introduced to the government or to big business in the past which have +been shelved. Tesla's transmission device is a classic illustration +probably best known to this group. What happened is that they removed +the money from him to do his research and effectively stifled this +remarkable man. How many other times has it happened to someone not so +well known? At this moment, there are over 3,000 devices or +applications in the patent office that have been branded as security or +put under wraps by the secrecy order, Title 35, U.S. Code (1952) +Sections 181-188. What is security? How is it defined? I have had +many inventors or other scientists tell me that they did not want to +discuss their invention with me or others because they might lose it to +us or we might tell someone else before they got it onto the market. +Believe me, it won't get there by going through the patent process. It +is my feeling that if such a device were introduced at this level, then +it would be put under the Secrecy Act. I don't know that I am correct +in this assumption. But I cannot imagine a government like ours wanting +to commit financial suicide. So what better way than to brand something +as a secret? + +I would like to read the Secrecy Order to you so that you may better +understand my concern. Please pay close attention. I think it is very +important. To you or anyone!!! Consider your receiving this: + + +SECRECY ORDER +(Title 35, United States Code (1952), sections 181-188) + +NOTICE: To the applicant above named, his heirs, and any and all of his +assignees, attorneys and agents, hereinafter designated principals: + +You are hereby notified that your application as above identified has +been found to contain subject matter, the unauthorized disclosure of +which might be detrimental to the national security, and you are ordered +in nowise to publish or disclose the invention or any material +information with respect thereto, including hitherto unpublished details +of the subject matter of said application, in any way to any person not +cognizant of the invention prior to the date of the order, including any +employee of the principals, but to keep the same secret except by +written consent first obtained of the Commissioner of Patents, under the +penalties of 35 U.S.C. (1952) 182, 186. + +Any other application already filed or hereafter filed which contains +any significant part of the subject matter of the above identified +application falls within the scope of this order. If such other +application does not stand under a security order, it and the common +subject matter should be brought to the attention of the Security Group, +Licensing and Review, Patent Office. + +If, prior to the issuance of the secrecy order, any significant part of +the subject matter has been revealed to any person, the principals shall +promptly inform such person of the secrecy order and the penalties for +improper disclosure. However, if such part of the subject matter was +disclosed to any person in a foreign country or foreign national in the +U.S., the principals shall not inform such person of the secrecy order, +but instead shall promptly furnish to the Commissioner of Patents the +following information to the extent not already furnished: date of +disclosure; name and address of the disclosee; identification of such +part; and any authorization by a U.S. government agency to export such +part. If the subject matter is included in any foreign patent +application, or patent, this should be identified. The principals shall +comply with any related instructions of the Commissioner. + +This order should not be construed in any way to mean that the +Government has adopted or contemplates adoption of the alleged invention +disclosed in this application; nor is it any indication of the value of +such invention. + +It is my feeling that something on the order of a so-called 'free energy +device' would receive this treatment. My only approach would be to go +to the public domain. That is, get the information or the device out +there to enough people that they could not stop you. This group looks +like the best group to give this information to. Hopefully it will +forthcoming in the next three days. + +------- + +Transcribed from: PROCEEDINGS; The Second International Symposium on +Non-Conventional Energy Technology, pp 125-126. + +I have been told this was presented on September 23, 1983. + +Contact Ken MacNeill at Cadake Industries, P.O. 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Ether-Technology, A Rational Approach to Gravity +Control, ITS Books. + +Conferences + +IECEC, 26th Proceedings (1991) (Boston, MA). American Nuclear Society, +555 North Kensington Avenue, La Grange Park, IL 60525, (708) 352-6611. +IECEC, 27th Proceedings (1992) (San Diego, CA). Society of Automotive +Engineers, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 (412) 776- +4841. +International Tesla Symposium Proceedings (1984, 1986, 1988, 1990, +1992). 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"The Principles Underlying Regenerative Free +Energy Technology," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 336-340. +Aspden, Harold (1992). "The Electronic Heat Engine," 27th IECEC, pages +4.357-4.363. +Bearden, Thomas E., and Walter Rosenthal (1991). "On A Testable +Unification Of Electromagnetics, General Relativity, And Quantum +Mechanics," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 487-492, and Association of +Distinguished American Scientists. +Bearden, Thomas (1992). "A Redefinition of the Energy Ansatz, Leading +to a Fundamentally New Class of Nuclear Interactions," 27th IECEC, pages +4.303-4.310, and Association of Distinguished American Scientists. +Berg, Charles A. (1991). "Innovation And Energy Use," 26th IECEC, Vol. +4, pages 382-387. +Grotz, Toby (1991). "Development Of A Particle Beam Weapon Based On +Nikola Tesla's Design Of 1937," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 410-415. +Grotz, Toby (1991). "Wireless Transmission Of Power, An Attempt To +Verify Nikola Tesla's 1899 Colorado Springs Experiments, Results Of +Research and Experimentation," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 404-409. +Grotz, Toby (1992). "The Use of Mirror Image Symmetry in Coil Winding, +Applications and Advantages in Magnetic Field Generation," 27th IECEC, +pages 4.311-4.313. +Hathaway, George D. (1991). "From Anti-Gravity to Zero-Point Energy: A +Technical Review of Advanced Propulsion Concepts," AIDAA/AIAA/DGLR/JSASS +22nd International Electric Propulsion Conference, Viareggio, Italy. +Hathaway, George D. (1991). "Zero-Point Energy: A New Prime Mover? +Engineering Requirements For Energy Production & Propulsion From Vacuum +Fluctuations," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 376-381. +Inomata, Shiuji (1991). "New Paradigm And N-Machine," 26th IECEC, Vol. +4, pages 331-335. +Kelly, Donald A. (1991). "The Enhanced Tank Circuit As A Free Energy +Module," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 424-428. +Kelly, Donald A. (1992). "An Enhanced Quad-Disc Electrostatic +Generator," 27th IECEC, pages 4.351-4.356. +King, Moray (1991). "Tapping The Zero-Point Energy As An Energy +Source," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 364-369. +King, Moray B. (1992). "Progress and Results in Zero-Point Energy +Research," 27th IECEC, pages 4.297-4.302. +LaViolette, Paul A. (1991). "Subquantum Kinetics: Exploring The Crack +In The First Law," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 352-357. +Nichelson, Oliver (1991). "Nikola Tesla's Later Energy Generation +Designs," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 433-438. +Surgalla, Lynn A. (1991). "Nonlinear Dynamics: Mathematical Physics +For 21st Century Technology (A Tutorial For Engineers)," 26th IECEC, +Vol. 4, pages 394-399. +Valone, Thomas (1991). "Non-Conventional Energy And Propulsion +Methods," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 439-444. +VanVoorhies, Kurt, and James Smith (1991). "The Promises And Prospects +of Worldwide Wireless Power Transfer: An Overview," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, +pages 341-346. +Zoleta, Jose C. (1991). "Triac Alternator Flywheel Motor (TAF-13): An +Alternative Source Of Energy," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 358-363. + +Reports on Experiments and Working Devices + +Bearden Thomas E., and Floyd Sweet (1991). "Utilizing Scalar +Electromagnetics To Tap Vacuum Energy," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 370- +375, and Association of Distinguished American Scientists. +Bedini, John C. (1991). "The Bedini Free Energy Generator," 26th IECEC, +Vol. 4, pp 451-456. +Brown, Paul M. (1991). "Current Status And Future Research With +Resonant Nuclear Generators," 26th IECEC, Vol. 6, pages 132-134. +Brown, Paul M. (1992). "Solid State Isotopic Power Source for Computer +Chips," 27th IECEC, pages 4.345-4.350. +Grotz, Toby, Tim Binder, and Ron Kovac (1992). "Novel Means of Hydrogen +Production Using Dual Polarity Control and Walter Russell's Experiments +with Zero Point Energy," 27th IECEC, pages 4.339-4.344. +Hickox, Barbara (1991). 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"Informationsfilm Thesta-Distatica: Sound Track +Transcription," Tagungsband Proceedings, Internationaler Kongress fur +Freie Energie, Einsiedeln, Switzerland 1989, ISBN 3-9520025-1-8. +Moray, John E., and Kevin R. Moray (1991). "The Sea Of Energy: A Means +For The Preservation Of The Environment By Drawing Kinetic Energy From +Space," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 347-351. +Muller, William J. F. (1991). "Muller Motor / Generator Principles," +26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 388-393B. +dePalma, Bruce (1991). "Magnetism As A Distortion Of A Pre-Existent +Primordial Energy Field And The Possibility Of Extraction Of Electrical +Energy Directly From Space," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 429-432. +Pappas, P. T. (1991). "Energy Creation In Electrical Sparks And +Discharges: Theory And Direct Experimental Evidence," 26th IECEC, Vol. +4, pages 416-423. +Reed, Troy G. (1991). "The Reed Magnetic Motor: The Motor Of +Tomorrow," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 484-486. +Rein, Glen (1991). "Utilization Of A Cell Culture Bioassay For +Measuring Quantum Potentials Generated From A Modified Caduceus Coil," +26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 400-403. +Triner, James E,. and Irving G. Hansen (1977). "Electric Vehicle Power +Train Instrumentation - Some Constraints and Considerations," ERDA/NASA +1011/77/1 report NASA TM X-73629. +Valone, Thomas (1991). "The One-Piece Faraday Generator: Research +Results," 26th IECEC, Vol. 4, pages 473-478. + +END. + + + + +-- +*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@*@* +The accountability of government has gone to the point where the very +use of the law is the instrument of illegality. + -- Ralph Nader @ Harvard Law School, 1/15/92 diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/essiac.txt b/textfiles.com/science/essiac.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7ab78063 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/essiac.txt @@ -0,0 +1,988 @@ +From: Posted for Dr. Gary L. Glum 1 310-271-9931 +Subject: Essiac: a natural herbal alternative cancer treatment +Message-ID: +Date: 10 Apr 93 17:03:41 GMT +Organization: -> ESKIMO NORTH (206) For-Ever <- +Lines: 983 + +Poster of this article is doing so as a favor, and is not responsible for it's +content and is held harmless for any information in this article (posting). + --- * --- +This file containes four sections: + 1. An Introduction to the book Calling of An Angel by Dr. Gary L. Glum. + 2. The Essiac Formula. + 3. Address and phone number for more information. + 4. An interview with Dr. Glum from "Wildfire" Magazine. + --- * --- +Section 1. + Introduction chapter to a book called ____"Calling of An Angel"____ +"The true story of Rene Caisse and an indian herbal medicine +called ESSIAC-Nature's cure for cancer." (isbn# 0-9620364-0-4) +By Dr. Gary L. Glum. Published by Silent Walker Publishing, Los Angeles +(c) Copyright 1988, all rights reserved. Permission to copy, transmit, +and share the _introduction_chapter_ has been granted by the author. +Dr. Glum can be reached by telephone at 310-271-9931 For further information. + + Introduction (to book): + + This is the story of a woman named Rene Caisse. For +more than 50 years, until her death in 1978 at the +age of 90, she treated thousands of cancer patients, +most of them written off by doctors as terminally ill, +with her own secret herbal formula. She called it +Essiac - Cassie spelled backwards - and she brewed the tea herself, +alone in the kitchen. + Her patients swore by her. They were devoted. Men and +women who believed she cured them of cancer told their friends +and families, wrote letters to doctors and politicians, swore affidavits, +testified before the Canadian parliement and pleaded +with Rene Caisse to supply them with more Essiac when they +needed it. Some husbands and wives of patients who died wrote +Rene letters thanking her profoundly for making life easier - free +of pain - and longer for their loved ones. Her funeral in the +village of Bracebridge, about 170 kilometers north of Toronto, was +attended by hundreds of people, including former patients Rene +had treated for terminal cancer as far back as the 1930's and who +were still on their feet to bury her and tell her stories. + I'm convinced that Essiac works. It has potent - and +preventive - power. It is a gift from nature. I've seen a small part +of the evidence with my one eyes, and I've experienced Essiac's +power as a healthful tonic in my own life. I suffered from chronic +bronchitis until a few years ago when I first heard of Essiac and +tried it myself. Within a few days my cough disappeared and it hasn't +returned. I still drink the Essiac. It tastes like what it is, an herbal +tea. About as plain and mild as any of the other herbal teas from +around the world you can buy at any supermarket. I've never +felt better. All though Canada and in parts of the United States today +there are people of all ages who are absolutely convinced that Essiac +saved their lives or the lives of friends and loved ones. +But you can't buy it in any supermarket. + Claims have been made - since about 1925, in fact - that Essiac +is an effective treatment for cancer. So the governments of North America +have classified it as a "drug." The Canadian government almost legalized +its use by Rene in 1939, and has gone through fits and starts ever since +in deciding how to handle the situation. The policy has ranged from +threatening to arrest Rene if she didn't close her clinic to promising +her publicly - on the record, in the press - that she wouldn't be arrested +if she would agree to keep her clinic open, thus quieting the public clamor +that arose after the government threatened to shut her down. + In the last decade, the Canadian government has classified Essiac +as an "experimental drug," and then an "experimental drug that failed to +show promise", and today - as Dr. Hendrick's letter shows - the internal +battles are still going on in Canada over the future of Essiac. + In the U.S., A 1978 class action suit in federal court in Detroit +seeking to authorize the importation of Essiac for cancer treatment +was defeated by the government. Other than that, the U.S. government +hasn't faced that much pressure about Essiac. There are probably high +level officials in the U.S. Food and Drug Administration - and the +National Cancer Institute - who make life and death decisions about +cancer drugs who could honestly say they've never heard of Essiac. +I hope they'll take the time to read this book. + I don't claim that Essiac is a miraculous panacea, capable +of curing all cancers in all people, nor do I believe that. Rene Caisse +didn't even believe that. She didn't claim Essiac as a "cure for cancer." +Her former patients were the ones who put forward that claim, strenuously +and over many decades. What Rene maintained was that Essiac caused regression +in some cancerous tumors, the total destruction of others, prolonged life in +most cases and - in virtually every case - significantly diminished the +pain and suffering of cancer patients. + If the testimonials of Rene's former patients, including those +sworn under oath, have any credibility at all - and when I present +then, I think you'll agree they do - then Essiac's powers as a pain +reliever in cancer patients are nothing short of phenomenal. In +sixty years of personal accounts, the easing of agony and an increased +sense of well-being - often to the point of getting through the day +without narcotics - is one of the predominant themes. You hear it over and +over again, and always told with a deep sense of gratitude. + Rene fought almost her whole adult life against overwhelming +odds and under incredible pressures, some of them self-imposed, +to establish those simple facts as accepted wisdom. She never +gave up her fight. But for one woman many years ago to persuade +the medical and legal institutions of North America that a +natural treatment for cancer - based on herbs that grow wild - +might make more sense than the accepted means of surgery, radiation +and chemotherapy...she might as well have been telling them +in an earlier century that the earth is round. + Remember: Rene was fighting cancer with a natural treatment +in an era when the conventional wisdom of the medical establishment +denied even that diet might be a factor in causing cancer. +It's hard to believe, knowing what we know now - and what +has become conventional wisdom - but for generations those +doctors who preached dietary causes of cancer were dismissed +by most physicians as quacks. So was the medical establishment +to make of this woman - who wasn't even a licensed doctor - +who preached that a cancer treatment was to be found in +plants that grow in the wild? + My goal in this book is simple: I want to tell people the +story of this ordinary woman's extraordinary life and share the knowledge +of Essiac so that people can make their own informed decisions +about what its future should be. I don't pretend to have all the +answers about how Essiac works, or the final scientific +proof that it dose. There are large gaps, as I'll explain, in my +own knowledge of this story. Much of it remains a mystery to me, +raising deeply intriguing questions which I would love to see answered. + But I do know that there is already enough evidence that Essiac +has benefited cancer patients in the last 60 years to warrant +those controlled clinical studies that some physicians - such as +Dr. Hendrick - have advocated for decades. + The risk to the public would certianly appear to be minimal. +There seems to be universal agreement among the doctors and +scientists who have done investigations of Essiac - and the +patients who have used it - that Essiac is non-toxic and without +harmful side effects. Rene Caisse drank it every day for half a +century and some of her family and close friends always made +sure they had had their daily cup. Not even Rene Caisse'e worst +enemies ever put forward the argument that people were hurt by +drinking the tea. + This non-toxic nature of Essiac is an important consideration +in making it a treatment worthy of serious investigation. Many +of the conventional accepted chemotherapy drug actually come +with toxic warning labels. One of the commonly administered +cancer drugs is the chemical Fluorouracil(5FU). Note this warning +on the manufacturer's brochure: "Precautions: Florouracil is +a highly toxic drug with a narrow margin of safety. Therefore, +patients should be carefully supervised since therapeutic response +is unlikely to occur without some evidence of toxicity....Severe +hematological toxicity, gastrointestinal hemorrhage and even +death may result from the Fluorouracil despite meticulous selection +of patients and careful adjustment of dosage." + As if that weren't bad enough, the officially accepted +"experimental drugs," on which the government and the drug companies +lavish huge sums of developmental funds, can be even worse. +According to a 1981 Washington Post story, a major +American drug company spent significant amounts of money and +years of research on a weed from India they hoped would have a +beneficial effect on certian forms of leukemia - even though it +was known in advance that the weed caused severe liver damage +in livestock. And sure enough, when the weed was synthesized +into a chemical and given to cancer patients, there were reports +that it was helping some people - and killing others. + But there was nothing unusual in that. "We knew from the +beginning that this caused toxicity in animals," the Post quoted a +U.S. Food and Drug Administration official as saying "Almost +all investigational cancer drugs as highly toxic." As you read this +story and wonder - as I did many, many times while I was researching +it - if an herbal compound developed by one one woman could +possibly - even possibly - be safer and more effective than +the best of what medical science is already bringing us, please +keep this quote in mind from that 1981 series of Washington +Post articles: + "Over the last decade, more than 150 experimental drugs have +been given to tens of thousands of cancer patients under the sponsorship +of the U.S. Federal Government's National Cancer Institute. +Many of these drugs have come from a list of highly toxic +industrial chemicals, including pesticides, herbicides and dyes.... +those who take them, the experimental drugs - along with leading +to hundreds of deaths - have elicited a nightmarish list of +serious adverse reactions. including kidney failure, liver failure, +heart failure, respiratory distress, destruction of bone marrow so +the body can no longer make blood, brain damage, paralysis, +seizure, coma and visual hallucinations. + "So little is known about many if these chemicals that doctors +have found these ironic results: In some cases the experimental +drug actually stimulated tumor growth rather than stopped the +cancer - and in other tests, doctors and researchers found that +the exprimental drug itself caused cancer." + Rene Caisse wouldn't have been surprised to read that. Her +own feelings about the use of these toxic drugs, after a lifetime +spent fighting cancer, were blunt and nasty: "Chemotherapy +should be a criminal offense," she told one reporter. + Though the medical establishment has not recognized Rene +Caisse's herbal treatment for cancer as legitimate, there is more +than ample precedent for the approach she was taking. According +to a 1987 NOVA documentary on "The Hidden Power Of Plants." +aired in the Public Broadcasting System: "Indeed, the +history of medicine has been largely the story of plants and the +potent chemicals they produce. Around the world, traditional +healers, using plant medications, provide health care to eighty +percent of the human population - over four billion people." + Since the 1950's doctors have been using an alkaloid called +vincristine - which comes from a evergreen plant known as the +periwinkle - in the treatment of childhood leukemia and other +cancers. Digitalis, which comes from the leaves of the foxglove +plant, is an important heart medication. According to the NOVA +documentary, "Over 25 percent of the drugs in the U.S. +still contain plant materials as their principal active ingredients." + Throughout history there are countless examples of people +discovering the healing properties of nature before science could +understand them - or even believe that they existed. South +American Indians treated fevers, especially malarial fevers, with +an herbal tea made from cinchona bark. Scientists eventually discovered +that cinchona bark is nature'a source of quinine. + Science didn't discover that vitamin C prevented scurvy. +English sailors discovered that without even knowing it. All they +knew was that that they'd better take some cirtus fruits - lemons, +limes - along with them on long ocean voyages. That's why the +English came to be called "limeys." Science didn't even discover +vitamin C until 1932. + For centuries American Indians treated various aches and +pains with an herbal tea made from white willow bark. It must +have seemed terribly primitive to the doctors who first heard of +it. They were trusting their science the Indians were trusting +nature. But eventually science caught up. Today, synthesized and +refined white willow bark is the basis for what we might call aspirin. + Always, in all cultures, there was what might be called "living +proof" of the medicinal value of plants long before there was scientific +proof - and acceptance. Living proof, of course, is not acceptable +to the scientific community. Not even the testimony of ordinary +individuals sworn to oath, meets the rigorous standards of scientific +proof. But no matter what happens in the scientific world, living +proof will be what passes from person to person and prevents Essiac +from dying out altogether in the modern world. + Rene Caisse's files are filled with letters from people all over +North America testifying to life-saving experiences with Essiac. +Almost 400 people showed up at the Canadian Cancer Commission +hearings in 1939 prepared to be sworn to oath and state that +Essiac saved their lives. + Today, all over Canada and in parts of the U.S., there are +thousands of people who may not know the first thing about +scientific proof, but who may not know that Essiac benefited or even saved +them or someone else they love. For science to deny that there is a +cause and effect relationship between Essiac and the relief of pain +and the regression of cancerous tumors is almost like saying, well, +we can see all those great huge billowing clouds of smoke, but +we haven't been able to determine with cartainy that there is a fire. + While most Americans have never heard of Essiac, the +controversy it inspires has raged in Canada since the 1920's, every +few years in the public glare of the press, and frequently involving +the highest medical, legal, and political circles in Canada. But +always that controversy centered on this one woman who lived, +most of the time, in the tiny village of Bracebridge, Ontario, +Population 9,000 or so. + Rene Cassie was an unlikely figure. She was a skilled +nurse who didn't crave attention or money. " never had $100.00 I +could call my own," she use to laugh with her friends. She didn't +charge a fee for her services. She accepted only voluntary +contributions - in the form of fruits, vegetables, or eggs, as often +as not - from those who could afford to offer them, and she didn't +turn away people who couldn't make any payment at all. + One man, Ted Hale, was so grateful watching his wife recover +from cancer using Essiac that he slipped a $50 bill under a book +on a shelf when he came to pick up another bottle from Rene. +The next time he arrived at her front door , he says, she grabbed +him by the shirt collar, pulled him inside and gave him a piece +of her mind. How dare he leave her that much money? She didn't +like it one bit. He apologized and asked her if she would accept +it as his way of donating for the next people who needed her Essiac +and couldn't afford to leave anything at all. She Finally +relented on those grounds and kept the money, but Ted Hale still +laughs at his own embarrassment when he tells the story ten years later. + Rene Cassie lived her own life in modest circumstances while +rejecting offers of vast sums of money to reveal her formula. She +refused to reveal her formula to people who wanted to help her; +she refused to reveal her formula to powerful institutions that +demanded it before they would consider legitimizing Essiac. +What Rene Cassie wanted was to heal the ill and guarantee the +legalization of Essiac for all, yet her intransigent refusal to budge +from secrecy about the formula cost her - and us - dearly. + She refused to reveal the formula to the Canadian government, +the Memorial Sloan-Kittering Center Cancer Center in New York - the +world's largest private cancer research center - and the National +Cancer Institiute, just to name some of the institutions that +wanted the formula at one time or another. She wouldn't give +them the formula untill they would admit that Essiac had merit +as a treatment for cancer. They refused to admit ant merit until +she gave them the formula. + There were legitimate arguments made on both sides. Rene +was fearful that the medical establishment would either exploit +Essiac, charging exorbitant prices to make a fortune and placing it +beyond the means of the poor, or discredit it and bury it. The +doctors and politicians argued that they couldn't very well accept +the legitimacy of a cancer treatment if they didn't even know +what was in it. The result was a tragic standoff. + We have lost tragic decades of precious research. With hindsight, +it can be argued that Rene Cassie should have given the formula to +anyone, anywhere, at any time, who wanted to have it for any +reason, on the grounds that the more people who have it, the +better chance that the truth will come out. That certainly will be the +position taken in this book. + I am going to release to the public, for the first time, the +formula and the procedure for preparing Essiac. I will explain in +detail at the end of this book how I will do that, and how anyone +who wants that information may have it. + I believe that information should be be in the hands of the public. +People should have the right to make their own decisions about +whether or not they will drink the Essiac tea. People can make it +themselves, if they wish, just the way Rene did. The herbs are +available for less then $50 from any major herbal distributor in +America. There is no mystery about the preparation. It must be +done carefully and accurately - as I will explain - but it finally +comes down to: Put in so much of this herb, so much of that +herb, brew it and drink the tea. + The herbs themselves grow in many regions. Rene use to say +that enough of the herbs grow in Ontario to supply the whole +world. But in revealing the formula, I share one of Rene's deep +fears that played an important role in her refusal to release the +formula until after the governing bodies of medicine and law +would admit that it had merit: Namely, that once the herbs are +publicly identified, these inexpensive and widely available plants +will be placed on the federal "controlled substances" roster - like +some dangerous drug - and suddenly become very difficult - and +illegal - to acquire. + But there's nothing I can do about that. as always, those +decisions are up to the governments. But my decision is to tell +the story of how I came into possession of the formula, place it +before the public and let the people make up their own minds about +what they want to do with it. At least once the formula is in the +public domain, the old argument that was used for so long against +Rene - we can't do proper scientific studies until we know the +formula - will no longer have any validity at all. Sloan-Kettering, +for instance, was telling Rene Cassie at least as late as 1975 that +they would perform more clinical studies on Essiac, if only they +had the formula. Well, now they'll have it. And so will anyone +who wants it. + Rene Cassie was a sweet woman who gave her best and saw +the worst. She was surrounded most of her life with pane and +suffering of others. She lived under siege much of the time, with +a legion of supporters who saw her as a saint and powerful +enemies who wanted her arrested for practicing medicine without +a license. She became so fearful and paranoid about arrest that +she sometimes had to turn away dying people who were pleading +with her to help them. But more often, she found ways to +help the people that came to her, even total strangers who had +nothing to offer her. She said once about her situation: "I was +always just one jump ahead of a policeman. We were right across +the street from the town jail and the keeper use to joke that he +was saving a cell for me." + The blessing of Essiac brought a curse for Rene Cassie: Her +life was never her own. + +---- +end pt1. pt 2 follows, Press Space to Continue + + + + ESSIAC + ^^^^^^ +o Supplies Needed +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ +4 or 5 gallon stainless steel pot +2 gallon stainless steel pot, with lid +Stainless steel fine-mesh double strainer +Stainless steel funnel +Stainless steel spatula +12 or more 16 ounce amber glass bottles + with air tight caps (not childproof caps) +2 gallons of sodium-free distilled water + + o Essiac Formula + ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + 6 1/2 cups burdock root - cut + ( Arctium Lappa ) + 16 oz. sheep sorrel herb - powdered + ( Rumex Acetosella ) + 1 oz. turkey rhubarb root - powdered + ( Rheum Palmatum ) + 4 oz. Slippery elm bark - powdered + ( Ulmus Fulva ) + +o Preparation +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ +1. Mix Essiac formula thoroughly. +2. Bring sodium-free distilled water to a rolling boil in a 5-gallon pot + with lid on. (Approximately 30 minutes at sea level.) +3. Stir in 1 cup of Essiac formula. Replace lid and continue boiling for + 10 minutes. +4. Turn off stove. Scrape down sides of pot with spatula and stir mixture + thoroughly. Replace lid. +5. Allow pot to remain closed for 12 hours; then turn stove to full heat + for 20 minutes. +6. Turn off stove. Strain liquid into 3-gallon pot, and clean 5-gallon pot + and strainer. Then Strain filtered liquid back into 5-gallon pot. +7. Use funnel to pour hot liquid into bottles immediately, taking care to + tighten caps. Allow bottles to cool; then tighten the caps again. +8. Refrigerate. Essiac contains no preservative agents. If mold should + develop in the bottle, discard immediately. + +CAUTION: All bottles and caps must be sterilized after use if you plan to +re-use them for Essiac. Bottle caps must be washed and rinsed thoroughly, +and may be cleaned with a 3% solution of food grade hydrogen peroxide in water. + +o Directions for use +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + Heat four tablespoons [ 2 oz. ] sodium-free distilled water in a +stainless steel pot. Add 4 tablespoons of Essiac ( shake bottle first). +Mix and drink. + Take at bedtime on an empty stomach, at least 2 hours after eating. + + +---- + Pt. 3. + + + Questions regarding recipe and dosage, + information on how to obtain a good source + of herbs, to purchase the whole book. + or other questions, please + contact the author directly. + Dr. Gary L. Glum + c/o Silent Walker Publishing + P.O. Box 92856 + Los Angeles, California 90009 + Phone 310-271-9931 + + + +---- +end pt. 2 and 3 - pt. 4 next, Press Space to Continue + + + This article is from __"Wildfire__Magazine"__ which is published +by The Bear Tribe Medicine Society, P.O. Box 9167, Spokane, +Washington 99209. Phone 509-233-2042. + Reprinted by verbal permission of the publisher. +Please call them for a copy of their magazine and information about +their other programs. + +\\** Essiac: Nature's Cure For Cancer. ** + ** An Interview With Dr. Gary L. Glum, ** + ** By Elisabeth Robinson. ** + ** Wildfire Magazine **\\ + + Notes + In 1988 Dr. Glum Published __"Calling_of_an_Angel"__, the story +of Rene Caisse and Essiac. Two years ago he closed his practice and now +devotes his time to investigative writing. + + Introduction. + Rene Caisse was a nurse living in Canada who for a period of +almost sixty years treated hundreds of people with a herbal remedy she +called Essiac. She discovered this remedy through a patient in the hospital +where she worked who had been cured of cancer. The patient had used a herbal +remedy given her by an Ojibway herbalist. + Rene left the hoispital 1922 at age 33, and went to Bracebridge, +Ontario, Canada where she began administering Essiac to all to all who +came to her. The majority of those whom she treated came on referral +with letters from their physicians certifying they had incurable or +terminal forms of cancer and they had been given up by the medical +profession as untreatable. + Rene began gathering the plants and preparing the herbal remedy +herself in her own kitchen, in a building lent to her from her parents. +She administered Essiac both orally and by injection. In cases where +there were there was severe damage to life support organs, her patients +died - but they lived longer than the medical profession had predicted, and, +more significantly, they lived free of pain. Still others, listed as hopeless +and terminal, but without severe damage to life support organs,were cured +and lived 35-45 years (many are still living). + So startling was the effectiveness of this simple herbal remedy, it +could not be ignored, and the Canadian Ministry of Health and Welfare and the +Parliament became involved, former friends, and greatful families petitioned +Canadian officialdom for Rene's right to administer the remedy to anyone +who asked for it without the threat of interference from authorities. +Fifty-five thousand signatures were collected on the petition. In 1938, +Essiac came within three votes of being legalized by the Ontario government +as a remedy for terminal cancer patients. + The story of Rene Caisse, her life, her work, and the effectiveness +of the remedy she named Essiac, is told in a book Sun Bear received, +__"Calling_of_an_Angel"__, by Dr. Gary L. Glum of Los Angeles. After reading +the book and finding it to be informative, well documented and moving, I +decided to interview Dr. Glum, I verified the basic information in his book +through Canadian sources, one a herbalist who knows of Rene Caisse and her +work and who has personally made and successfully used Essiac. + As I completed conservation with Dr. Glum, he said, "You're opening +a Pandora's Box here, publishing this interview about Essiac." I disagreed, +but began thinking about Pandora's "box." In the story of Pandora most +well-known today, she is sent by the gods to curse humanity for offending +them. + Pandora is given a "box" or container with instructions not to +open it, which the gods know she will disobey. When Pandora dose open the +box, famine, war, plague, disease, pestilence - all the ills of humankind - +are released. Then at the last comes hope, as antidote to despair. + But according to Barbara Walker's Encyclopedia, Pandora - whose +name means "all giving" - was originally an image for Mother Earth. +She had, not a box, but a honey vase like the Cornucopia from which +flowed all life and creativity, as well as death and rebirth - Earth's +gift to her children. Because we are natural beings in a natural world, +it seems appropriate that a simple remedy composed of four common herbs, +gifts of Earth, would suggest so much promise for us today. + + Interview with Dr. Glum. + Elisabeth Robinson: To begin with, Dr Glum, can You tell us a +little about how you became interested in the story you tell in +"Calling Of An Angel", and how you learned about Rene Caisse and her work? + Dr. Gary Glum: A personal friend of mine knew this woman, whose +name I promised not to reveal, who was living in Detroit, Michigan. +Twenty years ago she had been diagnosed with cervical cancer in a +Detroit hospital where she was eventually given up as incurable and +terminal. She was given ten days to live. + She convinced her husband to make a trip to Bridge, Canada +where she went to see Rene Caisse. She was treated with a herbal +remedy developed by Rene - Essiac - and in a short time she didn't +have a cancer cell in her body. So after that time this woman began +dedicating her life to disseminating information about Essiac in the +United States. When I met her, she was the only person in possession of +the original herbal formula who would relinquish it. I got the formula +for Essiac from her. + That's how it began. When I started, all I had was a piece of +paper. I thought, what am I going to do with this? I decided the best way +to go would be to find the information behind Essiac and put it in book +form and bring it to the world. + I learned about Rene Caisse from Mary McPherson who was a very +close personal friend of Rene's... not only a friend but a patient. Mary's +mother and her husband were all treated for cancer and cured by Rene. + Mary worked with Rene beginning in the 1930's and she had in +her possession all the documents that had to do with Essiac over the last +40 years Rene had administered it. All the documents Rene had were +destroyed by the Canadian Ministry of Health & Welfare at the time of +her death in 1978. They burned all that information in fifty-five gallon +drums behind her home. + ------------------- + " Essiac is a + non-toxic herbal + cure for cancer + that's been with + us since 1922." + ------------------- + ER: Why? + GG: Because they don't want this information in the hands of +the public of the press or any body else. The indeed found out what +Essiac was in 1937. The Royal Cancer Commission hearings had then come +to the same conclusions that Rene had - that Essiac was a cure for cancer. + + ER: What is Essiac exactly? + GG: Essiac is a non-toxic herbal cure for cancer that's been here +with us since 1922. It's a formula made from very common herbs. + + RE: I would guess that virtually every person in the U.S. today has +been touched by cancer, either personally or through a loved one. If +this information is true, and the effectiveness of this remedy is actually +medically documented, many lives could be saved. Why do you think the +information on Essiac is not more widely known? + GG: The information is withheld because cancer id the largest +revenue producing business in the world, next to the petrochemical +business. Money and power suppress this truth. + No one has ever sought to cure cancer - only to control it. I +mean, the research institutes, federal governments, pharmaceutical +companies, anybody that has a vested interest in the health care of cancer, +including the American Cancer Society, the Canadian Cancer Society, +any of these so-called benefactors to those who have contracted +this disease - all of these institutions are involved in the money and +power around cancer. These institutions have influence over government and + These institutions have influence over the government and regulatory +agencies over government such as the Food and Drug Administration. The +FDA recommends only allopathic treatment for cancer and other life +threatening disease. It dose not approve or make legal alternative +treatments of any kind. + + ER: You're saying that Essiac is in a position similar to, +for example, laetril. + GG: Yes, the only reason laetril was stopped - and it couldn't be +stopped be stopped any other way - was through the insurance companies. +The insurance companies sent down a directive to all allopathic physicians +stating that they could not cover them in any malpractice suit in the +event they were treating people with any substance not approved by the +Food and Drug Administration. + + ER: In your book you mention that the Brusch Clinic in Massachusetts +worked with Rene Caisse and with Essiac, during the early 1960's. Is this +clinic still doing research with Essiac? + GG: Dr. Charles A. Brusch is not practicing at this time. he was a +personal physician to the late President John F. Kennedy. Dr. Brusch +worked with Rene Caisse from 1959 to 1962. He also worked with the +Presidential Cancer Commission, with others like Dr. Armand Hammer, The +American Cancer Society, and the National Cancer Institute. + Dr. Brusch presented his findings after ten years of research. +He has come to the conclusion that, in his own words, "Essiac is a cure +for cancer, period. All studies done at in the United States and Canada +support this conclusion." + Whereupon the federal government issued a gag order and said +"You've got one of two choices, either you keep quiet about this or +we'll haul you off to military prison and you'll never be heard of again." +So we never heard another word out of him. + Brusch's Essiac patients included Ted Kennedy's son who had a +sarcoma in his leg, and who has his amputated. He was being treated +at that time by the Farber Cancer Institute in Boston, Massachusetts. +Dr. Farber didn't know how to save him, because no one ever lived +with this kind of sarcoma. So what he did was go to Dr. Brusch and say, +how are we going to save Ted Kennedy's son? And Dr. Brusch made the +suggestion to put him on Essiac, and after they did, he didn't have a +cancer cell in his body. But all this information has been hidden +from the general public. + + ER: Why? + GG: As I said, money and power. + + ER: Do you know whether the remedy is being used or tested +anywhere in the U.S. or Canada? + GG: Right now Essiac is being used in every state in the +United States, it's throughout Canada, into Mexico, it's in Australia, +Europe, Asia, and recently, also in Africa. So the message of Essiac is +beginning to make its way world wide. But it's still known only on a very +limited basis. + Of course you also have the problem of herbal companies +distributing throughout the world that are substituting yellow +dock and curly dock for sheep's sorrel, which is one of the critical +ingredients in Essiac. + The sheep's sorrel is the herbal ingredient in Essiac that was +found to be responsible for the destruction of cancer sells in the body, +or their amalgamation where metastasized cancer cells actually return to +the original tumor site. + That research was done by Dr. Chester Stock at Sloan-Kettering +in New York for over a three year period. But when they gathered that +information, they withheld it from the general public - yet they gave +it to the Canadian Ministry of Health & Welfare. The Canadian government +then immediately banned that herb for sale and distribution. + + ER: Banned A weed like Sheep's sorrel? + GG: Yes, sheep's sorrel is just a common weed that grows in +abundance throughout North America and into Canada. Just a common weed. + (note: After this interview was completed, "Wildfire" + learned from an herbalist in Canada that the Canadian + government has recently banned St. John's Wort, also a + common weed frequently used by herbalists.) + + ER: Well, it seems that banning sheep's sorrel would not be very +effective if you could identify it for yourself. + GG: Yes, it's just a question of identifying the plant and then +harvesting it correctly and drying it properly and then putting it +together with the other herbs. + Rene would harvest the sheep's sorrel - Rumex acetosella - when +it was four to six inches high. She would cut it back and it would grow +up again, and she'd cut it back again. She would do this about three times +and then let it go to seed. It will grow 14 or 18 inches. + She would take the herb cuttings and lay them out at room +temperature to dry them. She'd let them sit there for three or four +days before she'd begin turning the herbs. Then she'd turn them every +two days until they were properly dry, which took about ten days to +two weeks. It takes about a bushel of harvested sheep's sorrel to +produce one pound of the dried powdered herb which is used in the formula. + + ER: Do you have the formula? it's not in your book. You +do mention a video in the book. + GG: Yes, I have it. Anyone can get it from me free of charge. +We don't sell the video anymore. We simply mail the formula to anyone +who asks for it. + + ER: Sun Bear told me you had problems getting the book published +and distributed. What kind of problems? + GG: There wasn't a publishing company that would publish it. No +one wanted to run the risk of a wrongful death suit. So I published the +book myself. And as soon as I did, the IRS came in and slapped about a +half a million dollars in tax liens against me and said, "You know +this has nothing to do with taxes. It's all about cancer." They actually +started hauling the pallets of books out of my medical practice and +confiscating them. I also had thousands of books that were confiscated +the Canadian government at customs. I have never received any of those +books back. The only ones that I have now are hidden in storage facilities. + + ER: That's incredible - why do you think they are so interested +in keeping this book out of circulation? + GG: Money and power, as I've said. Cancer is the largest revenue +producing business in the world next to the petrochemical business. In +Canada the book is being held up by the Ministry & Health Welfare because +they say it is "advertising." + + ER: Advertising what? The video that you don't sell any more? + GG: No, A cure for cancer. + + ER: Can you explain what you mean by the publishers' fearing +a wrongful death suit? + GG: What you're dealing with is giving the people a formula +that they can make in the privacy of their own homes without the +approval of the AMA or the FDA or anybody else. If any attorney or +family member should decide, for whatever reason, that the reason +someone else expired was from the use of Essiac, then you are putting +yourself up for a wrongful death suit. The contention is that if it isn't +approved by the Food and Drug Administration, there's no legality in using +it when you are dealing with a life threatening disease. + When Rene Caisse set up her clinical trials in Canada to test +Essiac, she was given government permission to treat terminally ill +cancer patients who had been given up for hopeless by the medical +profession. That was one criteria. Secondly, this was all to be certified +by a pathology report. And third, she could not charge anything for +her services. She agreed to all these criteria with Essiac. Many she +treated were still there to bury her when she died at she 90. + The best that anyone can do is just try to disseminate this this +information to the public and let people make their own choices. That's +all you can do. And just say, look, if you feel that Essiac has value in +your life and the lives of your loved ones, you have the right to make +this remedy and use it in the privacy of your own home and without +anyone's approval. + You know, in 1937 Essiac came within three votes of being legalized +as a treatment for cancer. People had generated over fifty-thousand +signatures on a petition to allow Rene to continue to use Essiac. The +only reason the vote fell short, she found out later, was that the +College of Physicians and Surgeons met and said to Parliament, if you +don't respond to the political pressure and legalize Essiac, Then +we'll take a sincere look and give this woman a fair hearing. So +Parliament didn't legalize Essiac. + So following the Royal Cancer Commission hearings, Rene was +allowed to continue her practice but only within the criteria I mentioned +before, which allowed the Ministry of Health & Welfare to restrict +people's access to Essiac treatments. + I know this because I have a copy of the hearing transcripts +which I got from Mary McPherson, which is the source of some of the +Information that did not get burned when Rene died. + + ER: You mentioned that earlier. What exactly was burned? + GG: All of her research for that 40-year period of time. All the +names, all her clinical data that she had collected. Her files and records. + + ER: What about the records of the Brusch Clinic? It seems these +would be convincing evidence. + GG: As far as I know all that material has been destroyed also. +I knew that Rene had worked with Dr. Brusch from 1959 to 1962, so I +went to Dr. Brusch's home in Cambridge, Massachusetts whereuopn he +delivered to me the only material he had left in his files on Essiac. +One of those files was his own personal file where he had treated and +cured his own cancer with Essiac. I have his personal records. + All the information in my book is verified by a sheet of paper +with a signature and a date on it, and those sheets and signatures are +all originals. They are not copies. + + ER: Have you had any personal experiences with Essiac? + GG: Yes, I can give you an example. He was a twelve-year-old +boy named Toby Wood. He had acute lymphpblastic, which is one of the +most virulent of all leukemias. He had been on chemotherapy for four +years and radiation for three. His mother's only home in life was to +find a cure for him. She went every where. She tried every alternative +treatment. + Her last stop was Dr. Alvazados in Athens, Greece, where her +son's white cell count was 186,000. He had few red blood cells and no +platelets. He was hemorrhaging to death. So they transfused Toby in +Greece and put him on a plane to Alaska where he was given less than +five days to live. + I met his mother's sister in Los Angeles while I was putting +the book together and she asked if there was any credibility here. We +sat down and talked. She then borrowed the money for a flight to +Anchorage, and delivered a bottle of Essiac. By the time she got there +Toby was given three days to live. He was in a state of complete +deterioation. He was given the Essiac and all the hemorrhaging stopped +within 24 hours. Within three months all of his blood tests were normal. +I arrived in Alaska later that year and met with him. + Toby Wood did die, and we finally found a pathologist who would +do an exhaustive autopsy. We knew that he didn't have leukemia any more. +We wanted to find out what was the cause of death It took four months +to get the report back. The pathologist autopsied the brain, testicles, +and all life support organs, including the bone marrow. No blast cells +were found in any support organ. There were a few stray cells in the +testicles and the brain. Cause of death was damage to the myocardial +sac of the heart, a result of the chemotherapy. + This was the first report anywhere in medical history history +of anyone surviving lymphoblastic leukemia. That information was taken +to AP and UPI but they said it was not newsworthy. + Our information on Essiac has been sent around the world twice +through a Publisher's Weekly magazine in a huge two-page ad. We received +no responses from any publishing company worldwide, no producers, no +talk show programs, none of that. We can't access the media. + In fact we talked to Philip Scheffler, producer of 60 Minutes. +He read the book and we called him to ask what he was going to do about. +He said nothing. I said, all the information in the book is verifiable. +In other words, the truth. I said, if you're 60 Minutes why don't you +expose me and Essiac as a fraud. He said, nope, can't do it. + We took it to Joe Donally who's the executive news producer for +ABC in New York. We said why not give it to Peter Jennings, +Geraldo Rivera, Ted Koppel, one of those. He said nope. We asked why +not. He said because his phone lines would be invaded with 65,00 phone +calls. We said, how sympathetic do you think a parent whose child +is dying of leukemia, would be to your 65,000 phone calls. He went on to +say he's got a mortgage on his house and he's looking towards retirement. +SO that's the problem. no one wants this information disseminated. +And it's not just the media, either. It includes the herbal companies +who are now substituting the curly dock for sheep's sorrel, So people +are getting the wrong ingredients for Essiac, not to mention the five +or six other formulas that are circulating which are different from +the ones I send out. These false formulas are being disseminated. There +is a disinformation campaign going on here, somehow. + + ER: Has this disinformation campaign started just since your +book has been out? + GG: Previous to my book, none of this information was available +to the general public at all. The public had no information outside of a +few assorted articles. Certainly the Essiac formula was not available +to the general public at all. All that information was held by the +Resperin Corporation in Toronto, Canada, which supposedly is a +private institution. + However, they work hand in glove with the Canadian Ministry +of Health & Welfare, who works directly with the American Food and +Drug Administration and the National Cancer Institute in Bethesda, +Maryland. The Essiac Formula was never given to anyone by Resperin. + + ER: Did the Resperin Corporation do any research on Essiac? + GG: They've done research since 1978 when the formula was +relinquished to them by Rene for the purchase price of one dollar. +As soon as they got the formula, they told rene they had no further +use for her. She had been under the distinct impression from the +Ministry of Health & Welfare and the Resperin Corporation that she +was to lead the research activities that they so desperately wanted +to put together. + But Rene had already done clinical trials. She had names +and records. she thought the Resperin Coporation was politically +powerful and had money enough to get Essiac in to the public sector +without compromising her values. Then she found out the Corporation +was working closely with the government and administration and the +Ministry of Health & Welfare. + So now people who were terminally ill and given up as +hopeless had to go through a federal bereaucratic maze to get the +remedy. By then it was too late. But even when people were cured, +that information was not released to the public. + Resperin ran research tests in Essiac. One test was conducted +in Northern Canada and the documents were falsified. For example, +one man was listed as dead who a few months later knocked on Rene's door +and said, you know I want to thank you for the Essiac and being part of +the experimental program. Yet he was listed as dead in the research +project findings. + + ER: It's beginning to sound amazing to me that any information +at all about this remedy has survived the "conspiracy of silence" or +outright destruction of records and so on. + GG: The only Essiac is known is by word of mouth and because +Essiac is what it is. What will keep Essiac known is its effectiveness. +Rene said it years ago. She said, look, if Essiac dosen't have any merit +let me put it out there. If it dosen't have merit, it will kill itself. +Of course she knew full well if people has the correct herbs, the remedy +would stand on its own. And that is exactly what Essiac has done over this +period of time that we've been disseminating the information. + Rene also found that Essiac was a strong preventive. These findings +were substantiated by Dr. Albert Schatz at Temple University who +discovered the cure for tuberulosis. + Rene also found that Essiac would normalize the thyriod gland. +My wife was on two grains of thyriod since the sixth grade. After I +met her, she started taking Essiac, and she hasn't taken a thyroid since. + Rene also found that Essiac would heal stomach ulcers within +three or four weeks. She felt that ulcers were a precursor to cancer. + Sir Fredrick Banting, the co-discoverer if insulin, wanted to +work with Rene. She has clinical cases where a person on insulin +discontinued it with the essiac, since no one knew how Essiac would +interact with the insulin. Apparently Essiac regulated the pancreas in +cases of diabetes mellitus. So these people then became insulin-free. + Another thing I've found with Essiac is that I've experienced +almost perfect health. As you get older you think, I'm forty now, +these things happen. Well, these things don't have to happen. Since +I've taken Essiac, I've experienced almost perfect health. It's amazing. I +sleep like a baby, have all kinds of energy, and no sickness, not even a +cold or flu. + I also worked with the AIDS Project in Los Angeles through +their Long Beach and San Pedro districts. They sent 179 patients home to +die. They all had pneumocystis carinii and histoplasmosis. Their +weight was down to about 100 pounds. Their T-4 cell counts were +less then ten. The Project gave me five of these patients. I took them +off the AZT and the DDI and put them on Essiac three times a day. +Those are the only ones alive today. The other 174 are dead. + + ER: That is incredible - but what kind of lives are they +leading today? + GG: They're exercising three times a day, eating three meals +a day. Their weight is back to normal. For all intents and purposes you +wouldn't know that they were sick. But this information is not +being disseminated either, because AIDS is on the horizon as another +big money maker. The chairman of the AIDS Project makes over $100,000.00 +a year. + Even the alternative health care professionals are out there +to control, not to cure. Alternative medical practice is just as +mercenary and deceptive as the allopathic. No one wants a cure for +cancer or AIDS. + ----------------------- + Nationwide in the water + we drink over 2,100 + organic and inorganic + chemicals have been identified, + and 156 of them are pure carcinogens. + ------------------------------------- + The alternative people are also in it for the money. What you're +finding with Essiac is that it is not even allowed into the arenas of +alternative health care. So what you've got out here is people +continually perpetrating these lies against mankind. For money. For +money and power. It's that simple. + Really once you think about it, the only reason we don't have +solar power is that no one figured out a way to sell Exxon the sun. it's +true. If they could, you'd have solar power, You know you'd have it. + + ER: So, in your own personal experience, this herbal remedy works +to - I'm going to just quote you here and say "cure" - cancer, thyroid +conditions, diabetes, AIDS, ulcers... + GG: It also cures the common cold. Essiac elevates the immune +system. I've been taking an ounce a day for seven years, and in seven +years I haven't had a cold, flu, or virus. + + ER: And all of this from a simple Native herbal remedy? + GG: Yes. Although Rene did alter it. She altered it with Turkish +rhubarb root (Rheum palmatum). Turkish rhubarb has a 5,000 year +history. It actually came up from India into China and then was +taken by the British. + + ER: Turkish rhubarb root is not native in this country, +more available here. Herbals from foreign countries are fumigated and +irradiated, so is it a good idea to use the Turkish rhubarb? + GG: You can subsitute rhubarb root. The other two ingredients +are burdock root (Arctium lappa) and the inner bark of the slippery +elm (Ulmus fulva). They are easy to obtain, usally. Sheep's sorrel, +Rumex acetosella, is what destroys the cancer cells. The other three +herbs are blood purifiers. + Essiac elevates the enzyme system and gives all cancer patients +and all AIDS patients the enzymes that have been destroyed. Essiac +elevates the enzyme system; it elevates the hormone system, which +elevates the immune system, so the body can cure its own disease. + + ER: What about the quantities? Some herbal are toxic. + GG: Even its worst enemy could never lay claim that Essiac +had any deletrious side effects whatever. You can take Essiac safely, +through all the clinical trials that have been done, up to six ounces +a day. That's two ounces in the evening, two in the morning, and two +around noontime. That's a high dosage. Rene had the correct herbs and +she used as little as one ounce a week. + But look at the difference between then and now. The food +didn't have carcinogens in it, and neither did the water, nor the air. +So that have we done? We've killed the air, killed the water, killed +the food. So what's left? + Nationwide in the water we drink, over 2,100 organic and inorganic +chemicals have been identified, and 156 of them are pure carcinogens. +Of those, if you have a tumor, 26 are tumor promoting, so they make the +tumor larger. But of course this information is not available to the +public either. Those figures are from tests conducted by the Environmental +Protection Agency which have never been distributed to the public. + + ER: How did you get the information? + GG: From a Ralph Nader organization out of Washington D.C. +The media has not disseminated this information. Another problem is +that very few people read books any more. We can only hope they'll read +Calling of an Angel. Of coarse, the problem right now is people getting +the right herbs. + + ER: Anything you'd like to add before we close this interview? + GG: I would like to say that I didn't do all this research because +I feel I have a responsibility to other people. I did because I have a +responsibility to myself. I know that I've done all I can to disseminate +this information and bring it to the people. + I was the first person to release this information on Essiac, +how to make it, to the general public and say, here it is, here's the +formula, here's the story. So now the story is out there and look what's +happening -- it's getting killed through a disinformation campaign. I mean +Harvard, Temple, Tufts, Northwestern University, Chicago -- all these +institutions have tested Essiac with the right stuff, and they all came +to the same conclusions as Rene Caisse. But all that information has been +buried. + + ER: Gary, it's been very interesting to speak with you. + GG: It's been a pleasure. You're opening a Pandora's Box, +you know publishing this interview. + + ER: I think you're the one who's done that. Would you tell +people how to get your book and the information on Essiac? + GG: They simply call me in California at 310-271-9931. +The book is $35.00. The formula is free. + + * * * * * * * * * + In july 1991, the Canadian Journal of Herbalism published +an article, "Old Ontario Remedies," +about Essiac. The article gives specific information on the ingredients +of Essiac and includes descriptions of the herbs. Sheep's sorrel, +for example, is a folk remedy for tumors. + The article also warns of high oxalic acid content in two +of the herbs making the remedy unsafe for persons with kidney ailments +or arthritic conditions. + This article concludes: "Essiac is not a hoax or fraud. +To hear experiences described by the patients themselves cannot help +but convince observers that dramatic and beneficial changes definitely +took place in many but not all those who received the remedy. +Allthough the focus on Essiac has been as a cancer treatment. +It alleviated and sometimes cured many chronic and degenerative +conditions because it cleanses the blood as well as the liver and +strengthens the immune system." + Write: Ontario Herbalists Association, M.J. Pimentel MH, 7 +Alpine Ave., Toronto, Ontario, Canada M6P-3R6 for information +on obtaining a copy of the july 1991 issue, Vol xii, No iii of the +Canadian Journal of Herbalism. + +--- +End Of Posting. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/evolve.cat b/textfiles.com/science/evolve.cat new file mode 100644 index 00000000..83c1de0c --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/evolve.cat @@ -0,0 +1,672 @@ + + + + THE MAKING OF THE CAT + + R. Roger Breton + Nancy J Creek + + ------------------------------ + + Soup or Sandwich + + IN THE VERY BEGINNING, about 4.6 billion years ago (give or take a few + years), a small ball of rock, water and gas had come to be and immedi- + ately set about the process of combining its atoms into more and more + complex arrangements. Thus began that most wondrous story, the evolu- + tion of life on Earth. + + For the first 2.1 billion years of the Earth's existence, the Archeo- + zoic Era, life very slowly evolved. The Earth's crust was still in + flux and covered for the most part by shallow seas. The atmosphere + was composed primarily of methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide and water + vapor. From these primitive chemicals life evolved. There are two + primary schools of thought on the processes involved: the "soup" + theory and the "sandwich" theory. + + According to the more-popular soup theory, chemical evolution first + took place in the upper atmosphere, where ultraviolet radiation from + the sun could generate an assortment of simple and complex organic + (carbon-based) molecules out of the basic components of the atmos- + phere. As these molecules slowly rained into the early oceans, a kind + of primordial soup was created. Via the ultraviolet radiation, light- + ning, volcanic action, and other forms of heat and energy, this soup + was able to slowly combine the organic molecules into ever more com- + plex forms: first simple amino acids, then organic macromolecules, + then single-strand RNA molecules, and finally simple viruses. + + The only trouble with the soup theory is that is almost definitely + wrong! The time required for it to work is statistically greater than + the lifetime of the Earth. The time is only statistically greater, + however, and anything is possible... + + Various explanations have been put forth to account for this time + discrepancy. The most popular of these is the seeding of the early + seas by organic molecules from space. This seeding could have been + either through organic molecules present in the original formation of + the Earth, or from later bombardment by meteors or more likely comets + containing the organic compounds (a cosmic soup mix). None of the + compensatory theories put forth are very likely, however. + + This brings us to the sandwich theory. The sandwich theory states + that complex organic molecules formed on the surface of undersea + crystalline rocks, such as those surrounding volcanic vents. The name + "sandwich theory" comes about because the active area is sandwiched + between the sea and the rock. Besides, what scientist could resist + the "soup and sandwich" pun! + + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + The Making of the Cat Page 1 + + + + Free-floating molecules in the water tend to cling to smooth surfaces. + This surface effect allows various molecules to gather in one place. + Ultraviolet energy from the sun or, more likely, heat from volcanic + vents, would allow this gathering of simple molecules to combine into + more complex organic molecules rather easily. Some of the simplest + organic molecules are scums, easily formed on flat surfaces, which + themselves are sticky and gather more simple molecules. + + Within these scums, ever more complex molecules are easily formed. + These more complex molecules tend to be three-dimensional, and bulge + outward from the rock surfaces. This allows them to be easily washed + away by the sea, forming a primordial soup not of basic simple mole- + cules, but of the far more complex and already evolved RNA macromole- + cules and possibly even viruses. + + Viruses are fundamentally RNA and amino-acid conglomerates with many + life-like properties. Although it is open to debate as to whether or + not they are themselves alive, viruses are definitely right on the + edge: simpler things are clearly not alive, while more complex things + clearly are. + + One aspect of the sandwich theory is that at undersea volcanic vents + today life may still be evolving from basic components! This exciting + possibility is being carefully investigated and holds great promise + for the future. + + The Great Pollution + + After the virus, life was off and running. During the next 500 mil- + lion or so years, viruses evolved into simple prokaryotes, single- + celled living beings without a cellular nucleus. In this case, blue- + green algae, the first plants. This marked the beginning of the + Proterozoic Era, about 2.5 billion years ago. Blue-green algae + are blue-green because they possess that truly wondrous molecule, + chlorophyll. It is chlorophyll which makes possible the production of + food directly from sunlight and the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. + This is the process of photosynthesis. + + A side-effect of photosynthesis is the generation of free oxygen as a + waste product. Free oxygen combined with itself and the methane and + ammonia in the atmosphere to form ozone, water, free nitrogen, and + more carbon dioxide. Over the next billion years, blue-green algae + polluted the Earth with enough free oxygen to completely change the + entire chemistry of the world. Gone was the pristine methane, ammo- + nia, and carbon-dioxide early atmosphere, to be replaced by a corro- + sive mixture of free nitrogen and free oxygen, surrounded by a thin + layer of ozone. + + It is this corrosive nitrogen/oxygen atmosphere that allowed the + evolution, about 1.5 billion years ago, of chlorophyll-less creatures + such as bacteria and protozoans. These creatures were active, like + the oxygen they consumed. They preyed on the algae (and each other) + for food, and were the first animals: very early proto-cats. + + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + The Making of the Cat Page 2 + + + + The production of free oxygen also altered the structure of the very + rocks themselves, causing a slow but radical geologic change. + + Blueprints + + Protozoans are eukaryotes (cells with a central nucleus). The secret + of all but the simplest lifeforms is locked in that nucleus: the + chromosome. + + Virtually all living things have several different chromosomes in each + cell. These chromosomes comprise a set, which is itself a blueprint. + In a multi-celled creature, each cell contains an identical set of + chromosomes. A cat, for example, has 38 chromosomes per set, with an + identical set in each and every cell, except sex cells. Each cell of + a cat contains within itself the code for the complete cat. + + A chromosome is itself composed primarily of a thin protein membrane + enclosing a bit of water and a single molecule of DNA (deoxyribonu- + cleic acid). The DNA molecule is composed of two long strands wound + around each other in a double helix (like two intertwined springs), + with each component of a strand connected to the opposite strand by a + crossbar or rung. If the double helix were laid flat, DNA would be + ladder-like in appearance. + + The evolution and concept of DNA is awesome in its potential, and awe- + inspiring in its simplicity and beauty. There are only six simple + compounds that go together to make up DNA, phosphate and deoxyribose + alternate to form the helixes while four amino acids make up the + rungs. + + It is not the number of differing compounds that provide the secret of + DNA's success, but rather the number of rungs in the ladder (uncounted + millions) and the order of the amino acids that make up the rungs. + The four different amino acids are arranged in groups of three, form- + ing a 64-letter alphabet. This alphabet is used to compose words of + varying length, each of which is a gene (one particular letter is + always used to indicate the start of a gene). Each gene controls the + development of a specific characteristic of the lifeform. There is an + all-but-infinite number of possible genes. As a result, the DNA of a + lifeform contains its blueprint, no two alike, and the variety and + numbers of possible lifeforms has even today barely begun. + + Sex + + There was a small problem with evolution up to this time: it was + asexual. A cell multiplies by dividing! That is, once it has accumu- + lated enough material to make another cell, it does--by dividing in + half. This process is called mitosis. + + In highly simplified form, when a cell undergoes mitosis, its chromo- + somes duplicate, move to opposite sides, and the cell divides in two. + Each daughter cell is an exact copy of the parent cell, barring muta- + tions. + + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + The Making of the Cat Page 3 + + + + Since evolution depends upon change, asexual evolution is wholly + dependent upon random mutation, and thus very slow. It took almost 4 + billion years, about 85% of the Earth's existence so far, to evolve up + to the complexity of protozoans. What was needed was a means of + speeding up the process. What was needed was sex! + + At first, sex had nothing to do with reproduction, not directly, + anyway. The protozoans would get together, merge, swap a few genes, + the separate and go their ways. This chromosome-swapping allowed them + to pass around and share an advantageous characteristic. + + In order for the sexual merge to occur efficiently, the concept of a + double chromosome evolved. In this form, chromosomes are doubled and + paired. This gives each lifeform two of each chromosome (so far), and + hence two of each gene. Thus, after a sexual encounter, a protozoan + had two of any given gene. They may both be the genes it originally + possessed, both be the genes the other protozoan possessed, or one of + each. If, due to a mutation somewhere along the line, one of a pair + of genes had a slightly different code than the other, the protozoan + would assume the characteristics of the dominant gene (unless they are + identical, one gene is always dominant over the other). It would, + however, keep the recessive gene, and may pass it on (or not) at its + next encounter. The tendency is then for dominant genes to quickly + spread through a community. + + This effect was clearly demonstrated in a recent experiment wherein a + small group of a penicillin-resistant strain of the bacterium gonococ- + cus was merged with a much larger group of normal gonococci. After a + short while, all bacteria in the test were penicillin-resistant. The + bacteria had sexually interfaced and shared the genes that contributed + to penicillin resistance. + + After the discovery of sex, the protozoans would occasionally merge + and share protoplasm. They would then separate and go their individu- + al ways, reproducing asexually. + + At some point in time, a mutation occurred in which a cell would + divide not into two daughter cells, but into four half-cells, or + gametes. Each of these gametes contained half of each pair of chromo- + somes, comprising a half-set. The urge to merge was all powerful, and + quickly carried out. The mutation, however, was dominant. As a + result, so a whole colony of protozoans was dividing into gametes, a + process call meiosis, and quickly merging in a mix and match fashion. + + Sexes + + Over the next 200 million years, the protozoans evolved into cellular + colonies, the porifera. Porifera, such as today's sponges, are truly + colonies, with each cell essentially the same as every other. No + cellular specialization took place. + + Eventually, some cells started specializing in locomotion while others + specialized in food gathering, and so forth. This lead to the evolu- + tion of the coelenterates, with different cells performing different + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + The Making of the Cat Page 4 + + + + tasks. Today's jellyfish are coelenterates. + + With this complexity, there could no longer be a simple random merg- + ing. All this specialization required that some cells spend their + time reproducing not themselves, but the creature as a whole. These + cells must, then, carry the genetic code for the entire creature. + Since the new creature produced by a division and merging would start + as the merger of two gametes, hence a single cell, it follows then + that all cells in a creature must contain the entire genetic code for + the creature. This is indeed the case. + + Those cells that specialized in reproduction must produce gametes that + attract each other. If all were identical, there would be minimal + attraction, so the concept of opposites arose. The gametes became + divided into two groups: sperm (male), and eggs (female). + + If there are opposite gametes, there are opposite reproductive organs + to produce them. Voila, male and female creatures. This proved + to be so efficient at mixing the gene pool that it became a survival + characteristic. Those species had the greatest urge to merge sur- + vived, and elaborate and downright peculiar means have evolved to + ensure the urge to merge. Sexual reproduction has been the norm for + virtually all species more sophisticated than a bacterium ever since. + + In the Sea + + Since the great pollution, everything ate everything. Except the + algae, who were (and still are) the bottom of the food chain: every- + thing ate algae, directly or indirectly. + + About 570 million years ago, some critters became tired of being + eaten, and decided (so to speak) to do something about it. Hard parts + evolved, most noticeably shells, and the Paleozoic era began. + + The first things to evolve shells were, not surprisingly, mollusks. + They shared the oceans of their day with a grand assortment of cepha- + lopods (head-footed creatures, such as squid and octopi), arthropods + (jointed-footed creatures, such as lobsters), annelids (worms), and + echinoderms (spiny-skinned creatures, such as starfish). All of these + forms survive today, though specific creatures don't. + + The evolution of the annelids and echinoderms was soon followed by the + first primitive chordates (creatures with a central nervous system). + The central nervous system allowed co-ordination between the various + parts of the body by channeling their neurological signals through a + central organ, the brain. + + By 500 million years ago, the early chordates had become vertebrates + (creatures with skeletons, although of cartilage and not bone) had + evolved. Primitive jawless fish swam the seas. Current examples of + jawless fish include the lamprey. + + Cartilage evolved into bone, and led to the evolution of osteichthyes, + the first bony fish. Most of today's fish are bony, though there are + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + The Making of the Cat Page 5 + + + + still some cartilaginous fish around, such as sharks. + + Some 405 million years ago, two significant events occurred. The + obvious event was a sudden proliferation in the number of fish--fish + became the dominant lifeform in the sea. A more significant but + quieter revolution was also taking place: the plants were invading + land, rapidly changing rock and sand into topsoil, and laying the + paths the animals would later follow. + + Ferns evolved shortly thereafter, and were present to greet the ani- + mals as they left the sea. These animals were arthropods: scorpions, + spiders, and bugs. Arthropods still outnumber all other species of + land animal life except the microscopic. + + Of concern to us at this time is the evolution 370 million years ago + of rhipidistan, the first lungfish, which were the direct ancestors of + all higher forms of life: amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. + These early lungfish lived in the coastal bogs and estuaries, occa- + sionally venturing onto land for brief periods. + + On the Land + + By 345 million years ago, rhipidistan had evolved into eogyrinus, the + first amphibian and a true land animal. The vertebrates had invaded + the land. Amphibians were still tied to the water, however. Their + eggs had no shells, and had to be laid underwater. The young were + (and still are) born with gills, which they lost as they reached + adulthood. + + About 290 million years ago, a creature called eosuchian learned the + trick of enclosing its eggs in a calcium shell: the first reptile had + evolved. Unlike amphibians, young reptiles did not have gills and did + not require standing water. They soon developed scales to preserve + body moisture as well. + + The Paleozoic era came to an abrupt end some 230 million years ago. + Most of the marine invertebrates, fish, amphibians, early reptiles, + and everything else vanished. The first Great Dying had occurred. + + Great Dyings + + The history of the Earth is punctuated with many Dyings and two (maybe + three) Great Dyings. In a Dying, vast numbers of species vanish + suddenly (geologically speaking) over a wide area. In a Great Dying, + this area is world wide. Such an occurrence leaves uncounted ecologi- + cal niches empty: those species that do survive the Dying are then + presented with an opportunity to undergo rapid radial evolution, a + phenomenon wherein each surviving species quickly evolves to fill as + many ecological niches as possible. + + The reasons behind the Dyings are not clearly understood. Possibili- + ties include asteroid impact, climatological change, volcanic activi- + ty, and disease. Whatever the causes, their occurrence is clearly + established. + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + The Making of the Cat Page 6 + + + + + Two (three) Great Dyings occurred in Earth's history. The Permian + Great Dying, 230 million years ago, terminated the Permian period and + the Paleozoic era. The Cretacious Great Dying, 65 million years ago, + terminated the Cretacious period and the Mesozoic era, and brought + about the demise of the dinosaurs. Both these Great Dyings are gener- + ally believed to be the result of asteroid impact, though other expla- + nations are possible. The argumentative Quaternary Great Dying is + currently underway, and promises to destroy the greatest number of + species of any Great Dying. Its cause is man. + + Reptiles + + The Mesozoic era had begun. The surviving eosucians evolved into the + anapsids. + + The early anapsids had an interesting problem to face: body heat. + Coincident with the Permian Great Dying (possibly caused by the same + event) the climate became cooler. Being cold blooded, the anapsids + would assume a body temperature about the same as that of the sur- + rounding air. This meant that they simply couldn't get their motors + turning over on a cold morning. They solved this problem through + solar power. + + By evolving huge fins on their backs, they could position themselves + broadside to the sun on a cold day and absorb large quantities of + solar energy. Once they were warm enough, they could then face to- + wards or away from the sun. One can see several drawbacks to this + scheme: cloudy days, strong winds, etc. These sail-backed reptiles + are often depicted in grade-B monster movies by gluing a fan to the + back of an iguana. + + As a dominant group, the anapsids were short-lived, surviving today + only as the turtles and tortoises. They evolved into four other + reptile groups: the diapsids, which became the dinosaurs, pterosaurs, + lizards, snakes, tuatara, crocodiles, /alligators, and birds; the + euryapsids, which became the plesiosaurs; the parapsids, which became + the ichthyosaurs; and the synapsids. The dinosaurs, pterosaurs, + plesiosaurs, and ichthyosaurs are all extinct (except for Nessie, the + Loch-Ness Monster, a lone surviving plesiosaur [if you are a believer, + that is]). The lizards, snakes, tuatara, crocodiles, alligators, and + birds are still with us. + + Mammals + + The final group of Mesozoic reptiles, the synapsids, would not normal- + ly have attracted attention. They were small inconspicuous quadrupeds + with only one claim to fame: they developed mammalian characteris- + tics. One group, the theriodonts, became the ancestor of all mammals. + As reptiles, the synapsids became extinct 170 million years ago. + + About 225 million years ago, the theriodonts evolved into the panto- + theres, the first monotremes. The first monotremes were small, insec- + tivorous, shrew-like creatures about 6 inches long. + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + The Making of the Cat Page 7 + + + + + Monotremes are mammals, but barely so, and survive today only as the + platypus and the echidna found in Australia and New Guinea. They have + very poor internal temperature control, being only somewhat warmblood- + ed, are the only mammals to produce venom, are the only mammals to lay + eggs, and, though milk-producing, are the only mammals without teats + the milk is secreted directly though the skin and lapped by the + young). + + About 200 million years ago, the pantotheres evolved into metatheres, + the first marsupials. Unlike a monotreme, which lays eggs, a marsupi- + al gives birth to live young. These young are very premature, and + must crawl into a marsupium (pouch) where they attach themselves to + teats and receive nourishment while they continue to develop towards + self-sufficiency. The kangaroo and opossum, among others, are today's + surviving marsupials. The first marsupials were not much different in + appearance from their monotreme forebears, being shrew-like in appear- + ance and about 6-8 inches long. + + With marsupialism, a mother no longer had to provide all the early + nourishment for her young in the yolk of an egg, but could nourish her + young as she herself was nourished--sort of child-bearing on time + payments. The young also had the advantage of being able to flee + danger, via mom's legs, whereas an egg is easy prey. + + Good as marsupialism is, it still exposes the young to the world when + they are most vulnerable: a new-born marsupial is little more than an + embryo, (a newborn opossum is about the size of a bee, a kangaroo a + little over an inch long). This problem was corrected by the evolu- + tion of the metatheres into eutheres, the placentals, about 100-80 + million years ago, in the northern hemisphere. + + The placenta is a complex organ allowing nutrients in the mother's + bloodstream to be passed to the fetus' bloodstream, with waste + products passed in the reverse direction, while not allowing a direct + connection between the bloodstreams. The placenta of a marsupial is + very primitive and inefficient, hence the premature birth, whereas + that of the placentals is a truly wondrous organ. The young could now + remain within the mother's womb, receiving nourishment directly from + her, until relatively well developed and more ready to face life. + + The marsupials and placentals were both drastic improvements over the + monotremes, and seemed to have divided the planet between them: for a + while marsupials dominated the southern hemisphere while placentals + dominated the northern. As the placentals grew more numerous they + gradually forced out the less-efficient marsupials: Today, the only + significant marsupials left worldwide are the opossums, which survive + because they are so fecund. + + The dominance of placentals is firmly established except in Australia + and a few surrounding islands, which had broken from the Asian conti- + nent after the marsupials had dominated the south but before the + placentals had spread down from the north. In pre-colonial Australia + marsupials were to be found in all the mammalian ecological niches + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + The Making of the Cat Page 8 + + + + (there is even a marsupial "cat") except for the aborigines (who + arrived by boat), the dingos (wild dogs, which arrived with the abo- + rigines), the bats (which flew in), and the surviving monotremes + (which defy logic all around). Modern man has introduced many other + species of placental, most notably the rabbit and the mongoose, and + the long-delayed marsupial/placental struggle is now taking place in + Australia, with the marsupials losing. + + Near Cats + + The Cretaceous Period and the Mesozoic era came to an abrupt halt with + the Cretaceous Great Dying, 65 million years ago. Suddenly, the Earth + finds itself with virtually all of its dominant species wiped out: no + more dinosaurs, pterosaurs, or plesiosaurs [Nessie?], and very little + of anything else. The Cenozoic era had arrived. + + Of those few creatures which survived the Cretaceous Great Dying, one + was a small, active, adaptable, shrew-like euthere, about 7-8 inches + long, who then experienced rapid radial evolution. By 60 million + years ago one of its many newly-evolved descendants was miacis, who + ate flesh and was among the first truly carnivorous mammals. + + Miacis was somewhat martin-like in appearance. His distinguishing + characteristic was his teeth, which set the basis for all modern + carnivores. He had a dental plan with incisors, canines, premolars, + carnassials, and molars in each jaw. The carnassials were a new + invention, being designed specifically for the cutting of flesh in a + scissor-like action. Modern cats and dogs have carnassials, humans do + not. These advanced teeth were fundamental in the demise of other + predators, allowing him to make more kills and to better digest his + prey, both of which meant more and larger miacids and fewer others. + + Miacis was a short-term creature, quickly evolving under the pressure + of competition into several different miacids, each of which went on + to become a differing type of carnivore. By 45 million years ago, one + of these differing creatures was profelis, the forerunner of all cats. + + By 40 million years ago profelis had evolved into hoplophoneus and + dinictis. The primary differences between hoplophoneus and dinictis + were in jaw structure. In hoplophoneus the upper canines increased + drastically in length to become stabbing weapons, with corresponding + changes in the jaw hinge to allow the mouth to open extra widely. In + dinictis the upper and lower canines became more balanced and the jaw + hinge developed more muscle. Both were halfway between a cat and a + civit in appearance, long in the body and tail, short in the legs; + both had definitely cat-like heads; and both were plantigrade: modern + cats are digitigrade and walk on their toes, good for running, while + people are plantigrade and walk upon their whole foot, good for stand- + ing. + + About 25 million years ago, hoplophoneus had evolved into smilodon, + the famous saber-toothed tiger. Smilodon was definitely a cat in + appearance, walking upon his toes and all, but had a somewhat flat- + tened head with a small brain pan (he wasn't very bright). Smilodon + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + The Making of the Cat Page 9 + + + + was the end of his line, and vanished some 12,000 years ago. + The exaggerated tooth structure of the hoplophoneans and especially + smilodon was a response to the evolution of the titanotheres, the + giant mammals of the early Cenozoic. These animals were huge, with + correspondingly thick and/or shaggy coats, which the dagger-like + canines of the saber-toothed tiger could pierce to deliver a killing + blow. The largest of the titanotheres, and the largest land mammal + ever, was the ground sloth baluchitherium, which stood 18 feet at the + shoulder (the height of a tall giraffe), and whose head reached 26 + feet off the ground. + + Real Cats + + While hoplophoneus was evolving into smilodon, dinictis was also + evolving. Dinictis itself had one seemingly trivial, but really very + fundamental characteristic: it had three eyelids. Modern cats, and + many related species, have three eyelids, the third being the haw, or + nictitating membrane. + + Dinictis evolved into pseudailurus, which was definitely a cat in + appearance, not too different from some of the more extreme species of + modern cats. Its teeth were identical in structure to those of the + modern cat and it was digitigrade, walking on its toes (though not + quite as well as the modern cat), but it still had a small brain pan. + + Some 18 million years ago, the oldest of the modern genera of cats + evolved from pseudailurus: acinonyx. The modern cheetah is the only + species of acinonyx surviving today and is actually little changed + from its early ancestors. Some 12 million years ago, pseudailurus + had evolved into felis, the modern lesser cats. Two of the first + modern cats to appear were felis lunensis, Martelli's cat, and felis + manul, Pallas' cat. These cats had larger brains, surprisingly human- + like in structure, and were in all ways true modern cats. Martelli's + Cat has become extinct, but Pallas' Cat is still very much with us, + the oldest living species of genus felis. + + By 3 million years ago, the last of the modern genera of cats evolved, + panthera, the greater or roaring cats, to which the tigers, lions, + leopards and their kin belong. + + Somewhere between the First and Second Ice Ages, 900,000 to 600,000 + years ago, a very special cat, felis sylvestris, made its appearance, + and is still with us as the European Wildcat. During the Second Ice + Age, the glaciers moved down from the north, driving him southward. + At the same time, the Mediterranean and Black Seas were greatly re- + duced in size, providing many land bridges to the south into Africa + and to the east around the foot of the Urals into Asia, allowing him + to extend his domain into those regions. + + As the ice receded the seas rose and the climates changed, the immi- + grant species became isolated from each other by water, deserts, and + mountains. Over time, those species of wildcat isolated in Africa + became the Sand Cat, the African Wildcat, the Forest Cat, and the + Black-Footed Cat, while the Asian version became the Chinese Desert + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + The Making of the Cat Page 10 + + + + Cat. There were, of course, several other subspecies that, for one + reason or another, didn't survive the changing landscape and climate. + + One of felis sylvestris' many offshoots was felis lybica, the African + Wildcat. He is still with us, but, more importantly, he is the imme- + diate and primary ancestor of all domestic cats. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + The Making of the Cat Page 11 +  \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/evolve.cht b/textfiles.com/science/evolve.cht new file mode 100644 index 00000000..9dead35d --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/evolve.cht @@ -0,0 +1,276 @@ + + + + Evolutionary Table + + Era Period/Epoch Years Ago Age Event + ÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍ + ÚÄÄÄÂÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ 4,600,000,000 ÂÄÄÄ Earth Forms + ³ P ³ (Azoic) ³ 4,500,000,000 ³ P ³ Complex molecules + ³ r ³ ³ 4,250,000,000 ³ r ³ Supermolecules + ³ e ³ ³ 4,000,000,000 ³ e ³ Oceans form; RNA molecules + ³ c ³ ³ 3,750,000,000 ³ l ³ Proto-viruses + ³ a ³ ³ 3,500,000,000 ³ i ³ Microspheres + ³ m Ã Ä Ä Ä Ä Ä Ä Ä Ä Å 3,300,000,000 ³ f ³ Viruses + ³ b ³ Archeozoic ³ 3,150,000,000 ³ e ³ + ³ r ³ ³ 3,000,000,000 ÃÄÄÄ´ + ³ i ³ ³ 2,800,000,000 ³ S ³ Prokaryotes + ³ a ³ ³ 2,650,000,000 ³ o ³ + ³ n ÃÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅ 2,500,000,000 ³ f ³ Blue-green algae + ³ ³ Proterozoic ³ 2,400,000,000 ³ t ³ + ³ ³ ³ 2,250,000,000 ³ ³ ³ a ³ 1 = Marine Invertebrates + ³ ³ ³ 2,100,000,000 ³ L ³ ³ g ³ 2 = Fishes + ³ ³ ³ 2,000,000,000 ³ i ³ ³ e ³ 3 = Amphibians + ³ ³ ³ 1,900,000,000 ³ f ³ + ³ ³ ³ 1,800,000,000 ³ e ³ Proto-bacteria + ³ ³ ³ 1,700,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 1,600,000,000 ³ ³ DNA molecules + ³ ³ ³ 1,500,000,000 ³ ³ Eukariotes + ³ ³ ³ 1,400,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 1,350,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 1,250,000,000 ³ ³ Green algae + ³ ³ ³ 1,200,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 1,100,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 1,050,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 1,000,000,000 ³ ³ Protozoans + ³ ³ ³ 950,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 900,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 850,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 800,000,000 ³ ³ Porifera + ³ ³ ³ 750,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 700,000,000 ³ ³ Coelenterates + ³ ³ ³ 670,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 630,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 600,000,000 ³ ³ Annelids, echinoderms + ÃÄÄÄÅÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄ 570,000,000 ÃÄÄÄ´ Chordates + ³ P ³ Cambrian ³ 530,000,000 ³ 1 ³ + ³ a ÃÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄ 500,000,000 ³ ³ Cephalopods, Arthropods + ³ l ³ Ordovician ³ 475,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ e ³ ³ 450,000,000 ³ ³ Vertebrates, Ostracoderms + ³ o ÃÄSilurianÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄ 425,000,000 ³ ³ Land plants + ³ z ÃÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄ 405,000,000 ÃÄÄÄ´ Land arthropods; Teleosts + ³ o ³ Devonian ³ 375,000,000 ³ 2 ³ Rhipidistians + ³ i ÃÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄ 345,000,000 ÃÄÄÄ´ Land vertebrates; Eogyrini, ferns + ³ c ³ Carboniferous ³ 330,000,000 ³ 3 ³ + ³ ³ ³ 310,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 300,000,000 ³ ³ Eosuchians + ³ ÃÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄ 280,000,000 ³ ³ Mountain building; Conifers + + + + ³ ³ Permian ³ 265,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 250,000,000 ³ ³ Anapsids + ³ ³ ³ 240,000,000 ³ ³ Breakup of Pangea; Synapsids + ÃÄÄÄÅÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄ 230,000,000 ÃÄÄÄ´ Permian Great Dying; Sauriscians + ³ M ³ Triassic ³ 210,000,000 ³ R ³ Monotremes + ³ e ³ ³ 200,000,000 ³ e ³ Ichthyosaurs + ³ s ÃÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄ 190,000,000 ³ p ³ Marsupials + ³ o ³ Jurassic ³ 180,000,000 ³ t ³ Pterosaurs + ³ z ³ ³ 170,000,000 ³ i ³ + ³ o ³ ³ 160,000,000 ³ l ³ Plesiosaurs + ³ i ³ ³ 150,000,000 ³ e ³ Archeopteryx + ³ c ÃÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄ 140,000,000 ³ s ³ + ³ ³ Cretaceous ³ 135,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 125,000,000 ³ ³ Ornithiscians + ³ ³ ³ 120,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 110,000,000 ³ ³ Birds + ³ ³ ³ 105,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 100,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 95,000,000 ³ ³ Placentals + ³ ³ ³ 90,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 85,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 80,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 75,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ 70,000,000 ³ ³ Ichthyornes, Hesperornes + ÃÄÄÄÅÄÄÄÂÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄÄ 65,000,000 ÃÄÄÄ´ Cretaceous Great Dying + ³ C ³ T ³ Paleocene ³ 63,000,000 ³ M ³ Miacids, creodonts + ³ e ³ e ³ ³ 60,000,000 ³ a ³ Profelids, procanids, phalangers + ³ n ³ r ÃÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄÄ 55,000,000 ³ m ³ Civids, mustelids + ³ o ³ t ³ Eocene ³ 53,000,000 ³ m ³ Tarsoidians, eohippus + ³ z ³ i ³ ³ 50,000,000 ³ a ³ Prosimians, titanotheres + ³ o ³ a ³ ³ 47,500,000 ³ l ³ Anthropoidians, procyonids + ³ i ³ r ³ ³ 45,000,000 ³ s ³ + ³ c ³ y ³ ³ 42,500,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ÃÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄÄ 40,000,000 ³ ³ Dinictis, holophoneus, + ³ ³ ³ Oligocene ³ 37,500,000 ³ ³ \aegyptopithecus + ³ ³ ³ ³ 35,000,000 ³ ³ Canids + ³ ³ ³ ³ 33,000,000 ³ ³ Mesohippus + ³ ³ ³ ³ 31,500,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 30,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 28,000,000 ³ ³ Pseudailurus + ³ ³ ³ ³ 26,500,000 ³ ³ Smilodon, pliopithecus + ³ ³ ÃÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄÄ 25,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ Miocene ³ 23,500,000 ³ ³ Sivapithecus, dryopithecus/Proconsul + ³ ³ ³ ³ 22,500,000 ³ ³ Merychippus + ³ ³ ³ ³ 21,000,000 ³ ³ Ramapithecus + ³ ³ ³ ³ 20,000,000 ³ ³ Dogs, wolves + ³ ³ ³ ³ 19,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 18,000,000 ³ ³ Acinonix: cheetahs + ³ ³ ³ ³ 17,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 16,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 15,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 14,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 13,500,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 12,500,000 ³ ³ + + + + ³ ³ ³ ³ 12,000,000 ³ ³ Felis: lesser cats + ³ ³ ³ ³ 11,000,000 ³ ³ Felis lunensis: Martelli's cat + ³ ³ ³ ³ 10,500,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ÃÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄÄ 10,000,000 ³ ³ Felis manul: Pallas' cat + ³ ³ ³ Pliocene ³ 9,500,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 9,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 8,500,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 8,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 7,500,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 7,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 6,700,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 6,300,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 6,000,000 ³ ³ Pliohippus + ³ ³ ³ ³ 5,600,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 5,300,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 5,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 4,750,000 ³ ³ Australopithecus afaransis ("Lucy") + ³ ³ ³ ³ 4,500,000 ³ ³ Australopithecus africanus + ³ ³ ³ ³ 4,250,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 4,000,000 ³ ³ Australopithecus robustus + ³ ³ ³ ³ 3,750,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 3,500,000 ³ ³ Hyenas + ³ ³ ³ ³ 3,300,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 3,150,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 3,000,000 ³ ³ Panthera: greater cats + ³ ³ ³ ³ 2,800,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 2,650,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 2,500,000 ³ ³ Equus: modern horses + ³ ³ ³ ³ 2,350,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 2,250,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 2,100,000 ³ ³ + ³ ÃÄÄÄÅÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄÄÄ 2,000,000 ÃÄÄÄ´ + ³ ³ Q ³ Pliestocene ³ 1,900,000 ³ M ³ + ³ ³ u ³ ³ 1,800,000 ³ a ³ Homo habilis + ³ ³ a ³ ³ 1,700,000 ³ n ³ + ³ ³ t ³ ³ 1,600,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ e ³ ³ 1,500,000 ³ ³ Homo erectus + ³ ³ r ³ ³ 1,400,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ n ³ ³ 1,350,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ a ³ ³ 1,250,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ r ³ ³ 1,200,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ y ³ ³ 1,100,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 1,050,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 1,000,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 950,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 900,000 ³ ³ First ice age begins + ³ ³ ³ ³ 850,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 800,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 750,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 700,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 665,000 ³ ³ Felis sylvestris: European wildcat + ³ ³ ³ ³ 630,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 600,000 ³ ³ Second ice age begins + ³ ³ ³ ³ 560,000 ³ ³ + + + + ³ ³ ³ ³ 530,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 500,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 475,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 450,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 425,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 400,000 ³ ³ Third ice age begins + ³ ³ ³ ³ 375,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 350,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 330,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 315,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 300,000 ³ ³ Felis lybica: African wildcat + ³ ³ ³ ³ 280,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 265,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 250,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 235,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 225,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 210,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 200,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 190,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 180,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 170,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 160,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 150,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 140,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 135,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 125,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 120,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 110,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 105,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 100,000 ³ ³ Homo sapiens neanderthalensis + ³ ³ ³ ³ 95,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 90,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 85,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 80,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 75,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 70,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 67,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 63,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 60,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 56,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 53,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 50,000 ³ ³ Fourth ice age begins + ³ ³ ³ ³ 47,500 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 45,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 42,500 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 40,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 37,500 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 35,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 33,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 31,500 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 30,000 ³ ³ Homo sapiens sapiens: Cro-Magnon man + ³ ³ ³ ³ 28,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 26,500 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 25,000 ³ ³ Possible domestication of dog + + + + ³ ³ ³ ³ 23,500 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 22,500 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 21,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 20,000 ³ ³ Probable domestication of dog + ³ ³ ³ ³ 19,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 18,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 17,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 16,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 15,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 14,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 13,500 ³ ³ Herding invented + ³ ³ ³ ³ 12,500 ³ ³ Smilodon becomes extinct + ³ ³ ³ ³ 12,000 ³ ³ Agriculture invented + ³ ³ ³ ³ 11,000 ³ ³ Civilization invented + ³ ³ ³ ³ 10,500 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ÃÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÅÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ 10,000 ÃÄÄÄ´ + ³ ³ ³ Holocene ³ 9,500 ³ C ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 9,000 ³ i ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 8,500 ³ v ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 8,000 ³ i ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 7,500 ³ l ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 7,000 ³ i ³ Possible domestication of cat + ³ ³ ³ ³ 6,700 ³ z ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 6,300 ³ a ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 6,000 ³ t ³ 4004 BC--Creation: Bishop Ussher + ³ ³ ³ ³ 5,600 ³ i ³ 3760 BC--Creation: Orthodox Judaism + ³ ³ ³ ³ 5,300 ³ o ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 5,000 ³ n ³ Probable domestication of cat + ³ ³ ³ ³ 4,750 ³ ³ Early Egyptian cat cults + ³ ³ ³ ³ 4,500 ³ ³ First records of Bast + ³ ³ ³ ³ 4,250 ³ ³ First pyramids built + ³ ³ ³ ³ 4,000 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 3,750 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 3,550 ³ ³ Indus traders + ³ ³ ³ ³ 3,350 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 3,150 ³ ³ Phoenician traders + ³ ³ ³ ³ 3,000 ³ ³ Felis cattus: domestic cat + ³ ³ ³ ³ 2,800 ³ ³ 753 BC -- Rome founded + ³ ³ ³ ³ 2,650 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 2,500 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 2,350 ³ ³ Grecian conquest of Egypt + ³ ³ ³ ³ 2,250 ³ ³ + ³ ³ ³ ³ 2,100 ³ ³ Roman conquest of Egypt + ³ ³ ³ ³ 2,000 ³ ³ Beginning of Christian (Common) Era + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/f-p b/textfiles.com/science/f-p new file mode 100644 index 00000000..16b4d228 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/f-p @@ -0,0 +1,556 @@ +typing and I formatted it in ASCII. Much thanks to Mike Attas for additional +corrections. + +WARNING: This text will contain errors. Consider it a poor facsimile of the +original paper since that's what is was transcribed from. Be especially wary +of numbers and symbols since these are the hardest to decipher from context. +Question marks in the text indicate severe ambiguity. + +If anyone has a better copy, please post corrections or send them to +pphillip@cs.ubc.ca. + +-------- + + Electrochemically Induced Nuclear Fusion of Deuterium + + + Martin Fleischmann + Department of Chemistry + The University + Southhampton, Hants. S09 5NH + ENGLAND + + + Stanley Pons* + Department of Chemistry + University of Utah + Salt Lake city, UT 84112 USA + + +Submitted to Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry March 11, +1989; in final form March 20, 1989 + +* To whom correspondence should be addressed. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + +The strange behavior of electrogenerated hydrogen dissolved in +palladium has been studied for well over 100 years and, latterly +these studies have been extended to deuterium and tritium [1]. +For discharge of deuterium from alkaline solutions of heavy water +we have to consider the reaction steps: + + + - - + D O + e -> D + OD (i) + 2 ads + + - - + D + D O + e -> D + OD (ii) + ads 2 2 + + + D -> D (iii) + ads lattice + + + + D + D -> D (iv) + ads ads 2 + + +It is known that at potentials negative to +50 mV on the +reversible hydrogen scale the lattice is in the beta-phase, +hydrogen is in the form of protons (as shown by the migration in +an electric field) and is highly mobile (D = 10E-7 cm*cm/s for +the alpha-phase at 300K). + +The overall reaction path of D2 evolution consists of steps (i) +and (ii) [2] so that the chemical potential of dissolved D+ is +normally determined by the relative rates of these two steps. +The establishment of negative overpotentials on the outgoing +interface of palladium membrane electrodes for hydrogen discharge +at the ingoing interface [3] (determined by the balance of all the +steps i) to (iv)) demonstrates that the chemical potential can be +raised to high values. Our own experiments with palladium +diffusion tubes indicate that values as high as 0.8 eV can +readily be achieved [4] (values as high as 2eV may be achievable). +The astronomical magnitude of this value can readily be +appreciated; attempts to attain this level via the compression of +D2 (step (iv)) would require pressures in excess of 10E24 +atmospheres. In spite of this high compression, D2 is not +formed; i.e. the s-character of the electron density around the +nuclei is very low and the electrons form part of the band +structure of the overall system. A feature which is of special +interest and which prompted the present investigation is the very +high H/D separation factor for absorbed hydrogen and deuterium +(see Figs. 4 and 6 of Ref [2]). This can only be explained if +the H+ and D+ in the lattice behave as classical oscillators +(possibly as delocalised species) i.e. they must be in very +shallow potential wells. In view of the very high compression +and mobility of the dissolved species there must therefore be a +significant number of close collisions and one can pose the +question: would nuclear fusion of D+ such as + + + 2 2 3 1 + D + D -> T(1.01 MeV) + H(3.02 MeV) (v) +or + 2 2 3 + D + D -> He(0.82 MeV) + n(2.45 MeV) (vi) + + +be feasible under these conditions? + + + +EXPERIMENTAL + +In the work reported here D+ was compressed galvanostatically +into sheet, rod and cube samples of Pd from 0.1 M LiOD in 99.5% +D2O + 0.5% H2O solutions. Electrode potentials were measured +with respect to a Pd-D reference electrode charged to the alpha- +beta-phase equilibrium. We report here experiments of several +kinds: + +1) Calorimetric measurements of heat balances at low current +densities (=1.6 mA/cm*cm) were made using a 2mm x 8cm x 8cm Pd +sheet cathode surrounded by a large Pt sheet counter electrode. +Measurements were carried out in Dewar cells maintained in a +large constant temperature water bath (300K), the temperature +inside the cell and of the water bath being monitored with +Beckman thermometers. The Heavy Water Equivalent of the Dewar +and contents and the rate of Newton's law of cooling losses were +determined by addition of hot D2O and by following the cooling +curves. + + +2) Calorimetric measurements at higher current densities +were carried out using 1, 2 and 4mm diameter x 10 cm long Pd rods +surrounded by a Pt wire anode wound on a cage of glass rods. The +Dewars were fitted with resistance heaters for the determination +of Newton's law of cooling losses; temperatures were measured +using calibrated thermistors. Experiments with rods up to 2 cm +in diameter will be reported elsewhere [5]. Stirring in these +experiments (and in those listed under 1)) was achieved, where +necessary, by gas sparging using electrolytically generated D2. +Measurements at the highest current density reported here +(512 mA/cm*cm) were carried out using rods of 1.25 cm length; the +results given in Table 1 have been rescaled to those for rods of +10 cm length. + + + +3) The spectrum of gamma-rays emitted from the water bath due to + the (n,gamma) reaction + + + 1 2 + H + n(2.45 MeV) -> D + gamma(2.5 MeV) (vii) + + + +was determined using a sodium iodide crystal scintillation +detector and a Nuclear Data ND-6 High Energy Spectrum analyzer. +The spectrum was taken above the water immediately surrounding an +0.8 x 10 cm Pd-rod cathode charged to equilibrium; it was +corrected for background by subtracting the spectrum over a sink +(containing identical shielding materials) 10 m from the water +bath. + +The neutron flux from a cell containing a 0.4 x 10 cm Pd-rod +electrode was measured using an Harwell Neutron Dose Equivalent +Rate Monitor, Type 95/0945-5. The counting efficiency of this +Bonner-sphere type instrument for 2.5 MeV neutrons was estimated +to be 2.4 x 10E-4 and was further reduced by a factor of 100 due +to the unfavorable configuration (the rod opposite the BF filled + 3 +detector). The background count was determined by making +measurements 50m from the laboratory containing the experiments; +both locations were in the basement of a new building which is +overlain by 5 floors of concrete. In view of the low counting +efficiency, counting was carried out for 50 hours. Measurements +on a 0.4 x 10 cm rod electrode run at 64 mA/(cm*cm) gave a +neutron count 3 times above that of the background. + + +4) The rate of generation/accumulation of tritium was +measured using similar cells (test tubes sealed with Parafilm) +containing 1 mm diameter x 10 cm Pd rod electrodes. Measurements +on the D/T separation factor alone were made using an identical +cell containing a 1 mm diameter x 10 cm Pt electrode (this +measurement served as a blank as the H/D separation factors on Pd +and Pt are known to be closely similar). 1 ml samples of the +electrolyte were withdrawn at 2 day intervals, neutralised with +potassium hydrogen phthalate and the T-content was determined +using Ready Gel liquid scintillation "cocktail" and a Beckman LS +5000 TD counting system. The counting efficiency was determined +to be about 45% using standard samples of T-containing solutions. +The beta-decay scintillation spectrum was determined using the +counting system. + +In these experiments standard additions of 1 ml of the electrolyte +were made following sampling. Losses of D2O due to electrolysis +in these and all the other experiments recorded here were made up +using D2O alone. A record of the volume of D2O additions was +made for all the experiments. + +In all of the experiments reported here all connections were +fitted into Kel-F caps and the caps were sealed to the glass +cells using Parafilm. + +Results for the mass spectroscopy of the evolved gases and full +experimental details for all the measurements will be given +elsewhere [5]. + + +RESULTS + +1) and 2) + +In the calorimetric experiments we can set lower and upper bounds +on the rates of Joule heating depending on whether reactions (i), +(ii) , and (iv) are balanced by + + + - - + 4OD -> D O + O + 4e (viii) + 2 2 + + +at the anode or by the reverse of reactions (i), (ii), and (iv). +In the former case the Joule heating is simply the cell current +multiplied by (cell voltage - 1.54 V) where 1.54 V is the cell +voltage at which reactions (i), (ii), and (iv) balanced by (viii) +are thermoneutral: irreversibilities in the electrode reactions +and ohmic resistance losses have identical effects on the Joule +heating. However, if reactions (i), (ii), and (iv) are reversed +at the anode and, equally, if the reverse of reactions (viii) +contributes to the cathode processes, then we get an upper bound +to the Joule heating which is simply the cell current multiplied +by the cell voltage. + +We have confirmed in long duration experiments that the rates of +addition of D2O to the cells required to maintain constant +volumes are those for reactions (i), (ii), and (iv) balanced by +reaction (viii). Furthermore, subtraction of the ohmic potential +losses in solution for the cell containing the large Pt-anode +shows that the electrolysis of D2O is the dominant process, i.e. +we have to assume that the Joule heating is close to the lower +bound. + +Table 1 gives the results for experiments designed to cover the +effects of electrolyte geometry, electrode size, current density +(or overpotential) method of operation, etc. The nature and +large magnitude of the effects can be appreciated from the +following observations: + + + +a) excess enthalpy generation is markedly dependent on the +applied current density (i.e. magnitude of the shift in the +chemical potential) and is proportional to the volume of the +electrodes; i.e. we are dealing with a phenomenon in the bulk of +the Pd-electrodes. + + + +b) enthalpy generation can exceed 10 watts/(cm*cm*cm) of the +palladium electrode; this is maintained for experimental times in +excess of 120 hours during which typically heat in excess of +4MJ/(cm*cm*cm) of electrode volume was liberated. It is +inconceivable that this could be due to anything but nuclear +processes. + + + +c) in research on thermonuclear fusion, the effects are +expressed as a percentage of the breakeven where 100% breakeven +implies that the thermal output equals the input (neglecting the +power required to drive the equipment). In electrochemical +experiments we have additionally to take into account whether +breakeven should be based on the Joule heat or total energy +supplied to the cell. Furthermore, in the latter case the energy +supplied depends on the nature of the anode reaction. Table 2 +lists three such figures of merit and it can be seen that we can +already make reasonable projections to 1000%. Some of the +factors important to scale-up are already apparent from Tables 1 +and 2. + + + +d) the effects have been determined using D2O alone. +Projections to the use of appropriate D2O/DTO/T2O mixtures (as is +commonly done in fusion research) might therefore be expected to +yield thermal excesses in the range 10E3 - 10E4 % (even in the +absence of spin polarisation) with enthalpy releases in excess of +10 kW/(cm*cm*cm). We have to report here that under the +conditions of the last experiment even using D2O alone, a +substantial portion of the cathode fused (melting point 1554 +degrees C) part of it vapourised and the cell and contents and a +part of the fume cupboard housing the experiment were destroyed. + + + +TABLE 1. Generation of excess enthalpy in Pd-cathodes as a +function of current density and electrode size. + +Cube Sheet Rod Rod Rod electrode type + +1x1x1 cm 0.2x8x8cm 0.4x10cm 0.2x10cm 0.1x10cm dimensions + +125 0.8 8 8 8 current density (mA/cm*cm) + +WARNING 0.153 .153 .036 .0075 excess rate of heating + (watts/cm*cm*cm) +IGNITION? +(see text) 0 .122 .115 .095 excess specific rate of + heating (watts/cm*cm*cm) + +250 1.2 64 64 64 current density (mA/cm*cm) + + .027 1.751 .493 .079 excess rate of heating + (watt) + + .0021 1.39 1.57 1.01 excess specific rate of + heating (watts/cm*cm*cm) + + 1.6 512 512 512 current density * + (mA/cm*cm) * + + 0.79 26.8 3.02 .654 excess rate of heading + (watt) * + + .0061 21.4 9.61 8.33 excess specific rate of + heating (watts/cm*cm*cm) + + + * Measured on electrodes of length 1.25 cm and rescaled to 10 cm. + +TABLE 2. Generation of excess enthalpy in Pd rod cathodes +expressed as a percentage of breakeven values. + +0.4x10cm 0.2x10cm 0.1x10cm dimensions +8 8 8 current density (mA/cm*cm) +111 62 23 excess heating * (% of breakeven) * +53 27 12 excess heating** (% of breakeven) ** +1224 286 60 excess heating*** (% of breakeven) *** +64 64 64 current density (mA/cm*cm) +66 46 19 excess heating * (% of breakeven) * +45 29 11 excess heating** (% of breakeven) ** +438 247 79 excess heating*** (% of breakeven) *** +512 512 512 current density (mA/cm*cm) +59 14 5 excess heating * (% of breakeven) * +48 11 5 excess heating** (% of breakeven) ** +839 189 81 excess heating*** (% of breakeven) *** + +* % of breakeven based on Joule heat supplied to + cell and anode reaction + + - - + 4OD -> 2D O + O + 4e + 2 2 + +** % of breakeven based on total energy supplied to + cell and anode reaction + + - - + 4OD -> 2D O + O + 4e + 2 2 + +*** % of breakeven based on total energy supplied to + cell and for an electrode reaction + + - - + D + 2OD -> 2D O + 4e + 2 2 + + with a cell potential of 0.5V. + + 2 2 +All %'s based on D + D reactions, i.e. no projection +to [next line lost in scanning] + + +3) Fig. 1A illustrates the gamma-ray spectra which have been +recorded in regions above the water bath adjacent to the +electrolytic cells and this spectrum confirms that 2.45 MeV +neutrons are indeed generated in the electrodes by reaction (vi). +These gamma-rays are generated by the reaction (vii). We note +that the intensities of the spectra are weak and, in agreement +with this, the neutron flux calculated from the measurements with +the dosimeter is of the order 4 x 10E4 1/s for a 0.4 x 10 cm rod +electrode polarised at 64 mA/(cm*cm). + + +Figure 1A + +gamma-ray spectrum recorded above the water bath containing the +rod cathodes. Measurements carried out with a sodium iodide +crystal scintillation detector and a Nuclear Data ND-6 High +Energy Spectrum Analyzer. The background in this region (taken +over a water bath 5 m from the experiment containing identical +shielding materials) is level at about 400 counts; spectrum +accumulation time: 48 hours. + + +4) In agreement with this low neutron flux, the accumulation +in the electrolyte also indicates a low rate for reaction (v) +(which has been found to be somewhat faster than (vi) in high +energy physics experiments). The time dependent fraction of +tritium in the solvent can be shown to follow(?) + + +(1): + -(1 + lambda * delta )*Rt + D,T +alpha = gamma * exp --------------------------- + T T lambda * S * N + D,T + + + delta + D,T + + ((1 + lambda)gamma + beta/R) * --------------------- * -+ + T (1 + lambda*delta ) | + D,T | + | + +-------------------------------------------+ + | + | -(1 + lambda * delta )Rt + | D,T + +--> * (1 - exp --------------------------) + lambda*S * N + D,T + +where: + +gamma is the fraction of T in the electrolyte/solvent feeds, + T + +lambda * R (atoms T/s, here 4x10E11 atoms/s) is the sampling rate + which has been assumed to be continuous in time, + +N is the total number of atoms of D in the Dewar (14.6x10E23), + +S is the D/T separation factor, + D,T + +beta is the rate of the nuclear reaction (v) (events/s), and + +R is the rate of electrolysis expressed as atoms D 1/s + (here 1.24x10E14(?) atoms/s) + +It can be seen that the final value alpha for the cell containing + T +the Pt-cathode (for which we assume beta = 0) is: + A + + + delta + D,T +alpha = ((1 + lambda)*gamma + beta/R) * ---------------------- (1) + T T (1 + lambda * delta ) + D,T + + +Blank experiments using Pt-cathodes (which have very similar +separation factors to Pd) indicate little accumulation of DTO so +that S is close to unity under the conditions of our + D,T +experiments. DTO accumulates in the cells containing Pd cathodes +to the extent of about 100dpm/ml of electrolyte and Fig. 1B +demonstrates that the species accumulated is indeed tritium. Use +of equation (2) then indicates that reaction (v) takes place to +the extent of 1-2 x 10E4 atoms/s which is consistent with the +measurements of the neutron flux, bearing in mind the difference +in radii. On the other hand the data on enthalpy generation +would require rates for reactions (v) and (vi) in the range 10E11- +10E14 atoms/s. It is evident that reactions (v) and (vi) are +only a small part of the overall reaction scheme and that other +nuclear processes must be involved. + +(see figure on trailing pages) + +Figure 1B + +beta-ray disintegration scintillation spectrum measured with a +Bockman LS5000TD counter-spectrometer. + + +DISCUSSION + +We realise that the results reported here raise more questions +than they provide answers and that much further work is required +on this topic. The observation of the generation of neutrons and +of tritium from electrochemically compressed D+ in Pd cathode is +in itself a very surprising result and, evidently, it is +necessary to reconsider the quantum mechanics of electrons and +deuterons in such host lattices. In particular we must ask: is +it possible to achieve a fusion rate of 10E-19 1/s for reactions +(v) and (vi) for clusters of deuterons (presumably located in the +octahedral lattice positions) at typical energies of 1eV? +Experiments on isotopically substituted hydrides of well defined +structures might well answer this question. + +The most surprising feature of our results however, is that +reactions (v) and (vi) are only a small part of the overall +reaction scheme and that the bulk of the energy release is due to +an hitherto unknown nuclear process or processes (presumably +again due to clusters of deuterons). We draw attention again to +the very large magnitude of the effects in the confinement +parameter diagram, fig. 2. We note that the values of the +confinement parameter are extremely high compared to conventional +research on fusion (high particle densities, lifetimes of 10E2 - +10E4 years) while the chemical potential is very low compared to +the equivalent parameter, (T), in those experiments. It is +evident that diagrams of this kind require extension in the third +dimension for electrochemical experiments since the results are +so markedly dependent on electrode volume (increase of current +density displaces the points in a vertical direction). We draw +attention again to the fact that the experiments already carried +out are close to the breakeven point; further work to extend the +electrode dimension (and to establish the nature of the processes +responsible for the enthalpy release) is in progress. Finally, we +urge the use of extreme caution in such experiments: a plausible +interpretation of the experiment using the Pd-cube electrode is +in terms of ignition. Projection of the values in Tables 1 and 2 +to more extreme conditions indicate that this may indeed be +feasible. + +Figure 2 + + 2 2 +Confinement parameter-chemical potential-size diagram for D + D + 2 3 +fusion reaction in Pd-cathodes, projection to the D + T +reaction. + + +ACKNOWLEDGEMENT + +We wish to thank Johnson Matthey PLC for the loan of precious +metals for this project. + + +LITERATURE REFERENCES + +1. W. M. Mueller, J. T. Blacklodge, G. G. Libowitz, "Metal + Hydrides", Academic Press, New York (1968); G. Bambakadis, Ed., + "Metal Hydrides", Plenum Press (1981). + +2. B. Dandapani and M. Fleischmann, Journal of Electroanalytical + Chemistry, 12 (1972) 323.2.39 + +3. A. N. Frumkin and N. A. Aladzhalova, Acta Physicochim. + U.R.S.S., 2 (1940) 1.9 + +4. Unpublished results + +5. M. Fleischmann, M. Hawkins, and B. Pons, to be published. + + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/fchap2.txt b/textfiles.com/science/fchap2.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..df309518 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/fchap2.txt @@ -0,0 +1,117 @@ + + The Leidenfrost Effect + +Oh boy, can you have a lot of fun with +this. The Leidenfrost Effect is +something you've probably already seen +in your own kitchen. Have you ever +gotten a skillet or pan so hot that when +droplets of water hit it they just bead +up and dance around before finally +evaporating. This is the Leidenfrost +Effect. + +Basically, what happens is that because +of the high heat, some of the liquid is +vaporized and creates a sort of barrier +between the heat source and the liquid. + + +Here's a great way to have fun with +this. The next time you are at a party +or gathering where cold beverages are +being served, find a smoker. Press your +thumb or finger tip against the side of +your ice cold glass or can (it should be +cold enough that it sweats [condenses]. +Then take the lit cigarette and hold it +by the ends between the thumb and middle +or index finger of the same hand. Be +sure to put the lit end on the finger or +thumb that was pressed against the cold +glass. You will be able to hold it for +several seconds without discomfort or +damage. When it starts to warm up, grab +it quickly and watch the look of +amazement on people's faces. + +You do have to be careful not to hold +the cigarette for too long, but once you +try this once or twice, you'll know just +how long to hold it. You can play the +patter up on this and tell them how you +are immune to pain, or you spent some +time with a fire worshipping tribe in +New Guinea or something. Use your +imagination. It can be most impressing. +Act casual, but be aware of the passage +of time. Get your point across in just +a few seconds and "leisurely" remove the +cigarette from your fingers. + +You can get away with this a number of +times at the same gathering if you are +suave enough. Just don't be obvious +about your fingers and the glass. This +shouldn't be any problem since you will +probably be drinking something yourself +and you have to hold it anyway. Just be +careful that your drink doesn't get warm +or empty just before you are asked to do +this in front of an unbeliever. + +I have personally made some nice EZ +money betting people I could do this at +bars, parties etc. + +Variation + +Press the same glass against the pad of +flesh just below the thumb and you can +now put out a cigarette on the "palm" of +your hand. Again, just be aware of the +passage of time. Extinguish the +cigarette quickly but make it LOOK +leisurely. Tell people you spent some +time in Hawaii where the people +understand fire. + +It's this same effect that enables you +to snuff out a candle with your fingers, +place a lit match in your mouth without +burning ( or a lit cigarette, lit end +first). I once won $300.00 in a little +bar in New Mexico by betting that I +could hold my hand over one of those +candle containers with a lit candle +until the candle went out. These are +the type shaped like a small fish bowl +with the candle inside. They are almost +round, with a small opening at the top. + + +The theory was that if you sealed the +top well enough, the air would burn up +and the flame would go out. Everyone +else tried unsuccessfully and the pot +grew a little more each time, I sat with +my hand wrapped around a frosty bottle +of Dos Equis. When my turn came, I used +every advantage I could think of. My +palm was moist and cold, creating an +airtight seal, but I also squeezed hard +on the top, forcing some air out. Just +when I thought I couldn't stand it +anymore, the flame grew tiny and died. +Three hundred bucks for a few seconds +effort is pretty good money. Needless +to say, I bought a few rounds for our +table. Always be a gracious winner. + +Also be aware that three grown men +burned the hell out of their hands +trying to do this. + + + - END FILE - + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/fda.asc b/textfiles.com/science/fda.asc new file mode 100644 index 00000000..86dccf69 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/fda.asc @@ -0,0 +1,180 @@ + + Courtesy of Bob Paddock... + + Please CAPTURE this text and CALL YOUR STATE REPRESENTATIVE + + BEFORE THIS BILL IS VOTED IN ON SEPTEMBER 10! + + ALSO LISTED AS FDA.ASC or FDA.ZIP. + + Fri Sep 06 06:26:07 1991: + + Will food become illegal? + + On September 10th, 1991 a vote on H.R. 2597 is to be taken if this + becomes law the FDA will be able to tell you what is good for you to + eat, or what kind of substances (like Vitamins) that you will be + allowed to put INTO YOUR OWN BODY! If you don't do it their way FDA + could impose penalties of up to $1,000,000 for each act that an + individual does, fails to do, or should have known to do that act + violates a provision of the Food, Drug, And Cosmetic Act. + + Please call your Congressional Representatives immediately and tell + them that you do NOT support the loss of freedom that H.R. 2597 + purports. Our ancestors died to make this "The Land of the Free" now + our own Congressional Representatives are trying to take that freedom + away! + + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + + From "BASIC CARE CENTRE" newsletter: + + H.R. 2597 was introduced on June 7,1991 by Rep. Henry A. Waxman (D-24- + CA), Chair of Health and The Environment Subcommittee of the House, and + by Rep. John D. Dingell (D-16-MI), Chair of the House Energy and + Commerce Committee. + + This bill would empower the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) with + enforcement actions that would deny individuals and companies any + rights before the courts, and would empower FDA to harass, bankrupt, + and file criminal charges against almost any U.S. citizen for almost + any reason! + + FDA could impose penalties of up to One Million Dollars for each act + that an individual does, fails to do, or should have known to do that + [act] violates an provision of the Food, Drug, And Cosmetic Act. + + FDA would have the power to institute 24-hour electronic surveillance + of any healthcare businesses and demand that certain records be + maintained. + + FDA would have the power to issue subpoenas to force testimony and the + production of records from any person in the health care industry at + any time, for any reason at all. + + FDA would have the power to destroy an product imported from any other + country that it deems is "dangerous". + + FDA could stop citizens from bringing into this country any + medications, products, or therapies they receive as part of health care + in Mexico, Europe, or any other part of the world. + + In effect H.R. 2597 is the MOST repressive piece of legislation EVER + proposed in the history of the U.S. Congress, in our opinion. The + infamous Claud Pepper Bills of 1984 (H.R. 6049,6051,6060) that everyone + fought so valiantly to defeat, pale in comparison to this outrageous + attack on freedom of choice in health care. + + H.R. 2597 is so outrageous that the following associations in + mainstream business have sent a letter of protest to Representative + Waxman about the bill's sweeping and unjustified scope: American + Bankers Association, Animal Health Institute, Association for Dressings + and Sauces, Association of Food Industries, Calorie Control Council, + Concord Grape Association, Cosmetic, Toiletry & Fragrance Association, + Grocery Manufactures of America, Health Industry Manufactures + Association, Preserve Association, National Assn. of Margarine + Manufacturers, National Electrical Manufactures Association, National + Food Processors Association, National Pasta Association, National Pecan + Shellers Association, American Frozen Food Institute, National Single + Service Food Association, Non prescription Drug Manufactures Assn., + Pharmaceutical Manufactures Association, and The Vinegar Institute. + + H.R. 2597 presents an opportunity, probably for the first time in + history, for everyone in business and industry who appreciates and + understands the issue of free choice and competition to join forces an + align themselves against oppression. As a consumer of health care + products and therapies, you must join with us in opposing H.R. 2597. + Please contact your Congressional Representatives immediately! + + The following is the kind of information that will be stopped if H.R. + 2597 becomes law: + + Researchers at the University of Wisconsin tell us: They completed + studies which indicate that D-limonene, a component of the essential + oil found in all peels of the citrus family is useful in lowering the + incidence of chemically induced mammary tumors [breast cancer], it is + also effective in rate of regression of tumors. Other benefits are + potential cholesterol lowering effect. + + Ganoderma (Reishi) Mushroom: Under Ref: 1 listed below studies with + mice show immune system enhancement, other studies demonstrated + significant anti-tumor activity of polysaccharides which had been + isolated from Ganoderma. Extract of Ganoderma lucidum had the ability + to stimulate a defense mechanism within the central nervous system, + correcting parasympathetic nerve function, while at the same time + improving heart function. There are many more documented studies + available if your are interested. + + A team of British & Egyptian scientists find soybeans can block the + formation of nitrosamines, (cancer causing agent) more effectively than + Vitamin C, which is added to cured meats to prevent nitrosamines from + forming. + + Shitake Mushroom: In a letter to the medical journal Lancet, Oct. 20, + 1984 Robert Gallo, co-discoverer of the HIV virus, and the 2 French + researchers form the Pasteur Institutes stated that Lentinan, and + extract of the Shitake mushroom may prove to be effective in AIDS or + HIV carriers. In addition to its anti-tumor activity Lentinan has + demonstrated anti-viral properties, interferon inducing, natural killer + cell enhancer as well as enhancing the rate of phagocytosis. + + Cassia Tora: Duke, J.A. & Ayensu, E.S. (1985) Medical Plants of China, + Vol. 1, p. 223: extracts of the seeds of Cassia Tora have been + discovered to possess specific anti-tumor properties, as well as a + natural blood pressure regulating property. + + Pearl: Shanghai College of Traditional Chinese Medicine scientists + list a long list of effects they find to be associated with pearl: + anti-inflammatory properties, improvement in vision, removal of toxic + substances from body tissue, skin texture improvement and strengthening + of the bones. + + The Shanghai College also reports on the benefits of Mulberry leaves, + they are high in protein, 15 essential amino acids, high in vitamin C, + A, D, & E. It was observed to decrease blood sugar levels as well as + blood pressure. + + Medical plants of China book lists Lotus for anti-tumor activity, as + well as an aid to circulation. + + Ref 1: Shin H.W.; Kim H.W.; Choi, Toh S.H. & Kim K.B. Studies on + inorganic composition and immunopotentiation activity of ganoderma + lucidum in Korea. (1985) Korean Pharmacog 16 (4) 181-190. + + From "BASIC CARE CENTRE" newsletter: + + It is Labor Day weekend and I am writing perhaps my last newsletter on + scientific research on foods and how they affect our body. + + I am appealing to everyone to please read [the above] and learn what + two pathetically misguided men (Waxman & Dingell) in our government are + trying to rob us of. This bill [HR2597] is to be voted on September + 10th, 1991. Your help is desperately needed. After reading the + [above], please write or call your congressman & ask he vote against + this outrageous bill, then please call 5 others & ask they do the same, + then ask that they keep the chain going by 5 people calling 5 others + and in a very short time you will have been responsible for advising + thousands of people to let them know the 5th, 8th, 9th, 10th, & 14th + amendments will be violated. + + Please take the time to ensure our rights, we pay these people and + surely they can find better ways to spend their time than persecute + some of the finest elements of society today. I have never heard of a + plane, train, bus or car accident cased by overdose of vitamins, + minerals or herbal formulas. + + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + + All of the above is from the "Basic Car Centre" newsletter by D. + Little. Contact Basic Care Centre at 72 Lamont Drive, No. Huntingdon, + PA. 15642 (412) 824-1868. + + My questions is this: If the government allows things that are bad + for your health, like alcohol and tobacco, to be sold, then why are + they trying to stop us from getting the things that are good for us? + + Are they trying to kill us all off?????? + + PLEASE PASS THIS AROUND IN PRINT OR THROUGH YOUR NETWORKS!! + + IT NEEDS IMMEDIATE ACTION!!! diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/fea.txt b/textfiles.com/science/fea.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..b2fa6077 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/fea.txt @@ -0,0 +1,378 @@ + +========================================================================== + + THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD: A FOUR-ARTICLE SERIES + + The following four-article series was published recently + in a Newsletter of the American Society of Mechanical + Engineers (ASME). It serves as an introduction to the + recent analysis discipline known as the Finite Element + Method. The author is an engineering consultant special- + izing in Finite Element Analysis, and may be reached at: + + Roensch Engineering Consulting + 634 Lake Shore Road + Grafton, WI 53024-9723 + 414-375-2228 + +========================================================================== + +FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS: Introduction + +by Steve Roensch, Roensch Engineering Consulting + +--------------------------- +First in a four-part series +--------------------------- + +Finite element analysis (FEA) is a fairly recent discipline crossing the +boundaries of mathematics, physics, engineering and computer science. The +method has wide application and enjoys extensive utilization in the +structural, thermal and fluid analysis areas. The finite element method is +comprised of three major phases: (1) pre-processing, in which the analyst +develops a finite element mesh to divide the subject geometry into +subdomains for mathematical analysis, and applies material properties and +boundary conditions, (2) solution, during which the program derives the +governing matrix equations from the model and solves for the primary +quantities, and (3) post-processing, in which the analyst checks the +validity of the solution, examines the values of primary quantities (such +as displacements and stresses), and derives and examines additional +quantities (such as specialized stresses and error indicators). + +The advantages of FEA are numerous and important. A new design concept may +be modeled to determine its real world behavior under various load +environments, and may therefore be refined prior to the creation of +drawings, when few dollars have been committed and changes are inexpensive. +Once a detailed CAD model has been developed, FEA can analyze the design in +detail, saving time and money by reducing the number of prototypes +required. An existing product which is experiencing a field problem, or is +simply being improved, can be analyzed to speed an engineering change and +reduce its cost. In addition, FEA can be performed on increasingly +affordable computer workstations, and professional assistance is available. + +It is also important to recognize the limitations of FEA. Commercial +software packages and the required hardware, while coming down in price, +still require a significant investment. The method can reduce product +testing, but cannot totally replace it. Probably most important, an +inexperienced user can deliver incorrect answers, upon which expensive +decisions will be based. FEA is a demanding tool, in that the analyst must +be proficient not only in elasticity or fluids, but also in mathematics, +computer science, and especially the finite element method itself. + +Which FEA package to use is a subject that cannot possibly be covered in +this short discussion, and the choice involves personal preferences as well +as package functionality. Where to run the package, on the other hand, is +becoming increasingly clear. A typical finite element solution creates a +temporary matrix file as large as 1 Gbyte, with 50 to 100 Mbytes common, +thus requiring a fast, modern disk subsystem for acceptable performance. +Memory requirements are of course dependent on the code, but in the +interest of performance, the more the better, with 8 to 32 Mbytes per user +a representative range. Processing power is the final link in the +performance chain, with clock speed, cache, pipelining and vector +processing all contributing to the bottom line. All in all, today's user +needs a minimum of 1 or 2 Mflops (millions of double-precision +floating-point operations per second) sustained performance, with 10 or 20 +Mflops being all the better. These analyses can run for hours or even days +on the fastest systems, so computing power is of the essence. Given these +requirements, performing FEA on a PC may be suitable for teaching the +method, but is likely to be found insufficient for dedicated analysis. +Until very recently, only an expensive host could fulfill the needs of a +full-time analyst. (Unfortunately, unleashing several solutions without +careful priority control could all but kill the interactive productivity of +time-shared users.) Today, however, powerful engineering workstations +provide an affordable platform for FEA, and are rapidly becoming the system +of choice. Expect to pay $50K to $200K for station and software, depending +on hardware performance and software capability. + +One aspect often overlooked when entering the finite element area is +education. Without adequate training on the finite element method and the +specific FEA package, a new user will not be productive in a reasonable +amount of time, and may in fact fail miserably. Expect to dedicate one to +two weeks up front, and another one to two weeks over the first year, to +either classroom or self-help education. It is also important that the +user have a basic understanding of the computer's operating system. + +Next month's article will go into detail on the pre-processing phase of the +finite element method. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- +Steve Roensch is an engineering consultant specializing in finite element +analysis. (C) 1991 Roensch Engineering Consulting, 414-375-2228 +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +========================================================================== + +FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS: Pre-processing + +by Steve Roensch, Roensch Engineering Consulting + +---------------------------- +Second in a four-part series +---------------------------- + +As discussed last month, finite element analysis is comprised of +pre-processing, solution and post-processing phases. The goals of +pre-processing are to develop an appropriate finite element mesh, assign +suitable material properties, and apply boundary conditions in the form of +restraints and loads. + +The finite element mesh subdivides the geometry into elements, upon which +are found nodes. The nodes, which are really just point locations in +space, are generally located at the element corners and perhaps near each +midside. For a two-dimensional (2D) analysis, or a three-dimensional (3D) +thin shell analysis, the elements are essentially 2D, but may be "warped" +slightly to conform to a 3D surface. An example is the thin shell linear +quadrilateral; thin shell implies essentially classical shell theory, +linear defines the interpolation of mathematical quantities across the +element, and quadrilateral describes the geometry. For a 3D solid +analysis, the elements have physical thickness in all three dimensions. +Common examples include solid linear brick and solid parabolic tetrahedral +elements. In addition, there are many special elements, such as +axisymmetric elements for situations in which the geometry, material and +boundary conditions are all symmetric about an axis. + +The model's degrees of freedom (dof) are assigned at the nodes. Solid +elements generally have three translational dof per node. Rotations are +accomplished through translations of groups of nodes relative to other +nodes. Thin shell elements, on the other hand, have six dof per node: +three translations and three rotations. The addition of rotational dof +allows for evaluation of quantities through the shell, such as bending +stresses due to rotation of one node relative to another. Thus, for +structures in which classical thin shell theory is a valid approximation, +carrying extra dof at each node bypasses the necessity of modeling the +physical thickness. The assignment of nodal dof also depends on the class +of analysis. For a thermal analysis, for example, only one temperature dof +exists at each node. + +Developing the mesh is usually the most time-consuming task in FEA. In the +past, node locations were keyed in manually to approximate the geometry. +The more modern approach is to develop the mesh directly on the CAD +geometry, which will be (1) wireframe, with points and curves representing +edges, (2) surfaced, with surfaces defining boundaries, or (3) solid, +defining where the material is. Solid geometry is preferred, but often a +surfacing package can create a complex blend that a solids package will not +handle. As far as geometric detail, an underlying rule of FEA is to "model +what is there", and yet simplifying assumptions simply must be applied to +avoid huge models. Analyst experience is of the essence. + +The geometry is meshed with a mapping algorithm or an automatic +free-meshing algorithm. The first maps a rectangular grid onto a geometric +region, which must therefore have the correct number of sides. Mapped +meshes can use the accurate and cheap solid linear brick 3D element, but +can be very time-consuming, if not impossible, to apply to complex +geometries. Free-meshing automatically subdivides meshing regions into +elements, with the advantages of fast meshing, easy mesh-size transitioning +(for a denser mesh in regions of large gradient), and adaptive +capabilities. Disadvantages include generation of huge models, generation +of distorted elements, and, in 3D, the use of the rather expensive solid +parabolic tetrahedral element. It is always important to check elemental +distortion prior to solution. A badly distorted element will cause a +matrix singularity, killing the solution. A less distorted element may +solve, but can deliver very poor answers. Acceptable levels of distortion +are dependent upon the solver being used. + +Material properties required vary with the type of solution. A linear +statics analysis, for example, will require an elastic modulus, Poisson's +ratio and perhaps a density for each material. Examples of restraints are +declaring a nodal translation or temperature. Loads include forces, +pressures and heat flux. It is preferable to apply boundary conditions to +the CAD geometry, with the FEA package transferring them to the underlying +model, to allow for simpler application of adaptive and optimization +algorithms. It is worth noting that the largest error in the entire +process is often in the boundary conditions. Running multiple cases as a +sensitivity analysis may be required. + +Next month's article will discuss the solution phase of the finite element +method. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- +Steve Roensch is an engineering consultant specializing in finite element +analysis. (C) 1991 Roensch Engineering Consulting, 414-375-2228 +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +========================================================================== + +FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS: Solution + +by Steve Roensch, Roensch Engineering Consulting + +--------------------------- +Third in a four-part series +--------------------------- + +While the pre-processing and post-processing phases of the finite element +method are interactive and time-consuming for the analyst, the solution is +usually a batch process, and is demanding of computer resource. The +governing equations are assembled into matrix form and are solved +numerically. The assembly process depends not only on the type of analysis +(e.g. static or dynamic), but also on the model's element types and +properties, material properties and boundary conditions. + +In the case of a linear static structural analysis, the assembled equation +is of the form Kd = r, where K is the system stiffness matrix, d is the +nodal degree of freedom (dof) displacement vector, and r is the applied +nodal load vector. To appreciate this equation, one must begin with the +underlying elasticity theory. The strain-displacement relation may be +introduced into the stress-strain relation to express stress in terms of +displacement. Under the assumption of compatibility, the differential +equations of equilibrium in concert with the boundary conditions then +determine a unique displacement field solution, which in turn determines +the strain and stress fields. The chances of directly solving these +equations are slim to none for anything but the most trivial geometries, +hence the need for approximate numerical techniques presents itself. + +A finite element mesh is actually a displacement-nodal displacement +relation, which, through the element interpolation scheme, determines the +displacement anywhere in an element given the values of its nodal dof. +Introducing this relation into the strain-displacement relation, we may +express strain in terms of the nodal displacement, element interpolation +scheme and differential operator matrix. Recalling that the expression for +the potential energy of an elastic body includes an integral for strain +energy stored (dependent upon the strain field) and integrals for work done +by external forces (dependent upon the displacement field), we can +therefore express system potential energy in terms of nodal displacement. + +Applying the principle of minimum potential energy, we may set the partial +derivative of potential energy with respect to the nodal dof vector to +zero, resulting in: a summation of element stiffness integrals, multiplied +by the nodal displacement vector, equals a summation of load integrals. +Each stiffness integral results in an element stiffness matrix, which sum +to produce the system stiffness matrix, and the summation of load integrals +yields the applied load vector, resulting in Kd = r. In practice, +integration rules are applied to elements, loads appear in the r vector, +and nodal dof boundary conditions may appear in the d vector or may be +partitioned out of the equation. + +Solution methods for finite element matrix equations are plentiful. In the +case of the linear static Kd = r, inverting K is computationally expensive +and numerically unstable. A better technique is Cholesky factorization, a +form of Gauss elimination, and a minor variation on the the "LDU" +factorization theme. The K matrix may be efficiently factorized into LDU, +where L is lower triangular, D is diagonal, and U is upper triangular, +resulting in LDUd = r. Since L and D are easily inverted, and U is upper +triangular, d may be determined by back-substitution. Another popular +approach is the wavefront method, which assembles and reduces the equations +at the same time. The key point is that the analyst must understand the +solution technique being applied. + +Dynamic analysis for too many analysts means normal modes. Knowledge of +the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a design may be enough in the +case of a single-frequency vibration of an existing product or prototype, +with FEA being used to investigate the effects of mass, stiffness and +damping modifications. When investigating a future product, or an existing +design with multiple modes excited, forced response modeling should be used +to apply the expected transient or frequency environment to estimate the +displacement and even dynamic stress at each time step. + +This discussion has assumed h-code elements, for which the order of the +interpolation polynomials is fixed. Another technique, p-code, increases +the order iteratively until convergence, with error estimates available +after one analysis. Finally, the boundary element method places elements +only along the geometrical boundary. These techniques have limitations, +but expect to see more of them in the near future. + +Next month's article will discuss the post-processing phase of the finite +element method. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- +Steve Roensch is an engineering consultant specializing in finite element +analysis. (C) 1991 Roensch Engineering Consulting, 414-375-2228 +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +========================================================================== + +FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS: Post-processing + +by Steve Roensch, Roensch Engineering Consulting + +-------------------------- +Last in a four-part series +-------------------------- + +After a finite element model has been prepared and checked, boundary +conditions have been applied, and the model has been solved, it is time to +investigate the results of the analysis. This activity is known as the +post-processing phase of the finite element method. + +Post-processing begins with a thorough check for problems that may have +occurred during solution. Most solvers provide a log file, which should be +searched for warnings or errors, and which will also provide a quantitative +measure of how well-behaved the numerical procedures were during solution. +Next, reaction loads at restrained nodes should be summed and examined as a +"sanity check". Reaction loads that do not closely balance the applied +load resultant for a linear static analysis should cast doubt on the +validity of other results. Error norms such as strain energy density and +stress deviation among adjacent elements might be looked at next, but for +h-code analyses these quantities are best used to target subsequent +adaptive remeshing. + +Once the solution is verified to be free of numerical problems, the +quantities of interest may be examined. Many display options are +available, the choice of which depends on the mathematical form of the +quantity as well as its physical meaning. For example, the displacement of +a solid linear brick element's node is a 3-component spatial vector, and +the model's overall displacement is often displayed by superposing the +deformed shape over the undeformed shape. Dynamic viewing and animation +capabilities aid greatly in obtaining an understanding of the deformation +pattern. Stresses, being tensor quantities, currently lack a good single +visualization technique, and thus derived stress quantities are extracted +and displayed. Principle stress vectors may be displayed as color-coded +arrows, indicating both direction and magnitude. The magnitude of +principle stresses or of a scalar failure stress such as the Von Mises +stress may be displayed on the model as colored bands. When this type of +display is treated as a 3D object subjected to light sources, the resulting +image is known as a shaded image stress plot. Displacement magnitude may +also be displayed by colored bands, but this can lead to misinterpretation +as a stress plot. + +An area of post-processing that is rapidly gaining popularity is that of +adaptive remeshing. Error norms such as strain energy density are used to +remesh the model, placing a denser mesh in regions needing improvement and +a coarser mesh in areas of overkill. Adaptivity requires an associative +link between the model and the underlying CAD geometry, and works best if +boundary conditions may be applied directly to the geometry, as well. +Adaptive remeshing is a recent demonstration of the iterative nature of +h-code analysis. + +Optimization is another area enjoying recent advancement. Based on the +values of various results, the model is modified automatically in an +attempt to satisfy certain performance criteria and is solved again. The +process iterates until some convergence criterion is met. In its scalar +form, optimization modifies beam cross-sectional properties, thin shell +thicknesses and/or material properties in an attempt to meet maximum stress +constraints, maximum deflection constraints, and/or vibrational frequency +constraints. Shape optimization is more complex, with the actual 3D model +boundaries being modified. + +Another direction clearly visible in the finite element field is the +integration of FEA packages with so-called "mechanism" packages, which +analyze motion and forces of large-displacement multi-body systems. A +long-term goal would be real-time computation and display of displacements +and stresses in a multi-body system undergoing large displacement motion, +with frictional effects and fluid flow taken into account when necessary. +It is difficult to estimate the increase in computing power necessary to +accomplish this feat, but 2 or 3 orders of magnitude is probably close. +Algorithms to integrate these fields of analysis may be expected to follow +the computing power increases. + +In summary, the finite element method is a relatively recent discipline +that has quickly become a mature method, especially for structural and +thermal analysis. The costs of applying this technology to everyday design +tasks have been dropping, while the capabilities delivered by the method +expand constantly. With education in the technique and in the commercial +software packages becoming more and more available, the question has moved +from "Why apply FEA?" to "Why not?". The method is fully capable of +delivering higher quality products in a shorter design cycle with a reduced +chance of field failure, provided it is applied by a capable analyst. It +is also a valid indication of thorough design practices, should an +unexpected litigation crop up. The time is now for industry to make +greater use of this and other analysis techniques. + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- +Steve Roensch is an engineering consultant specializing in finite element +analysis. (C) 1991 Roensch Engineering Consulting, 414-375-2228 +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +========================================================================== + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/fermats_.the b/textfiles.com/science/fermats_.the new file mode 100644 index 00000000..43001a40 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/fermats_.the @@ -0,0 +1,240 @@ +########################################################################### +1Q: What is the current status of Fermat's last theorem? + + +and + + Did Fermat prove this theorem? + + + Fermat's Last Theorem: + + There are no positive integers x,y,z, and n > 2 such that x^n + y^n = z^n. + + I heard that claimed to have proved it but later + on the proof was found to be wrong. ... + +A: The status of FLT has remained remarkably constant. Every few + years, someone claims to have a proof ... but oh, wait, not quite. + + UPDATE... UPDATE... UPDATE + + Andrew Wiles, a researcher at Princeton, Cambridge claims to have + found a proof. + + SECOND UPDATE... + + A mistake has been found. Wiles is working on it. People remain + mildly optimistic about his chances of fixing the error. + + The proposed proof goes like this: + + The proof was presented in Cambridge, UK during a three day seminar + to an audience including some of the leading experts in the field. + + The manuscript has been submitted to INVENTIONES MATHEMATICAE, and + is currently under review. Preprints are not available until the + proof checks out. Wiles is giving a full seminar on the proof this + spring. + + The proof is long and cumbersome, but here are some of the first + few details: + + *From Ken Ribet: + + Here is a brief summary of what Wiles said in his three lectures. + + The method of Wiles borrows results and techniques from lots and lots + of people. To mention a few: Mazur, Hida, Flach, Kolyvagin, yours + truly, Wiles himself (older papers by Wiles), Rubin... The way he does + it is roughly as follows. Start with a mod p representation of the + Galois group of Q which is known to be modular. You want to prove that + all its lifts with a certain property are modular. This means that the + canonical map from Mazur's universal deformation ring to its "maximal + Hecke algebra" quotient is an isomorphism. To prove a map like this is + an isomorphism, you can give some sufficient conditions based on + commutative algebra. Most notably, you have to bound the order of a + cohomology group which looks like a Selmer group for Sym^2 of the + representation attached to a modular form. The techniques for doing + this come from Flach; you also have to use Euler systems a la + Kolyvagin, except in some new geometric guise. + + CLARIFICATION: This step in Wiles' manuscript, the Selmer group + bound, is currently considered to be incomplete by the reviewers. + Yet the reviewers (or at least those who have gone public) have + confidence that Wiles will fill it in. (Note that such gaps are + quite common in long proofs. In this particular case, just such + a bound was expected to be provable using Kolyvagin's techniques, + independently of anyone thinking of modularity. In the worst of + cases, and the gap is for real, what remains has to be recast, but + it is still extremely important number theory breakthrough work.) + + + + If you take an elliptic curve over Q, you can look at the + representation of Gal on the 3-division points of the curve. If you're + lucky, this will be known to be modular, because of results of Jerry + Tunnell (on base change). Thus, if you're lucky, the problem I + described above can be solved (there are most definitely some + hypotheses to check), and then the curve is modular. Basically, being + lucky means that the image of the representation of Galois on + 3-division points is GL(2,Z/3Z). + + Suppose that you are unlucky, i.e., that your curve E has a rational + subgroup of order 3. Basically by inspection, you can prove that if it + has a rational subgroup of order 5 as well, then it can't be + semistable. (You look at the four non-cuspidal rational points of + X_0(15).) So you can assume that E[5] is "nice." Then the idea is to + find an E' with the same 5-division structure, for which E'[3] is + modular. (Then E' is modular, so E'[5] = E[5] is modular.) You + consider the modular curve X which parameterizes elliptic curves whose + 5-division points look like E[5]. This is a "twist" of X(5). It's + therefore of genus 0, and it has a rational point (namely, E), so it's + a projective line. Over that you look at the irreducible covering + which corresponds to some desired 3-division structure. You use + Hilbert irreducibility and the Cebotarev density theorem (in some way + that hasn't yet sunk in) to produce a non-cuspidal rational point of X + over which the covering remains irreducible. You take E' to be the + curve corresponding to this chosen rational point of X. + + + *From the previous version of the FAQ: + + (b) conjectures arising from the study of elliptic curves and + modular forms. -- The Taniyama-Weil-Shmimura conjecture. + + There is a very important and well known conjecture known as the + Taniyama-Weil-Shimura conjecture that concerns elliptic curves. + This conjecture has been shown by the work of Frey, Serre, Ribet, + et. al. to imply FLT uniformly, not just asymptotically as with the + ABC conj. + + The conjecture basically states that all elliptic curves can be + parameterized in terms of modular forms. + + There is new work on the arithmetic of elliptic curves. Sha, the + Tate-Shafarevich group on elliptic curves of rank 0 or 1. By the way + an interesting aspect of this work is that there is a close + connection between Sha, and some of the classical work on FLT. For + example, there is a classical proof that uses infinite descent to + prove FLT for n = 4. It can be shown that there is an elliptic curve + associated with FLT and that for n=4, Sha is trivial. It can also be + shown that in the cases where Sha is non-trivial, that + infinite-descent arguments do not work; that in some sense 'Sha + blocks the descent'. Somewhat more technically, Sha is an + obstruction to the local-global principle [e.g. the Hasse-Minkowski + theorem]. + + *From Karl Rubin: + + Theorem. If E is a semistable elliptic curve defined over Q, + then E is modular. + + It has been known for some time, by work of Frey and Ribet, that + Fermat follows from this. If u^q + v^q + w^q = 0, then Frey had + the idea of looking at the (semistable) elliptic curve + y^2 = x(x-a^q)(x+b^q). If this elliptic curve comes from a modular + form, then the work of Ribet on Serre's conjecture shows that there + would have to exist a modular form of weight 2 on Gamma_0(2). But + there are no such forms. + + To prove the Theorem, start with an elliptic curve E, a prime p and let + + rho_p : Gal(Q^bar/Q) -> GL_2(Z/pZ) + + be the representation giving the action of Galois on the p-torsion + E[p]. We wish to show that a _certain_ lift of this representation + to GL_2(Z_p) (namely, the p-adic representation on the Tate module + T_p(E)) is attached to a modular form. We will do this by using + Mazur's theory of deformations, to show that _every_ lifting which + 'looks modular' in a certain precise sense is attached to a modular form. + + Fix certain 'lifting data', such as the allowed ramification, + specified local behavior at p, etc. for the lift. This defines a + lifting problem, and Mazur proves that there is a universal + lift, i.e. a local ring R and a representation into GL_2(R) such + that every lift of the appropriate type factors through this one. + + Now suppose that rho_p is modular, i.e. there is _some_ lift + of rho_p which is attached to a modular form. Then there is + also a hecke ring T, which is the maximal quotient of R with the + property that all _modular_ lifts factor through T. It is a + conjecture of Mazur that R = T, and it would follow from this + that _every_ lift of rho_p which 'looks modular' (in particular the + one we are interested in) is attached to a modular form. + + Thus we need to know 2 things: + + (a) rho_p is modular + (b) R = T. + + It was proved by Tunnell that rho_3 is modular for every elliptic + curve. This is because PGL_2(Z/3Z) = S_4. So (a) will be satisfied + if we take p=3. This is crucial. + + Wiles uses (a) to prove (b) under some restrictions on rho_p. Using + (a) and some commutative algebra (using the fact that T is Gorenstein, + 'basically due to Mazur') Wiles reduces the statement T = R to + checking an inequality between the sizes of 2 groups. One of these + is related to the Selmer group of the symmetric square of the given + modular lifting of rho_p, and the other is related (by work of Hida) + to an L-value. The required inequality, which everyone presumes is + an instance of the Bloch-Kato conjecture, is what Wiles needs to verify. + + He does this using a Kolyvagin-type Euler system argument. This is + the most technically difficult part of the proof, and is responsible + for most of the length of the manuscript. He uses modular + units to construct what he calls a 'geometric Euler system' of + cohomology classes. The inspiration for his construction comes + from work of Flach, who came up with what is essentially the + 'bottom level' of this Euler system. But Wiles needed to go much + farther than Flach did. In the end, _under_certain_hypotheses_ on rho_p + he gets a workable Euler system and proves the desired inequality. + Among other things, it is necessary that rho_p is irreducible. + + Suppose now that E is semistable. + + Case 1. rho_3 is irreducible. + Take p=3. By Tunnell's theorem (a) above is true. Under these + hypotheses the argument above works for rho_3, so we conclude + that E is modular. + + Case 2. rho_3 is reducible. + Take p=5. In this case rho_5 must be irreducible, or else E + would correspond to a rational point on X_0(15). But X_0(15) + has only 4 noncuspidal rational points, and these correspond to + non-semistable curves. _If_ we knew that rho_5 were modular, + then the computation above would apply and E would be modular. + + We will find a new semistable elliptic curve E' such that + rho_{E,5} = rho_{E',5} and rho_{E',3} is irreducible. Then + by Case I, E' is modular. Therefore rho_{E,5} = rho_{E',5} + does have a modular lifting and we will be done. + + We need to construct such an E'. Let X denote the modular + curve whose points correspond to pairs (A, C) where A is an + elliptic curve and C is a subgroup of A isomorphic to the group + scheme E[5]. (All such curves will have mod-5 representation + equal to rho_E.) This X is genus 0, and has one rational point + corresponding to E, so it has infinitely many. Now Wiles uses a + Hilbert Irreducibility argument to show that not all rational + points can be images of rational points on modular curves + covering X, corresponding to degenerate level 3 structure + (i.e. im(rho_3) not GL_2(Z/3)). In other words, an E' of the + type we need exists. (To make sure E' is semistable, choose + it 5-adically close to E. Then it is semistable at 5, and at + other primes because rho_{E',5} = rho_{E,5}.) + + + Referencesm: + + + American Mathematical Monthly + January 1994. + + Notices of the AMS, Februrary 1994. + + +########################################################################### + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/fission.txt b/textfiles.com/science/fission.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ee5b5a42 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/fission.txt @@ -0,0 +1,365 @@ +"Within about 1ms after the explosion, some 70-80% of the explosion energy... + is emitted as primary thermal radiation, most of which consists of soft + X-rays." + + Glasstone, The Effects of Nuclear Weaponns + +FISSION PRINCIPLES + +The binding energy per nucleon versus atomic mass has a turning point around +Fe-56. Iron is the most stable element. Elements with atomic masses less +than iron tend to combine, and those with masses greater than iron tend to +split. Radioactivity is an indication of this instability. The problem is that +protons in the nucleus tend to repel each other. There comes a stage where +the nuclear binding energy cannot compete with this repelling force, even if +you add more and more neutrons to the nucleus. Take as an example, the highest +Z naturally occuring element - uranium. + +U has many radioactive isotopes. These include U-234, U-235 and U-238. They are +among the longest-living elements in a table of radioactive isotopes. + +The U-235 isotope is used in weapons since it has the highest fission cross +section of all the U isotopes, for thermal neutrons. + +If you bombard U-238 with thermal neutrons, you might just cause +a transuranic beta decay to Pu-239. Pu does not occur naturally, and is of +use in weapons. If you bombard the radioactive isotopes with slow neutrons +there is a chance that you will split the nuclei in half. In the process, you +release some binding energy, and some more neutrons. For an explosion, you +need a self-sustaining chain reaction which keeps on generating more and more +neutrons. In effect, you need a critical mass of fissionable material to +offset any loss of neutrons. (Instead of hitting other isotopic nuclei, the +neutrons might just wander off.) A sphere of material is used to provide the +least surface area for neutron loss. If the sphere is large enough, neutron +loss will be balanced by neutron generation, resulting in a self-sustaining +reaction. You have an energy release in fission since the mass of the original +atom doesn't equal the mass of the two reaction atoms. The lost energy is +converted to radiation and kinetic energy of the atoms via mass-energy +equivalence. The fission products are around equal size, and are highly +radioactive. Products include Sr, which is absorbed into human bones and +stays there, since it is chemically similar to calcium. Other harmful +products include cesium, similar to potassium. Cesium is distributed +uniformly throughout the body. + +The number of fissioning nuclei increases as a geometric progression, with +each generation. Most of the energy in a bomb is released during around the +80th generation. + +It is estimated in 10^-6 secs, about 2x10-24 U-235 nuclei split, releasing +HUGE amounts of energy. A single split gives you about 170MeV on average, +whereas a chemical reaction only gives you a few eV. + +An example of a fission reaction is: + + U-235 + n -> Kr-92 + Xe-142 + 2n + 207 MeV. + +The released energy is many orders of magnitude greater than that released +by a chemical reaction using the same amount of matter. + +A solid Pu sphere of 6.2kg mass is about 3.3" in diameter. It would be as +big as a tennis ball, but as massive as a bowling ball. The sphere would be +bigger if there was a Po-Be core inside. + + Uranium & Plutonium + ------------------- + + Uranium-235 is very difficult to extract. In fact, for every 25,000 tons +of Uranium ore that is mined from the earth, only 50 tons of Uranium metal can +be refined from that, and 99.3% of that metal is U-238 which is too stable to +be used as an active agent in an atomic detonation. To make matters even more +complicated, no ordinary chemical extraction can separate the two isotopes +since both U-235 and U-238 possess precisely identical chemical +characteristics. The only methods that can effectively separate U-235 from +U-238 are mechanical methods. + + U-235 is slightly, but only slightly, lighter than its counterpart, +U-238. A system of gaseous diffusion is used to begin the separating process +between the two isotopes. In this system, Uranium is combined with fluorine +to form Uranium Hexafluoride gas. This mixture is then propelled by low- +pressure pumps through a series of extremely fine porous barriers. Because +the U-235 atoms are lighter and thus propelled faster than the U-238 atoms, +they could penetrate the barriers more rapidly. As a result, the +U-235's concentration became successively greater as it passed through each +barrier. After passing through several thousand barriers, the Uranium +Hexafluoride contains a relatively high concentration of U-235 -- 2% pure +Uranium in the case of reactor fuel, and if pushed further could +(theoretically) yield up to 95% pure Uranium for use in an atomic bomb. + + Once the process of gaseous diffusion is finished, the Uranium must be +refined once again. Magnetic separation of the extract from the previous +enriching process is then implemented to further refine the Uranium. This +involves electrically charging Uranium Tetrachloride gas and directing it past +a weak electromagnet. Since the lighter U-235 particles in the gas stream are +less affected by the magnetic pull, they can be gradually separated from the +flow. + + Following the first two procedures, a third enrichment process is then +applied to the extract from the second process. In this procedure, a gas +centrifuge is brought into action to further separate the lighter U-235 from +its heavier counter-isotope. Centrifugal force separates the two isotopes of +Uranium by their mass. Once all of these procedures have been completed, all +that need be done is to place the properly molded components of Uranium-235 +inside a warhead that will facilitate an atomic detonation. + + Supercritical mass for Uranium-235 is defined as 110 lbs (50 kgs) of +pure Uranium. + + Depending on the refining process(es) used when purifying the U-235 for +use, along with the design of the warhead mechanism and the altitude at which +it detonates, the explosive force of the A-bomb can range anywhere from 1 +kiloton (which equals 1,000 tons of TNT) to 20 megatons (which equals 20 +million tons of TNT -- which, by the way, is the smallest strategic nuclear +warhead we possess today. {Point in fact -- One Trident Nuclear Submarine +carries as much destructive power as 25 World War II's}). + + While Uranium is an ideally fissionable material, it is not the only one. +Plutonium can be used in an atomic bomb as well. By leaving U-238 inside an +atomic reactor for an extended period of time, the U-238 picks up extra +particles (neutrons especially) and gradually is transformed into the element +Plutonium. + + Plutonium is fissionable, but not as easily fissionable as Uranium. +While Uranium can be detonated by a simple 2-part gun-type device, Plutonium +must be detonated by a more complex 32-part implosion chamber along with a +stronger conventional explosive, a greater striking velocity and a +simultaneous triggering mechanism for the conventional explosive packs. Along +with all of these requirements comes the additional task of introducing a fine +mixture of Beryllium and Polonium to this metal while all of these actions are +occurring. + + Supercritical mass for Plutonium is defined as 35.2 lbs (16 kgs). This +amount needed for a supercritical mass can be reduced to a smaller quantity of +22 lbs (10 kgs) by surrounding the Plutonium with a U-238 casing. + +============================================================================ + + + - Diagram of a Chain Reaction - + ------------------------------- + + + + | + | + | + | + [1]------------------------------> o + + . o o . + . o_0_o . <-----------------------[2] + . o 0 o . + . o o . + + | + \|/ + ~ + + . o o. .o o . + [3]-----------------------> . o_0_o"o_0_o . + . o 0 o~o 0 o . + . o o.".o o . + | + / | \ + |/_ | _\| + ~~ | ~~ + | + o o | o o + [4]-----------------> o_0_o | o_0_o <---------------[5] + o~0~o | o~0~o + o o ) | ( o o + / o \ + / [1] \ + / \ + / \ + / \ + o [1] [1] o + . o o . . o o . . o o . + . o_0_o . . o_0_o . . o_0_o . + . o 0 o . <-[2]-> . o 0 o . <-[2]-> . o 0 o . + . o o . . o o . . o o . + + / | \ + |/_ \|/ _\| + ~~ ~ ~~ + + . o o. .o o . . o o. .o o . . o o. .o o . + . o_0_o"o_0_o . . o_0_o"o_0_o . . o_0_o"o_0_o . + . o 0 o~o 0 o . <--[3]--> . o 0 o~o 0 o . <--[3]--> . o 0 o~o 0 o . + . o o.".o o . . o o.".o o . . o o.".o o . + . | . . | . . | . + / | \ / | \ / | \ + : | : : | : : | : + : | : : | : : | : + \:/ | \:/ \:/ | \:/ \:/ | \:/ + ~ | ~ ~ | ~ ~ | ~ + [4] o o | o o [5] [4] o o | o o [5] [4] o o | o o [5] + o_0_o | o_0_o o_0_o | o_0_o o_0_o | o_0_o + o~0~o | o~0~o o~0~o | o~0~o o~0~o | o~0~o + o o ) | ( o o o o ) | ( o o o o ) | ( o o + / | \ / | \ / | \ + / | \ / | \ / | \ + / | \ / | \ / | \ + / | \ / | \ / | \ + / o \ / o \ / o \ + / [1] \ / [1] \ / [1] \ + o o o o o o + [1] [1] [1] [1] [1] [1] + + + + + + +============================================================================ + + - Diagram Outline - + --------------------- + + [1] - Incoming Neutron + [2] - Uranium-235 + [3] - Uranium-236 + [4] - Barium Atom + [5] - Krypton Atom + +=========================================================================== + + I. The History of the Atomic Bomb + ------------------------------ + + On August 2nd 1939, just before the beginning of World War II, Albert +Einstein wrote to then President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Einstein and several +other scientists told Roosevelt of efforts in Nazi Germany to purify U-235 +with which might in turn be used to build an atomic bomb. It was shortly +thereafter that the United States Government began the serious undertaking +known only then as the Manhattan Project. Simply put, the Manhattan Project +was committed to expedient research and production that would produce a viable +atomic bomb. + + The most complicated issue to be addressed was the production of ample +amounts of `enriched' uranium to sustain a chain reaction. At the time, +Uranium-235 was very hard to extract. In fact, the ratio of conversion from +Uranium ore to Uranium metal is 500:1. An additional drawback is that the 1 +part of Uranium that is finally refined from the ore consists of over 99% +Uranium-238, which is practically useless for an atomic bomb. To make it even +more difficult, U-235 and U-238 are precisely similar in their chemical +makeup. This proved to be as much of a challenge as separating a solution of +sucrose from a solution of glucose. No ordinary chemical extraction could +separate the two isotopes. Only mechanical methods could effectively separate +U-235 from U-238. Several scientists at Columbia University managed to solve +this dilemma. + + A massive enrichment laboratory/plant was constructed at Oak Ridge, +Tennessee. H.C. Urey, along with his associates and colleagues at Columbia +University, devised a system that worked on the principle of gaseous +diffusion. Following this process, Ernest O. Lawrence (inventor of the +Cyclotron) at the University of California in Berkeley implemented a process +involving magnetic separation of the two isotopes. + + Following the first two processes, a gas centrifuge was used to further +separate the lighter U-235 from the heavier non-fissionable U-238 by their +mass. Once all of these procedures had been completed, all that needed to be +done was to put to the test the entire concept behind atomic fission. + + Over the course of six years, ranging from 1939 to 1945, more than 2 +billion dollars were spent on the Manhattan Project. The formulas for +refining Uranium and putting together a working bomb were created and seen to +their logical ends by some of the greatest minds of our time. Among these +people who unleashed the power of the atomic bomb was J. Robert Oppenheimer. + + Oppenheimer was the major force behind the Manhattan Project. He +literally ran the show and saw to it that all of the great minds working on +this project made their brainstorms work. He oversaw the entire project from +its conception to its completion. + + Finally the day came when all at Los Alamos would find out whether or not +The Gadget (code-named as such during its development) was either going to be +the colossal dud of the century or perhaps end the war. It all came down to +a fateful morning of midsummer, 1945. + + At 5:29:45 (Mountain War Time) on July 16th, 1945, in a white blaze that +stretched from the basin of the Jemez Mountains in northern New Mexico to the +still-dark skies, The Gadget ushered in the Atomic Age. The light of the +explosion then turned orange as the atomic fireball began shooting upwards at +360 feet per second, reddening and pulsing as it cooled. The characteristic +mushroom cloud of radioactive vapor materialized at 30,000 feet. Beneath the +cloud, all that remained of the soil at the blast site were fragments of jade +green radioactive glass. ...All of this caused by the heat of the reaction. + + The brilliant light from the detonation pierced the early morning skies +with such intensity that residents from a faraway neighboring community would +swear that the sun came up twice that day. Even more astonishing is that a +blind girl saw the flash 120 miles away. + + Upon witnessing the explosion, reactions among the people who created +it were mixed. Isidor Rabi felt that the equilibrium in nature had been +upset -- as if humankind had become a threat to the world it inhabited. +J. Robert Oppenheimer, though ecstatic about the success of the project, +quoted a remembered fragment from Bhagavad Gita. "I am become Death," he +said, "the destroyer of worlds." Ken Bainbridge, the test director, told +Oppenheimer, "Now we're all sons of bitches." + + Several participants, shortly after viewing the results, signed petitions +against loosing the monster they had created, but their protests fell on deaf +ears. As it later turned out, the Jornada del Muerto of New Mexico was not +the last site on planet Earth to experience an atomic explosion. + + As many know, atomic bombs have been used only twice in warfare. The +first and foremost blast site of the atomic bomb is Hiroshima. A Uranium +bomb (which weighed in at over 4 & 1/2 tons) nicknamed "Little Boy" was +dropped on Hiroshima August 6th, 1945. The Aioi Bridge, one of 81 bridges +connecting the seven-branched delta of the Ota River, was the aiming point of +the bomb. Ground Zero was set at 1,980 feet. At 0815 hours, the bomb was +dropped from the Enola Gay. It missed by only 800 feet. At 0816 hours, in +the flash of an instant, 66,000 people were killed and 69,000 people were +injured by a 10 kiloton atomic explosion. + + The point of total vaporization from the blast measured one half of a +mile in diameter. Total destruction ranged at one mile in diameter. Severe +blast damage carried as far as two miles in diameter. At two and a half +miles, everything flammable in the area burned. The remaining area of the +blast zone was riddled with serious blazes that stretched out to the final +edge at a little over three miles in diameter. + + On August 9th 1945, Nagasaki fell to the same treatment as Hiroshima. +Only this time, a Plutonium bomb nicknamed "Fat Man" was dropped on the city. +Even though the "Fat Man" missed by over a mile and a half, it still leveled +nearly half the city. Nagasaki's population dropped in one split-second from +422,000 to 383,000. 39,000 were killed, over 25,000 were injured. That +blast was less than 10 kilotons as well. Estimates from physicists who have +studied each atomic explosion state that the bombs that were used had utilized +only 1/10th of 1 percent of their respective explosive capabilities. + + While the mere explosion from an atomic bomb is deadly enough, its +destructive ability doesn't stop there. Atomic fallout creates another hazard +as well. The rain that follows any atomic detonation is laden with +radioactive particles. Many survivors of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki blasts +succumbed to radiation poisoning due to this occurance. + + The atomic detonation also has the hidden lethal surprise of affecting +the future generations of those who live through it. Leukemia is among the +greatest of afflictions that are passed on to the offspring of survivors. + + While the main purpose behind the atomic bomb is obvious, there are many +by-products that have been brought into consideration in the use of all +weapons atomic. With one small atomic bomb, a massive area's communications, +travel and machinery will grind to a dead halt due to the EMP (Electro- +Magnetic Pulse) that is radiated from a high-altitude atomic detonation. +These high-level detonations are hardly lethal, yet they deliver a serious +enough EMP to scramble any and all things electronic ranging from copper wires +all the way up to a computer's CPU within a 50 mile radius. + + At one time, during the early days of The Atomic Age, it was a popular +notion that one day atomic bombs would one day be used in mining operations +and perhaps aid in the construction of another Panama Canal. Needless to say, +it never came about. Instead, the military applications of atomic destruction +increased. Atomic tests off of the Bikini Atoll and several other sites were +common up until the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was introduced. Photos of nuclear +test sites here in the United States can be obtained through the Freedom of +Information Act. + +[See Smyth Report for fuller details. Goin's book in References has photos + of nuke sites.] + +============================================================================ + +1994 diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/fli-laun.txt b/textfiles.com/science/fli-laun.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c697958c --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/fli-laun.txt @@ -0,0 +1,827 @@ +"6_2_4_4_2.TXT" (15455 bytes) was created on 01-02-89 + +PRE-LAUNCH OPERATIONS + + After the Space Shuttle has been rolled out to the launch pad on the +Mobile Launcher Platform (MLP), all pre-launch activities are +controlled from the Launch Control Center (LCC). + + After the Shuttle is in place on the launch pad support columns, and +the Rotating Service Structure (RSS) is placed around it, power for +the vehicle is activated. The MLP and the Shuttle are then +electronically and mechanically mated with support launch pad +facilities and ground support equipment. An extensive series of +validation checks verify that the numerous interfaces are functioning +properly. + + Meanwhile, in parallel with pre-launch pad activities, cargo +operations get underway in the RSS's Payload Changeout Room. + + Vertically integrated payloads are delivered to the launch pad +before the Shuttle is rolled out. They are stored in the Payload +Changeout Room until the Shuttle is ready for cargo loading. Once +the RSS is in place around the orbiter, the payload bay doors are +opened and the cargo is installed. Final cargo and payload bay +closeouts are completed in the Payload Changeout Room and the payload +bay doors are closed for flight. + + Pre-launch Propellant Loading. Initial Shuttle propellant loading +involves pumping hypergolic propellants into the orbiter's aft and +forward Orbital Maneuvering System and Reaction Control System +storage tanks, the orbiter's hydraulic Auxiliary Power Units, and SRB +hydraulic power units. These are hazardous operations, and while +they are underway work on the launch pad is suspended. + + Since these propellants are hypergolic -- that is they ignite on +contact with one another--oxidizer and fuel loading operations are +carried out serially, never in parallel. + + Finally, dewar tanks on the Fixed Service Structure (FSS), are +filled with liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen, which will be loaded +into the orbiter's Power Reactant and Storage Distribution (PRSD) +tanks during the launch countdown. + + Final Pre-launch Activities. Before the formal Space Shuttle launch +countdown starts, the vehicle is powered down while pyrotechnic +devices -- various ordinance components -- are installed or hooked +up. The extravehicular Mobility Units (EMUs) -- space suits -- are +stored On Board along with other items of flight crew equipment. + + When closeouts of the Space Shuttle and the launch pad are +completed, all is in readiness for the countdown to get underway. + + Launch Control Center. While the VAB can be considered the heart of +LC-39, the Launch Control Center (LCC) can easily be called its brain. + + The LCC is a 4-story building connected to the east side of the VAB +by an elevated, enclosed bridge. It houses four firing rooms that +are used to conduct NASA and classified military launches of the +Space Shuttle. Each firing room is equipped with the Launch +Processing System (LPS) which monitors and controls most Shuttle +assembly, checkout and launch operations. Physically, the LCC is 77 +ft. high, 378 ft. long and 181 ft. wide. + + Thanks to the LPS, the countdown for the Space Shuttle takes only +about 40 hours, compared with the 80 plus hours usually needed for a +Saturn/Apollo countdown. Moreover, the LPS calls for only about 90 +people to work in the firing room during launch operations -- +compared with about 450 needed for earlier manned missions. + + From the outside, the LCC is virtually unchanged from its original +Apollo-era configuration, except that a fourth floor office has been +added to the southwest and northwest corners corner of the building. + + The interior of the LCC has undergone extensive modifications to +meet the needs of the Space Shuttle era. + + Physically, the LCC is constructed as follows: the first floor is +used for administrative activities and houses the building's +utilities systems control room; the second floor is occupied by the +Control Data Subsystem; the four firing rooms occupy practically all +of the third floor, and the fourth floor, as mentioned, earlier is +used for offices. + + During the Shuttle Orbital Flight Test program and the early +operational missions, Firing Room l was the only fully-equipped +control facility available for vehicle checkout and launch. However, +as the Shuttle launch rate increased during the first half of the +1980s, the other three firing rooms were activated. Although NASA +operates the firing rooms, the Department of Defense uses Firing +Rooms 3 and 4 to support its classified, Shuttle-dedicated missions. +Additionally, Firing Room 4 serves as an engineering analysis and +support facility for launch and checkout operations. + + Launch Countdown. As experience was gained by launch crews during +the early years of the Space Shuttle program, the launch countdown +was refined and streamlined to the point where the average countdown +now takes a little more than 40 hours. This was not the case early +in the program, when countdowns of 80 hours or more were not uncommon. + + The following is a narrative description of the major events of a +typical countdown for the Space Shuttle. The time of liftoff is +predicated on what is called the launch window -- that point in time +when the Shuttle must be launched in order to meet specific mission +objectives such as the deployment of spacecraft at a predetermined +time and location in space. + + Launch Minus 3 Days. The countdown gets underway with the +traditional call to stations by the NASA Test Director. This +verifies that the launch team is in place and ready to proceed. + + The first item of business is to checkout the backup flight system +and the software stored in the mass memory units and display systems. + Backup flight system software is then loaded into the Shuttle's +fifth general purpose computer (GPC's). + + Flight crew equipment stowage begins. Final inspection of the +orbiter's middeck and flight decks are made, and removal of work crew +module platforms begin. Loading preparations for the external tank +get underway, and the Shuttle main engines are readied for tanking. +Servicing of fuel cell storage tanks also starts. Final vehicle and +facility closeouts are made. + + Launch Minus 2 Days. The launch pad is cleared of all personnel +while liquid oxygen and hydrogen are loaded into the Shuttle fuel +cell storage tanks. Upon completion, the launch pad area is reopened +and the closeout crew continues its prelaunch preparations. + + The orbiter's flight control, navigation and communications systems +are activated. Switches located on the flight and mid- decks are +checked and, if required, mission specialist seats are installed. +Preparations also are made for rollback of the Rotating Service +Structure (RSS). + + At launch minus ll hours a planned countdown hold -- called a +built-in hold -- begins and can last for up to 26 hours, 16 minute +depending on the type of payload, tests required and other factors. +This time is used, if needed, to perform tasks in the countdown that +may not have been completed earlier. + + Launch Minus 1 Day. Countdown is resumed after the built-in hold +period has elapsed. The RSS is rolled back and remaining items of +crew equipment are installed. Cockpit switch positions are verified, +and oxygen samples are taken in the crew area. The fuel cells are +activated following a fuel cell flow through purge. Communications +with the Johnson Space Center's Mission Control Center (MCC) are +established. + + Finally, the launch pad is again cleared of all personnel while +conditioned air that has been blowing through the payload bay and +other orbiter cavities is switched to inert gaseous nitrogen in +preparation for filling the external tank with its super-cold +propellants. + + Launch Day. Filling the external tank with liquid oxygen and +hydrogen gets underway. Communications checks are made with elements +of the Air Force's Eastern Space and Missile Center. Gimbal profile +checks of the Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) engines are made. +Preflight calibration of the Inertial Measurement Units (IMU) is +made, and tracking antennas at the nearby Merritt Island Tracking +Station are aligned for liftoff. + + At launch minus 5 hours, 20 minutes -- T minus 5 hours, 20 minutes +-- a 2-hour built-in hold occurs. During this hold, an ice +inspection team goes to the launch pad to inspect the external tank's +insulation to insure that there is no dangerous accumulation of ice +on the tank caused by the super-cold liquids. Meanwhile, the +closeout crew is preparing for the arrival of the flight crew. + + Meanwhile, the flight crew, in their quarters at the Operations and +Checkout (O&C) Building, eat a meal and receive a weather briefing. +After suiting up, they leave the O&C Building at about T minus 2 +hours, 30 minutes for the launch pad -- the countdown having resumed +at T minus 3 hours. + + Upon arriving at the white room at the end of the orbiter access +arm, the crew, assisted by white room personnel, enter the orbiter. +Once on board they conduct air-to-ground communications checks with +the LCC and MCC. Meanwhile, the orbiter hatch is closed and hatch +seal and cabin leak checks are made. The IMU preflight alignment is +made and closed-loop tests with Range Safety are completed. The +white room is then evacuated and the closeout crew proceeds from the +launch pad to a fallback area. At this time, primary ascent guidance +data is transferred to the backup flight system. + + At T minus 20 minutes a planned 10-minute hold begins. When the +countdown is resumed on-board computers are commanded to their launch +configuration and fuel cell thermal conditioning begins. Orbiter +cabin vent valves are closed and the backup flight system transitions +into its launch configuration. + + At T minus 9 minutes another planned 10-minute hold occurs. Just +prior to resuming the countdown, the NASA Test Director gets the "go +for launch" verification from the launch team. At this point, the +Ground Launch Sequencer (GLS) is turned on and the terminal countdown +starts. All countdown functions are now automatically controlled by +the GLS computer located in the Firing Room Integration Console. + + At T minus 7 minutes, 30 seconds, the orbiter access arm is +retracted. Should an emergency occur requiring crew evacuation from +the orbiter, the arm can be extended either manually or automatically +in about 15 seconds. + + At T minus 5 minutes, 15 seconds the MCC transmits a command that +activates the orbiter's operational instrumentation recorders. These +recorders store information relating to ascent, on-orbit and descent +performance during the mission. These data are analyzed after +landing. + + At T minus 5 minutes, the crew activates the Auxiliary Power Units +(APU) to provide pressure to the Shuttle's three hydraulic systems +which move the main engine nozzles and the aero-aerosurfaces. Also +at this point, the firing circuit for SRB ignition and the range +safety destruct system devices are mechanically enabled by a +motor-driven switch called the safe and arm device. + + At about T minus 4 minutes, 55 seconds, the liquid oxygen vent on +the external tank is closed. It had been open to allow the +super-cold liquid oxygen to boil off, thus preventing over +pressurization while the tank remained near its full level. Now, +with the vent closed, preparations are made to bring the tank to its +flight pressure. This occurs at T minus 2 minutes, 55 seconds. + + At T minus 4 minutes the final helium purge of the Shuttle's three +main engines is initiated in preparation for engine start. Five +seconds later, the orbiter's elevons, speed brakes and rudder are +moved through a pre-programmed series of maneuvers to position them +for launch. This is called the aerosurface profile. + + At T minus 3 minutes, 30 seconds, the ground power transition takes +place and the Shuttle's fuel cells transition to internal power. Up +to this point, ground power had augmented the fuel cells. Then, 5 +seconds later, the main engine nozzles are gimballed through a +pre-programmed series of maneuvers to confirm their readiness. + + At T minus 2 minutes, 50 seconds, the external tank oxygen vent hood +-- known as the beanie cap -- is raised and retracted. It had been +in place during tanking operations to prevent ice buildup on the +oxygen vents. Fifteen seconds later, at T minus 2 minutes, 35 +seconds, the piping of gaseous oxygen and hydrogen to the fuel cells +from ground tanks is terminated and the fuel cells begin to use the +on board reactants. + + At T minus 1 minute, 57 seconds, the external tank's liquid hydrogen +is brought to flight pressure by closing the boil off vent, as was +done earlier with the liquid oxygen vent. However, during the +hydrogen boil off of, the gas is piped out to an area adjacent to the +launch pad where it is burned off. + + At T minus 31 seconds, the Shuttle's on-board computers start their +terminal launch sequence. Any problem after this point will require +calling a "hold" and the countdown recycled to T minus 20 minutes. +However, if all goes well, only one further ground command is needed +for launch. This is the "go for main engine start," which comes at +the T-minus-10-second point. Meanwhile, the Ground Launch Sequencer +(GLS) continues to monitor more than several hundred launch commit +functions and is able automatically to call a "hold" or "cutoff" if a +problem occurs. + + At T minus 28 seconds the SRB booster hydraulic power units are +activated by a command from the GLS. The units provide hydraulic +power for SRB nozzle gimballing. At T minus 16 seconds, the nozzles +are commanded to carry out a pre-programmed series of maneuvers to +confirm they are ready for liftoff. At the same time -- T minus 16 +seconds -- the sound suppression system is turned on and water begins +to pour onto the deck of the MLP and pad areas to protect the +Shuttle from acoustical damage at liftoff. + + At T minus ll seconds, the SRB range safety destruct system is +activated. + + At T minus 10 seconds, the "go for main engine start" command is +issued by the GLS. (The GLS retains the capability to command main +engine stop until just before the SRBs are ignited.) At this time +flares are ignited under the main engines to burn away any residual +gaseous hydrogen that may have collected in the vicinity of the main +engine nozzles. A half second later, the flight computers order the +opening of valves which allow the liquid hydrogen and oxygen to flow +into the engine's turbopumps. + + At T minus 6.6 seconds, the three main engines are ignited at +intervals of 120 milliseconds. The engines throttle up to 90 percent +thrust in 3 seconds. At T minus 3 seconds, if the engines are at the +required 90 percent, SRB ignition sequence starts. All of these +split-second events are monitored by the Shuttle's four primary +flight computers. + + At T minus zero, the holddown explosive bolts and the T-O umbilical +explosive bolts are blown by command from the on-board computers and +the SRBs ignite. The Shuttle is now committed to launch. The +mission elapsed time is reset to zero and the mission event timer +starts. The Shuttle lifts off the pad and clears the tower at about +T plus 7 seconds. Mission control is handed over to JSC after the +tower is cleared. + + +"6_2_4_4_4.TXT" (4730 bytes) was created on 01-02-89 + +MARSHALL PAYLOAD OPERATIONS CONTROL CENTER + + The Payload Operations Control Center (POCC) operated by the NASA's +Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), Huntsville, Ala., is the largest +and most diverse of the various POCCs associated with the Space +Shuttle program. Since its functions in many respects parallel those +of other POCCs operated by private industry, the academic community +and government agencies, a description of what it does, how it +operates and who operates it will serve as an overview of this type +of control center. + + The Marshall POCC -- like all POCCs -- is a facility designed to +monitor, coordinate, and control on-orbit operation of a Shuttle +payload, particularly Spacelab. During non-mission periods it also +is used for crew training and simulated space operations. It is, in +effect, a command post for payload activities, just as the JSC +Mission Control Center (MCC) is a command post for the flight and +operation of the Space Shuttle. + + Both control centers work closely in coordinating mission +activities. In fact, the Marshall POCC originally was housed in +Building 30 at JSC, adjacent to the MCC. It has since been moved to +Building 4663 at Marshall and is an important element of the +Hunstville Operations Support Center (HOSC), which augments the MCC +by monitoring Shuttle propulsion systems. + + The Marshall POCC Capabilities Document states that the "POCC +provides physical space, communications, and data system capabilities +to enable user access to payload data (digital, video, and analog), +command uplink, and coordination of activities internal and external +to the POCC." + + Members of the Marshall mission management team and principal +investigators and research teams work in the POCC or in adjacent +facilities around-the-clock controlling and directing payload +experiment operations. Using the extensive POCC facilities they are +able to communicate directly with mission crews and direct experiment +activities from the ground. They also can operate experiments and +support equipment on board the Shuttle and manage payload resources. + + The POCC operations concept requires a team consisting of the +Payload Mission Manager (PMM) directing the POCC cadre which has +overall responsibility for managing and controlling POCC operations. +Its scientific counterpart, the investigator's operations team, is +the group that conducts, monitors and controls the experiments +carried on the Shuttle, primarily those related to Spacelab. + + Generally, POCC operations are carried out by a +management/scientific team of 10 key individuals, headed by the +Payload Operations Director (POD), who is a senior member of the +PMM's cadre. The POD is charged with managing the day-to-day mission +operations and directing the payload operations team and the science +crew. + + Other POCC key personnel include: + + MISSION SCIENTIST (MSCI) who represents scientists who have +experiments on a specific flight and serves as the interface between +the PMM and the POD in matters relating to mission science operations +and accomplishments. + + CREW INTERFACE COORDINATOR (CIC), who coordinates communications +between the POCC and the payload crew. + + ALTERNATE PAYLOAD SPECIALIST (APS) is a trained payload specialist +not assigned to flight duty who aids the payload operations team and +the payload crew in solving problems, troubleshooting and modifying +crew procedures, if necessary, and who advises the MSCI on the +possible impact of any problem areas. + + PAYLOAD ACTIVITY PLANNER (PAP), who directs mission replanning +activities, as required, and coordinates mission timeline changes +with POCC personnel. + + MASS MEMORY UNIT MANAGER (MUM) who sends experiment command uplinks +to the flight crew based on data received from the POCC operations +team. + + OPERATIONS CONTROLLER (OC), who coordinates activities of the +payload operations team to insure the efficient accomplishment of +activities supporting real-time execution of the mission timeline. + + PAYLOAD COMMAND COORDINATOR (PAYCOM), who configures the POCC for +ground command operation and controls the flow of experiment commands +from the POCC to the flight crew. + + DATA MANAGEMENT COORDINATOR (DMC), who is responsible for +maintaining and coordinating the flow of payload experiment data to +and within the POCC the DMC also assesses the impact of proposed +changes to the experiment timeline and payload data requirements that +affect the payload downlink data. + + PUBLIC AFFAIRS OFFICER (PAO), who provides mission commentary on +payload activities and serves as the primary source of information on +mission progress to the news media and public. + + +"6_2_4_4_5.TXT" (8016 bytes) was created on 01-02-89 + +SPACE TRACKING AND DATA ACQUISITION + + Responsibility for Space Shuttle tracking and data acquisition is +charged to the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. This +involves integrating and coordinating all of the worldwide NASA and +Department of Defense tracking facilities needed to support Space +Shuttle missions. + + These facilities include the Goddard-operated Ground Network (GN) +and Space Network (SN); the Deep Space Network (DSN) managed for NASA +by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), Pasadena, Calif.; the +Ames-Dryden Flight Research Facility, (ADFRC) Edwards, Calif.; and +extensive Department of Defense tracking systems at the Eastern and +Western Space and Missile Centers, as well as the Air Force Satellite +Control Network's (AFSCN) remote tracking stations. + + Ground Network. The Ground Network (GN) is a worldwide network of +tracking stations and data-gathering facilities which support Space +Shuttle missions and also maintain communications with low +Earth-orbiting spacecraft. Station management is provided from the +Network Control Center at Goddard. Basically, commands are sent to +orbiting spacecraft from the GN stations and, in return, scientific +data are transmitted to the stations. + + The system consists of 12 stations, including three DSN facilities. +GN stations are located at Ascension Island, a British Crown Colony +in the south Atlantic Ocean; Santiago, Chile; Bermuda; Dakar, +Senegal, on the West Coast of Africa; Guam; Hawaii; Merritt Island, +Fla.; Ponce de Leon, Fla.; and the Wallops Flight Facility on +Virginia's Eastern Shore. The DSN tracking stations are located at +Canberra, Australia; Goldstone, Calif.; and Madrid, Spain. + + The GN stations are equipped with a wide variety of tracking and +data-gathering antennas, ranging in size from 14 to 85 feet in +diameter. Each is designed to perform a specific task, normally in a +designated frequency band, gathering radiated electronic signals +(telemetry) transmitted from spacecraft. + + The communications hub for the GN is the Goddard-operated NASA +Communications Center (NASCOM). It consists of more than 2 million +miles of electronic circuitry linking the tracking stations and the +MCC at the Johnson Space Center. NASCOM has six major switching +centers to insure the prompt flow of data. In addition to Goddard +and JSC, the other switching centers are located at JPL, KSC, +Canberra and Madrid. + + The system includes telephone, microwave, radio, submarine cable and +geosynchronous communications satellites in ll countries. It +includes communications facilities operated by 15 different domestic +and foreign carriers. The system also has a wide-band and video +capability. In fact, Goddard's wide-band system is the largest in +the world. + + A voice communications system called Station Conferencing and +Monitoring Arrangement (SCAMA) can conference link up hundreds of the +220 different voice channels throughout the United States and abroad +with instant talk/listen capability. With its built-in redundancy, +SCAMA has realized a mission support reliability record of 99.6 +percent. The majority of Space Shuttle voice traffic is routed +through Goddard to the MCC. + + As would be expected, computers play an important role in GN +operations. They are used to program tracking antenna pointing +angles, send commands to orbiting spacecraft and process data which +is sent to the JSC and Goddard control centers. + + Shuttle data is sent from the tracking network to the main switching +computers at GSFC. These are UNISYS 1160 computers which reformat +and transmit the information to JSC almost instantaneously at a rate +of l.5 million bits per second, via domestic communications +satellites. + + Space Network. Augmenting the GN and eventually replacing it, is a +unique tracking network called the Space Network (SN). The +uniqueness of this network is that instead of tracking the Shuttle +and other Earth-orbiting spacecraft from a world-wide network of +ground stations, its main element is an in-orbit series of satellites +called the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS), designed +to gather tracking and data information from geosynchronous orbit and +relay it to a single ground terminal located at White Sands, N.M. + + The first spacecraft in the TDRS system, TDRS-1, was deployed from +the Space Shuttle Challenger on April 4, 1983. Although problems +were encountered in establishing its geosynchronous orbit at 41 +degrees west longitude (over the northeast corner of Brazil), TDRS-l +proved the feasibility of the tracking station-in-space concept when +it became operational later in the year. + + Ultimately, the SN will consist of three TDRS spacecraft in orbit, +one of which will be a backup or spare to be available for use if one +of the operational spacecraft fails. Each satellite in the TDRS +system is designed to operate for 10-years. + + Following its planned deployment from the Space Shuttle Discovery +scheduled for the STS-26 mission, TDRS-2 will be tested and then +positioned in a geosynchronous orbit southwest of Hawaii at 171 +degrees west longitude, about 130 degrees from TDRS-1. With these +two spacecraft and the White Sands Ground Terminal (and eventually a +backup terminal) operational, the SN will be able to provide almost +full-time communications and tracking of the Space Shuttle, as well +as for up to 24 other Earth-orbiting spacecraft simultaneously. The +global network of ground stations can provide only about 20 percent +of that coverage. Eventually some of the current ground stations +will be closed when the SN becomes fully operational. + + After data acquired by the TDRS spacecraft are relayed to the White +Sands Ground Terminal, they are sent directly by domestic +communications satellite to NASA control centers at JSC for Space +Shuttle operations, and to Goddard which schedules TDRSS operations +including those of many unmanned satellites. + + The TDRS are among the largest and most advanced communications +satellites ever developed. They weigh almost 5,000 lb. and measure +57 ft. across at their solar panels. They operate in the S-band and +Ku-band frequencies and their complex electronics systems can handle +up to 300 million bits of information each second from a single user +spacecraft. Among the distinguishing features of the spacecraft are +their two huge, wing-like solar panels which provide l,850 watts of +electric power and their two 16-ft. diameter high-gain parabolic +antennas which resemble large umbrellas. These antennas weigh about +50 lb. each. + + The communications capability of the TDRSS covers a wide spectrum +that includes voice, television, analog and digital signals. No +signal processing is done in orbit. Instead, the raw data flows +directly to the ground terminal. During Space Shuttle missions, +mission data and commands pass almost continuously back and forth +between the orbiter and the MCC at JSC. + + Like the TDRS, the White Sands ground terminal is one of the most +advanced in existence. Its most prominent features include three +60-ft.-diameter Ku-band antennas which receive and transmit data. A +number of smaller antennas are used for S-band and other Ku-band +communications. + + Ground was broken in September 1987, for a second back-up ground +terminal at White Sands to accommodate increased future mission +support required from the TDRSS. + + The TDRSS segment of the Space Network, including the ground +terminal, is owned and operated for NASA by CONTEL Federal Systems +Sector, Atlanta, Ga. The spacecraft are built the TRW Federal +Systems Division, Space and Technology Group, Redondo Beach, Calif. +TRW also provides software support for the White Sands facility. +The TDRS parabolic antennas are built by the Harris Corp's Government +Communications Systems Division, Melbourne, Fla. Harris also +provides ground antennas, radio frequency equipment and other ground +terminal equipment. + + +"6_2_4_4_6.TXT" (15263 bytes) was created on 01-02-89 + +FLIGHT OPERATIONS + + The Space Shuttle, as it thunders away from the launch pad with its +main engines and solid rocket boosters (SRB) at full power, is an +unforgettable sight. It reaches the point of maximum dynamic +pressure (max Q) -- when dynamic pressures on the Shuttle are +greatest -- about 1 minute after liftoff, at an altitude of 33,600 +ft. At this point the main engines are "throttled down," to about 75 +percent, thus keeping the dynamic pressures on the vehicle's surface +to about 580 lb. per square foot. After passing through the max Q +region, the main engines are throttled up to full power. This early +ascent phase is often referred to as "first stage" flight. + + Little more than 2 minutes into the flight, the SRBs, their fuel +expended, are jettisoned from the orbiter. The Shuttle is at an +altitude of about 30 miles and traveling at a speed of 2,890 miles an +hour. The spent SRB casings continue to gain altitude briefly before +they begin falling back to Earth. When the spent casings have +descended to an altitude of about 17,000 ft., the parachute +deployment sequence starts, slowing them for a safe splashdown in the +ocean. This occurs about 5 minutes after launch. The boosters are +retrieved, returned to a processing facility for refurbishment and +eventual reused. + + Meanwhile, the "second stage" phase of the flight is underway with +the main engines propelling the vehicle ever higher on its ascent +trajectory. At about 8 minutes into the flight, at an altitude of +about 60 miles, main engine cut-off (MECO) occurs. The Shuttle is +now traveling at a speed of 16,697 mph. + + After MECO, the orbiter and the external tank are moving along a +trajectory that, if not corrected, would result in the vehicle +entering the atmosphere about halfway around the world from the +launch site. However, a brief firing of the orbiter's two Orbital +Maneuvering System (OMS) thrusters changes the trajectory and orbit +is achieved. This takes place just after the external tank has been +jettisoned and while the orbiter is flying "upside down" in relation +to Earth. + + The separated external tank continues on a ballistic trajectory and +enters the Earth's atmosphere to break up over a remote area of the +Indian Ocean. Meanwhile, an additional firing of the OMS thrusters +places the orbiter into its planned orbit, which can range from 115 +to 600 miles above the Earth. + + There are two ways in which orbit can be accomplished. These are +the conventional OMS insertion method called "standard" and the +direct insertion method. + + The OMS insertion method involves a brief burn of the OMS engines +shortly after MECO, placing the orbiter into an elliptical orbit. A +second OMS burn is initiated when the orbiter reaches apogee in its +elliptical orbit. This brings the orbiter into a near circular +orbit. If required during a mission, the orbit can be raised or +lowered by additional firings of the OMS thrusters. + + The direct insertion technique uses the main engines to achieve the +desired orbital apogee, or high point, thus saving OMS propellant. +Only one OMS burn is required to circularize the orbit, and the +remaining OMS fuel can then be used for frequent changes in the +operational orbit, as called for in the flight plan. + + The first direct insertion orbit was accomplished during the STS +41-C mission in April 1984, when the Challenger was placed in a +288-mile-high circular orbit where its flight crew was able to +successfully capture, repair and redeploy a free-flying spacecraft, +the Solar Maximum satellite (Solar Max) -- an important "first" for +the Space Shuttle program. + + Launch Abort Modes. During the ascent phase of a Space Shuttle +flight, if a situation occurs that puts the mission in jeopardy -- +the loss, for example, of one or more of the main engines or the OMS +thrusters -- the mission may have to be aborted. During the ascent +phase, there are two basic Shuttle abort modes: intact aborts and +contingency aborts. NASA has attempted to anticipate all possible +emergency situations that could occur, and mission plans are prepared +accordingly. + + Intact aborts -- there are four different types -- permit the safe +return of the orbiter and its crew to a pre-planned landing site. + + When an intact abort is not possible, the contingency abort option +becomes necessary. This crucial abort mode is designed to permit +crew survival following a severe systems failure in which the vehicle +is lost. Generally, if a contingency abort becomes necessary, the +damaged vehicle would fall toward the ocean and the crew would +exercise escape options that were developed in the aftermath of the +Challenger accident. The four intact abort modes are: + + Return to Launch Site (RTLS) + + Trans-Atlantic Abort Landing (TAL) + + Abort Once Around (AOA) + + Abort to Orbit (ATO) + + Since an intact abort could result in an emergency landing, before +each flight, potential contingency landing sites are designated and +weather conditions at these locations are monitored closely before a +launch. Space Shuttle flight rules include provisions for minimum +acceptable weather conditions at these potential landing sites in the +event of intact abort is necessary. + + In an abort situation, the type and time of the failure determines +which abort mode is possible. There is a definite order of +preference for an abort. In cases where performance loss is the only +factor, the preferred modes would be ATO, AOA, TAL or RTLS, in that +order. The mode selected normally would be the highest preferred one +that can be completed with the remaining vehicle performance. + + In the case of an extreme system failure -- the loss of cabin +pressure or orbiter cooling systems -- the preferred mode would be +the one that would terminate the mission as quickly as possible. +This means that the TAL or RTLS modes would be more preferable than +other modes. + + An ascent abort during powered flight can be initiated by turning a +rotary switch on a panel in the orbiter cockpit. The switch is +accessible to both the commander and the pilot. Normally, flight +rules call for the abort mode selection to be made by the commander +upon instructions from the Mission Control Center. Once the abort +mode is selected, the on board computers automatically initiate abort +action for that particular abort. + + A description of the intact abort modes follows. + + RETURN TO LAUNCH SITE (RTLS). The RTLS abort is a critical and +complex one that becomes necessary if a main engine failure occurs +after liftoff and before the point where a TAL or AOA is possible. +RTLS cannot be initiated until the SRBs have completed their normal +burn and have been jettisoned. Meanwhile, the orbiter with the +external tank still attached continues on its downrange trajectory +with the remaining operational main engines, the two OMS and four aft +RCS thrusters firing until the remaining main engine propellent +equals the amount needed to reverse the direction of flight and +return for a landing. A "pitch-around" maneuver of about 5 degrees +per second is then performed to place the orbiter and the external +tank in an attitude pointing back toward the launch site. OMS fuel +is dumped to adjust the orbiter's center of gravity. + + When altitude, attitude, flight path angle, heading, weight, and +velocity/range conditions combine for external tank jettisoning, MECO +is commanded, and the external tank separates and falls into the +ocean. After this, the orbiter should glide to a landing at the +launch site landing facility. From the foregoing, it can be +appreciated why RTLS is the least preferred intact abort mode. + + TRANS-ATLANTIC ABORT LANDING (TAL). The TAL abort mode is designed +to permit an intact landing after the Shuttle has flown a ballistic +trajectory across the Atlantic Ocean and lands at a designated +landing site in Africa or Spain. This abort mode was developed for +the first Shuttle launch in April 1981, and has since evolved from a +crew-initiated manual procedure to an automatic abort mode. The TAL +capability provides an abort option between the last RTLS opportunity +up to the point in ascent known as the "single-engine press to MECO" +capability --meaning that the orbiter has sufficient velocity to +achieve main engine cutoff and abort to orbit, even if two main +engines are shut down. TAL also can be selected if other system +failures occur after the last RTLS opportunity. The TAL abort mode +does not require any OMS maneuvers. + + Landing sites for a TAL vary from flight to flight, depending on +the launch azimuth. For the first three Space Shuttle missions, the +trajectory inclination was about 28 degrees which made the U.S. Air +Force bases at Zaragoza and Moron in Spain, the most ideal landing +sites for TAL. Later Shuttle missions called for air fields at +Dakar, Senegal, and Casablanca, Morocco, as TAL-option landing sites. + In March 1988, NASA announced that in addition to the TAL sites in +Spain, that two new African contingency landing sites had been +selected for future Shuttle missions: a site near Ben Guerir, +Morocco, about 40 miles north of Marrakesh with a 14,000-foot runway; +and at Banjul, the capital of the west African nation of The Gambia, +which has an international airfield with an ll,800-foot runway. + + ABORT ONCE AROUND (AOA). This abort mode becomes available about 2 +minutes after SRB separation, up to the point just before an abort to +orbit is possible. AOA normally would be called for because of a +main engine failure. This abort mode allows the Shuttle to fly once +around the Earth and make a normal entry and landing at Edwards AFB, +Calif., or White Sands Space Harbor, near Las Cruces, N.M. An AOA +abort usually would require two OMS burns, the second burn being a +deorbit maneuver. + + There are two different AOA entry trajectories. These are the +so-called normal AOA and the shallow. The entry trajectory for the +normal AOA, is similar to a normal end-of-mission landing. The +shallow AOA, on the other hand, results in a flatter entry +trajectory, which is less desirable but uses less propellant for the +OMS burn. The shallow trajectory also is less desirable because it +exposes the orbiter to a longer period of atmospheric entry heating +and to less predictable aerodynamic drag forces. + + ABORT TO ORBIT (ATO). The ATO mode is the most benign of the +various abort modes. ATO allows the orbiter to achieve a temporary +orbit that is lower than the planned. ATO is usually necessary +because of a main engine failure. It places fewer performance +demands on the orbiter. It also gives ground controllers and the +flight crew time to evaluate the problem. Depending on the +seriousness of the situation, one ATO option is to make an early +deorbit and landing. If there are no major problems, other than the +main engine one, an OMS maneuver is made to raise the orbit and the +mission is continued as planned. + + The first Space Shuttle program ATO occurred on July 29, 1985, +following the STS 51-F Challenger launch, when one of the main +engines was shut down early by computer command because of a failed +temperature sensor. Within 10 seconds of the shutdown, Mission +Control declared an ATO situation, and although a lower than planned +orbit was attained, the 7-day mission carrying Spacelab-2 was +successfully completed. + + On-Orbit Operations. Space Shuttle flights are controlled by +Mission Control Center (MCC) -- usually referred to as "Houston" in +air to ground conversations. + + During a flight, Shuttle crews and ground controllers work from a +common set of guidelines and planned events called the Flight Data +File. The Flight Data File includes the crew activity plan, payload +handbooks and other documents which are put together during the +elaborate flight planning process. + + Each mission includes the provision for at least two crew members to +be trained for extravehicular activity (EVA). EVA is an operational +requirement when satellite repair or equipment testing is called for +on a mission. However, during any mission, the two crew members must +be ready to perform a contingency EVA if, for example, the payload +bay doors fail to close properly and must be closed manually, or +equipment must be jettisoned from the payload bay. + + The first Space Shuttle program contingency EVA occurred in April +1985, during STS 51-D, a Discovery mission, following deployment of +the SYNCOM IV-3 (Leasat 3) communications satellite Leasats' +sequencer lever failed and initiation of the antenna deployment and +spin-up and perigee kick motor start sequences did not take place. +The flight was extended 2 days to give mission specialists Jeffrey +Hoffman and David Griggs an opportunity to try to activate the lever +during EVA operations which involved using the RMS. The effort was +not successful, but was accomplished on a later mission. + + Each Shuttle mission carries two complete pressurized spacesuits +called Extra Vehicular Mobility Units (EMU) and backpacks called +Primary Life Support Systems (PLSS). These units, along with +necessary tools and equipment, are stored in the airlock off the +middeck area of the orbiter, ready for use if needed. + + As already mentioned, for each mission, two crew members are trained +and certified to perform EVAs, if necessary. For those missions in +which planned EVAs are called for, the two astronauts receive +realistic training for their specific tasks in the Weightless +Environment Training Facility at Johnson, with its full-scale model +of the orbiter payload bay. + + Maneuvering in Orbit. Once the Shuttle orbiter goes into orbit, it +is operating in the element for which it was designed: the near +gravity-free vacuum of space. However, to maintain proper orbital +attitude and to perform a variety of maneuvers, an extensive array of +large and small rocket thrusters are used -- 46 in all. Each of +these thrusters, despite their varying sizes, burn a mixture of +nitrogen tetroxide and monoethylhydrazine, an efficient but toxic +combination of fuels which ignite on contact with each other. + + The largest of the 46 control rockets are the two Orbital +Maneuvering System (OMS) thrusters which are located in twin pods at +the aft end of the orbiter, between the vertical stabilizer and just +above the three main engines. Each of the two OMS engines can +generate 6,000 lb. of thrust. They can cause a more than l,000 +foot-per-second change in velocity of a fully loaded orbiter. This +velocity change is called Delta V. + + A second and smaller group of thrusters make up the Reaction Control +System (RCS) of which there are two types: the primaries and the +verniers. Each orbiter has 38 primary trusters, 14 in the forward +nose area and 12 on each OMS pod. Each primary thruster can generate +870 lb. of thrust. The smallest of the RCS thrusters, the verniers, +are designed to provide what is called "fine tuning" of the orbiter's +attitude. There are two vernier thrusters on the forward end of the +orbiter and four aft, each generates 24 pounds of thrust. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/fluxgate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/fluxgate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e7e3e9a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/fluxgate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,80 @@ +Article 36322 (112 more) in sci.physics: +From: pad@galaxy.nsc.com (Paul Denny x8349) + +Subject: fluxgate compasses +Keywords: how it works +Date: 4 Sep 92 16:51:43 GMT +Organization: National Semiconductor, Santa Clara +Lines: 70 + +I recently asked here how fluxgate compasses work and received the +following explanation by email from Franklin Antonio. I felt that +it was an elegant explanation that would be of interest to sci.physics +and as such I have reproduced his explanation. All credit for this +posting are due to him and any errors remain mine - flame me not him. + +enjoy! (I did) + +From: Franklin Antonio + +In a recent sci.physics posting, you ask how fluxgate compasses work. + +The trick that requires explanation is how you can get a coil to produce +a signal which is proportional to the strength of one component of a +STATIC magnetic field. (ie the Earth's magnetic field) Obviously, if you +can pull that off, you can do it twice, with two coils oriented 90 degrees +apart, then take the 4-quadrant arctangent of the two signal levels, and get +the direction of the static field. (or if you prefer doing it in 3d, you +can do the same with three coils.) + +To make a signal which is a measurement of a static magnetic field, the +fluxgate compass gates the flux of the earth's magnetic field. + +In the absence of local magnetic materials, the earth's magnetic field +looks locally uniform. That is to say the lines of force are curved +but gently so, so that locally you can think of them as uniform and +straight, like the lines on a piece of writing paper. Now, consider +a piece of magnetic material of high permeability. Perhaps a piece of +iron or ferrite. Put this into the previously uniform field, and now +the lines of force bend, because the lines would rather go thru the +high permeability material than thru free space. If we had a way to +gate the permeability of that hunk of iron, that is to vary it in a +regular patern high/low/high/low/... then we would make the lines of +force of the earth's magnetic field move in and out of the iron. Now +we would have a varying (rather than static) magnetic field which +is proportional to the strength of the static (Earth's) magnetic field +which we were trying to measure. Of course, now that it's varying, we +can measure it easily. + +How to make the permeability of that magnetic material gate on and off? +Since permeability is in general a nonlinear function of total field, +you can do this with bias. Consider a toroidal magnetic core (iron or +ferrite) with two coils wound on it. One coil is for bias, the other +for sensing. Put a large gated signal into the bias winding. Here +large means large enough so that the nonlinear properties of the magnetic +material come into play. When the bias signal is off, the core has a +high permeability. When the bias signal is on, the core has a lower +permeability. Now observe the sense winding. On it, we will see two +signals. One is the bias signal obviously, and we need to filter that +out. The bias frequency is chosen to be high enough that we can easily +lowpass filter the sense output to eliminate the bias. The second +component in the sense winding will be caused by some of the earth's +magnetic field being alternately pulled into the core (by the permeability +of the core material), and displaced (when the permeability drops). +This signal is then rectified, and measured. + +This is usually done using two (or three) cores, oriented at right angles, +so that the resulting signals are the components of the field in the +corresponding directions. + +In a practical implementation, the bias might be something like a 100 kHz +sine wave, which is gated on/off at a rate of a few per second. Bias level +would be many ampere-turns, so to put the core well into saturation when +bias is on. + +Accuracy is limited by your ability to wind a very uniform (symmetrical) +sense coil, and other such non-ideal characteristics of the implementation. + +There is a NASA patent. I had a copy once, but no longer have it handy. +Check your favorite patent database, and search on "flux-gate". +End of article 36322 (of 36434)--what next? [npq] diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/foodstuf b/textfiles.com/science/foodstuf new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4909528f --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/foodstuf @@ -0,0 +1,258 @@ + + Food Additives + Know What's In Your Food And Why It's There +Acetic Acid - a flavoring agent which occurs naturally in fermentation of +apples. It is the main acid in vinegar. + +Adipic Acid - occurs naturally in beets. Is used as a flavoring agent, and as +pH adjusting/controlling agent. + +Ammonium Alginate - a gelatinous substance obtained from seaweed. Used as a +stabilizer and water retainer. + +Ammonium Sulfate - a yeast food, dough conditioner, and buffer in bakery +products. + +Annatto Extract - a vegetable dye from the seeds of the tropical + +annatto tree. +A yellow to peach color, it is used in dairy products. It has no known +toxicity. + +Arabinogalactan - larch gum. An emulsifier, stabilizer, or binder. + +Ascorbic Acid - Vitamin C. Is used to enrich/fortify foods. Is also used as a +preservative and an antioxidant. + +Aspartame - a recently approved non-nutritive, low-calorie sweetener, prepared +from aspartic acid and phenylalanine (an amino acid.) + +Benzoic Acid - (see sodium benzoate) is a preservative that occurs naturally in +cherry bark, raspberries, tea, anise and cassia bark. + +Beta Carotene - a source of vitamin A found in all plants and many animal +tissues. Is used to enrich/fortify foods and as vegetable dye. + +BHA (Butylated Hydroxyanisole) - a preservative and antioxidant used in many +foods. + +BHT (Butylated Hydroxytoluene) - an antioxidant used in many foods, is the base +for chewing gum. It is prohibited in England. + +Caffeine - occurs naturally in coffee, cola, mate leaves, tea and kola nuts. +Used for flavor. Is a stimulant. + +Calcium Bromate - a maturing agent and flour conditioner. + +Calcium Caseinate (calcium salt of casein) - casein is principal protein from +cow's milk. Is used as a texturizer. + +Calcium Lactate - is used as a buffer, and in baking powder. + + +Calcium Phosphate - is used as a leavening agent. + +Calcium Propionate - is a preservative (mold inhibitor) used in bread. +Naturally occurs in Swiss cheese. + +Calcium Silicate - an anticaking agent. + +Calcium Sorbate - a preservative and fungus inhibitor. + +Caramel - burnt sugar. Used for flavoring and coloring. + +Carob Bean Seed Gum - a thickener and stabilizer derived from the carob tree. + +Carrageenan - derived from seawood, also known as Irish moss. It is used as a +stabilizer and emulsifier. + +Citric Acid - is used as a preservative, antioxidant and pH control agent. It +is naturally occurring mainly in citrus fruit. + +Corn Syrup (sugar) - a sweetener. It is the glucose obtained from corn starch. + +Dextrose/Glucose (same as corn syrup) + +Dipotassium Phosphate - pH control agent used to control acidity in non-dairy +powdered creams and cheeses. + +Disodium Guanylate - a flavor enhancer. + +Disodium Phosphate - an emulsifier and sequestrant, used in some macaroni +products and cheese. + + +FD&C Colors - are all either banned or under further study. + +Fructose - fruit sugar. A natural sweetener which occurs in fruit juices and +honey. + +Fumaric Acid - a pH control agent, leavening agent, and an antioxidant in baked +goods. + +Gelatin - an incomplete protein obtained from animal parts. Used as a +stabilizer and thickener. + +Glucose/Dextrose - naturally occurring in blood, grape, and corn sugars. Is +used as a sweetener. + +Glycerides (monoglycerides, diglycerides) - The main constituents of animal and +vegetable fats and oils. Emulsifiers used in ice cream, also used +in bakery +products to maintain softness. + +Guar Gum - a seed gum stabilizer in ice cream, frozen fruit, icings, glazes and +fruit drunks and as thickener in hot and cold drinks. + +Gum Ghatti - an emulsifier. + +Hydrogen Peroxide - maturing and bleaching agent used to bleach milk for some +cheeses. + +Hydrolyzed Vegetable Protein - a flavor enhancer commonly used in soup, beef +and gravy. + + +Invert Sugar - a mixture of 50% glucose (dextrose) and 50% fructose, used in +confections and as a humectant (humectants cause water retention). + +Iodine - a necessary nutrient for the proper functioning of the thyroid gland. +Most common usage is in iodized salt. + +Iron - an essential nutrient which is used as a mineral supplement, especially +in grain products. + +Lactic Acid - occurs naturally in sour milk by the fermentation of lactose. Is +used as a preservative and a pH control agent. + +Lactose - milk sugar. Is used as a humectant and as a nutrient as in an +infant's formula. + +Lecithin - a phosphorized fat found in all living organisms, gene +rally obtained +from soybeans. An emulsifier and antioxidant. + +Locust Bean Gum - a natural flavor emulsifier, stabilizer and thickener. + +Magnesium Carbonate - used as pH control agent in sour cream, butter, ice +cream. Also used as an anti-caking agent. + + + +Mannitol - generally prepared from seaweed. Used as texturizer, anti-caking +agent and sweetener in "sugar free" products. + +Methylparaben - a perservative used in beverages, baked goods, and preserves. + +Modified Food Starches - are ordinary starches that have been altered +chemically or physically to provide special, desirable properties. They are, in +theory, easier to digest than unaltered starches. + +Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) - occurs naturally in seaweed, soybeans and sugar +beets. Is used as a flavor enhancer. + +Niacin - an essential nutrient. Used to enrich or fortify foods. + +Nutmeg (mace and their essential oils) - natural flavorings. + +Paprika (oleoresin) - finely ground sweet pepper. Used as red coloring and as +flavoring. + +Pectin - naturally occuring in roots, stems and fruits of plants. Used as a +stabilizer, thickener, or texturizer. + +Potassium Chloride - emulsifier, stabilizer and thickener. Also used as a +substitute for sodium chloride in low-sodium dietary foods. + + +Potassium Iodide - Is used as a source of dietary iodine, usually in table +salt. + +Potassium Sorbate (see sorbic acid) - is used as a preservative in a variety of +foods. + +Propyl Gallate - used as an antioxidant for foods, fats, and oils. it has a +bitter taste. + +Propylene Glycol - solvent (carrier) for extracts/flavors or spices. Also, used +as a stabilizer, prevetnts discoloring during storage, and as a humectant. + +Riboflavin - one of the B complex of vitamins. Used to fortify or enrich foods. +Also is used for food coloring. + +Saccharin - a non-nutritive artificial sweetener 400-500 times sw +eeter than +natural sugar. It has a bitter aftertaste. + +Saffron - from crocus. Used for coloring and flavoring. + +Salt (sodium chloride) - common table salt. Used in pickling. Used as a +preservative and antioxidant. + +Sodium Alginate - obtained from certain seaweeds. It is used as a stabilizer, +thickener, and texturizer. + + +Sodium Aluminum Sulfate - used as a leavening agent in self-rising flour. Also +used in some cheeses. + +Sodium benzoate (sodium salt of benzoic acid) - Used as a preservative and an +antioxidant. + +Sodium Bicarbonate (baking soda) - a leavening agent in baked goods, used also +as a pH control agent. + +Sodium Bisulfite - used as a bleaching agent specifically in ale, wine, beer +and other food products. + +Sodium Caseinate (sodium salt of casein) - from cow's milk. Is used as a +texturizer, stabilizer, emulsifier or whipping agent. + +Sodium Diacetate - acetic acid in solid form. It is used as a preserva +tive +(inhibits mold) in baked goods. + +Sodium Erythorbate - an antioxidant, also used as color fixative in cured +meats. + +Sodium Nitrate/Nitrite - used as a color fixative in cured meats and as a +preservative. + +Sodium Propionate (sodium salt of propionic acid) - is used as a preservative, +prevents the growth of mold and fungus. + + +Sodium Silico Aluminate - anti-caking agent used in table salt and other +products. + +Sodium Stearal Fumarate - used as a dough conditioner in yeast and leavened +bakery products. + +Sorbic Acid - the acid and its potassium and sodium salts (sometimes referred +to as sorbates) work as mold and yeast inhibitors. + +Sorbitan Monostearate - used as an emulsifier in cakes, cake mixes, whipped +toppings and other baked goods. + +Sorbitol - naturally occuring in certain berries. Used as both humectant and +sweetener. + + +Sucrose (table sugar) - cane or beet sugar used as a sweetener. + +Tartaric Acid - a natural by-product of wine-making. Is used as a pH control +agent and as the acidic portion of baking powders. + +Tertiary Butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) - an antioxidant, used either alone or in +combination with BHA or BHT. The FDA limits the amount used. + +Thiamine (vitamin B) - Is used as a nutrient to enrich or fortify foods. + +Tocopherols (vitamin E) - used as a nutrient and as an antioxidant. + + +Turmeric (oleoresin) - from an East Indian herb, used as both food coloring and +spice flavoring for meats and condiments. + +Vanilla, Vanillin - vanilla is a natural flavoring. Vanillin is its laboratory +double. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/formulas b/textfiles.com/science/formulas new file mode 100644 index 00000000..cb99d7c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/formulas @@ -0,0 +1,452 @@ + + ASTRONOMICAL FORMULAE - [These are GREAT - no author! - S.H.] + --------------------- + + MAGNIFICATION: BY FIELDS + M = Alpha/Theta + + where M is the magnification + Alpha is the apparent field + Theta is the true field + + Apparent Field: the closest separation eye can see is 4', more practically + 8-25', 1-2' for good eyes. The Zeta Ursae Majoris double (Mizar/Alcor) is + 11.75'; Epsilon Lyrae is 3'. + + True Field (in o) = 0.25 * time * cos of the declination + (in ') = 15 * time * cos of the declination + where time is the time to cross the ocular field in minutes + + A star therefore moves westward at the following rates: + 15o /h (1.25o/5 min) at 0o declination + 13o /h (1.08o/5 min) at 30o declination + 7.5o/h (0.63o/5 min) at 60o declination. + + + + MAGNIFICATION: BY DIAMETER AND EXIT PUPIL + M = D/d + + where M is the magnification + D is the diameter of the objective + d is the exit pupil (5-6 mm is best; 7 mm not produce a sharp outer + image) + + The scotopic (dark-adapted) aperture of the human pupil is typically 6 + (theoretically 7, 5 if over age 50) mm. Since the human pupil has a focal + length of 17 mm, it is f/2.4 and yields 0.17 per mm of aperture. 2.5 mm is + the photopic (light-adapted) diameter of the eye. + + + DAWES LIMIT (SMALLEST RESOLVABLE ANGLE, RESOLVING POWER) + Theta = 115.8/D + + where Theta is the smallest resolvable angle in " + D is the diameter of the objective in mm + + Atmospheric conditions seldom permit Theta < 0.5". The Dawes Limit is one- + half the angular diameter of the Airy (diffraction) disc, so that the edge + + of one disc does not extend beyond the center of the other). The working + value is two times the Dawes Limit (diameter of the Airy disc), so that the + edges of the two stars are just touching. + + + MAGNIFICATION NEEDED TO SPLIT A DOUBLE STAR + + M = 480/d + + where M is the magnification required + 480 is # of seconds of arc for an apparent field of 8 minutes of arc + d is the angular separation of the double star + + About the closest star separation that the eye can distinguish is 4 minutes + of arc (240 seconds of arc). Twice this distance, or an 8-minute (480- + second) apparent field angle, is a more practical value for comfortable + viewing. In cases where the comes is more than five magnitudes fainter + than the primary, you will need a wider separation: 20 or 25 minutes of + arc, nearly the width of the moon seen with the naked eye. + + + RESOLUTION OF LUNAR FEATURES + Resolution = (2*Dawes Limit*3476)/1800) + + Dawes Limit * 38.8 + + where Resolution is the smallest resolvable lunar feature in km + 2*Dawes Limit is the Airy disc (more practical working value: 2x this) + 1800 is the angular size of the moon in " + 3476 is the diameter of the moon in km + + + APPARENT ANGULAR SIZE OF AN OBJECT + Apparent Angular Size = (Linear Width / Distance) * 57.3 + + where Apparent Angular Size of the object is expressed in degrees + Linear Width is the linear width of the object in m + Distance is the distance of the object in m + + A degree is the apparent size of an object whose distance is 57.3 x its + diameter. + + + SIZE OF IMAGE (CELESTIAL) + h = (Theta*F)/K + Theta = K*(h/F) + F = (K*h)/Theta + + + where h is the linear height in mm of the image at prime focus of an + objective or a telephoto lens + + Theta is the object's angular height (angle of view) in units + corresponding to K + + F is the effective focal length (focal length times Barlow + magnification) in mm + + K is a constant with a value of 57.3 for Theta in degrees, 3438 in + minutes of arc, 206265 for seconds of arc (the number of the + respective units in a radian) + + The first formula yields image size of the sun and moon as approximately 1% + of the effective focal length (Theta/K = 0.5/57.3 = 0.009). + + The second formula can be used to find the angle of view (Theta) for a + given film frame size (h) and lens focal length (F). Example: the 24 mm + height, 36 mm width, and 43 mm diagonal of 35-mm film yields an angle of + view of 27o, 41o, and 49o for a 50-mm lens. + + The third formula can be used to find the effective focal length (F) + + required for a given film frame size (h) and angle of view (Theta). + + + SIZE OF IMAGE (TERRESTRIAL) + h = (Linear Width / Distance) * F + Linear Width = (Distance * h) / F + Distance = (Linear Width * F) / h + F = (Distance * h) / Linear Width + + where h is the linear height in mm of the image at prime focus of an + objective or telephoto lens + + Linear Width is the linear width of the object in m + Distance is the distance of the object in im + F is the effective focal length (focal length times Barlow + magnification) in mm + + + (Star trails on film) + + The earth rotates 5' in 20 s, which yields a barely detectable star trail + with an unguided 50-mm lens. 2-3' (8-12 s) is necessary for an + undetectable trail, 1' (4 s) for an expert exposure. Divide these values + + by the proportional increase in focal length over a 50-mm lens. For + example, for 3' (12 s), a 150-mm lens would be 1/3 (1' and 4 s) and a 1000- + mm lens would be 1/20 (0.15' and 0.6 s). Note that to compensate for these + values, the constant in the formula would be 1000 for a barely-detectable + trail, 600 for an undetectable trail, and 200 for an expert exposure. + + N.B. The above formulae assume a declination of 0o. For other declina- + tions, multiply lengths and divide exposure times by the following cosines + of the respective declination angles: 0.98 (10o), 0.93 (20o), 0.86 (30o), + 0.75 (40o), 0.64 (50o), 0.50 (60o), 0.34 (70o), 0.18 (80o), 0.10 (85o). + + + SURFACE BRIGHTNESS OF AN EXTENDED OBJECT ("B" VALUE) + B = 10^0.4(9.5-M)/D^2 + + where B is the surface brightness of the (round) extended object + M is the magnitude of the object (total brightness of the object), + linearized in the formula + D is the angular diameter of the object in seconds of arc (D^2 is + the surface area of the object) + + + EXPOSURE DURATION FOR POINT SOURCES + + e = (10^0.4(M+13))/S*a^2 + + where e is the exposure duration in seconds for an image size of >= 0.1 mm + M is the magnitude of the object + S if the film's ISO speed + a is the aperture of the objective + + + MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAE + ---------------------- + + HOUR ANGLE + H = Theta - Delta + + where H is the hour angle + Theta is sidereal time + Delta is right ascension + + The Hour Angle is negative east of and positive west of the meridian (as + right ascension increases eastward). + + + BODE'S LAW + + (4 + 3(2^n))/10 in AU at aphelion + + where n is the serial order of the planets from the sun (Mercury's 2n =1, + Venus's n = 0, Earth's n = 1, asteroid belt = 3) + + + ANGULAR SIZE + Theta = (55*h)/d + + where Theta is the angular size of the object in degrees + h is the linear size of the object in m + d is the distance from the eye in m + + e.g., for the width of a quarter at arm's length: + (55*0.254)/0.711 = 2o + + + ESTIMATING ANGULAR DISTANCE + + Penny, 4 km distant ....................................... 1" + Sun, Moon ................................................. 30' + (The Moon is approximately 400 times smaller in angular + diameter than the Sun, but is approx 400 times closer) + + Width of little finger at arm's length .................... 1o + Dime at arm's length ...................................... 1o + Quarter at arm's length ................................... 2.5o + Width of Orion's belt ..................................... 3o + Alpha Ursae Majoris (Dubhe) to Beta Ursae Majoris (Merak) . 5o + (Height of Big Dipper's "pointer stars" to Polaris.) + Alpha Geminorum (Castor) to Beta Geminorum (Pollux) ....... 5o + Width of fist at arm's length ............................. 10o + Alpha Ursae Majoris (Dubhe) to Delta Ursae Majoris (Megrez) 10o + (Width of Big Dipper's "pointer stars".) + Height of Orion ........................................... 16o + Length of palm at arm's length ............................ 18o + Width of thumb to little finger at arm's length ........... 20o + Alpha Ursae Majoris (Dubhe) to Eta Ursae Majoris (Alkaid) . 25o + (Length of Big Dipper.) + Alpha Ursae Majoris (Dubhe) to Alpha Ursae Minoris + (Polaris) ............................................. 27o + + + ESTIMATING MAGNITUDES + + Big Dipper, from cup to handle + Alpha (Dubhe) 1.9 + + Beta (Merak) 2.4 + Gamma (Phecda) 2.5 + Delta (Megrez) 3.4 + Epsilon (Alioth) 1.7 (4.9) + Zeta (Mizar) 2.4 (4.0) + Eta (Alkaid) 1.9 + + Little Dipper, from cup to handle + Beta (Kochab) 2.2 + Gamma (Pherkad) 3.1 + Eta 5.0 + Zeta 5.1 (4.3) + Epsilon 4.4 + Delta 4.4 + Alpha (Polaris) 2.1 + + + RANGE OF USEFUL MAGNIFICATION OF A TELESCOPE + + D = diameter of aperture in mm + + Minimum useful magnification .................... 0.13*D 0.2*D for better contrast + + Best visual acuity .............................. 0.25*D + Wide views ...................................... 0.4*D + Lowest power to see all detail (resolution of eye + matches resolution of telescope) ............. 0.5*D + Planets, Messier objects, general viewing ....... 0.8*D + Normal high power, double stars ................. 1.2*D to 1.6*D + Maximum useful magnification .................... 2.0*D + Close doubles ................................... 2.35*D + Sometimes useful for double stars ............... 4.0*D + Limit imposed by atmospheric turbulance ......... 500 + + + GEOGRAPHIC DISTANCE + + Geographic distance of one second of arc = 30 m * cos of the latitude + + where cos(Latitude)=1 on lines of constant longitude + + + + ANGULAR SIZE UNITS + 1 degree = 60 arc minutes denoted 60' + 1 ' = 60 arc seconds denoted " + + 1 Radian = 57.2957795 deg + = 3437.74677' + = 206264.806" + + # of square degrees in a sphere = 41252.96124 + + Ex + Moon + 1800" = .5 deg = 30' = 3500 km = 2170 miles + 180 " = 350 km + 1.8 " = 35 km = 2.1 miles + + . + . . + A radian is defined such that the angle,T,produced + . c . by setting the length of arc a = to the radius c + .------ will subtend 1 radian or 57.3 degrees approximately. + \ T / + . \ /a + \ /. + . \ + . . + + + + ANNUAL PARALLAX + + Tan(pi) approx= pi = a/D (by small angle equation) + + Where a = 1 AU or Astronomical Unit = 9.3E7 miles + D = distance in parsecs + + The distance is therefore related to the parallax definition by: + + D = 1/pi + + The parallax is a measure of distance based on angular displacement of a + star against much distant background stars over the course of a year's time + as the earth circles the sun. (A similar affect is obtained by closing one + eye, holding out a pencil vertically, and alternately closing and opening + the opposing eyes. The pencil shifts relative to the background which in + this case is the wall,window,woman, what have you. That is a parallactic + effect, except the eyes take the place of a camera taking pictures when the + earth is at opposite ends of its orbit. + + The parsec or PARallax-SECond is defined in terms of the parallax: The + parsec is the distance a star has to be such that the Earth's motion around + + the sun would cause the star to shift in the sky by one arc second through + the course of one year. The parsec is 3.26 light years in measure and is + obtained by conversion of light years or by taking 1/parallax value. + + + STELLAR DISTANCES + + + D(pc) = 10^(1+.2(m-M)) or rewritten as + + m = M + 5*Log(D) - 5 + + Where as usual: + + D = distance in parsecs. Obtained by taking 1/parallax. + m = apparent magnitude + M = absolute magnitude + + m-M = distance modulus + + + SPECTRAL CLASS FEATURES + + + Spectral + Class Special features + --------------------------------------------------------------------- + O HeII lines visible; lines from highly ionized species, for + example, CIII, NIII, OIII, SiIV ; H lines relatively weak; + strong ultraviolet continuum. + + B HeI lines strong; attain maxmimum at B2; HeII lines absent; + H lines stronger; lower ions, for example, CII, OII, SiIII + + A H lines attain maxmimum strength at A0 and decrease toward later + types; MgII, SiII strong; CaII weak and increasing in strength + + F H weaker, CaII stronger; lines of neutral atoms and first ions + of metals appear prominently + + G Solar-type spectra; CaII lines extremely stron; neutral metals + prominent, ions weaker; G band (CH) strong; H lines weakening + + K Neutral metallic lines dominate; H quite weak; molecular bands + (CH,CN) developing; continuum weak in blue + + M Strong molecular bands, particularly TiO; some neutral lines for + + example, CaI quite strong; red continua + + C(R,N) Carbon stars; strong bands of carbon compounds C ,CN,CO; + TiO absent; temperatures in range of 2 classes K and M + + S Heavy-element stars; bands of ZrO, YO, LaO; neutral atoms strong + as in classes K and M; overlaps these classes in temperature range + + + Ia-0 Most extreme supergiants + Ia Luminous supergiants + Iab Moderate supergiants + Ib Less luminous supergiants + II Bright giants + III Normal giants + IV Subgiants + V Dwarfs (main sequence) + VI Subdwarf (below main sequence, extreme metal poor. ) + VII White dwarfs + + + COMPLETE DATA FOR THE BRIGHTEST STARS + + + Sp + Star Name RA Dec m M Cl Lum Rad M Ly Tms + h m d m *Lo *Ro *Mo E6yr + + a And Alpheratz 00 07 +28 58 2.06 -0.1 B9p 93 3.1 5.0 90 500 + a Ari Hamal 02 06 +23 22 2.00 +0.2 K2III 103 17 5.1 76 500 + a UMi Polaris 02 12 +89 11 1.99 -4.6 F8Ib 1600 80 10 680 62 + b Per Algol 03 07 +40 52 2.06 -0.5 B8V 132 3.2 4.5 105 340 + a Per Mirfak 03 23 +49 47 1.8 -4.4 F5Ib 4800 55 14 570 29 + n Tau Alcyone 03 46 +24 03 2.9 -3.2 B7III 1800 8.5 10.5 410 58 + a Tau Aldeberan 04 35 +16 28 0.86 -1.2 K5III 150 4.5 4.5 68 300 + b Ori Rigel 05 14 -08 13 0.14 -7.1 B8Ia 150000 80 42 900 3 + a Aur Capella 05 15 +45 59 0.05 -0.6 G8III 75 1.2 3.8 45 500 + y Ori Bellatrix 05 24 +06 20 1.64 -4.2 B2III 4000 6.5 14 470 3.5 + a Ori Betelgeuse 05 54 +07 24 0.41 -5.6 M2Ia 13000 800 8.1 520 6.2 + a Car Canopus 06 24 -52 41 -0.72 -3.1 F0Ib 800 40 3.2 98 40 + a CMa Sirius 06 44 -16 42 -1.47 1.45 A1V 23 2.3 2.7 8.6 1174 + a Gem Castor 07 33 +31 56 1.97 1.3 A1V 28 2.3 2.8 45 1000 + a CMi Procyon 07 38 +05 17 0.37 2.7 F5IV 7.6 2 1.8 11.3 2370 + b Gem Pollux 07 44 +28 05 1.16 1.0 K0III 30 16 2.9 35 950 + a Hyd Alphard 09 26 -08 35 1.98 -0.3 K4III 114 162 4.4 94 385 + a Leo Regulus 10 07 +12 04 1.36 -0.7 B7V 140 3 4.7 84 335 + a UMa Dubhe 11 03 +61 52 1.81 -0.7 K0III 140 * 4.7 105 335 + + b Leo Denebola 11 48 +14 41 2.14 1.5 A3V 21 * 2.6 42 1238 + a CVn CorCaroli 12 55 +38 26 2.90 0.1 B9p 77 3.6 3.9 118 500 + a Vir Spica 13 24 -11 03 0.91 -3.3 B1V 1700 3 10.3 220 60 + a Boo Arcturus 14 15 +19 17 -0.06 -0.3 K2III 100 20 4.2 36 420 + a Cen Rigil Kent 14 38 -60 46 0.01 4.4 G2V 1.3 1 1.1 4.3 8500 + a CrB Alphecca 15 34 +26 47 2.23 0.4 A0V 120 3.6 4.5 76 375 + a Sco Antares 16 28 -26 23 0.92 -5.1 M1Ib 9000 800 17.2 520 19 + a Her RasAlgethi 17 14 +14 24 3.10 -2.3 M5II 700 800 7.9 410 112 + a Oph Rasalhague 17 34 +12 35 2.09 0.8 A5III 29 6.4 2.8 60 965 + a Lyr Vega 18 36 +38 46 0.04 0.5 A0V 50 2.5 3.4 27 680 + b Cyg Albireo 19 30 +27 55 3.07 -2.4 K3II 800 59 8.1 410 100 + a Aql Altair 19 50 +08 49 0.77 2.2 A7IV 9.8 1.5 2 16.5 2000 + a Cyg Deneb 20 41 +45 12 1.26 -7.1 A2Ia 100000 40 37 1600 3.7 + a Cep Alderamin 21 18 +62 31 2.44 1.4 A7IV 330 9.5 6.1 52 184 + e Peg Emif 21 43 +09 48 2.38 -4.6 K2Ib 5900 140 15.1 780 25 + a PsA Fomalhaut 22 57 -29 44 1.15 2.0 A3V 12 2 2.2 22.6 1830 + + NOTE: A '*' means no data available at this time +R + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/fossil.txt b/textfiles.com/science/fossil.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a2a9a4da --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/fossil.txt @@ -0,0 +1,472 @@ +Newsgroups: talk.origins +From: bvickers@valentine.ics.uci.edu (Brett J. Vickers) +Subject: Transitional Fossils FAQ (was Re: Duane T. Gish, Ph. D.) +Message-ID: <2B645766.8197@ics.uci.edu> +Organization: Univ. of Calif., Irvine, Info. & Computer Sci. Dept. +Date: 25 Jan 93 21:11:02 GMT +Lines: 475 + +From Kathleen Hunt's excellent transitional fossil FAQ: + +=============================================================================== +Author: Kathleen Hunt (jespah@milton.u.washington.edu) + Title: Transitional Fossils +=============================================================================== + +I've recently been re-reading Colbert's _Evolution of the Vertebrates_, +and was reminded of the old "there aren't any transitional fossils" +complaint that pops up on t.o. every now and then. That argument has long +been obsolete and inaccurate, as a brief glance at the fossil record shows. +I thought it might be of interest to have a list of some of the transitional +vertebrate fossils known, so that future t.o.discussions of the fossil record +can be somewhat more up-to-date and interesting (I can dream, can't I?). + +A couple people have asked me to post this as a f.a.q. file to t.o. So here +goes. First, I'll present a *partial* list of known transitional fossils, +compiled from Colbert's _Evolution of the Vertebrates_ (ref at end). Also +at the end I have a short note about the significance of "transitional +fossils". + +The fossils mentioned in this list are from species and/or genuses thought to +represent transitions from one vertebrate group to another. This list is +necessarily highly incomplete, because: +a) I skipped entire sections of Colbert's text (rodents, bovids, dinosaurs, +teleosts, and more). +b) Colbert's text is *not* an encyclopedic list of all known fossils, but +instead has detailed descriptions of *particular* fossils that Colbert +thought were representative of that group at that time, or that were +otherwise of special interest. +c) Colbert's text is from 1980 and thus somewhat outdated. I've added in +some recently discovered bird, whale, horse, and primate fossils. Please +let me know of other recent discoveries. + +******************************************************************* +[We start off with primitive jawless fish.] + +Transition from primitive jawless fish to sharks, skates, and rays: +Cladoselachians (e.g., _Cladoselache_). +Hybodonts (e.g. _Hybodus_) +Heterodonts (e.g. _Heterodontus_) +Hexanchids (e.g. _Chlamydoselache_) + +Transition from primitive bony fish to holostean fish: +Palaeoniscoids (e.g. _Cheirolepis_); living chondrosteans such as + _Polypterus_ and _Calamoichthys_, and also the living acipenseroid + chondrosteans such as sturgeons and paddlefishes. +Primitive holosteans such as _Semionotus_. + +Transition from holostean fish to advanced teleost fish: +Leptolepidomorphs, esp. _Leptolepis_, an excellent holostean-teleost + intermediate +Elopomorphs, both fossil and living (tarpons, eels) +Clupeomorphs (e.g. _Diplomystus_) +Osteoglossomorphs (e.g. _Portheus_) +Protacanthopterygians + +Transition from primitive bony fish to amphibians: +Paleoniscoids again (e.g. _Cheirolepis_) +_Osteolepis_ -- one of the earliest crossopterygian lobe-finned fishes, + still sharing some characters with the lungfish (the other group of + lobe-finned fish). Had paired fins with a leg-like arrangement of bones, + and had an early-amphibian-like skull and teeth. +_Eusthenopteron_ (and other rhipidistian crossopterygian fish) -- + intermediate between early crossopterygian fish and the earliest + amphibians. Skull very amphibian-like. Strong amphibian-like backbone. + Fins very like early amphibian feet. +Icthyostegids (such as _Icthyostega_ and _Icthyostegopsis_) -- + Terrestrial amphibians with many of _Eusthenopteron_'s fish features + (e.g., the fin rays of the tail were retained). Some debate about + whether _Icthyostega_ should be considered a fish or an amphibian; + it is an excellent transitional fossil. +Labyrinthodonts (e.g., _Pholidogaster_, _Pteroplax_) -- still have some + icthyostegid features, but have lost many of the fish features (e.g., + the fin rays are gone, vertebrae are stronger and interlocking, the + nasal passage for air intake is well defined.) + +Transition from amphibians to reptiles: +Seymouriamorph labyrinthodonts (e.g. _Seymouria_) -- classic labyrinthodont + skull and teeth, with reptilian vertebrae, pelvis, humerus, and digits; + amphibian ankle. +Cotylosaurs (e.g. _Hylonomus_, _Limnoscelis_) -- slightly amphibian + skull (e.g. with amphibian-type pineal opening), with rest of skeleton + classically reptilian. +The cotylosaurs gave rise to many reptile groups of tremendous variety. I +won't go into the transitions from cotylosaurs to the advanced anapsid +reptiles (turtles and possibly mesosaurs), to the euryapsid reptiles +(icthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and others), or to the lepidosaurs (eosuchians, +lizards, snakes, and the tuatara), or to most of the dinosaurs, since I don't +have infinite time. Instead I'll concentrate on the synapsid reptiles (which +gave rise to mammals) and the archosaur reptiles (which gave rise to birds). + +Transition from reptiles to mammals: +Pelycosaur synapsids -- classic reptilian skeleton, intermediate between + the cotylosaurs (the earliest reptiles) and the therapsids (see next) +Therapsids (e.g. _Dimetrodon_) -- the numerous therapsid + fossils show gradual transitions from reptilian features to + mammalian features. For example: the hard palate forms, the teeth + differentiate, the occipital condyle on the base of the skull doubles, + the ribs become restricted to the chest instead of extending down the + whole body, the legs become "pulled in" instead of sprawled out, the ilium + (major bone of the hip) expands forward. +Cynodont theriodonts (e.g. _Cynognathus_) -- very mammal-like reptiles. + Or is that reptile-like mammals? Highly differentiated teeth (a classic + mammalian feature), with accessory cusps on cheek teeth; strongly + differentiated vertebral column (with distinct types of vertebrae for + the neck, chest, abdomen, pelvis, and tail -- very mammalian), mammalian + scapula, mammalian limbs, mammalian digits (e.g. reduction of number of + bones in the first digit). But, still has unmistakably *reptilian* + jaw joint. +Tritilodont theriodonts (e.g. _Tritylodon_, _Bienotherium_) -- skull + even more mammalian (e.g. advanced zygomatic arches). Still has + reptilian jaw joint. +Ictidosaur theriodonts (e.g. _Diarthrognathus_) -- has all the mammalian + features of the tritilodonts, and has a *double* jaw joint; both the + reptilian jaw joint and the mammalian jaw joint were present, side-by-side, + in _Diarthrognathus_'s skull. A really stunning transitional fossil. +Morganucodonts (e.g. _Morganucodon_) -- early mammals. Double jaw joint, + but now the mammalian joint is dominant (the reptilian joint bones are + beginning to move inward; in modern mammals these are the bones of + the middle ear). +Eupantotheres (e.g. _Amphitherium_) -- these mammals begin to show the + complex molar cusp patterns characteristic of modern marsupials and + eutherians (placental mammals). Mammalian jaw joint. +Proteutherians (e.g. _Zalambdalestes_) -- small, early insectivores with + molars intermediate between eupantothere molars and modern eutherian + molars. + +Those wondering how egg-laying reptiles could make the transition to +placental mammals may wish to study the reproductive biology of the +monotremes (egg-laying mammals) and the marsupials. The monotremes +in particular could almost be considered "living transitional fossils". +[see Peter Lamb's suggested marsupial references at end] + +Transition from reptiles to birds: +_Lisboasaurus estesi_ and other "troodontid dinosaur-birds" -- a bird-like + reptile with very bird-like teeth (that is, teeth very like those of + early toothed birds [modern birds have no teeth]). May not have been + a direct ancestor; may have been a "cousin" of the birds instead. +_Protoavis_ -- this is a *highly controversial* fossil that may or may not be + an extremely early bird. Not enough of the fossil was recovered to + determine if it is definitely related to the birds, or not. I mention it + in case people have heard about it recently. +_Archeopteryx_ -- reptilian vertebrae, pelvis, tail, skull, teeth, digits, + claws, sternum. Avian furcula (wishbone, for attachment of flight + muscles), forelimbs, and lift-producing flight feathers. _Archeopteryx_ + could probably fly from tree to tree, but couldn't take off from + the ground, since it lacked a keeled breastbone (for attachment of large + flight muscles) and had a weak shoulder (relative to modern birds). +"Chinese bird" [I don't know what name was given to this fossil] -- + A fossil dating from 10-15 million years after _Archeopteryx_. + Bird-like claws on the toes, flight-specialized shoulders, fair-sized + sternal keel (modern birds usually have large sternal keel); also + has reptilian stomach ribs, reptilian unfused hand bones, & reptilian + pelvis. This bird has a fused tail ("pygostyle"), but I don't know how + long it was, or if it was all fused or just part of it was fused. +"Las Hoyas bird" [I don't know what name was given to this fossil] -- + This fossil dates from 20-30 m.y. after _Archeopteryx_. It still + has reptilian pelvis & legs, with bird-like shoulder. Tail is + medium-length with a fused tip (_Archeopteryx_ had long, unfused tail; + modern birds have short, fused tail). Fossil down feather was found with + the Las Hoyas bird. +Toothed Cretaceous birds, e.g. _Hesperornis_ and _Ichthyornis_. Skeleton + further modified for flight (fusion of pelvis bones, fusion of hand + bones, short & fused tail). Still had true socketed teeth, which are + missing in modern birds. +[note: a classic study of chicken embryos showed that chicken bills can +be induced to develop teeth, indicating that chickens (and perhaps other +modern birds) still retain the genes for making teeth.] + + +Now, on to some of the classes of mammals. + +Transitional fossils from early eutherian mammals to primates: + +Early primates -- paromomyids, carpolestids, plesiadapids. Lemur-like + clawed primates with generalized nails. +_Notharctus_, an early Eocene lemur +_Parapithecus_, a small Old World monkey (Oligocene) +_Propliopithecus_, a small primate intermediate between _Parapithecus_ + and the more recent O.W. monkeys. Has several ape-like characters. +_Aegyptopithecus_, an early ape. +_Limnopithecus_, a later ape showing similarities to the modern gibbons. +_Dryopithecus_, a later ape showing similarities to the non-gibbon apes. +_Ramapithecus_, a dryopithecine-like ape showing similarities to the + hominids but now thought to be an orang ancestor. +_Australopithecus_ spp., early hominids. Bipedal. +_Homo habilis_. +_Homo erectus_. Numerous fossils across the Old World. +_Homo sapiens sapiens_. This is us. (NB: "Cro-magnon man" belongs + here too. Cro-magnons were a specific population of modern humans.) +_Homo sapiens neanderthalensis_ (not on the direct line to _H. sapiens + sapiens_, but worth mentioning). +[I haven't described these fossils in detail because they're fairly well +covered in any intro biology text, or in any of several good general- +interest books on human evolution.] + +Transitional fossils from early eutherian mammals to rodents: +Paramyids, e.g. _Paramys_ -- early "primitive" rodent +_Paleocastor_ -- transitional from paramyids to beavers +[yick. I was going to summarize rodent fossils but _Paramys_ and its +friends gave rise to 5 enormous and very diverse groups of rodents, with +about ten zillion fossils. Never mind.] + +Transitional fossils among the cetaceans (whales & dolphins): +_Pakicetus_ -- the oldest fossil whale known. Only the skull was found. + It is a distinct whale skull, but with nostrils in the position of a + land animal (tip of snout). The ears were *partially* modified for + hearing under water. This fossil was found in association with fossils + of land mammals, suggesting this early whale *maybe* could walk on land. +_Basilosaurus isis_ -- a recently discovered "legged" whale from the + Eocene (after _Pakicetus_). Had hind feet with 3 toes and a tiny remnant + of the 2nd toe (the big toe is totally missing). The legs were small and + must have been useless for locomotion, but were specialized for swinging + forward into a locked straddle position -- probably an aid to copulation + for this long-bodied, serpentine whale. +Archaeocetes (e.g. _Protocetus_, _Eocetus_) -- have lost hind legs entirely, + but retain "primitive whale" skull and teeth, with forward nostrils. +Squalodonts (e.g. _Prosqualodon_) -- whale-like skull with *dorsal* + nostrils (blowhole), still with un-whale-like teeth. +_Kentriodon_, an early toothed whale with whale-like teeth. +_Mesocetus_, an early whalebone whale +[note: very rarely a modern whale is found with tiny hind legs, showing +that some whales still retain the genes for making hind legs.] + + +Transitional fossils from early eutherian mammals to the carnivores: +Miacids (e.g. _Viverravus_ and _Miacis_) -- small weasel-like animals + with very carnivore-like teeth, esp. the carnassial teeth. +Arctoids (e.g. _Cynodictis_, _Hesperocyon_) -- intermediate between + miacids and dogs. Limbs have elongated, carnassials are more + specialized, braincase is larger. +_Cynodesmus_, _Tomarctus_ -- transitional fossils between arctoids + and the modern dog genus _Canis_. +_Hemicyon_, _Ursavus_ -- heavy doglike fossils between the arctoids + and the bears. +_Indarctos_ -- early bear. Carnassial teeth have no shearing action, + molars are square, short tail, heavy limbs. Transitional to the + modern genus _Ursus_. +_Phlaocyon_ -- a climbing carnivore with non-shearing carnassials, + transitional from the arctoids to the procyonids (raccoons et al.) +Meanwhile back at the ranch, +_Plesictis_, transitional between miacids (see above) and mustelids + (weasels et al.) +_Stenoplesictis_ and _Palaeoprionodon_, early civets related to the + miacids (see above) +_Tunguricits_, transitional between early civets and modern civets +_Ictitherium_, transitional between early civets to hyenas +_Proailurus_, transitional from early civets to early cats +_Dinictis_, transitional from early cats to modern "feline" cats +_Hoplophoneus_, transitional from early cats to "saber-tooth" cats + + +Transitional fossils from early eutherians to hoofed animals: +Arctocyonid condylarths -- insectivore-like small mammals with classic + mammalian teeth and clawed feet. +Mesonychid condylarths -- similar to the arctocyonids, but with blunt + crushing-type cheek teeth, and flattened nails instead of claws. +Late condylarths, e.g. _Phenocodus_ -- a fair-sized animal with + hoofs on each toe (all toes were present), a continuous series of + crushing-type cheek teeth with herbivore-type cusps, and no collarbone + (like modern hoofed animals). + +Transitional fossils from early hoofed animals to perissodactyls: +[Perissodactyls are animals with an *odd* number of toes; most of the +weight is borne by the central 3rd toe. Horses, rhinos, tapirs.] +_Tetraclaeonodon_ -- a Paleocene condylarth showing perissodactyl-like + teeth +_Hyracotherium_ -- the famous "dawn horse", an early perissodactyl, with + more elongated digits and interlocking ankle bones, and slightly + different tooth cusps, compared to to _Tetraclaeonodon_. A small, doggish + animal with an arched back, short neck, and short snout; had 4 toes + in front and 3 behind. Omnivore teeth. +[The rest of horse evolution will be covered in an upcoming "horse +fossils" post in a few weeks. To whet your appetite:] +_Orohippus_ -- small, 4/3 toed, developing browser tooth crests +_Epihippus_ -- small, 4/3 toed, good tooth crests, browser +_Epihippus (Duchesnehippus)_ -- a subgenus with _Mesohippus_-like teeth +_Mesohippus_ -- 3 toed on all feet, browser, slightly larger +_Miohippus_ -- 3 toed browser, slightly larger [gave rise to lots of + successful three-toed browsers] +_Parahippus_ -- 3 toed browser/grazer, developing "spring foot" +_'Parahippus' leonensis_ -- a _Merychippus_-like species of _Parahippus_ +_'Merychippus' gunteri_ -- a _Parahippus_-like species of _Merychippus_ +_'Merychippus' primus_ -- a more typical _Merychippus_, but still very + like _Parahippus_. +_Merychippus_ -- 3 toed grazer, spring-footed, size of small pony + (gave rise to tons of successful three-toed grazers) +_Merychippus (Protohippus)_ -- a subgenus of _Merychippus_ developing + _Pliohippus_-like teeth. +_Pliohippus_ & _Dinohippus_ -- *one*-toed grazers, spring-footed +_Equus (Plesippus)_ -- like modern equines but teeth slightly simpler. +_Equus (Hippotigris)_, the modern 1-toed spring-footed grazing zebras. +_Equus (Equus)_, the modern 1-toed spring-footed grazing horses & donkeys. +[note: very rarely a horse is born with small visible side toes, indicating +that some horses retain the genes for side toes.] + +Meanwhile back at the ranch, +Hyrachyids -- transitional from perissodactyl-like condylarths to tapirs +Heptodonts, e.g. _Lophiodont_ -- a small horse-like tapir, transitional + to modern tapirs +_Protapirus_ -- a probable descendent of _Lophiodont_, much like modern + tapirs but without the flexible snout. +_Miotapirus_ -- an almost-modern tapir with a flexible snout, transitional + between _Protapirus_ and the modern _Tapirus_. +Meanwhile, +Hyracodonts -- early "running rhinoceroses", transitional to modern rhinos +_Caenopus_, a large, hornless, generalized rhino transitional between the + hyracodonts and the various later groups of modern & extinct rhinos. + +Transitional fossils from early hoofed animals to some of the artiodactyls +(cloven-hoofed animals): +Dichobunoids, e.g. _Diacodexis_, transitional between condylarths + and all the artiodactyls (cloven-hoofed animals). Very condylarth-like + but with a notably artiodactyl-like ankle. +_Propalaeochoerus_, an early pig, transitional between _Diacodexis_ and + modern pigs. +_Protylopus_, a small, short-necked, four-toed animal, transitional between + dichobunoids and early camels. From here the camel lineage goes through + _Protomeryx_, _Procamelus_, _Pleauchenia_, _Lama_ (which are still alive; + these are the llamas) and finally _Camelus_, the modern camels. +_Archeomeryx_, a rabbit-sized, four-toed animal, transitional between the + dichobunoids and the early deer. From here the deer lineage goes through + _Eumeryx_, _Paleomeryx_ and _Blastomeryx_, _Dicrocerus_ (with antlers) and + then a shmoo of successful groups that survive today as modern deer -- + muntjacs, cervines, white-tail relatives, moose, reindeer, etc., etc. +_Palaeotragus_, transitional between early artiodactyls and the okapi & + giraffe. Actually the okapi hasn't changed much since _Palaeotragus_ and + is essentially a living Miocene giraffe. After _Palaeotragus_ came + _Giraffa_, with elongated legs & neck, and _Sivatherium_, large ox-like + giraffes that *almost* survived to the present. + +***************************************************************************** +So, there's a *partial* list of transitional fossils. + +This really only scratches the surface since I left out all groups that have +no surviving relatives, didn't discuss modern amphibians or reptiles, left +out most of the birds, ignored the diversity in modern fish, didn't discuss +the bovids or elephants or rodents or many other mammal groups....I hope this +gives a taste of the richness of the fossil record and the abundance of +transitional fossils between major vertebrate taxa. + +By the way, notice that this list mostly includes transitional fossils that +happened to lead to modern, familiar animals. This may unintentionally give +the impression that fossil lineages proceed in a "straight line" from one +fossil to the next. That's not so; generally at any one time there are a +whole raft of successful species, only a few of which happened to leave +modern descendents. The horse family is a good example; _Merychippus_ gave +rise to something like 19 new three-toed grazing horse species, which +traveled all over the Old and New Worlds and were very successful at the +time. Only one of these lines happened to lead to _Equus_, though, so that's +the only line I talked about. Evolution is not a ladder, it's a branching +bush. + +And now, for those of you who are still with me... +I have a few comments about "transitional fossils" in general. When _The +Origin Of Species_ was first published, the fossil record was poorly known. +At that time, the complaint about the lack of transitional fossils bridging +the major vertebrate taxa was perfectly reasonable. Opponents of Darwin's +theory of common descent (the theory that evolution has occurred; not to be +confused with the separate theory that evolution occurs specifically by +natural selection) were justifiably skeptical of such ideas as birds being +related to reptiles. The discovery of _Archeopteryx_ only two years after +the publication of _The Origin of Species_ was seen a stunning triumph for +Darwin's theory of common descent. _Archeopteryx_ has been called the single +most important natural history specimen ever found, "comparable to the +Rosetta Stone" (Alan Feduccia, in "The Age Of Birds"). O.C. Marsh's +groundbreaking study of the evolution of horses was another dramatic example +of transitional fossils, this time demonstrating a whole sequence of +transitions within a single family. Within a few decades after the _Origin_, +these and other fossils, along with many other sources of evidence (such as +developmental biology and biogeography) had convinced the majority of +educated people that evolution *had* occured, and that organisms *are* +related to each other by common descent. (Whether evolution occurs by +natural selection, rather than by some other mechanism, is *another question +entirely* and is the topic of current evolutionary research.) + +Since then *many* more transitional fossils have been found. Typically, the +only people who still demand to see transitional fossils are creationists who +have been reading 100-year-old anti-evolution arguments, and who are either +unaware of the currently known fossil record or are unwilling to believe it +for some reason. When presented with a transitional fossil, such +creationists often then want to see the transitions between the transitions - +- or, as Pilbeam complained, "as soon as you find a missing link, +you've just created two more missing links". Alternatively, +creationists will often state that the two groups being bridged by the +transitional fossil are really the same "kind" (a term that has *no* meaning +in modern biology) and that therefore "real evolution" hasn't occurred. This +often leads to a weasely backtracking in which *no* transitional fossil, +however dramatic, no matter what disparate groups it connects, will ever be +accepted by a creationist. Biologists justifiably find this attitude +irritating, and any creationist taking this tack can expect to have testy +biologists demanding that he/she clearly define "kind" before the discussion +goes any further. + +Creationists also sometimes say "All right, so you have a transitional fossil +from X to Y -- but you don't from Y to Z!" It is unreasonable to expect the +fossil record to be absolutely complete. It is highly unlikely for *any* +organism to get fossilized, and to demand a perfect sequence of fossils of +all species from all times and all locations, perfectly preserved in rocks +that are not plowed under or eroded away, and not taken by private collectors +and sold for thousands of dollars at some auction or used as a doorstop or a +paperweight, but instead are exposed just as one of the few working +paleontologists in the world happens to walk by -- well, we're lucky +that the known fossil record is as good as it is. Remember that even if only +*ONE* transitional fossil were known, it would be a tremendous support for +evolutionary theory. (Thus the tremendous impact of _Archeopteryx_ in 1861). +We now know of HUNDREDS of transitional fossils. It is logically absurd to +demand that a *particular* gap be filled, and if it can't be filled to then +say that evolution has been falsified -- meanwhile ignoring all the gaps that +*have* been filled. + +I'll leave it at that. This has been a partial list of transitional fossils +among some of the major taxa of vertebrates. This list has been brought +to you by the numbers 1 and 7 and the letter E. + +BIBLIOGRAPHY +"Chinese bird fossil: mix of old and new". 1990. Science News 138: 246-247 +[this fossil was described at the 1990 annual meeting of the Society of +Vertebrate Paleontology, so there's probably a paper on it in the collected +meeting papers.] + +Colbert, E. 1980. _Evolution of the Vertebrates_, 3rd ed. John Wiley & +Sons, New York. + +Gould, S.J. 1983. _Hen's Teeth And Horse's Toes_. W.W. Norton, New York. +[The title essay discusses evidence that some species retain old genes +for traits that they no longer express -- teeth in chickens, side toes in +horses. ] + +Feduccia, A. 1980. _The Age Of Birds_. Harvard University Press, +Cambridge, Mass. + +Gingerich, P.D., Smith, B.H., Simons, E.L. 1990. Hind limb of Eocene +_Basilosaurus_: evidence of feet in whales. Science 249:154. + +_The Lonely Bird_. 1991. Science News 140:104-105. [an article on the +controversy surrounding _Protoavis_. A monograph on _Protoavis_'s skull was +published in June 1991 in Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London, if anyone cares; +this was the first publication on _Protoavis_, which was found years ago but +has been jealously guarded by its discoverer for some time.] + +Milner, A.R., and S.E. Evans. 1991. The Upper Jurassic diapsid +_Lisboasaurus estesi_ -- a maniraptoran theropod. Paleontology 34:503-513. +[this is the bird-like archosaurian reptile] + +Sanz, J.L., Bonaparte, J.F., and A. Lacassa. 1988. Unusual Early Cretaceous +birds from Spain. Nature 331:433-435. [This is about the Las Hoyas bird. +Also see Science News 133:102, "Bird fossil reveals history of flight", for +a brief synopsis.] + +Horse references will be in horse post. + +Marsupial references (suggested by Peter Lamb): + +[1] Mervyn Griffiths, "The Platypus", Scientific American, May 1988 pp 60-67. +[2] Mervyn Griffiths, "The Biology of the Monotremes", Academic Press, + New York a.o., 1978 +[3] Terence J.Dawson, "Monotremes and Marsupials: the other Mammals", + Arnold, London, 1983 + +-- +Brett J. Vickers +bvickers@ics.uci.edu diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/fracmath.txt b/textfiles.com/science/fracmath.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a96bad00 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/fracmath.txt @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ + MATHEMATICS OF THE FRACTAL TYPES + + +Fractal Type(s) Formula(s) used +----------------------- --------------------------------------------- +Mandel, Julia Z(n+1) = Z(n)^2 + C +Newton, Newtbasin (roots of) Z^n - 1, wnere n is an integer +ComplexNewton, ComplexBasin (roots of) Z^a - b, where a,b are complex +plasma (see the Plasma section for details) +Mandelsine, Lambdasine Z(n+1) = Lambda * sine(Z(n)) + C +Mandelcos, Lambdacos Z(n+1) = Lambda * cos(Z(n)) + C +Mandelexp, Lambdaexp Z(n+1) = Lambda * exp(Z(n)) + C +Mandelsinh, Lambdasinh Z(n+1) = Lambda * sinh(Z(n)) + C +Mandelcosh, Lambdacosh Z(n+1) = Lambda * cosh(Z(n)) + C +BarnsleyM1, BarnsleyJ1 Z(n+1) = (Z(n)-1) * C if Real(z) >= 0 + else (Z(n)+1) * modulus(C)/C +BarnsleyM2, BarnsleyJ2 Z(n+1) = (Z(n)-1) * C if Real(Z(n))*Imag(C) + +Real(C)*Imag(Z(n)) >= 0 + else (Z(n)+1) * C +BarnsleyM3, BarnsleyJ3 Z(n+1) = (Real(Z(n))^2 - Imag(Z(n))^2 - 1) + + i * (2 * Real(Z((n)) * Imag(Z((n))) + if Real(Z(n) > 0 + else (Real(Z(n))^2 - Imag(Z(n))^2 - 1 + + lambda * Real(Z(n)) + + i * (2 * Real(Z((n)) * Imag(Z((n)) + + lambda * Real(Z(n)) +Sierpinski Z(n+1) = (2x, 2y - 1) if y > .5 + else (2x - 1, 2y) if x > .5 + else (2X, 2y) +MandelLambda, Lambda Z(n+1) = (C) * (Z(n)^2) + C +MarksMandel, MarksJulia Z(n+1) = (C^(Period-1)) * (Z(n)^2) + C + ("Period" is a parameter) +Unity (see the Unity section for details) +ifs, ifs3D (see the IFS section for details) +Mandel4, Julia4 Z(n+1) = Z(n)^4 + C +Test (as distributed, as simple Mandelbrot fractal) +Mansinzsqrd, Julsinzsqrd Z(n+1) = Z(n)^2 + sin(Z(n)) + C +Manzpower, Julzpower Z(n+1) = Z(n)^M + C (M is a parameter) +Manzzpwr, Julzzpwr Z(n+1) = Z(n)^Z(n) + Z(n)^M + C +Mansinexp, Julsinexp Z(n+1) = sin(Z(n)) + e^(Z(n)) + C +popcorn Z(n+1) = x(n+1) + i * y(n+1), where + x(n+1) = x(n) - 0.05*sin(y(n)) + tan(3*y(n)) + y(n+1) = y(n) - 0.05*sin(x(n)) + tan(3*x(n)) +demm, demj (Mandelbrot, Julia fractals calculated and + colored using the "Distance Estimator" method +Bifurcation (see the Bifurcation section for details) +Lorenz, Lorenz3d Lorenz Attractor - orbits of differential + equation + x = x + (-a * x * dt) + (a * y * dt) + y = y + (b * x * dt) - (y * dt) - (z * x * dt) + z = z + (-c * z * dt) + (x * y * dt) + (defaults: dt = .02, a = 5, b = 15, c = 1) + (Lorenz3D is the Lorenz Attractor with the + addition of 3D perspective transformations + as specified by the IFS ditor's + transformation option) + +The following trig identities are invaluable for coding fractals that +use complex-valued transcendental functions. + + e^(x+iy) = (e^x)cos(y) + i(e^x)sin(y) + sin(x+iy) = sin(x)cosh(y) + icos(x)sinh(y) + cos(x+iy) = cos(x)cosh(y) - isin(x)sinh(y) + sinh(x+iy) = sinh(x)cos(y) + icosh(x)sin(y) + cosh(x+iy) = cosh(x)cos(y) + isinh(x)sin(y) + ln(x+iy) = (1/2)ln(x*x + y*y) + i(arctan(y/x) + 2kPi) + (k = 0, +-1, +-2, +-....) + + sin(2x) sinh(2y) + tan(x+iy) = ------------------ + i------------------ + cos(2x) + cosh(2y) cos(2x) + cosh(2y) + + sinh(2x) sin(2y) + tanh(x+iy) = ------------------ + i------------------ + cosh(2x) + cos(2y) cosh(2x) + cos(2y) + + z^z = e^(log(z)*z) + log(x + iy) = 1/2(log(x*x + y*y) + i(arc_tan(y/x)) + e^(x + iy) = (cosh(x) + sinh(x)) * (cos(y) + isin(y)) + = e^x * (cos(y) + isin(y)) + = (e^x * cos(y)) + i(e^x * sin(y)) + + +Extract from FRACTINT.DOC + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/france.txt b/textfiles.com/science/france.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3d6ce2d4 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/france.txt @@ -0,0 +1,991 @@ +JULY 1990, NASA TECH BRIEFS, VOL 14, NO 7 + + FRANCE: A LEADER IN SPACE + +France has been active in space R&D since the early 1960s. In 1965, +France placed a satellite in orbit using its own resources. Today, +France is the number three spacefaring nation, after the United States +and the Soviet Union. French efforts are balanced between a strong +national program under the leadership of the Centre National d'Etudes +Spatiales (French Space Agency) and a leading role in the projects of +the European Space Agency. + +A characteristic success of the national program is the series of SPOT +remote sensing satellites: SPOT 1 has been in operation since 1986; SPOT +2 was placed in orbit early in 1990; SPOT 3 is under construction; and +SPOT 4, decided upon in 1989, will ensure continuity of data until the +end of the century. Pictures from SPOT, with 10-meter resolution, are +marketed by the SPOT Image Company and its U.S. subsidiary, SICorp. + +France promoted the European launch vehicle Ariane and made a major +contribution to the funding of the European Space Agency program. +Arianespace, the company set up to market the launcher, has gained more +than half the world market open to commercial competition. + +The French space industry is the European leader, its capabilities and +experience range from the production of sensors and complex systems to +exercising full responsibility as main contractor for complete satellite +and ground equipment systems. + +I am sure that beyond current scientific collaboration, illustrated by +the Topex-Poseidon project, the tradition of scientific and commercial +cooperation between France and the United States will go from strength +to strength. + + -- Paul Quiles + Minister for Posts, Telecommunications and Space + + + + FRANCE'S HIGH TECHNOLOGY IN SPACE + +France is the leading space power in Europe. Its space effort began in +March 1962 with the creation of a national space agency, the Centre +National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES). France was a founding member of +European space organizations such as the ESRO and the ELDO, which were +replaced in 1973 by a single cooperative body, the European Space Agency +(ESA). + +The French are politically, financially, and technically influential at +ESA. In addition to being the largest contributor, providing more than +a third of the ESA's funds, France has provided valuable proposals, +including the ESA's first launch vehicle, Ariane, and now the Ariane-5 +heavy-lift launcher and the Hermes manned spaceplane. + +Together with the Columbus space station initiated and principally +sponsored by Germany and Italy, Hermes and Ariane-5 are the largest and +most expensive programs underway in Europe. The development of this +unprecedented space triad represents a $20 billion investment by the + + + 1 + + + + + +ESA's 13 member states. + +Ariane-5 is to replace past Ariane rockets for commercial launches of +geostationary and polar satellites. It is also designed to loft into +low-Earth orbit the Hermes spaceplane, which will service the European +orbital infrastructure, including Columbus. Hermes also will have the +capability to visit foreign space stations, including the American +Freedom station and the Soviet Mir facility. The hypersonic glider will +carry three crew members and three tons of payload into space station +orbits at approximately 450 km. Its initial autonomy of seven days +could later be expanded to one month. + +Hermes and Columbus, while appearing modest compared to U.S. and Soviet +capabilities in similar domains, will be extremely important to Europe +because they will give it autonomous access to manned space flights. +This ambitious goal is within European capabilities, both technically +and financially. European aerospace firms, especially those presented +in this survey, have the high-tech capabilities needed to meet the +challenges of manned space flight. + + + FROM SATELLITE AND ROCKETS TO THE GOAL OF MANNED SPACEFLIGHT: + AN OVERVIEW OF FRENCH INDUSTRY'S ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES + +This year, France will celebrate the 25th anniversary of its first +satellite launch. On November 26, 1965, the 41 kg Asterix satellite was +launched from Hammaguir in the Sahara Desert and put into orbit to test +the performance of its pioneering rocket, Diamant. + +Sence then, France has continually increased its space effort. In 1990, +CNES will spend nearly $2 billion for space activities, with the lion's +share (40 percent) going to ESA. The French aerospace industry +presently employs more than 10,000 people, mainly skilled engineers and +technicians. Major French aerospace companies include: Aerospatiale, +Matra, Alcatel, Dassault, SEP, SNPE, Arianespace, CLS Argos, SPOT Image, +and Novespace. The latter four are among the 15 commercial subsidiaries +CNES has founded over the last 20 years. + +REORGANIZING THE SPACE INDUSTRY + +Three leading French aerospace companies are prime contractors for +satellite systems in the fields of communications, observatino, and +sci8ence. The government-owned Aerospatiale and the privately-led Matra +are manufacturing scientific, communications, direct broadcasting, and +remote sensing satellites as part of national and international +programs. Both have expertise in developing subsystems such as +structures, thermal and attitude controls, data processing equipment, +on-board computers, and software. They also develop instruments and +systems for biomedical and materials processing experiments in the +microgravity environment of space. + +Alcatel Espace, the only major French company fully dedicated to space +activities, is a leading manufacturer of satellite payloads and space +borne equipment for communications and military surveillance systems. +The French Ministry of Defense selected Alcatel as prime contractor for +the Syracuse military communications satellite system. The contract for +Syracuse 2 is worth $700 million. + + + + 2 + + + + + +Aerospatiale and Alcatel are working on an agreement to merge their +respective satellite activities into a single unit. The joint venture +should be established by the end of 1990. Matra Space recently teamed +with Marconi Space Systems to create Matra Marconi Space (MMS). Matra +is majority owner and will retain its previous deal with British +Aerospace to jointly develop Eurostar satellite platforms. + +Matra has established alliances with several other European companies, +including Crisa (Spain), Spacebel (Belgium), and Intecs (Italy). These +joint ventures are part of an effort by aerospace companies to diversify +and build market share in order to cope with the unified European market +of 1993. + +MATRA EXTENDS ITS BASE + +Last year, Matra extended its strong European base by gaining control of +Fairchild Industries in the United States. The French company bought +three divisions of Fairchild -- Space, Communication and Electronics, +and Control systems -- with a combined staff of 2100 and total sales of +$250 million in 1989. The new entity, named the Fairchild Space and +Defense Corp. (FSDC), "will remain an autonomous American company" +according to Claude Goumy, MMS chairman. + +With its European subsidiaries and American acquisition, MMS now +represents a space group with 4000 workers, sales approaching $830 +million, and order totaling approximately $1.5 billion. The unit's +operating profit is between six and seven percent, according to Goumy. +MMS is now ranked third among the world's satellite manufacturers, +behind two American giants, Hughes Aircraft and GE Astro Space. Goumy +expects MMS to grow 15 percent annually. "The group will employ 5000 +workers and achieve $1 billion in sales by 1992," he predicted. + +Matra is involved in five areas of space business: communications, +observation satellites, scientific satellites and instruments, space +borne avionics, and launcher equipment bays for Ariane. The company is +prime contractor for numerous civil and military satellites, including +Telecom 2, Hispasat, Locstar, SPOT, Helios, ERS, Hipparcos, and Soho. +The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (Soho), part of the international +Solar-Terrestrial Physics Program, will be launched by an American +rocket in 1995. + +Matra has developed space-borne instruments for Earth Observation +satellites, including CCD cameras for SPOT and imaging radiometers and +infrared sensors for Meteosat satellites. One Meteosat radiometer set a +world record by sending more than 400,000 images during its seven-year +lifetime. + +VSATs (very-small-aperture terminals) also attracted MAtra. Through +Polycom, a cooperative venture with France Telecom, the company has sold +more than 1000 VSATs in 70 countries. These one-way terminals are +jointly developed by Matra, Fuba of Germany, and Harris Corp., of the +U.S. Matra is now addressing the two-way VSAT market and also wants to +enter the direct broadcasting business. + +One way Matra hopes to increase its space business is by expanding into +the area of satellite services. The French group is a shareholder in +service companies such as Arianespace and SPOT Image, and intends to +gain a foothold in the mobile communications business by participating + + + 3 + + + + + +in new ventures such as Locstar, the French radio-determination +satellite system (RDSS) initiated by CNES. + +Locstar will be developed and operated by the privately owned company +Locstar SA, another commercial subsidiary of CNES. The L-band RDSS will +be a two-way system designed for mobile use on land, at sea, or in the +air. It will use two MMS-built geostationary satellites scheduled for +launch by Ariane in 1992. Locstar will compete with other RDSS systems +sponsored by international organizations such as Eutelsat and Inmarsat. +Eutelsat is presently promoting its Euteltracs system, a European +version of the U.S. Omnitracs system. Alcatel Espace recently signed a +contract with Qualcomm Inc. to promote and sell Euteltracs mobile +receivers in Europe. + +ALCATEL ESPACE'S ELECTRONICS IN SPACE + +The Alcatel group was restructured earlier this year and two new units +were formed: a radio, defense, and space company chaired by Jacques +Imbert, and a space division headed by Jean-Claude Husson, who also +serves as president of Alcatel Espace. + +The French firm is a leading producer of communications satellite +payloads and space-borne electronic equipment, including power +amplifiers, repeaters, receivers, transmitters, multiplexers, filters, +and antennas. It develops satellite antennas for the 2 to 90 GHz range +and also produces ground stations. Telspace, an Alcatel subsidiary, has +sold more than 2000 Earth stations worldwide and is now moving into the +VSAT market. + +Alcatel Espace has equipped more than 40 national and international +satellites. The company developed payloads and equipment for several +communications and direct broadcasting satellites, including TDF, TV +SAT, Tele-X, Telecom 2, and Eutelsat 2. It provided telemetry, command, +and ranging equipment for scientific satellites such as Giotto and +Ulysses, and produced much of the on-board electronics for SPOT, Helios, +and other Earth observation satellites. + +Alcatel is a member of the international team For Aerospace selected to +build five new Intelsat 7 communications satellites. Moreover, it +received a contract from GE Astro Space to build a transmitter-receiver +for NASA's Mars Observer craft, scheduled for launch in 1992. The +equipment will relay data collected on Mars' surface by French balloons +deployed by the Soviet spacecraft Mars 94. + +The first European experiment in inter-satellite link is being developed +at Alcatel Espace under a CNES contract. The Ka-band orbital link will +be tested between two European satellites: Olympus 1, already in +geostationary orbit, and the retrievable carrier Eureca, planned for +launch aboard the space shuttle in September 1991. + +Under contract to ESA, Alcatel has participated in design studies of +Data Relay Satellites slated launch in 1996. The European DRS will +transmit data in the Ka-band at 400 MBits/s. + +In summary, Alcatel Espace's know-how covers the technologies of +communications satellite systems from 400 MHz to 30 GHz. In cooperation +with the Canadian companies Spar and Comdev, the French firm is working +on military equipment using even higher frequencies -- 40-60 GHz (ELF). + + + 4 + + + + + + +Alcatel's expertise extends to microwave instruments and data processing +techniques for space-borne synthetic aperture radars (SARs). The +company is in charge of the radio frequency calibration subsystem for +the Active Microwave Instrument of ERS-1, the first European radar +satellite. The radar processing equipment employs surface acoustic wave +devices and other innovative technologies developed by AME Space, +Alcatel's Norwegian affiliate. + +Alcatel Espace is studying designed of C- and S-band imaging radars for +future civilian satellites, including the European Polar Platform. CNES +awarded Alcatel a contract to build a prototype SAR called Radar 2000 +which will feature a resolution of 4 to 20 m with a field of view +ranging from 20 to 40 km. The rapid-scanning, phased-array antenna will +be fitted with several hundred transmitting-receiving modules using +monolithic circuits. Alcatel researchers are also studying a high +resolution space-borne radar for military applications such as the +detection of surface ships. + +CNES awarded Alcatel Espace $20 million to develop the first French +space-borne radar-altimeter, dubbed Poseidon, which will fly with an +American SAR on the Topex oceanography satellite to be launched by +Ariane in June 1992. From its orbit 1300 km above the Earth, Poseidon +will measure ocean altitude with an accuracy of 3 to 4 cm. A prototype +of Poseidon is now being tested at CNES. "Its performance seems at +least as good as that of the American radar-altimeter," said Mr. Husson. + +AEROSPATIALE: FROM THE FORCE DE FRAPP TO SATELLITES AND ROCKETS + +Aerospatiale-Strategic and Space Systems Division is tasked with +developing satellites and rockets as well as ballistic missiles for the +French "Force de Frappe." This year, for the first time, "space is +exceeding military business," according to Michel Delaye, the new +division head. It represents about 52 percent of the division's total +turnover, estimated at $1.3 billion. + +Over the past 25 years, Aerospatiale has contributed to the development +of 60 satellites and today is prime contractor for approximately 40 +percent of all civilian satellites developed in Europe. Its space group +severed as prime contractor for several recent communications and +meteorological satellites, including Meteosat, Arabsat, TDF 1 and 2, +Tele-X, and Eutelsat 2. On May 28, Aerospatiale delivered the Eutelsat +2/F1, the first of five new communications satellites ordered by +Eutelsat. The satellite is planned for launch this year by Ariane, as +are the MOP 2 and TDF 2. TDF 1 and 2 are France's first direct +broadcasting satellites; they can relay up to five television programs +through powerful beams over France and most of Europe. + +Another recent achievement by Aerospatiale's space division is the +Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), built for ESA. This sophisticated +astronomy satellite is equipped with a 60-cm aperture telescope +installed inside a large cryostat cooled by liquid helium. The 2.4-ton +observatory is slated for launch by an Ariane 4 in 1993. + +Aerospatiale is developing several other French and European satellites, +including SPOT, Helios, and ERS-1. For the Helios military +reconnaissance satellite, it is providing the structure, solar panels, +and thermal control system, as well as the main instrument -- an + + + 5 + + + + + +optoelectronic camera that will take high-resolution visible and +infrared pictures. The first Helios satellite, weighing about 2 metric +tons, is planned for launch into heliosynchronous orbit by Ariane in +mid-1993. + +Aerospatiale is the European leader in space transportation systems, +including Ariane rockets and the Hermes spaceplane. It manufactures +propellant tanks for the liquid-fueled Ariane rockets. The company +integrates the first and third stages of the launchers at a facility in +Les Mureaux, near Paris. New facilities were built to integrate the +Ariane 5's cryogenic first stage, which is 5.4 m in diameter and 30 m +tall. When fully assembled, it will be ferried by a barge to Le Havre, +where it will be shipped to Kourou. + +Aerospatiale's space and aircraft division are working in tandem to +develop the Hermes spaceplane. "It's a challenging program that +requires major breakthroughs in several advanced space technologies," +said Delaye. "But it will pave the way for the development of piloted +space systems and hypersonic reentry vehicles by European industry, who +will then be better prepared to address the design of future shuttles." + +The company is also studying servicing vehicles for the European in +orbit infrastructure. This includes a transfer orbital stage and a crew +rescue capsule. Supported by its experience with ballistic reentry +bodies and Hermes, Aerospatiale has signed an agreement to assist the +Lockheed Missiles and Space Company in responding to NASA's request for +the Assured Crew Return Vehicle (ACRV). + +Delaye's team is conducting preliminary concept and design studies of a +follow-on to Ariane-5. This is part of the company's internal work on +future reusable space vehicles. According to Delaye, Aerospatiale +favors a two-stage, rocket-type vehicle that would lift off vertically +and land horizontally on a runway. + +Aerospatiale's space aircraft and tactical divisions are participating +in an assessment study of hypersonic vehicles sponsored by the French +Ministry for Research and Technology. The aircraft division developed +the Concorde and is now cooperating with British Aerospace on +preliminary studies of a next-generation supersonic transport, while the +tactical division developed the world's only operational ramjet missile: +the ASMP medium-range nuclear missile. + +DASSAULT GOES TO SPACE WITH HERMES + +Dassault, the well known combat aircraft manufacturer, became a major +player in the space industry five years ago when it was named delegated +prime contractor for the Hermes spaceplane. Dassault's space activities +began in 1962 with the development of the MD 620 ballistic missile and +concept studies of a hypersonic vehicle called TAS. In 1972, under +contract to Boeing and Grumman, the company designed, developed, and +tested a candidate thermal protection system for the space shuttle. + +The Hermes project marks Dassault's reentry into the space business +after more than a decade of absence. The company is responsible for +Hermes' aerodynamic design, reentry trajectories and related systems, +atmospheric light control systems, and subsonic flight tests. These +tasks are extremely challenging because of Hermes' small size and mass, +explained Jean Roubertie, Dassault's director of space programs. The + + + 6 + + + + + +spaceplane will weigh between 21-23 metric tons and be designed for an +extended flight envelope ranging from 160 to 16,000 knots and +atmospheric reentry from Mach 29. External temperatures will vary from +-101 to +1816 degrees C. + +Hermes' aluminum structure will require thermal protection systems that +can support the effect of oxidation during 30 successive reentries. +"Hot" fuselage parts such as the nose, winglets, leading edges, and +control surfaces will be made of carbon and ceramic composite integral +structures developed by Aerospatial and SEP. "Cold" surfaces will be +covered by ceramic tiles or lightweight multilayered insulation +comprised of glass or quartz fibers. + +Flight control of the hypersonic glider will be achieved through +configuration controlled vehicle (CCV) techniques developed for the +Rafale. For atmospheric test flights at subsonic speeds, Hermes will be +dropped from an aircraft carrier such as Airbus. Dassault has also +proposed using a modified Falcon jet for testing and qualifying approach +and landing procedures one year before the first orbital flight, now +planned for 1998. + +Dassault is also involved in technology development for astronaut extra- +and intra-vehicular activity (EVA/IVA). More than 30 European firms are +developing EVA/IVA suits and life support systems under contract to +Dassault and Dornier of Germany. The IVA system includes ejection seats +for Hermes' three crew members. Dassault is considering using ejector +seats similar to those developed for the Soviet shuttle Buran. They +would enable safe ejection at speeds up to Mach 3. + +In addition to Hermes, Dassault is investigating reusable hypersonic +space transportation systems as part of the Star-H study funded by CNES. +Star-H us derived from Dassault's TAS research. The new design employs +a large hypersonic plane to launch a small spaceplane propelled by a +jettisonable booster. This element is the only nonrecoverable part of +the 400-ton vehicle, scaled to carry a Hermes-type spaceplane in low +Earth orbit with a payload of approximately 3 tons. The Star-H program +aims to build a realistic data base on aerothermodynamics, airframe +engine integration, stage separation, structures, and materials. +Further, it looks to define aerodynamic codes, structural loads, and +other parametric laws which could be used in designing manned hypersonic +vehicles for space or transatmospheric missions. + +Dassault is also conducting studies of planetary reentry systems in +cooperation with Marconi of the United Kingdom, Dornier, and SEP. The +studies involve various types of aeroshells designed to protect entry +probes dropped on outer planets or bodies such as comets. + +Now in the beginning stages, space activities will account for a modest +three percent of Dassault's turnover in 1990. The company hopes to +raise that figure to ten percent. + +SEP, THE MOTOR SPECIALIST + +SEP (Societe Europeenne de Propulsion) is the only company in Europe +and one of the few in the world with the capability to produce both +liquid and solid rocket engines of various sizes for civil and military +applications. Its production ranges from small tactical missiles to +large stages of ballistic missiles and space boosters, and includes + + + 7 + + + + + +conventional and cryogenic liquid engines for space vehicles. The +company has 4000 workers and an annual turnover of approximately $800 +million, according to SEP chairman Jean Sollier, who compares the firm's +size to that of Thiokol in the U.S. + +SEP's main business is liquid rocket engines for the Ariane family of +launchers. The company will produce several hundred Viking and HM7 +engines for Ariane 4 rockets. Each Ariane 4 uses nine Vikings on the +first and second stages and one HM7 on the third stage. The Viking is a +storable liquid propellant engine which delivers an average thrust +exceeding 700 kN. The HM7 is the first operational cryogenic engine in +Europe. The turbopump-fed engine burns a mixture of liquid oxygen and +hydrogen with a rated thrust of more than 60 kN and a chamber pressure +of 31-36 bars. + +SEP is prime contractor for the Vulcain cryogenic engine that will +propel the Ariane 5's first stage. An open-cycle turbopump engine, the +Vulcain works under a chamber pressure of 100 bars to deliver +approximately 110 tons of thrust. It burns about 24 tons of hydrogen +and 128 tons of oxygen in 560 s with a specific impulse of 430 s. SEP +received a contract worth more than $260 million to develop the Vulcain. +The first engine, delivered in April, will be fired this summer at the +SEP test bed in Vernon, near Paris. + +SEP has teamed with the Italian firm BPD to develop and manufacture the +Ariane 5's huge solid boosters. The joint venture, called +Europropulsion, received a $670 million contract. Ariane 5 will use two +solid boosters to lift the rocket during the first two minutes of +flight. Each booster weighs about 260 tons, including 230 tons of +composite propellant, and has a nominal thrust of 600 tons. The +boosters are 26 m long, 3.1 m in diameter, and have three segments, +including two weighing more than 100 tons. They are produced on the +launch site in Guiana. + +The French firm is now developing advanced rocket engines for future +applications on launch vehicles. Last year, it successfully tested an +HM7 cryogenic engine equipped with a ceramic nozzle made of a carbon +silicon carbide material called Sepcarbinox. The engine was test-fired +for 750 s and 900 s and sustained operating temperature up to 1800 +degrees C. The ceramic nozzle is 1 m in length and diameter and weighs +only 25 kg. SEP research shows that a cryogenic engine fitted with this +type of non-deployable nozzle can increase payload mass by 65 kg on +Ariane 4 and 1650 kg on Ariane 5. + +SEP is also conducting research on low-thrust liquid engines under +contract to DGE. It has tested the major components of a 20 N engine +designed for attitude control of satellites and the Hermes spacecraft. +During preliminary ground tests, the injector and thrust chamber have +been fired for one hour at 1600 degrees C. Previously, the company +developed MMH-N2O4 engines for attitude control of TDF and TV-SAT direct +broadcasting satellites. It also built the Mage Apogee motor for +satellite transfer into geostationary orbit. + +SEP has established technological and commercial links with some +prominent U.S. aerospace firms. Five years ago it signed a long-term +agreement with Rocketdyne to work on liquid propulsion concepts for +future launchers. It has sold licenses for its advanced composite +materials to three American companies: Corning Glass, for development of + + + 8 + + + + + +a carbon-carbon product for human prosthesis; Dupont de Nemours, for a +ceramic material used in a classified defense program; and B.F. +Goodrich, for carbon-carbon disks applied to aircraft brakes. + +Earlier this year, SEP was chosen to provide the composite rocket engine +nozzle for the ERINT experimental missile developed by LTV. Flight +tests will begin in 1991. + +"The U.S. is a high-priority market for SEP," said Mr. Sollier, who +hopes to participate in propulsion research for the National Aerospace +Plane and other U.S. aerospace projects. SEP and Snecma recently set up +a joint venture called Hyperspace to work on hypersonic propulsion for +future atmospheric vehicles. + +SNPE: MAKING MAGIC POWDER FOR ROCKETS + +SNPE (Societe Nationale des Poudres at Explosifs) is developing and +producing solid propellants for civil and defense applications such as +tactical and ballistic missiles and space rocket motors. Last year, the +company established a defense and space division headed by Pierre Dumas. +The division is responsible for half of SNPE's turnover, which amounted +to $650 mission in 1989. Five years ago, the group established a sales +branch in the United States, SNPE Inc., located in New Jersey, is +developing the company's full range of chemical products. + +SNPE's main customer for space products is CNES. The company started +with UDMH (unsymmetrical dymethylhydrazine), which has been produced by +its chemical division in Toulouse since 1983. Initially, the liquid +propellant for Ariane rockets was purchased from China and the Soviet +Union. Now, however, Ariane's liquid fuel is produced in France and is +purer than the imported versions. + +The company is working with BPD of Italy to produce solid propellant for +Ariane 5 boosters. They are using Butalane, a composite propellant made +of aluminum and ammonium perchlorate. It delivers a specific impulse of +244 s (French standard), which is similar to the performance of the +space shuttle's boosters. SNPE recently expanded its ammonium +perchlorate manufacturing facility in Toulouse to increase its annual +production form 800 tons to 6000 tons, which is half the production +capacity of existing U.S. facilities. The Toulouse plant will be +activated in July, according to Claude Grosmire, SNPE's director of +space propulsion. + +SNPE and BPD have formed a new company called Eupera (European +Perchlorate Ammonium) to coproduce the chemical agent in Toulouse. The +companies previously established a joint venture called Regulus to build +and operate a manufacturing plant in Kourou for the two largest segments +of the Ariane 5 boosters. The "Usine de Propergol de Guyane" (Guiana +propellant plant) will be inaugurated later this year. The highly +automated plant will have only 150 workers. + +Based on a launch rate of eight rockets per year, production for Ariane +5 will amount to 3800 tons by 1998 and is expected to continue until the +year 2015. According to Mr. Dumas, this represents an annual turnover +of more than $60 million for Regulus. + +SNPE is also investigating new chemical molecules for advanced +propellants. One of the most promising is a polyazido-glycidyl known as + + + 9 + + + + + +PAG. An energetic binder is used instead of conventional polybutadiene +to achieve better performance in terms of specific impulse. PAG will +enable the development of nonpolluting propellants (without ammonium +perchlorate) for booster applications. + +ARIANESPACE MARKETS LAUNCHERS WORLDWIDE + +Arianespace is celebrating its tenth anniversary in 1990. The company +was founded in March 1980 by 36 leading European manufacturers in the +aerospace and electronics sectors together with 13 major European banks +and CNES. It was the first private company set up to fund, manufacture, +market, and launch large commercial rockets. In 1982, a fully owned +subsidiary, Arianespace Inc., was established in Washington, D.C. to +deal with American customers. + +Arianespace has captured more than half of the world market for +commercial launches. In addition to nine initial contracts signed by +ESA, Arianespace has logged 83 launch contracts with nearly 30 customers +worldwide. Six American companies -- GE, GTE, Spacenet, Alpha-Lyracon, +Hughes Communications, GE Astro Space Division, and the Satellite +Transponder Leasing Company -- as well as two international +organizations -- Intelsat and Inmarsat -- have entrusted their precious +communications satellites to the European rocket. Global sales over the +past decade exceed $4.7 billion for the 83 satellites booked by +Arianespace, of which 54 have been launched. With the signing of nine +new contracts since the beginning of the year, the company now has +orders for 38 satellite launches, representing $2.8 billion in sales. +Last year, the company's total sales were $640 million. + +This success is due in part to the pragmatic approach taken by Ariane's +promoters, who decided in the early 1970s that the best rocket for +commercial operations would be one of conventional design, optimized not +to achieve the highest expected performance but rather the lowest +possible cost. + +The Ariane 1 made its maiden flight in 1979. Since then, Arianespace +has successfully flown improved versions including the new Ariane 4, +which will be the company's workhorse for the remainder of the decade. +The most powerful of the series, Ariane 4 enables single or dual +launches of payloads totaling up to 4.4 tons in geostationary transfer +orbit. + +Among the 36 Ariane rockets flown during the past decade are eight +Ariane 4s. The eighth one failed during the last Ariane launch in +February (flight V36). Tighter quality controls have been introduced at +industrial levels to prevent the recurrence of such a problem. Launches +will resume in late July or August, according to Frederic d'Allest, +Arianespace chairman. To make up for the lost time, nine flights +instead of seven or eight are planned for coming years. + +Last year, Arianespace awarded contracts to European industry to produce +50 Ariane 4s -- the largest single order for commercial rockets ever +issued. While fulfilling this order, the European space industry will +also be preparing the follow-on rocket, Ariane 5. First flights of the +more powerful rocket are planned for 1995 and it should be operational +for commercial satellite launches the following year. + +Weighing 740 tons at lift-off, Ariane 5 will have a payload-carrying + + + 10 + + + + + +capacity of 5.9 or 6.8 tons for dual or single launches in geostationary +transfer orbit and a maximum of 23 tons in low-Earth orbit when +launching the Hermes spaceplane. Arianespace will commercially operate +Ariane 5 and is also a candidate to operate Hermes following its test +flights in automatic and manned modes, scheduled for 1998-99. + +CLS ARGOS OFFERS LOW-COST DATA COLLECTION SYSTEM + +CLS Argos markets a simple, low-cost data collection system consisting +of specialized electronic packages developed by French industry which +are installed on board NOAA weather satellites in polar orbit. The +system can locate transmitting beacons on the ground or at sea with an +accuracy of 300 m. Throughout its orbital track, the satellite +automatically receives the platforms in its field of visibility, +collects the data, and sends it back to a CLS data processing facility +in Toulouse, Melbourne, or Washington, D.C. A fourth processing center +will soon be opened in Tokyo. CLS headquarters in Toulouse is linked by +computer lines to the overseas centers and to its two subsidiaries in +the United States: Service Argos Inc., which operates the system for +North American users, and North American CLS, which develops value-added +products to complement the service. + +More than 3000 Argos platforms are now in service worldwide. Initially, +the system was dedicated to environmental survey applications, but has +recently been extended to the field of environmental protection. As +part of a U.S. initiative to control fishing campaigns in the Pacific, +Argos has been selected to equip more than 700 fishing boats from Japan, +Korea, and Taiwan. "The most important use of the Argos system is to +protect ocean resources," said Michel Taillade, president of CLS Argos. + +Earlier this year, CLS Argos signed an agreement with Eumetsat, the +European weather satellite organization, to provide a data collection +service on Meteosat spacecraft. This service, dedicated to +environmental applications, will begin in October. Next year, CLS will +provide the same service using the GOES series of geostationary weather +satellites operated by NOAA. + +CLS Argos also operates the control center receiving radar-altimetry +data from Doris, the French orbitography satellite system, which was +introduced on the SPOT 2 satellite launched earlier this year. + +"We foresee continued growth in CLS activities at least five more +years," said Michel Cazenave, CLS Argos chairman. The company achieved +a turnover of $10.5 million last year and is expected to reach $12 +million in 1990. Areas of potential growth include oceanography, +meteorology, hydrology, and wild animal tracking. Last year the system +was used to track albatross. The birds were equipped with tiny +transmitters and released. The satellite tracking revealed that +albatross can fly for amazingly long stretches approaching 16,000 km. + +SPOT IMAGE: COMMERCIALIZING REMOTE SENSING DATA + +SPOT Image sells remote sensing data collected by the SPOT family of +observation satellites. Two SPOT satellites are now in orbit, working +in parallel to obtain visible and near-infrared images of the Earth. +Each spacecraft is equipped with two CCD cameras to capture +multispectral and panchromatic pictures at resolutions of 20 and 10 +meters. These high-resolution digital images are easily processed and + + + 11 + + + + + +enhanced. + +The SPOT 1 satellite, launched in February 1986 with an expected three +year lifetime, has lasted over four years. This fall, it will be +replaced by the SPOT 2 satellite launched by Ariane in January. The +second craft is a carbon copy of the first, as is the next satellite, +SPOT 3, which should be ready for launch in 1992. SPOT 4, an improved +version with a four-year design life and an additional midinfrared band, +is in the early stages of development. It will replace SPOT 3 when that +satellite can no longer function. "We'll be able to provide an +uninterrupted flow of data into the next century," said Gerard Brachet, +chairman of SPOT Image. + +Last year, SPOT Image achieved sales of $23 million and should reach $26 +million in 1990. Twenty percent of its market is in the United States, +where it has established a fully owned subsidiary called SICorp. +According to Brachet, the company's U.S. sales are expected to increase +by 25 percent in 1990. One reason is the $4.7 million contract the +Department of Defense recently awarded to SICorp for the delivery of +several thousand SPOT scenes, mostly 10 m raw data, by late 1991. The +data will be processed by the Defense Mapping Agency and used in +preparing the flight missions of USAF Tactical Air Command pilots. + +Thirty percent of SICorp's customers are government agencies and the +other 70 percent private users and state organizations such as the +Florida Department of Planning and the Oregon Department of Water +Resources. SPOT data is used in such diverse areas as mapping, +petroleum, and mineral exploration, crop analysis, hydrology, and +hazardous waste monitoring. + +SICorp recently introduced a product called Quadmap. It is a +"spatiocarte," a map developed from satellite data at the scale of +1/24,000 degrees which is compatible with maps provided by the USGS. +SICorp has already received an order for several hundred Quadmaps from +the U.S. National Forest Service. + +The company's next product will be a "1AP" film for analog data +processing machines used by photogrammetry services to exploit stereo +images from SPOT. It also plans to introduce a set of spatiocartes at +scales of 1/50,000 degrees. With these enhanced products, SPOT Image +hopes to lure customers from the aerial photography market. "Our major +competitor is not Landsat but aerial photography," Brachet said. + +NOVESPACE, A TEAM OF SKILLED CONSULTANTS + +Novespace is the first private company created to put space technology +to profitable use in other economic sectors, and to promote the use of +space microgravity by industry. Established four years ago under the +impetus of CNES and eight banks, Novespace is directed by Jean-Pierre +Fouquet, who previously worked in this line with Aerospatiale, after +spending time as scientific attache for space affairs at the French +Embassy in Washington, D.C. + +Novespace has assembled a team of highly skilled consultants that can +solve problems as diverse as finding French partners for interested +foreign firms (and vice versa), conducting feasibility or market studies +in high-tech fields, or performing product opportunity analyses for +microgravity research. This multifaceted approach has proven highly + + + 12 + + + + + +attractive to clients in Europe and Japan. + +The company publishes a magazine called "Mutations" that presents +innovative technologies available for transfer. It is distributed free +of charge to 20,000 readers, including 15,000 in France and 5000 in the +rest of Europe, the United States, and Japan. Novespace acts as an +intermediary, bringing together technology developers and potential +users and following through on the transfer as they evolve toward their +final legal, financial, and technical status. + +In the microgravity arena, Novespace is again taking a multifaceted +approach, ranging from promotion and consulting to actual system +operation. To make non-aerospace companies aware of the benefits of +experiments conducted in weightlessness, Novespace publishes a bimonthly +newsletter in French, "Mutations Microgravite," which reports on +worldwide activities in this field. + +Since raising awareness is only the first step, Novespace also proposes +case studies and various experimental opportunities, encompassing drop +towers, experiments on board the space shuttle and Mir space station, +and parabolic flights. + +Novespace was named exclusive commercial operator for parabolic flights +on a Caravelle aircraft converted by CNES for low-G experimentation. +This facility has been used by French, German, and Japanese clients for +more than a year. + + + FRENCH BOOST TO FAIRCHILD SPACE + +Fairchild Space is the well known manufacturer of Explorer satellites +and multi-mission modular spacecraft for NASA. One of its top +achievements is the Topex oceanography satellite, which will be the +first NASA satellite launched by an Ariane rocket. Fairchild also +develops deployable masts, louvers, and other electromechanical +components for satellites. + +The company is highly skilled in electronics. It has, for example, +developed a solid-sate mass memory called N-chip which is based on +three-dimensional VLSI. This "technological jewel" could replace +magnetic tape recorders on satellites within two to three years, +according to Mr. Goumy. + +Fairchild recently was awarded two classified contracts from the +Department of Defense and has been selected along with another American +firm for definition studies of the new scientific satellite Gravity +Probe B. Fairchild is also competing for the Orbital Solar Lab and +looking for a role in the space station Freedom program. + +The company is proud to have been chosen for the on-orbit servicing of +the Hubble Space Telescope. Fairchild first demonstrated its capability +for repair-in-space when it provided the tools and techniques for +repairing the Solar Max satellite. To maintain the Space Telescope over +its 15-year life-time, Fairchild has developed over 100 different tools +and devices, including a battery-powered screw. + +"Fairchild's new goals are to participate in the follow-on Landsat +project and in the next generation of weather satellites. Tiros and + + + 13 + + + + + +DMSP, as well as the Mission To Planet Earth Program," Goumy said. +Matra's input will be crucial to Fairchild's participation in the Earth +survey program. The French company has extensive experience in +developing platforms, sensors, and complete systems for Earth +observation satellites. It is now constructing a large polar platform +called SPOT Mk2 for ESA's Columbus program. Equivalent to the U.S. +platform being developed for the EOS program, Matra's platform should be +suited for Mission To Planet Earth applications. + +"The production of small satellites for civil and military applications +is another area where Fairchild could benefit from Matra's know-how," +said Goumy. Such spacecraft, weighing only a few hundred kilograms, +could be used for scientific experiments, environmental surveys, +pollution monitoring, communications links, and a variety of other +applications. MMS and Fairchild Space plan to submit a proposal for a +worldwide mobile communications system based on a constellation of 24 +small satellites in low-Earth orbit. The project will compete with +similar ventures such as Orbcomm and Starnet. + + + SOTEREM: PIONEERING THE MICROGRAVITY BUSINESS + +Soterem is a good example of a successful small enterprise in aerospace. +The company was started 15 years ago with only ten people and $20,000 +capital. Last year, it achieved sales of $6.5 million with a staff of +56. + +The company serves as a design, engineering, and manufacturing +subcontractor in the automotive, nuclear, and space industries. In +addition to space kits, it has developed such innovative products as a +programmable electronic gearbox used to synchronize electronic motors, a +2D-vision recognition system, and a water-jet cutting machine that works +at high pressures to cut composite sheets for printed circuit boards. + +Space activities account for 40 percent of Soterem's business. The +company produces satellite integration dollies, solar panel deployment +mechanisms, specialized battery chargers, and ground support equipment +for French satellites. It also manufactures pedestal structures and +servo-positioning mechanisms for ground tracking antennas. Moreover, +Soterem has extensive experience in developing sample cartridges and +space furnaces for materials processing in zero gravity. Its major +achievements in this area include: + +o CPF (Crystal Pulling Furnace), a three-zone furnace designed to +achieve pulling speeds of 10^4 to 10^3 cm/sec, up to 1200 degrees C with +a thermal gradient of 30 degrees C/cm. CNES will use the furnace to +investigate thermo-solutal convection under microgravity conditions. + +o AGHF (Advanced Gradient Heating Facility), a Bridgman-type furnace +for directional solidification of metals and semiconductors in +weightlessness. The AGHF works at temperatures up to 1400 degrees C +with a thermal gradient of more than 140 degrees C/cm. + +o MZF (Multi-Zone Furnace), used for vapor-phase crystal growth +experiments. The facility has three independent isothermal zones heated +by sodium fluid circulating in pencil-like heat pipes. Four MZFs will +be installed in the MFA (Multi-Furnace Assembly) of Eureca, the European +Retrievable Carrier slated for launch aboard the space shuttle in 1991. + + + 14 + + + + + + +o Mephisto, a sophisticated facility for studying materials +solidification in zero gravity. It can achieve a high thermal gradient +up to 500 degrees C/cm and solidification rates from 5.10^-2 to 5.10^-5 +cm/sec. Soterem built the mechanical and thermal elements of the +furnace, designed by CNES and CEA (the French Atomic Energy Agency) as +part of a cooperative program with NASA. Mephisto is planned for six +flights on the space shuttle with the IML 2. + +In 1988, Soterem was selected to develop the Large Primate Facility +designed to accommodate two Rhesus monkeys for up to 18 days in space. +The facility is to be delivered within two years to fly on the shuttle +as part of the CNES-NASA cooperative venture. + +The contracts for the primate facility and Mephisto are the largest +Soterem has received to date. Each is worth more than $1.7 million. +"We now expect to address larger contracts and find other customers +abroad," said John Williams, Soterem's project manager for space +activities. Target areas include Asia, the Soviet Union, and the United +States. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 15 + + + + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/fs397.txt b/textfiles.com/science/fs397.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ead8ce5e Binary files /dev/null and b/textfiles.com/science/fs397.txt differ diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/fs417.txt b/textfiles.com/science/fs417.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..eceff04a --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/fs417.txt @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ + FS417 + + RUTGERS COOPERATIVE EXTENSION + NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION + + + Recycling Used Motor Oil In New Jersey + + Theodore B. Shelton, PhD. + Extension Specialist in Water Resources Management + and + Michael T. Olohan + Public Information Coordinator + Navesink River Watershed Project + + + +The Problem: A Wasted Resource + + According to the United States Department of Energy, nearly two-thirds of all used motor oil generated in the United States comes from "do-it-yourselfers" who change their own oil. If improperly disposed of, these 350 million gallons of oil can do substantial, immediate, and long-term harm to humans and animals, streams, lakes, estuaries, vegetation, and the quality of our air and drinking water. + + In New Jersey, the Association of Petroleum ReRefineries estimates that 19.5 million gallons of used oil are generated yearly. Of that, nine million gallons are generated by do-it-yourselfers. A study by the Service Stations of America found that do-it-yourselfers recycle only 14% of the waste oil they generate. Moreover, 62% of all petroleum-related pollution is estimated to be from used oil products. + + However, recycling of this valuable resource via rerefining into once-again reusable motor oil offers a significant means of reducing pollution, may eventually lower demand for foreign reserves, conserves finite natural resources, and protects the environment. + + Unfortunately, due to a lack of rerefiring capacity nationwide, nearly 80% of all used oil collected is reprocessed and burned as a fuel oil substitute and not rerefined. Nonetheless, the reuse of used motor oil is a vital component of any comprehensive recycling program. + + State law requires that all used motor oil be recycled. Used motor oil is the largest single source of oil pollution in our harbors and our waterways. + + +What Makes Used Motor Oi \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/fusion b/textfiles.com/science/fusion new file mode 100644 index 00000000..621633a8 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/fusion @@ -0,0 +1,505 @@ + OBSERVATION OF + COLD NUCLEAR FUSION IN CONDENSED MATTER + + S. E. Jones, E. P. Palmer, J. B. Czirr, D. L. Decker, G. L. Jensen, + J. M. Thorne, and S. F. Taylor + + Department of Physics and Chemistry + Brigham Young University + Provo, Utah 84602 + + and + + J. Rafelski + Department of Physics + University of Arizona + Tucson, Arizona 85721 + March 23, 1989 + +Fusion of isotopic hydrogen nuclei is the principal means of producing +energy in the high-temperature interior of stars. In relatively cold +terrestrial conditions, the nuclei are clothed with electrons and +approach one another no closer than allowed by the molecular Coulomb +barrier. The rate of nuclear fusion in molecular hydrogen is then +governed by the quantum-mechanical tunneling through that barrier, or +equivalently, the probability of finding the two nuclei at zero +separation. In a deuterium molecule, where the equilibrium separation +between deuterons (d) is 0.74 A, the d-d fusion rate is exceedingly +slow, about 10E-70 per D molecule per second. [1] + 2 + +By replacing the electron in a hydrogen molecular ion with a more +massive charged particle, the fusion rate is greatly increased. In +muon-catalyzed fusion, the internuclear separation is reduced by a +factor of approximately 200 (the muon to electron mass ratio), and the +nuclear fusion rate correspondingly increases by roughly eighty orders +of magnitude [1]. Muon-catalyzed fusion has been demonstrated to be +an effective means of rapidly inducing fusion reactions in low- +temperature hydrogen isotopic mixtures [2]. + +A hypothetical quasi-particle a few times as massive as the electron +would increase the cold fusion rate to readily measurable levels, +about 10E-20 fusions per d-d molecule per second [1]. Our results +imply that an equivalent distortion on the internuclear hydrogen +wavefunction can be realized under certain conditions when hydrogen +isotopic nuclei are loaded into metallic crystalline lattices and +other forms of condensed matter. + +We have discovered a means of inducing nuclear fusion without the use +of either high temperatures or radioactive muons. We will present +direct experimental results as well as indirect geological evidence +for the occurrence of cold nuclear fusion. + +DETECTION OF COLD FUSION NEUTRONS + +We have observed deuteron-deuteron fusion at room temperature during +low-voltage electrolytic infusion of deuterons into metallic titanium +or palladium electrodes. The fusion reaction + + 3 + d + d -> He (0.82 MeV) + n (2.45 MeV) (1a) + + + +is evidently catalyzed as d and metal ions from the electrolyte are +deposited at (and into) the negative electrode. Neutrons having +approximately 2.5 MeV energy are clearly detected with a sensitive +neutron spectrometer. The experimental layout is portrayed in Figure +1. We have not yet obtained results regarding the parallel reaction + + d + d -> p (3.02 MeV) + t (1.01 MeV) (1b) + +as this requires different measuring procedures. However, it can be +presumed that the reaction (1b) occurs at a nearly equal rate as the +reaction (1a), which is usually the case. + +The neutron spectrometer, developed at Brigham Young University over +the past few years [3], has been crucial to the identification of this +cold fusion process. The detector consists of a liquid organic +scintillator (BC-505) contained in a glass cylinder 12.5 cm in +diameter, in which three lithium-6-doped glass scintillator plates are +embedded. Neutrons deposit energy in the liquid scintillator via +collisions and the resulting light output yields energy information. +These, now low-energy neutrons are then scavenged by lithium-6 nuclei + 6 4 +in the glass plates where the reaction n + Li --> t + He results in +scintillations in the glass. Pulse shapes from the two media differ +so that distinct signals are registered by the two photomultiplier +tubes (whose signals are summed). A coincidence of signals from the +two media with 20 microseconds identifies the neutrons. + +An energy calibration of the spectrometer was obtained using 2.9 and +3.2 MeV neutrons, generated via deuteron-deuteron interactions at 90 +degrees and 0 degrees, respectively, with respect to the deuteron beam +from a Van de Graaf accelerator. The observed energy spectra show a +broad structure which implies that 2.45 MeV neutrons should appear in +the multi-channel analyzer spectrum in channels 45-150. Stability of +the detector system was checked between data runs by measuring the +counting rate for fission neutrons from a broad-spectrum californium- +252 source. We have performed other extensive tests proving that our +neutron counter does not respond in this pulse height range to other +sources of radiation such as thermal neutrons. + +Background rates in the neutron counter are approximately 10E-3 1/s in +the energy region where 2.5 MeV neutrons are anticipated. By +comparing energy spectra from gamma and neutron sources we have +determined that nearly all of the background stems from accidental +coincidences of gamma-ray events. Improvements in the shielding and +gamma-ray rejection were pursued throughout the experiments, resulting +in significant reduction in background levels. + +During the search for suitable catalytic materials, we developed the +following (unoptimized) prescription for the electrolytic cells. The +electrolyte is a mixture of 160 g deuterium oxide (D O) plus various + 2 + +metal salts in 0.2 g amounts each: FeSO . 7H O, NiCl . 6H O, + 4 2 2 2 + +PdCl , CaCO , Li SO . H O, NaSO . 10H O, CaH (PO ) . H O, + 2 3 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 2 2 + +TiOSO . H SO . 8H O, and a very small amount of AuCN. + 4 2 4 2 + +(Our evidence indicates the importance of co-deposition of deuterons +and metal ions at the negative electrode.) The pH is adjusted to +pH < 3 with HNO . Titanium and palladium, initially selected because + 3 +of their large capacities for holding hydrogen and forming hydrides, +were found to be effective negative electrodes. + +Other metals receiving preliminary tests include lanthanum, nickel, +iron, copper, zirconium, tantalum, and lithium-aluminum hydride. +Individual electrodes consisted of approximately 3 g purified "fused" +titanium in pellet form, or 0.5 g of 0.25 mm thick palladium foils, or +5 g of mossy palladium. Typically 4-8 cells were used simultaneously. +The palladium pieces were sometimes reused after cleaning and +roughening the surfaces with dilute acid or abrasives. Hydrogen +bubbles were observed to form on the Pd foils only after several +minutes of electrolysis, suggesting the rapid absorption of deuterons +into the foil; oxygen bubbles formed at the anode immediately. Gold +foil was used for the positive electrodes. DC power supplies provided +3-25 volts across each cell at currents of 10-500 mA. Correlations +between fusion yield and voltage, current density, or surface +characteristics of the metallic cathode have not yet been established. + +Small jars, approximately 4 cm high x 4 cm diameter, held 20 ml of +electrolyte solution each. The electrolytic cells were placed on or +alongside the neutron counter, as shown in Figure 1. The cells are +simple and doubtless far from optimum at present. Nevertheless, the +present combination of our cells with the state-of-the-art neutron +spectrometer is sufficient to establish the phenomenon of cold nuclear +fusion during the electrolytic infusion of isotopic hydrogen into +metals. + +Figure 2 displays the energy spectrum obtained under conditions +described above, juxtaposed with the background spectrum. Assuming +conservatively that all deviations from background are statistical +fluctuations, we scale the background counts by a factor of 0.46 to +match the foreground counts over the entire energy range (Figure 2). A +feature in channels 45-150 still rises above background by nearly +four standard deviations. This implies that our assumption is too +conservative and that this structure represents a real physical effect. +By re-scaling the background by a factor of 0.44 to match the +foreground level in regions outside this feature, the difference plot +(Figure 3) is obtained. It shows a robust signal centered at channel +100 of over five standard-deviation statistical significance. A +Gaussian fit to this peak yields a centroid at channel 101 and a +sigma of 28 channels. This is precisely where 2.5 MeV fusion +neutrons should appear in the spectrum according to our calibration. +The fact that a significant signal appears above background with the +correct energy for d-d fusion neutrons ( 2.5 MeV) provides strong +evidence that room temperature nuclear fusion is indeed occurring in +our electrolytic catalysis cells. + +FUSION RATE DETERMINATION + +It is instructive to scrutinize the fourteen individual runs which +enter into the combined data discussed above. Figure 4 displays, for +each run, the ratio of foreground count rate in the 2.5 MeV-energy +region with background rates obtained for each run. Background rates +were improved upon during the experiments, so we plot the data in +terms of foreground-to-background ratios rather than absolute rates. + +Run 6 is particular noteworthy, having a statistical significance of +approximately 5 standard deviations above background. Fused titanium +pellets were used as negative electrodes with a total mass of about 3 +g. The neutron production rate increased after about one hour of +electrolysis. After about eight hours, the rate dropped dramatically +as shown in the follow-on run 7. At this time, surfaces of the Ti +electrodes showed a dark gray coating. An analysis using electron +microscopy with a microprobe showed that the surface coating was +mostly iron, deposited with deuterons at the cathode. The same +phenomenon of having the neutron signal drop after about eight hours +of operation appears in run 13 followed by run 14. Runs 13 and 14 +used the same eight electrochemical cells, and again the negative +electrodes developed coatings after a few hours of electrolysis. +These observations suggest the importance of surface conditions on the +cold fusion process. Indeed, wide variations in surface +conditions are anticipated in the operating electrochemical cells with +numerous ionic species, and these variations may account for the +fluctuations in the signal level which are evident in Figure 4. In +particular, the observed "turning off" of the signal after 8 hours +may account for a low signal-to-background ratio in runs 1 and 3, in +that a few-hour signal may have been overwhelmed after a long (20 +hour) running time. + +When run 10 started with rates substantially above background, we +stopped the run and removed half of the electrochemical cells as a +test. The neutron production rate dropped off as expected (run 11). +In determining the statistical significance of the data, we included +runs 1, 3, 7, 11 and 13, even though we see a systematic reason for +their low foreground-to-background ratios as explained above. Run 8, +shown in Figure 4, was inadvertently lost from the magnetic storage +device and could not be included in Figures 2 and 3. This does not +change our conclusions. + +Extensive efforts were made to generate fake neutron signals by using +various gamma and neutron sources. We also turned auxiliary equipment +on and off; the Van de Graaf accelerators were kept off. The signals +persisted as shielding was moved and as electronics modules were +tuned and even replaced. Background runs taken using operating +electrochemical cells similar to those described above but with +H O replacing the D O were featureless. No net counts above + 2 2 +background when standard cells were used with no current flowing. + +The cold nuclear fusion rate during electrolytic fusion is estimated +specifically for run 6 (Figure 4) as follows: + + [ R ] / [ d ] + Fusions per deuteron pair = [ --- ] / [ M x --- ] (2) + [ e ] / [ 2M ] + +where the observed fusion rate R = (4.1 +- 0.8) x 10E-3 fusions/s; the +neutron detection efficiency, including geometrical acceptance, is +calculated using a monte carlo neutron-photon transport code [4] to +be e = (1.0 +- 0.3)%; M = 4x10E22 titanium atoms for 3 g of +titanium; and the deuteron-pair per metal ion ration d/(2M) = 1 is +based on the assumption that nearly all tetrahedral sites in the +titanium lattice are occupied, forming the gamma-TiD hydride. Then + 2 +the estimated cold nuclear fusion rate by equation (2) is + + lambda 10E-23 fusions/deuteron pair/second (3) + f + +If most fusions take place near the surface or if the titanium lattice +is far from saturated with deuterons, or if conditions favoring fusion +occur intermittently, then the inferred fusion rate must be much +larger, perhaps 10E-20 fusions/d-d/second. + +We note that such a fusion rate could be achieved by "squeezing" the +deuterons to half their normal (0.74 A) separation in molecules. That +such rates are now observed in condensed matter suggests +"piezonuclear" fusion as the explanation [1]. A possible cause is +that quasi-electrons form in the deuterated metal lattice having an +effective mass a few times that of a free electron. Isotopic hydrogen +is known to accumulate at imperfections in metal lattices [5] and +local high concentrations of hydrogen ions might be conducive to +piezonuclear fusion. Since we have not seen any evidence for fusion +in equilibrated, deuterated metals or compounds such and +methylamine-d dueteriochloride or ammonium-d chloride, we conclude + 2 4 +that non-equilibrium conditions are essential. Electrolysis is one +way to produce conditions which are far from equilibrium. + +It seems remarkable that one can influence the effective rate of +fusion by varying external parameters such as pressure, heat and +electromagnetic fields, but just such effects are confirmed in another +form of cold nuclear fusion; muon-catalyzed fusion [6]. Such +variations are naturally encountered in the geological environment +where heat, pressure, and contact potentials will generate severely +non-equilibrium conditions. + +GEOPHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS + +The observation of evidence for cold d-d fusion in the laboratory has +profound geophysical implications. Thermal effects in the earth and + 3 +the distribution of He and tritium can be explained in part by the +fusion reactions (1) and + + 3 + p + d -> He + gamma (5.4 MeV) (4) + +Deuterium was incorporated in the earth during its formation. The +current abundance in sea water is about 1.5x10E-4 deuterons per +proton. Water is carried down into the earth's upper mantle at +converging plate margins, and seawater is transported as deep as the +Moho at spreading regions [7]. Estimates of water subduction suggest +that a water mass equal to the ocean mass is cycled through the mantle +in about 1-billion years [7]. Thus, 1.4x10E43 deuterons are cycled +through the mantle in 3x10E16 s. Since each p-d fusion releases 5.4 +MeV (8.6x10-13 J), we calculate that a heat flux of 750 mW/(m*m), +averaged over the earth, would result if all deuterium fused at the +rate at which it is supplied by subduction. This is more than ten +times the estimate of the actual flux of 60 mW/(m*m) [8]. Thus, +geological p-d fusion could possibly contribute to the observed heat +flux, the high temperatures of the earth's core and provide an energy +source for plate tectonics. + +The foregoing data allow a geological fusion rate lambda to be + f +calculated. We assume a first-order rate equation for p-d +fusion: dN = lambda N dt, or lambda = (dN/N)dt. The fraction (dN/N) + f f +is the ratio of the number of fusions which take place to the number +of atoms available. It is also the rate of fusion divided by the rate +of supply of deuterons; thus, dN/N is equal to the actual heat flux +from the earth divided by the possible heat flux so that + + -1 + lambda = (60/750)/3x10E16 s = 3x10E-18 s (5) + f + +Consider next the possibility that the localized heat of volcanism at +subduction zones is supplied by fusion. As much as 10E6 J/kg is +required to turn rock into magma, and this must be supplied from a +local source of energy. Subducting rock contains about 3 percent +water [7], or 3x10E30 deuterons/kg. If the time available for melting +is equal to the time required for a plate to travel down a slant +distance of 700 km at a speed of 2.5 cm/year, about 10E15 s, the +inferred fusion rate is: + + lambda = (10E6 J/kg)/(3x10E20 d/kg x 8.6E10-13 J/fusion x 10E15 s) + f + lambda = 4x10E-18 fusions/d/s (6) + f + +This requires only about 0.3 percent of the available nuclear fuel. +The limit on the available heat is therefore the fusion rate constant, +rather than the scarcity of fuel. + +While some of the earth's heat must certainly derive from several +sources, "cold" geological nuclear fusion could account for steady- + 3 +state production of considerable heat and He in the earth's interior. + 3 4 +High values of the He/ He ratio are found in the rocks, liquids, and +gases from volcanoes and other active tectonic regions [9]. + 3 +Primordial He will be present from the formation of the earth [9], +but some may be generated by terrestrial nuclear fusion. The +discovery of cold nuclear fusion in the laboratory, with a rate +constant comparable to that derived from geologic thermal data, +supports our hypothesis. + +Based on this new concept, we predict that some tritium should be +produced by d-d fusion in the earth (see equation 1). Since tritium + 3 +decays according to t -> He + beta with a 12-year half-life, +detection of tritium in volcanic emissions would imply cold-fusion +production of tritium. This is supported by the following +observations. A tritium monitoring station was operated at Mauna Loa +on Hawaii Island from August 1971 to the end of 1977. We have found +strong correlations between tritium detected at Mauna Loa and nearby +volcanic activity in this period of time. Figure 4 displays data +compiled by Ostlund for HT gas measured at the Mauna Loa station in +1972 [10]. Similar data taken at Miami, Florida, are provided for +comparison. A striking spike in the tritium level is clearly seen in +the February-March 1972 Mauna Loa data. Ostlund notes that these +significant tritium readings over a several-week period have not been +previously understood; in particular, the timing and shape of the peak +is inconsistent with hydrogen bomb tests in Russia five months earlier +[10]. However, this signal is coincident with a major eruption of the +Mauna Ulu volcano [11] 40 km to the southeast. Furthermore, winds in +March 1972 carried volcanic gases northwest, towards the Mauna Loa +station and on towards Honolulu 200 km away: "Trade winds [from the +northeast] were infrequent and the southerly flow that replaced them +occasionally blanketed the state with volcanic haze from an eruption +on Hawaii Island ... High particulate matter measurements in Honolulu +confirmed the northward spread of haze from the Mauna Ulu Volcano +eruption on Hawaii Island." [12] + +This remarkable set of circumstances permits us to estimate the amount +of tritium released during the February-March 1972 eruption of Mauna +Ulu. Based on the distance to the Mauna Loa station and average 8 mph +winds [12], we estimate that on average 100 curies of tritium were +released per day for 30 days. An accidental release of this magnitude +of manmade tritium sustained for several weeks on a nearly +uninhabited island is highly unlikely. We conclude that this volcanic +eruption freed tritium produced by geological nuclear reactions. + +Other HT data from the Mauna Loa station, such as the high reading in +the latter half of 1972, are also coincident with volcanic activity, +although a tritium-releasing bomb test also occurred in Russia in late +August. A major spike in the atmospheric HT observed near Hawaii in +Dec 1974 - June 1975 [10] coincides with another large volcanic +eruption on Hawaii Island, but the significance is again obscured by +H-bomb tests. Finally, no significant deviations in HT reading are +noted in 1976 or 1977 [10] when no volcanic activity is noted, except +for "gentle" activity at Kileau on September 17, 1977 [13]. + +OTHER EVIDENCES FOR COLD FUSION + +Further evidence for cold nuclear fusion in condensed matter comes + 3 4 +from studies of He and He in diamonds and metals. Using laser- +slicing of diamonds, H. Craig (private communication) has measured the + 4 3 4 +absolute concentrations of both He and He. He was found to be +smoothly distributed through the crystal as if it were derived from + 3 +the environment. On the other hand, He was found to be concentrated +in spots implying in-situ formation. Cold piezonuclear p-d or d-d +fusion provides a plausible explanation for these data. + + 3 +Concentration anomalies of He have also been reported in metal foils + 3 +[14]. The spotty concentrations of He suggest cold piezonuclear + 3 +fusion as the origin of the observed He. Note that electrolytic +refining of the metals in deuterium-bearing water could have provided +conditions for cold nuclear fusion. Among several possible +explanations, the authors [14] suggest an "analog" of muon catalysis. +We think they were close to the mark! + +Cold nuclear fusion may be important in other celestial bodies besides +earth. Jupiter, for example, radiates about twice as much heat as it +receives from the sun [1]. It is interesting to consider whether cold +nuclear fusion in the core of Jupiter, which is probably metallic +hydrogen plus iron silicate, could account for its excess heat. Heat +is radiated at an approximate rate of 10E18 W, which could be produced +by p-d fusions occurring at a rate of 10E20(1/s) [1]. Assuming a +predominately hydrogen core of radius 4.6x10E9 cm, having a density += 10 g/(cm*cm*cm) and a deuteron/proton ratio of roughly 10E-4, we +deduce a required p-d fusion rate of lambda = 10E-19 + f +fusions/deuteron/second--in remarkable agreement with cold fusion +rates found in terrestrial conditions. + +CONCLUSIONS + +A new form of cold nuclear fusion has been observed during +electrolytic infusion of deuterons into metals. While the need for +off-equilibrium conditions is clearly implied by our data, techniques +other than electrochemical may also be successful. We have begun to +explore the use of ion implantation, and of elevated pressures and +temperatures mimicking geological conditions. + +If deuteron-deuteron fusion can be catalyzed, then the d-t fusion +reaction is probably favored due to its much larger nuclear cross +section. Thus, while the fusion rates observed so far are small, +the discovery of cold nuclear fusion in condensed matter opens the +possibility at least of a new path to fusion energy. + +We acknowledge valuable contributions of Douglas Bennion, David Mince, +Lawrence Rees, Howard Vanfleet and J. C. Wang of Brigham Young +University, and of Mike Danos, Fraser Goff, Berndt Muller, Albert +Nier, Gote Ostlund, and Clinton Van Siclen. We especially thank Alan +Anderson for advice on the data analysis and Harmon Craig for +continuing encouragement and for use of his data on diamonds before +their publication. + +The research is supported by the Advanced Energy Projects Division of +the U.S. Department of Energy. + +REFERENCES + + 1. Van Siclen, C. D. & Jones, S. E. "Journal of Physics G. Nucl. + Phys." 12, 213-221 (1986). + + 2. Jones, S. E. "Nature" 321, 127-133 (1986); Rafelski, J. & Jones, + S. E. "Scientific American" 257, 84-89 (July 1987). + + 3. Jensen, G. L., Dixon, D. R., Bruening, K. & Czirr, J. B. "Nucl. + Inst. and Methods" 200, 406 (1984); and paper in preparation. + + 4. MCNP: Monte Carlo Neutron and Photon Transport Code, CCC-200. + Available from Radiation Shielding Information Center, Oak Ridge + National Laboratory (Version 3). + + 5. Bowman, R. C. Jr. in "Metal Hydrides" (ed. G. Bambakides) 109-144 + (New York, Plenum, 1981). + + 6. Jones, S. E., et al. "Physical Review Letters" 51, 1757-1760 + (1983). + + 7. Fyfe, W. S., Price, N. J., & Thompson, A. B. "Fluids in the + Earth's Crust" (Elsevier, New York, 1978). + + 8. Chapman, D. S. & Pollack, H. N. "Earth and Planet Sci. Lett" 28, + 23 (1975) + + 9. Craig, H., Lupton, J. E., Welhan, J. A., & Proveda, R. "Geophys. + Res. Lett." 5, 897 (1978); Lupton, J. E., & Craig, H. "Science" + 214, 13 (1981); Mamyrin, B. A. & Tolstikhin, L. N., "Helium + Isotopes in Nature (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1984). + +10. Ostlund, H. G. & Mason, A. S. Atmospheric Tritium 1968-1984, + Tritium Laboratory Report No. 14, University of Miami, Miami, + Florida; Ostlund, H. G., private communication. + +11. Bullard, F. M. "Volcanoes of the Earth", 2nd ed., (Univ. Texas + Press, Austin, 1984). + +12. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, "Climatological Data, Hawaii" 68, 29 + (1972). + +13. Smithsonian Institution, "Volcanoes of the World", (Stroudsburg, + P. A., Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co., 1981). + +14. Mamyrin, B. A., Khabarin L. V. & Yudenich, V. S. "Sov. Phys. + Dokl." 23, 581 (1978). diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/fusion.nuc b/textfiles.com/science/fusion.nuc new file mode 100644 index 00000000..621633a8 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/fusion.nuc @@ -0,0 +1,505 @@ + OBSERVATION OF + COLD NUCLEAR FUSION IN CONDENSED MATTER + + S. E. Jones, E. P. Palmer, J. B. Czirr, D. L. Decker, G. L. Jensen, + J. M. Thorne, and S. F. Taylor + + Department of Physics and Chemistry + Brigham Young University + Provo, Utah 84602 + + and + + J. Rafelski + Department of Physics + University of Arizona + Tucson, Arizona 85721 + March 23, 1989 + +Fusion of isotopic hydrogen nuclei is the principal means of producing +energy in the high-temperature interior of stars. In relatively cold +terrestrial conditions, the nuclei are clothed with electrons and +approach one another no closer than allowed by the molecular Coulomb +barrier. The rate of nuclear fusion in molecular hydrogen is then +governed by the quantum-mechanical tunneling through that barrier, or +equivalently, the probability of finding the two nuclei at zero +separation. In a deuterium molecule, where the equilibrium separation +between deuterons (d) is 0.74 A, the d-d fusion rate is exceedingly +slow, about 10E-70 per D molecule per second. [1] + 2 + +By replacing the electron in a hydrogen molecular ion with a more +massive charged particle, the fusion rate is greatly increased. In +muon-catalyzed fusion, the internuclear separation is reduced by a +factor of approximately 200 (the muon to electron mass ratio), and the +nuclear fusion rate correspondingly increases by roughly eighty orders +of magnitude [1]. Muon-catalyzed fusion has been demonstrated to be +an effective means of rapidly inducing fusion reactions in low- +temperature hydrogen isotopic mixtures [2]. + +A hypothetical quasi-particle a few times as massive as the electron +would increase the cold fusion rate to readily measurable levels, +about 10E-20 fusions per d-d molecule per second [1]. Our results +imply that an equivalent distortion on the internuclear hydrogen +wavefunction can be realized under certain conditions when hydrogen +isotopic nuclei are loaded into metallic crystalline lattices and +other forms of condensed matter. + +We have discovered a means of inducing nuclear fusion without the use +of either high temperatures or radioactive muons. We will present +direct experimental results as well as indirect geological evidence +for the occurrence of cold nuclear fusion. + +DETECTION OF COLD FUSION NEUTRONS + +We have observed deuteron-deuteron fusion at room temperature during +low-voltage electrolytic infusion of deuterons into metallic titanium +or palladium electrodes. The fusion reaction + + 3 + d + d -> He (0.82 MeV) + n (2.45 MeV) (1a) + + + +is evidently catalyzed as d and metal ions from the electrolyte are +deposited at (and into) the negative electrode. Neutrons having +approximately 2.5 MeV energy are clearly detected with a sensitive +neutron spectrometer. The experimental layout is portrayed in Figure +1. We have not yet obtained results regarding the parallel reaction + + d + d -> p (3.02 MeV) + t (1.01 MeV) (1b) + +as this requires different measuring procedures. However, it can be +presumed that the reaction (1b) occurs at a nearly equal rate as the +reaction (1a), which is usually the case. + +The neutron spectrometer, developed at Brigham Young University over +the past few years [3], has been crucial to the identification of this +cold fusion process. The detector consists of a liquid organic +scintillator (BC-505) contained in a glass cylinder 12.5 cm in +diameter, in which three lithium-6-doped glass scintillator plates are +embedded. Neutrons deposit energy in the liquid scintillator via +collisions and the resulting light output yields energy information. +These, now low-energy neutrons are then scavenged by lithium-6 nuclei + 6 4 +in the glass plates where the reaction n + Li --> t + He results in +scintillations in the glass. Pulse shapes from the two media differ +so that distinct signals are registered by the two photomultiplier +tubes (whose signals are summed). A coincidence of signals from the +two media with 20 microseconds identifies the neutrons. + +An energy calibration of the spectrometer was obtained using 2.9 and +3.2 MeV neutrons, generated via deuteron-deuteron interactions at 90 +degrees and 0 degrees, respectively, with respect to the deuteron beam +from a Van de Graaf accelerator. The observed energy spectra show a +broad structure which implies that 2.45 MeV neutrons should appear in +the multi-channel analyzer spectrum in channels 45-150. Stability of +the detector system was checked between data runs by measuring the +counting rate for fission neutrons from a broad-spectrum californium- +252 source. We have performed other extensive tests proving that our +neutron counter does not respond in this pulse height range to other +sources of radiation such as thermal neutrons. + +Background rates in the neutron counter are approximately 10E-3 1/s in +the energy region where 2.5 MeV neutrons are anticipated. By +comparing energy spectra from gamma and neutron sources we have +determined that nearly all of the background stems from accidental +coincidences of gamma-ray events. Improvements in the shielding and +gamma-ray rejection were pursued throughout the experiments, resulting +in significant reduction in background levels. + +During the search for suitable catalytic materials, we developed the +following (unoptimized) prescription for the electrolytic cells. The +electrolyte is a mixture of 160 g deuterium oxide (D O) plus various + 2 + +metal salts in 0.2 g amounts each: FeSO . 7H O, NiCl . 6H O, + 4 2 2 2 + +PdCl , CaCO , Li SO . H O, NaSO . 10H O, CaH (PO ) . H O, + 2 3 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 2 2 + +TiOSO . H SO . 8H O, and a very small amount of AuCN. + 4 2 4 2 + +(Our evidence indicates the importance of co-deposition of deuterons +and metal ions at the negative electrode.) The pH is adjusted to +pH < 3 with HNO . Titanium and palladium, initially selected because + 3 +of their large capacities for holding hydrogen and forming hydrides, +were found to be effective negative electrodes. + +Other metals receiving preliminary tests include lanthanum, nickel, +iron, copper, zirconium, tantalum, and lithium-aluminum hydride. +Individual electrodes consisted of approximately 3 g purified "fused" +titanium in pellet form, or 0.5 g of 0.25 mm thick palladium foils, or +5 g of mossy palladium. Typically 4-8 cells were used simultaneously. +The palladium pieces were sometimes reused after cleaning and +roughening the surfaces with dilute acid or abrasives. Hydrogen +bubbles were observed to form on the Pd foils only after several +minutes of electrolysis, suggesting the rapid absorption of deuterons +into the foil; oxygen bubbles formed at the anode immediately. Gold +foil was used for the positive electrodes. DC power supplies provided +3-25 volts across each cell at currents of 10-500 mA. Correlations +between fusion yield and voltage, current density, or surface +characteristics of the metallic cathode have not yet been established. + +Small jars, approximately 4 cm high x 4 cm diameter, held 20 ml of +electrolyte solution each. The electrolytic cells were placed on or +alongside the neutron counter, as shown in Figure 1. The cells are +simple and doubtless far from optimum at present. Nevertheless, the +present combination of our cells with the state-of-the-art neutron +spectrometer is sufficient to establish the phenomenon of cold nuclear +fusion during the electrolytic infusion of isotopic hydrogen into +metals. + +Figure 2 displays the energy spectrum obtained under conditions +described above, juxtaposed with the background spectrum. Assuming +conservatively that all deviations from background are statistical +fluctuations, we scale the background counts by a factor of 0.46 to +match the foreground counts over the entire energy range (Figure 2). A +feature in channels 45-150 still rises above background by nearly +four standard deviations. This implies that our assumption is too +conservative and that this structure represents a real physical effect. +By re-scaling the background by a factor of 0.44 to match the +foreground level in regions outside this feature, the difference plot +(Figure 3) is obtained. It shows a robust signal centered at channel +100 of over five standard-deviation statistical significance. A +Gaussian fit to this peak yields a centroid at channel 101 and a +sigma of 28 channels. This is precisely where 2.5 MeV fusion +neutrons should appear in the spectrum according to our calibration. +The fact that a significant signal appears above background with the +correct energy for d-d fusion neutrons ( 2.5 MeV) provides strong +evidence that room temperature nuclear fusion is indeed occurring in +our electrolytic catalysis cells. + +FUSION RATE DETERMINATION + +It is instructive to scrutinize the fourteen individual runs which +enter into the combined data discussed above. Figure 4 displays, for +each run, the ratio of foreground count rate in the 2.5 MeV-energy +region with background rates obtained for each run. Background rates +were improved upon during the experiments, so we plot the data in +terms of foreground-to-background ratios rather than absolute rates. + +Run 6 is particular noteworthy, having a statistical significance of +approximately 5 standard deviations above background. Fused titanium +pellets were used as negative electrodes with a total mass of about 3 +g. The neutron production rate increased after about one hour of +electrolysis. After about eight hours, the rate dropped dramatically +as shown in the follow-on run 7. At this time, surfaces of the Ti +electrodes showed a dark gray coating. An analysis using electron +microscopy with a microprobe showed that the surface coating was +mostly iron, deposited with deuterons at the cathode. The same +phenomenon of having the neutron signal drop after about eight hours +of operation appears in run 13 followed by run 14. Runs 13 and 14 +used the same eight electrochemical cells, and again the negative +electrodes developed coatings after a few hours of electrolysis. +These observations suggest the importance of surface conditions on the +cold fusion process. Indeed, wide variations in surface +conditions are anticipated in the operating electrochemical cells with +numerous ionic species, and these variations may account for the +fluctuations in the signal level which are evident in Figure 4. In +particular, the observed "turning off" of the signal after 8 hours +may account for a low signal-to-background ratio in runs 1 and 3, in +that a few-hour signal may have been overwhelmed after a long (20 +hour) running time. + +When run 10 started with rates substantially above background, we +stopped the run and removed half of the electrochemical cells as a +test. The neutron production rate dropped off as expected (run 11). +In determining the statistical significance of the data, we included +runs 1, 3, 7, 11 and 13, even though we see a systematic reason for +their low foreground-to-background ratios as explained above. Run 8, +shown in Figure 4, was inadvertently lost from the magnetic storage +device and could not be included in Figures 2 and 3. This does not +change our conclusions. + +Extensive efforts were made to generate fake neutron signals by using +various gamma and neutron sources. We also turned auxiliary equipment +on and off; the Van de Graaf accelerators were kept off. The signals +persisted as shielding was moved and as electronics modules were +tuned and even replaced. Background runs taken using operating +electrochemical cells similar to those described above but with +H O replacing the D O were featureless. No net counts above + 2 2 +background when standard cells were used with no current flowing. + +The cold nuclear fusion rate during electrolytic fusion is estimated +specifically for run 6 (Figure 4) as follows: + + [ R ] / [ d ] + Fusions per deuteron pair = [ --- ] / [ M x --- ] (2) + [ e ] / [ 2M ] + +where the observed fusion rate R = (4.1 +- 0.8) x 10E-3 fusions/s; the +neutron detection efficiency, including geometrical acceptance, is +calculated using a monte carlo neutron-photon transport code [4] to +be e = (1.0 +- 0.3)%; M = 4x10E22 titanium atoms for 3 g of +titanium; and the deuteron-pair per metal ion ration d/(2M) = 1 is +based on the assumption that nearly all tetrahedral sites in the +titanium lattice are occupied, forming the gamma-TiD hydride. Then + 2 +the estimated cold nuclear fusion rate by equation (2) is + + lambda 10E-23 fusions/deuteron pair/second (3) + f + +If most fusions take place near the surface or if the titanium lattice +is far from saturated with deuterons, or if conditions favoring fusion +occur intermittently, then the inferred fusion rate must be much +larger, perhaps 10E-20 fusions/d-d/second. + +We note that such a fusion rate could be achieved by "squeezing" the +deuterons to half their normal (0.74 A) separation in molecules. That +such rates are now observed in condensed matter suggests +"piezonuclear" fusion as the explanation [1]. A possible cause is +that quasi-electrons form in the deuterated metal lattice having an +effective mass a few times that of a free electron. Isotopic hydrogen +is known to accumulate at imperfections in metal lattices [5] and +local high concentrations of hydrogen ions might be conducive to +piezonuclear fusion. Since we have not seen any evidence for fusion +in equilibrated, deuterated metals or compounds such and +methylamine-d dueteriochloride or ammonium-d chloride, we conclude + 2 4 +that non-equilibrium conditions are essential. Electrolysis is one +way to produce conditions which are far from equilibrium. + +It seems remarkable that one can influence the effective rate of +fusion by varying external parameters such as pressure, heat and +electromagnetic fields, but just such effects are confirmed in another +form of cold nuclear fusion; muon-catalyzed fusion [6]. Such +variations are naturally encountered in the geological environment +where heat, pressure, and contact potentials will generate severely +non-equilibrium conditions. + +GEOPHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS + +The observation of evidence for cold d-d fusion in the laboratory has +profound geophysical implications. Thermal effects in the earth and + 3 +the distribution of He and tritium can be explained in part by the +fusion reactions (1) and + + 3 + p + d -> He + gamma (5.4 MeV) (4) + +Deuterium was incorporated in the earth during its formation. The +current abundance in sea water is about 1.5x10E-4 deuterons per +proton. Water is carried down into the earth's upper mantle at +converging plate margins, and seawater is transported as deep as the +Moho at spreading regions [7]. Estimates of water subduction suggest +that a water mass equal to the ocean mass is cycled through the mantle +in about 1-billion years [7]. Thus, 1.4x10E43 deuterons are cycled +through the mantle in 3x10E16 s. Since each p-d fusion releases 5.4 +MeV (8.6x10-13 J), we calculate that a heat flux of 750 mW/(m*m), +averaged over the earth, would result if all deuterium fused at the +rate at which it is supplied by subduction. This is more than ten +times the estimate of the actual flux of 60 mW/(m*m) [8]. Thus, +geological p-d fusion could possibly contribute to the observed heat +flux, the high temperatures of the earth's core and provide an energy +source for plate tectonics. + +The foregoing data allow a geological fusion rate lambda to be + f +calculated. We assume a first-order rate equation for p-d +fusion: dN = lambda N dt, or lambda = (dN/N)dt. The fraction (dN/N) + f f +is the ratio of the number of fusions which take place to the number +of atoms available. It is also the rate of fusion divided by the rate +of supply of deuterons; thus, dN/N is equal to the actual heat flux +from the earth divided by the possible heat flux so that + + -1 + lambda = (60/750)/3x10E16 s = 3x10E-18 s (5) + f + +Consider next the possibility that the localized heat of volcanism at +subduction zones is supplied by fusion. As much as 10E6 J/kg is +required to turn rock into magma, and this must be supplied from a +local source of energy. Subducting rock contains about 3 percent +water [7], or 3x10E30 deuterons/kg. If the time available for melting +is equal to the time required for a plate to travel down a slant +distance of 700 km at a speed of 2.5 cm/year, about 10E15 s, the +inferred fusion rate is: + + lambda = (10E6 J/kg)/(3x10E20 d/kg x 8.6E10-13 J/fusion x 10E15 s) + f + lambda = 4x10E-18 fusions/d/s (6) + f + +This requires only about 0.3 percent of the available nuclear fuel. +The limit on the available heat is therefore the fusion rate constant, +rather than the scarcity of fuel. + +While some of the earth's heat must certainly derive from several +sources, "cold" geological nuclear fusion could account for steady- + 3 +state production of considerable heat and He in the earth's interior. + 3 4 +High values of the He/ He ratio are found in the rocks, liquids, and +gases from volcanoes and other active tectonic regions [9]. + 3 +Primordial He will be present from the formation of the earth [9], +but some may be generated by terrestrial nuclear fusion. The +discovery of cold nuclear fusion in the laboratory, with a rate +constant comparable to that derived from geologic thermal data, +supports our hypothesis. + +Based on this new concept, we predict that some tritium should be +produced by d-d fusion in the earth (see equation 1). Since tritium + 3 +decays according to t -> He + beta with a 12-year half-life, +detection of tritium in volcanic emissions would imply cold-fusion +production of tritium. This is supported by the following +observations. A tritium monitoring station was operated at Mauna Loa +on Hawaii Island from August 1971 to the end of 1977. We have found +strong correlations between tritium detected at Mauna Loa and nearby +volcanic activity in this period of time. Figure 4 displays data +compiled by Ostlund for HT gas measured at the Mauna Loa station in +1972 [10]. Similar data taken at Miami, Florida, are provided for +comparison. A striking spike in the tritium level is clearly seen in +the February-March 1972 Mauna Loa data. Ostlund notes that these +significant tritium readings over a several-week period have not been +previously understood; in particular, the timing and shape of the peak +is inconsistent with hydrogen bomb tests in Russia five months earlier +[10]. However, this signal is coincident with a major eruption of the +Mauna Ulu volcano [11] 40 km to the southeast. Furthermore, winds in +March 1972 carried volcanic gases northwest, towards the Mauna Loa +station and on towards Honolulu 200 km away: "Trade winds [from the +northeast] were infrequent and the southerly flow that replaced them +occasionally blanketed the state with volcanic haze from an eruption +on Hawaii Island ... High particulate matter measurements in Honolulu +confirmed the northward spread of haze from the Mauna Ulu Volcano +eruption on Hawaii Island." [12] + +This remarkable set of circumstances permits us to estimate the amount +of tritium released during the February-March 1972 eruption of Mauna +Ulu. Based on the distance to the Mauna Loa station and average 8 mph +winds [12], we estimate that on average 100 curies of tritium were +released per day for 30 days. An accidental release of this magnitude +of manmade tritium sustained for several weeks on a nearly +uninhabited island is highly unlikely. We conclude that this volcanic +eruption freed tritium produced by geological nuclear reactions. + +Other HT data from the Mauna Loa station, such as the high reading in +the latter half of 1972, are also coincident with volcanic activity, +although a tritium-releasing bomb test also occurred in Russia in late +August. A major spike in the atmospheric HT observed near Hawaii in +Dec 1974 - June 1975 [10] coincides with another large volcanic +eruption on Hawaii Island, but the significance is again obscured by +H-bomb tests. Finally, no significant deviations in HT reading are +noted in 1976 or 1977 [10] when no volcanic activity is noted, except +for "gentle" activity at Kileau on September 17, 1977 [13]. + +OTHER EVIDENCES FOR COLD FUSION + +Further evidence for cold nuclear fusion in condensed matter comes + 3 4 +from studies of He and He in diamonds and metals. Using laser- +slicing of diamonds, H. Craig (private communication) has measured the + 4 3 4 +absolute concentrations of both He and He. He was found to be +smoothly distributed through the crystal as if it were derived from + 3 +the environment. On the other hand, He was found to be concentrated +in spots implying in-situ formation. Cold piezonuclear p-d or d-d +fusion provides a plausible explanation for these data. + + 3 +Concentration anomalies of He have also been reported in metal foils + 3 +[14]. The spotty concentrations of He suggest cold piezonuclear + 3 +fusion as the origin of the observed He. Note that electrolytic +refining of the metals in deuterium-bearing water could have provided +conditions for cold nuclear fusion. Among several possible +explanations, the authors [14] suggest an "analog" of muon catalysis. +We think they were close to the mark! + +Cold nuclear fusion may be important in other celestial bodies besides +earth. Jupiter, for example, radiates about twice as much heat as it +receives from the sun [1]. It is interesting to consider whether cold +nuclear fusion in the core of Jupiter, which is probably metallic +hydrogen plus iron silicate, could account for its excess heat. Heat +is radiated at an approximate rate of 10E18 W, which could be produced +by p-d fusions occurring at a rate of 10E20(1/s) [1]. Assuming a +predominately hydrogen core of radius 4.6x10E9 cm, having a density += 10 g/(cm*cm*cm) and a deuteron/proton ratio of roughly 10E-4, we +deduce a required p-d fusion rate of lambda = 10E-19 + f +fusions/deuteron/second--in remarkable agreement with cold fusion +rates found in terrestrial conditions. + +CONCLUSIONS + +A new form of cold nuclear fusion has been observed during +electrolytic infusion of deuterons into metals. While the need for +off-equilibrium conditions is clearly implied by our data, techniques +other than electrochemical may also be successful. We have begun to +explore the use of ion implantation, and of elevated pressures and +temperatures mimicking geological conditions. + +If deuteron-deuteron fusion can be catalyzed, then the d-t fusion +reaction is probably favored due to its much larger nuclear cross +section. Thus, while the fusion rates observed so far are small, +the discovery of cold nuclear fusion in condensed matter opens the +possibility at least of a new path to fusion energy. + +We acknowledge valuable contributions of Douglas Bennion, David Mince, +Lawrence Rees, Howard Vanfleet and J. C. Wang of Brigham Young +University, and of Mike Danos, Fraser Goff, Berndt Muller, Albert +Nier, Gote Ostlund, and Clinton Van Siclen. We especially thank Alan +Anderson for advice on the data analysis and Harmon Craig for +continuing encouragement and for use of his data on diamonds before +their publication. + +The research is supported by the Advanced Energy Projects Division of +the U.S. Department of Energy. + +REFERENCES + + 1. Van Siclen, C. D. & Jones, S. E. "Journal of Physics G. Nucl. + Phys." 12, 213-221 (1986). + + 2. Jones, S. E. "Nature" 321, 127-133 (1986); Rafelski, J. & Jones, + S. E. "Scientific American" 257, 84-89 (July 1987). + + 3. Jensen, G. L., Dixon, D. R., Bruening, K. & Czirr, J. B. "Nucl. + Inst. and Methods" 200, 406 (1984); and paper in preparation. + + 4. MCNP: Monte Carlo Neutron and Photon Transport Code, CCC-200. + Available from Radiation Shielding Information Center, Oak Ridge + National Laboratory (Version 3). + + 5. Bowman, R. C. Jr. in "Metal Hydrides" (ed. G. Bambakides) 109-144 + (New York, Plenum, 1981). + + 6. Jones, S. E., et al. "Physical Review Letters" 51, 1757-1760 + (1983). + + 7. Fyfe, W. S., Price, N. J., & Thompson, A. B. "Fluids in the + Earth's Crust" (Elsevier, New York, 1978). + + 8. Chapman, D. S. & Pollack, H. N. "Earth and Planet Sci. Lett" 28, + 23 (1975) + + 9. Craig, H., Lupton, J. E., Welhan, J. A., & Proveda, R. "Geophys. + Res. Lett." 5, 897 (1978); Lupton, J. E., & Craig, H. "Science" + 214, 13 (1981); Mamyrin, B. A. & Tolstikhin, L. N., "Helium + Isotopes in Nature (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1984). + +10. Ostlund, H. G. & Mason, A. S. Atmospheric Tritium 1968-1984, + Tritium Laboratory Report No. 14, University of Miami, Miami, + Florida; Ostlund, H. G., private communication. + +11. Bullard, F. M. "Volcanoes of the Earth", 2nd ed., (Univ. Texas + Press, Austin, 1984). + +12. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, "Climatological Data, Hawaii" 68, 29 + (1972). + +13. Smithsonian Institution, "Volcanoes of the World", (Stroudsburg, + P. A., Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co., 1981). + +14. Mamyrin, B. A., Khabarin L. V. & Yudenich, V. S. "Sov. Phys. + Dokl." 23, 581 (1978). diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/fusion.txt b/textfiles.com/science/fusion.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0f74c810 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/fusion.txt @@ -0,0 +1,143 @@ +"In thermonuclear weapons, radiation from a fission explosive can be contained + and used to transfer energy to compress and ignite a physically separate + component containing thermonuclear fuel." + + The 3 basic concepts of thermonuclear devices, + U.S. DOE, Sept 1980, Duane Sewell, + Assistant Secretary of Energy for Defense, + Official Declassification Act. + + +FUSION PRINCIPLES + +Under solar conditions (high temps of about 100 millions degrees C, 1 milion +megabars pressure), H atoms fuse into He. Three isotopes of H exist: + + H1 (P) protium + H2 (D) deuterium + H3 (T) tritium. + +Protium reacts too slowly even in the sun so deuterium and tritium are used. +Under solar conditions, the H atoms gain enough kinetic enery to overcome +the electrostatic repulsion of their positive charges. The electrons which +are normally found surrounding H nuclei have already been ionised. You have +a plasma of positive nuclei. He is formed in a H-H reaction, releasing energy. + +Sources of D and T + +Heavy water (D2O) is present at 1 part in 6700 in normal tap water. You can +separate the heavy water, and then obtain deuterium gas. D2 gas +is obtained via electrolysis. + +Tritium is radioactive, and is obtained via bombardment of Li6 with thermal +(slow) neutrons. It beta decays like: T -> He3 + e + +T fuses with D at a temperature an order of mag lower than for D-D fusion, +hence its usefulness in a weapon. + +Lithium + +The lightest of metals, only 1/2 as dense as water. Found combined with +other elements in igneous rocks and mineral spring water. Li7 is separated +electrolytically from Li7Cl. Has several isotopes: Li5 to Li9. Li6 and Li7 +are used in weapons, and are naturally occuring. Li5, Li8, and Li9 are +man-made radioisotopes. + +Li6 is present as 7.5% of all naturally occuring Li. Separation methods +include electrolysis, distillation, chemical exchange, or EM methods. Li +bonds with H to form the solid Li6D. + +Back to the Story + +Since the mass of the resultant He is less than the mass of the separate H, +the excess energy is converted into radiation and kinetic energy of neutrons. +The energy of these fast neutrons is high enough to split normal U-238. Slow +neutrons only transmute U-238 into Np-239 (which then beta decays into +Pu-239). + +One cubic metre of gaseous deuterium, when fused into helium, yields the +equivalent of about 10 megatons of TNT. + +Deuterium and tritium are gases at room temperature, so their storage in a +weapon would be cumbersome. Instead, a substance called lithium deuteride +(Li6D or Li7D) is used. This material has the property of being a whitish, +slightly-blue powdery light salt-solid (which is extremely hygroscopic) at +room temperature. It is made by heating metal lithium in a vessel, into +which deuterium gas is injected. It is then pressed and shaped into a +ceramic. + +When a neutron is absorbed by a LiD molecule, the molecule breaks up into +a He, H3, and a deuterium. The D can then reacts with the T in fusion. This +releases enormous amounts of energy, much greater than you would get in +a fission reaction. The end products include a free n, and a He. Schematically: + +U-238 fission releases fast neutrons and heat (thermal kinetic energy of +neutrons). + + Li6 + n -> He4 + T + 4.7 MeV + +then + + D + T -> He4 + n + 17.6 MeV. + + n + U-238 -> neutrons + fission products + energy + + +These reactions occur in under 1/10-6 secs. Additional reactions are: + + Li6 + D -> 2(He4) + 22.4 MeV + + Li6 -> 2(He4) + n + + Li6 + P -> He4 + He3 + 4.0 MeV + + Li7 + P -> 2(He4) + 17.3 MeV + + Li7 + D -> Li8 + P + + Li7 + n -> He4 + T + n + + D + Li7 -> Be8 + n + 15.1 MeV + + D + D -> T + H + 4.0 MeV + + D + D -> He3 + n + 3.25 MeV + + D + D -> He4 + 23 MeV + + T + T -> He4 + 2n + 12.2 MeV + + He3 + D -> He4 + H + 18.3 MeV + + D + n -> T + +Beryllium is useful in the core of a fission mass since you can use it to +increase the neutron flux: + + Be9 + n -> Be8 + 2n + + Be9 + D -> Be8 + T + 4.53 MeV + +For a thermonuclear reaction, you have to compress the Li6D solid to 15-30 +times it's original uncompressed density at RTP (15lbs/foot^3). Compression +is needed to: + +(1) increase fusion *probability*. You pack the molecules closer together. +In the process, you pave the way to overcoming the electrostatic repulsion +of the H atoms in the Li6D. + +(2) increase fusion *rate*, since you get quicker reactions when the reactants +are packed closely together than far apart. The *time* for a reaction is +inversely proportional to fuel density. Denser fuels mean shorter reaction +times, and hence more chance of a larger number of reactions. The *rate* of +reaction, on the other hand, is proportional to the square of the fuel density. +Increase the density by a factor of 30, and your rate increases by a factor +of 900. + +Compression is a form of inertial confinement fusion (ICF). You are in effect +counteracting the explosive forces released in the fusion, by giving the +reactants an inwardly directed momentum. So the whole mass of fuel stays +together. It's collapsing in on itself; at the same time it wants to tear +itself apart. + +PS, 1994 diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/g-solars.txt b/textfiles.com/science/g-solars.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e17cfb8f --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/g-solars.txt @@ -0,0 +1,157 @@ + + +ONE SOLAR SYSTEM? WHAT GOOD IS THAT? by John M. Ford + + (This article originally appeared in ROLEPLAYER #11.) + + + + John Ford wrote this as commentary/contribution for GURPS Space - but + +unfortunately, as we fought to get the final manuscript down to ``only'' 128 + +pages, it didn't make it. So here it is . . . some comments and suggestions + +for the GM who wants a science-fiction campaign set in a single solar system. + + + + * * * * * + + + + Space opera usually spans vast interstellar distances, with dozens or + +hundreds of inhabited worlds. But it doesn't have to. The exploration of one + +solar system - ours, or another reached by colony ships - is material enough + +for centuries of epic adventure. + + The one-system background is excellent if the GM and players prefer a + +``hard science'' story. FTL travel is not needed; if the system is not + +Earth's, it was reached the hard way, by a generation ship, or perhaps by a + +ship traveling so close to light speed that only a short time passed aboard. + +Or perhaps FTL exists, but is so expensive that it can only be used to send + +colonists on one-way trips. Or stargates go only one way. Or the colonists are + +exiles and can't go home. + + The whole campaign can be set at the top end of Tech Level 7. Still, with + +developments of present-day science technolgy, this could include better hand + +weapons, clean fusion plants, a ``beanstalk'' space elevator from planetary + +surface to orbit. In particular, this campaign needs breakthroughs in space + +propulsion. To go somewhere, you must still accelerate a reaction mass and + +throw out the back of the ship. The mass may be bulky and cheap - water + +flashed to steam by a nuclear reactor - or dense and expensive - heavy metals. + +The result is the same: the faster you want to get where you're going, the + +more of the ship's mass is taken up with fuel. + + The cheapest, slowest way to get around in-system is along a Hohmann + +transfer orbit, an ellipse with foci at the origin and destination worlds. + +Hohmann data for the Solar System is available in reference books, including + +the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, or ``Rubber Bible.'' + + Notice we said ``slow.'' A one-way Hohmann trip from Earth orbit to Mars + +orbit takes about 260 days - and the launch window for a trip this short + +occurs only once every two years. To travel any faster, or at another time, + +requires a lot more energy. If the characters aren't to spend most of their + +lives either on one world or in transit (not that that would be a bad idea), + +you may want to allow the ``torchship,'' with a highly efficient system that + +produces 1-G thrust for as long as necessary. 1-G thrust is wonderfully fast; + +with a mid-course turnover (accelerating halfway, decelerating halfway; it + +feels just the same aboard ship) you can get from Earth to Mars in less than + +four days. But this requires power and materials we don't (yet) have, or any + +useful idea how to make, so it's TL8 at a minimum. + + Instead of a star map, the one-system campaign uses an orrery - a set of + +orbital tracks with markers to show the planet's locations. Move the planets + +at intervals appropriate to their year; Earth might move every 10 days, + +Jupiter every year or so. Planetary motions can also be programmed on a home + +computer, with any level of precision you choose. (One advantage to using the + +real Solar System is the huge amount of very precise data available, + +especially for the inner planets.) + + One common SF theme is ``mining the asteroid belt.'' This is usually + +compared to the California gold rush, with lots of lone-wolf miners in their + + + +one- or two-person ships, wandering through a cloud of space rocks, staking, + +digging and jumping claims. Unfortunately, the reality is very different. The + +asteroids are at least half a million miles apart, invisible from one another. + +And once you get there, most of them are just rock, and most of the rest are + +just iron. If civilization needs a lot of asteroidal iron, the cheap way to + +get it will be to send one mission to find a big lump, and set up a mass + +driver to bring it slowly home. + + If you still want a Belt civilization, you could set up a system with a + +much denser asteroid belt, or just ``salt the mine'' with something widely + +scattered (justifying all those little missions) but very valuable. Metals + +like iridium, for instance, are much more common in space material than in + +Earth's crust. Larry Niven posited that ``magnetic monopoles'' might be the + +remnants of an inhabited planet, with alien artifacts scattered through it. + +(Incidentally, our own Belt is almost certainly not a shattered world; there's + +not enough matter there. Sometimes science is a real spoilsport.) + + Given all these restrictions, what sort of adventures can you have in one + +system? The same sort that real explorers and settlers have always had: The + +excitement of trying to survive in a strange new environment, making society + +and government work under new circumstances, and every now and then finding + +something that no one ever saw before. That's at least as exciting as + +slaughtering aliens with particle beams. + + + +Quit, List, or number to read : \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/gems.01 b/textfiles.com/science/gems.01 new file mode 100644 index 00000000..eb4826f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/gems.01 @@ -0,0 +1,256 @@ + THE LORE OF GLORANTHAN GEMS + AND NEAR-GEMS + Copyright þ 1992 Martin R. Crim + +INTRODUCTION + +Most sages try to ignore the thorny riddle of gloranthan gem +lore. They complain that the lore is complex and inconsistent. +The well-known system of runes and myths does not explain gems' +traits or runic links. + In fact, the Godlearners gave up the search for a unified +theory of gems, according to one legend. The many problems +baffled them. Two gems that look the same can have different +traits and runic links. Gods who are linked in myth often hold +very different gems sacred. Gods with nothing in common hold the +same gem sacred. (Jet is a good example, being holy to both Al- +drya and Zorak Zoran.) Worse than that, local myths differ +widely in explaining the origin of a gem. + +CLASSIFICATION + Despite the difficulties, one can organize gem lore +according to natural groups. Each magical detect spell works on +some stones and not on others. (By detect spell, we mean the +spirit magic Detect, the divine magic Find, and the sorcerous +Sense.) Sages in different parts of the world can group gems the +same way by applying logic and a variety of detect spells. They +find that local gem traders apply single terms to gems from more +than one magical group. Early steps in magical research show +that the natural group, not the local term, fixes a gem's magical +traits. These findings sound like Godlearner teaching to many +people, so the finding has not gone far. Confusion reigns in +sorting gems in most parts of the world today. + There are many detect spells for gems and other stones, and +no one but Zzabur has a complete list. For each of the gems +below, there is a detect spell that detects it but no other gems +on the list. Organic material must be dead to trigger the +perception spell. Although most of the names parallel Earth +gems, Glorantha's gems are not identical to Earth's. + For many gems, detect spells exist only in one or two of the +systems of magic (spirit, divine, and sorcerous). As a rule of +thumb, if there is a Sense (substance) for a gem, there are also +Animate (substance) and Form/Set (substance) spells for it. + Even the word "gem" confuses many. The Teshnans mislead the +rest of the world by applying their term for gem to coral, pearl, +and ivory. Ordinary folk and even many sages believe that those +gems come from Teshnan mines. Pedants quibble that coral, pearl, +ivory, and jet are not gems, because the dwarfs do not consider +them to be minerals. Added confusion comes from classifying +truestones with the gems that most closely resemble them. Spells +that affect non-truestone gems do not affect similar truestone. +The truestone will not trigger Detect/Find/Sense, Animate will +not animate it, and Form/Set will not mold it. + This document uses the word "gem" to refer to things that +one group of people or another considers highly valuable and +pretty. It applies the term "near-gem" to any hard valuable +substance that has some of the traits of gems, such as being +pretty, magical, or valuable. "Near-gems" include amber, bezoar, +coral, echostone, glass, ironstone, ivory, jet, jewelflor, and +pearl. Both terms leave out many hard things used in decora- +tions, such as sea shells, tortoise shell, and rhino horn. + +MAGICAL GEMS +Many gems have magical power. The so-called crystals are gems of +various colors. Most "dead crystals" have no link to a religion +or a rune. Living crystals usually belong to a god, however, and +the popular name notes this. By gazing deep into a living +crystal, one can learn its nature. A living crystal has an +unmistakable inner fire that charms the eye and the mind. +"Attuning" a gem is actually a means of learning, in which one +comes near to the divine. + Gems that lack divine qualities may still have magical +powers. Some stones make spells easier to cast. Many gems bear +the mystical stamp of a rune or cult (see below). + +IDENTIFYING GEMS + Many of the gems below resemble one another. They also may +resemble non-precious stones. Identifying a gem requires a +successful use of Mineral Lore. + Anyone green at identification (25% or less, but above base +skill plus bonus) knows the colors of the best-known stones +(Diamond, Emerald, Ruby, Sapphire). He or she knows the color +correlation table, below, and the sacred stones of his or her +cult. He or she knows that there are many fake gems, and that +there are ways of testing gems. + Anyone intermediate in identification (26%-50%) can test +gems using the scratch test. This can narrow down the +possibilities and allow the identifier to make an educated guess. +The scratch test can distinguish glass from other minerals, if +done right. + Anyone veteran in identification (51-75%) can identify the +gems on this list with a successful roll. He or she can uncover +fakes on a successful roll, modified for the cleverness of the +forgery. + Any expert in identification (76%+) can accurately grade and +value gemstones. He or she has most of the information in this +article (the major exception being the notes on Grow Stone). An +expert can tell where a gem came from if he or she succeeds in +another skill roll, with a modifier for how well he or she knows +the gem and region. + +GEMCUTTING + Faceted gems are rare in Glorantha. The most common way to +prepare gems is to smooth off the rough edges and polish the +surfaces. This yields irregular gems with very little +brilliance. The next most common method is to cut gems en +cabochon. That method creates a flat or rounded base and a +rounded top. + Teshnans mine and cut many of Glorantha's gems, often using +the point cut and table cut. The former is merely a regular +eight-sided solid, like a D8. The latter is a point cut with one +point cut off. + Some gemcutters in Seshnela now experiment with larger +numbers of facets, working with Form/Set Quartz. Humans have a +few ancient stones with many facets, cut in the time of legend. + Crafters use soft gems for cameos, talismans, and seals. +They sometimes carve letters or runes into hard gems. Crafters +carve pictures and designs into the surface of a flat piece, +using Craft (Gemcutting) or the proper Form/Set. The designs +hold both religious and magical power. Spell-teachers weave +spirit spell foci into their designs. Enchanters work the runes +of enchantment into the designs they make. The designs +themselves have magic power, especially when they build on the +gem's sympathy for particular runes. + +ATTITUDES OF THE SENTIENT SPECIES + Human attitudes about gems depend on cult and culture. +Primitives view all shiny objects as magical, and especially +revere any transparent stones. Nomads are more sophisticated +than primitives, but often get fooled by traders. Barbarians +have many folk beliefs about the magical qualities of gems. The +notes on each gem below give these, without distinguishing the +true from the false. Civilized peoples often have the same +superstitions, but also view gems as very precious treasure. +They have the attitude needed for wide-scale trading. + Within culture types, individual cultures have different +feelings toward gems. Malkioni link their castes to particular +gems: Ruler--diamond, Wizard--ruby, Knight--sapphire, Farmer-- +quartz, Woman--emerald. The Teshnans consider gems a +particularly fun part of life, worth the tedium of mining and +polishing--so long as there is time for fun every day. + The elder races group gems in their own ways, quite +different from human labels. Almost every species has an +attitude toward gems different from all other species. Some +elder races value a particular mineral, as Dragonewts prize +obsidian. Some appreciate all shiny objects, as Windchildren and +Beastmen do. Ducks and Morokanth value the same stones that +humans value, for they are close to humans in outlook. However, +Ducks value blue stones above all others, and Morokanth prize +large gems. Broos and Scorpionmen never value gems except as +magic items and traps for their victims. Jelmre do not mine, +cut, or polish gems. They appreciate gifts of gems, however, +especially ones that look like their missing emotions. The many +kinds of Timinit see nothing of value in gems. The major elder +races have attitudes that reflect their general points of view. + Dwarfs group gems entirely by their physical traits, and cut +them for specific uses. They often work in complete darkness, so +prettiness is not important to orthodox Mostali. They do not +group gems as gem-quality or not gem-quality. This is a rational +custom in light of the way spells work. Their names for gems +include poetry like "hardness 140,000 perfect cleavage isometric +stone" (which humans call diamond). Dwarfs occasionally produce +a beautiful gem, as incidental to a particular use. All castes +use gems, but the Lead caste has a special relationship with +glass and mirrors. (Of all orthodox Mostali, they come closest +to having an aesthetic sense.) Rock caste gem-workers have +several ways, including spells, to measure a mineral sample's +traits and see what it is. Dwarfs trade gemstones to humans at +certain places, include Bad Deal in the High Llama Pass and Gem- +borg in the Holy Country. Most are rough, but some are cut and +polished. + Trolls group gems according to their sonic properties, which +they examine with their Darksense (sonar). Like dwarves, trolls +spend much of their time in complete darkness. Trolls value +visual traits much less than sonic traits. Thus, they have a +different grouping system from humans. Some terms match human +ones, like jade and opal. Others are completely different. The +term "warm-timbre rough-stone" refers to stones which humans put +in more than one group, and it excludes stones which humans place +in those same groups. + Trolls prize some mundane stones which humans find plain and +drab. Echostone is set forth in detail below. Deadstone mutes +darksense, making it hard to "see." It is sacred to Zorak Zoran, +whose cultists make maul- and mace-heads from it. Waterstone +sends back echoes that "look" like a water surface. Hollowstone +and squeakystone have the darksense traits suggested by their +names. + Brown and Green Elves enjoy all pretty stones, but only +prize those intimately associated with plants. The most common +of these are amber, grow stone, jet, jewelflor, and petrified +wood. Yellow elves are similar in attitude, but grow almost all +of their gems. They grow jewelflor, glass vine, gem orchid, +sapphire violet, and some rarer varieties. Humans know nothing +about Red, Blue, and Black Elf attitudes. Elves have three terms +which they use to group all minerals. Noble, as a gem term, +means unfathomable, powerful, and pure. Common, as a gem term, +means ordinary, weak, and mixed. Profane, as a gem term, refers +to made things. Within the common class, the elves classify +minerals by their effect on plants growing in or near them. +Thus, they talk about the veins and ores in which gems occur more +than they talk about the gems themselves. + Mermen prize coral, ivory, and pearls. They trade with +surface dwellers for polished aquamarines, the only surface gem +they honor. They link each gem to a caste: aquamarines with +rulers, pearls with shamans, and coral with gatherers. The +warriors' gem is ivory, which they take from narwhals and sea +lions. + +MAGICAL CORRELATIONS + Gloranthan stones roughly follow a color scheme linking them +to the runes. The following table applies to gems and also to +other stones. It is not complete, nor even adequate. It only +indicates some links between runes and gems. + Working the runes into the right gem often makes an enchant- +ment easier to create or stronger when it is done. Light spells, +in particular, work well with transparent gems. Hard gems make +stasis spells stronger. + Most gems have special links with one or more deities or +spirits, or with particular runes. Where these do not follow +from the color association, a myth explains the origin of the gem +from the acts of the associated deity. Gods with the common +divine spell of Find (substance) provide Find spells for all +their sacred materials. See the list below, at the end. + In addition to their sacred gems, many deities also hold +certain gems blessed, but not divine. These are always less +valuable stones. + The Teshnans do not link particular gem types to individual +gods. Teshnans present gifts of cut and polished stones to +temples and temple-complexes. They base the gift on obscure dis- +tinctions, which outsiders find inscrutable. + Chaotic gems come in all colors. They may appear "wrong" in +some way, or they may not. Some are so tainted with chaos that +they infect those who handle them. Most just have an affinity +for chaos. Chaotic enchanters prize both kinds. + + Associations + +Color Primary Secondary + + Black Darkness Death, Illusion, Dark Earth + Blue Water Moon, Mastery, Fertility + Brown Earth Fertility, Disorder + + Clear Magic Light, Ice, Infinity + Gray Air Movement, Shadow, Undead + Green Plant Earth, Harmony, Stasis + + Orange Spirit Air, Heat, Death + Pink, Red Moon Illusion, Death + Variegated Man Disorder, Trade, Luck + + Violet Beast Water, Fertility + White Law Truth, Fate, Cold + Yellow Sky Truth, Harmony + +[This is part 1 of 4; email me at Argrath if you want to see +more.] \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/gems.2 b/textfiles.com/science/gems.2 new file mode 100644 index 00000000..6bd6ef02 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/gems.2 @@ -0,0 +1,741 @@ +AGATE is an opaque or translucent stone with bands or concentric +circles of different colors. The common orange or gray stones +are sacred to Orlanth and his household of gods. Some Orlanthi +make wedding rings out of the substance. They especially prize +the rare variety in which the concentric circles are uneven, +suggesting a storm rune. Orlanthi carve agate into cameos, +seals, talismans, and ritual bowls and cups. + Heortlanders say that agates are the bodies of friendly +earth spirits who allied with the King of the Gods. Yelm killed +them for spite, and Kyger Litor stole their bodies to hide them +in her underground larder. + Orlanthi superstitions credit agate with the power to +protect from storms and lightning and the power to kindle +courage. A rare blue agate is sacred to Dormal. Druops is a +green kind with a scaly pattern. It is sacred to the Serpent +Mother (and blessed by Earth cults). Some druops are Snake +Crystals, a kind of spell reinforcing crystal. All orange agates +are sacred to Elmal, and that variety is the most common type of +sensitivity crystal. Gem hunters find agate in western Maniria, +in the bends of rivers. + Agate costs 1 to 10 p. per gram at the source. Pieces occur +in sizes from 10 to 500 grams. One can mistake polished agate +for chalcedony or onyx. + +ALABASTER is a soft, opaque stone, a uniform chalky white in its +natural state. It holds any color of dye. It is translucent in +very thin slices, and at the edges of large pieces. Crafters use +it for ornamental objects, not jewelry. It has no great role in +any cult, but many cults use it for ritual items. Most of it +comes from open pit mines in North Esrolia. + Alabaster costs 3 p. per kilogram at the source. Pieces +occur in sizes from 1 to 100 kilograms. One can mistake +alabaster for marble, chalk, pottery, or coral. + +ALMANDINE is a red translucent stone with a deep violet tint. It +is uniformly dark, and gem-cutters often cut it in slivers to +make it look lighter. It is not sacred to any known god or +saint. Rare pieces are dead crystals. It comes from Wenelian +mines. + Almandine costs 3 to 5 p. per gram at the source. Pieces +occur in sizes from 1 to 1000 grams. One can mistake cut and +polished almandine for amber, bloodstone, coral, cornelian, ruby, +or zircon. + +AMBER is an orange, yellow, or red transparent gem, often of un- +even color. It is soft and will burn. It has a special place in +the primitive religion of Eol, and in the lives of the Rathori +and Uncolings. The elves also hold it sacred, identifying it +with High King Elf. It washes ashore in Yggs Isles, and in the +White Sea. Primitive peoples gather pieces along the Valind +Glacier. + Elves say that ambers are the solidified souls of dryads who +died in the Darkness. Rathori and Uncolings tell a different +story. They say that ambers are the hearts of the ice demons who +come down off the glacier to attack their peoples. + Pieces with insects inside are sacred to Gorakiki, the +insect goddess. Humans consider such stones unlucky, because the +insect's spirit is trapped within the gem. Shamans can contact +the trapped spirit, but most insects have small and unintelligent +spirits. No known Form/Set affects amber. + Amber costs 20 to 50 p. per piece at the source. Pieces +occur in sizes from 10 to 200 grams. One can mistake amber for +almandine, a low-quality ruby (if the amber is reddish), or +cloudy zircon. + +AMETHYST is a grape-purple transparent gem, often with stripes of +opaque white. It is sacred to various local wine-spirits, and by +extension to the land-goddesses, also known as grain goddesses. +Folk belief says it prevents drunkenness and disease, and +provides a smooth tongue. + The god of wine wandered all over the land, and drank from a +sack that never ran dry. Where he stopped to drink, he let fall +some drops of wine in his gluttony, and these changed into +amethyst. So says a Ralian legend. + Miners dig amethyst in Fonrit, Teleos, and Teshnos. Gem +hunters find it in water-carried deposits in many places. +Amethyst costs .2 to 10 p. per gram at the source. Pieces occur +in sizes from 5 to 500 kilograms. One can mistake cut and +polished amethyst for chalcedony or glass. + +AQUAMARINE is a light blue or blue-green gem, usually +transparent. As its name implies, aquamarine is sacred to +Magasta and the Water pantheon. It doubles the duration of any +water spell enchanted into it. Rich sailors wear charms made of +the gem. Miners find aquamarine in many coastal lands and +islands. They say that aquamarines are the eyes of naiads, +turned to stone by dwarves. The only known ludoch legend +disagrees, saying that Framanthe gave birth to aquamarines in her +old age. + Aquamarine costs 5 to 25 p. per gram at the source. Pieces +occur in sizes from 1 to 200 grams. One can mistake cut and +polished aquamarine for sapphire, diamond, or glass. + +ARKATITE is the Gloranthan name for Earth's Alexandrite. It is a +rare hard transparent gem which appears bright green in daylight +and light red by firelight or magical light. It is sacred to +Saint Arkat and to Movement cults, especially Mastakos. It comes +from the Eastern and Western Rockwoods Mountains. + Arkatite costs 100 to 1000 p. per piece at the source. +Pieces occur in sizes from 25 to 100 grams, but quality matters +more than price. One can mistake cut and polished arkatite for +emerald in daylight, or for almandine, ruby or zircon by +firelight. + +BEZOAR is a near-gem only because of its magic powers, not the +way it looks. It is a hard grayish mass found in the stomachs of +ruminants. It has magic power from concentrating the animal's +power to digest grass. A bezoar will neutralize poison in a +drinking cup. + Eiritha holds bezoars sacred, and her high priestesses claim +all bezoars found. Bezoars can occur in the stomachs of any of +Eiritha's beasts. These are alticamelus, bison, impala, long- +nose, morokanth (not herd-men), nose-horn, plains elk, rhino, +sable, and zebra. (The priestesses of the Paps say that the +long-nose, nose-horn, and plains elk are extinct. Zebra bezoars +are only rumor.) No known sorcery spells affect bezoar stones. + Priestesses will not sell real, working bezoars. On the +black market, a bezoar costs about 1000 p. Bezoars are typically +between 250 and 2000 grams. One can mistake Bezoar for any +grayish stone with protruding filaments. + +BLOODSTONE is an opaque, dark red gem, often with green, brown, +or black splotches. It polishes readily, but often feels wet or +sticky to the touch. It is sacred to all cults that have special +relationships with blood. Prominent among these are Gorgorma, +the Cult of the Bloody Tusk, and the Blood Sun. Xiola Umbar +cultists make ritual jars out of black and red bloodstone. + Bloodstone brings success in all activities that involve +spilling blood. Warriors value all varieties. Midwives use red +and green bloodstone in their rituals. Some of Arroin's Tears +and Chalana's Blessings are bloodstones. It comes from various +mines in Maniria, as well as Jrustela, Kralorela, and the East +Isles. + Bloodstone costs 3 to 9 p. per gram at the source. Pieces +occur in sizes from 10 to 200 grams. One can mistake cut and +polished bloodstone for almandine, coral, cornelian, jasper, or +sard. + +CHALCEDONY is a banded or mottled porous stone, waxy, dull, or +translucent. Colors are usually some combination of golden +brown, grape-purple, and white. Chalcedony also dyes easily. It +makes good cameos and talismans, and gems cut en cabochon. Folk +tales says it protects against Brain Fever, Demoralize, and +Madness, as well as phantoms and bad dreams at night. Some +varieties are almost a pure violet, and craftsmen cut these en +cabochon as talismans of Saint Talor. Dyed stones do not work as +talismans, so Malkioni gem-workers watch out for fakes. +Chalcedony comes from Wenelia and Umathela. + Chalcedony costs 1 to 10 p. per gram at the source. Pieces +occur in sizes from 10 to 1000 grams. One can mistake cut and +polished chalcedony for agate, hawk's eye, tiger's eye, topaz, or +zircon. + +CHRYSOBERYL is a transparent golden-yellow gem which shoots off +rays of light in full sunlight. It is sacred to Yelm and all his +associate cults. Some chrysoberyls are magic crystals, either +Yelmalio's Toe Blood or Arrow Points. + Catseye chrysoberyls are called cymophanes. They are sacred +to Basmoli lion-people and to Orlanthi who claim descent from +Yinkin the Cat. + Chrysoberyl doubles the normal radius of Light and Glow +spells cast on it. Yelmists say that chrysoberyl gives victory +in battle and in legal disputes. Even so, it makes its owner +friendly. Chrysoberyl comes from Teshnos, Kimos, Jrustela, and +Vormain. + Chrysoberyl costs 3 to 30 p. per gram at the source. Pieces +occur in sizes from 5 to 250 grams. One can mistake cut and +polished chrysoberyl for citrine (yellow quartz), diamond, glass, +or zircon. One can mistake cymophanes for quartz or glass. + +CHRYSOPRASE is a mottled or banded apple-green translucent and +opaque stone. Large stones have brown or white opaque stripes. +Eurmal, the Grain Goddesses, and Saint Xemela hold chrysoprase +sacred, a strange combination of gods that vexes the devotees of +each. + Eurmali say that their god blew mucus out of his nose on +occasion, and that this solidified as chrysoprase. Grain Goddess +initiates say that in the godtime, their ancestors buried sacred +grain heads and these became gems. Saint Xemela's devotees says +that these are their saint's favorite gemstones. + Chrysoprase comes from various mines in Fronela and Ralios. +It costs .2 to 1 p. per gram at the source. Pieces occur in +sizes from 5 to 1000 grams. One can mistake cut and polished +chrysoprase for emerald, glass, jade, or prase. + +CORAL is a mystery to most people, because it grows undersea. +Land dwellers tell wild tales of coral coming from solidified +merman blood or merman bones. + The most valuable kind is a uniform blood red. Gem-workers +also use pinkish white, peach pink, oily black, robin's-egg blue, +and mottled kinds. Coral is sacred to Murthdrya and Triolina (it +is a plant, in Glorantha). Teshnans say that coral protects from +storms and from mishaps crossing rivers. + Productive coral reefs lie off the shores of Teshnos, +several East Isles, Elamle, and Fonrit. A reef in Fonrit holds a +city carved into the gem-like coral above the high-tide line. +Only Zabdamar know the sorcery spells for coral. + Coral costs 1 to 1000 p. per kilogram at the source. Pieces +occur in sizes up to mountain-sized. One can mistake cut and +polished red coral for almandine, bloodstone, cornelian, or sard. +One can mistake cut and polished pink coral for dyed alabaster or +chalcedony. One can mistake cut and polished black coral for jet +or, if shiny, obsidian. One can mistake cut and polished blue +coral for turquoise. One can mistake cut and polished mottled +coral, depending on its colors, for chalcedony, jade, jasper, +lapis lazuli, onyx, sard, or turquoise. + +CORNELIAN is a cherry-red waxy or milky-red translucent stone. +It stills the blood and softens anger, bringing harmony. It is +sacred to Chalana Arroy. Her initiates say that cornelians are +blood from the many wounds that she healed. They became stones +by magical transmutation when Chalana Arroy healed the wounds +from which they fell. + Most Arroin's Tears and Chalana's Blessings are cornelians. +Some cornelians give a 5 to 25 percentile bonus in casting +healing spells. A healer adds the same bonus to her chances of +calming a berserk. A Heal 6 matrix in a cornelian always +succeeds in casting. + Cornelian comes from Wenelia, Enkloso, and northern Fonrit. +Cornelian costs 10 to 1000 p. per piece at the source. Price +depends as much on quality and perceived magical potential as on +size. Pieces occur in sizes from 5 to 500 grams. One can +mistake cut and polished cornelian for almandine, bloodstone, +coral, ruby, or sard. + +DIAMOND is the hardest gem except truestone. It occurs in clear, +yellow, brown, blue, green, orange, and black varieties. Except +for the black variety, it is always transparent. Colors are +consistent throughout the stone, although many stones have flaws, +such as bubbles or cracks. Diamond cutters cut rough diamonds +with powdered diamond. They can also use a sliver of truestone. + Black diamonds are sacred to Subere, Ty Kora Tek, Arkat, and +Basko (the Black Sun). An Attack Soul matrix in a black diamond +gives a 1 to 10 MP bonus in overcoming MP. Black diamond seems +to absorb light, and a fire will dim when a black diamond comes +close to it. One legend says that black diamonds are shreds of +Nakala's cloak cut off by the coming of Aether. + Clear diamonds are sacred to Asrelia, Caladra and Aurelion, +Dayzatar, and Saint Malkion. A Spirit Screen focus or Spirit +Screen/Block/Resistance matrix in a clear diamond adds 1 to 10 +points to the defense provided. Dayzatari say that diamonds are +the thoughts of stars, fallen to earth, and the Pelorian name for +diamond translates as "starthought." + Green diamonds are sacred to cults of the light earth. +Gatasave spell resisting crystals are green diamonds. They say +that these come from honeydew exuded by extinct holy trees. + Saint Gerlant wore a blue diamond, and that type is now +sacred to him. + Malkioni folklore says that diamonds make their owners +loyal, tenacious, and persistent. + Diamond mines exist in Teshnos, Dagori Inkarth, Ramalia, and +many dwarf mountains. Diamonds also wash down from the Shan +Shan, Nidan, and Tarmo Mountains. + Diamond costs 100 to 10,000 p. per gram at the source. +Pieces occur in sizes from .01 to 100 grams, and larger in very +rare finds. + Uncut and unpolished diamond require a mineral lore expert +or miner to identify. When cut and polished, diamond resembles +many other stones. One can mistake black diamond for obsidian, +clear diamonds for glass or quartz, yellow and orange diamonds +for amber, chrysoberyl, glass, quartz, or zircon, brown diamonds +for glass, quartz, topaz, or zircon, blue diamonds for +aquamarine, sapphire, glass, quartz, or zircon, and green +diamonds for emerald, glass, or zircon. + +ECHOSTONE is a plain-looking charcoal gray mineral which acts as +a mirror for trolls' darksense. Quality varies from specimen to +specimen, and trolls can improve the quality by smoothing the +surface of the rock. + Scanning into it, a troll darksenses his or her reflection. +The source of the sonar is the troll's own head. Thus, the +effect is like standing in a dark room, casting Light on one's +nose, and looking into a mirror. Trolls use echostone for many +profane purposes, such as spying past bends in caves. + Echostone is sacred to Dehore and blessed of the other Dark- +ness cults. All troll shamans use it for enchantments of binding +and controlling or commanding. It also aids in enchanting +Reflection. + Echostone occurs in nearly all igneous rock formations. +Troll miners earn from 1 to 100 bolgs per kilogram. Specimens +come in all sizes from slivers to multi-ton seams. A non-troll +cannot distinguish it from other rock without having arcane +mineral and troll lore. + +EMERALD is a green stone with high luster. It is usually +translucent but sometimes is transparent. Color is often uneven, +and may occur in stripes. From certain angles, emerald gives off +dark bluish green reflections. Emeralds are fragile, but hard to +scratch. + Emeralds are sacred to Ernalda/Dendara and to Earth cults in +general, as well as to some minor Malkioni saints. Ernalda's +Tears is a spell resisting crystal that is a banded translucent +variety. Folk wisdom grants emeralds many powers. They protect +from evil spells. They give their owners oratorical skill, joy, +ambition, and honesty. This is because they come from the secret +ovaries of plant spirits. + Emeralds come from Enkloso, the northern Redlands, and the +Maidstone Mountains. A huge emerald truestone sits at the center +of the inner temenos (sanctum) of Ernalda in the city of Ernalda, +in Esrolia. + Emerald costs 10 to 1000 p. per gram at the source. Pieces +occur in sizes from .01 to 100 grams, and larger in very rare +finds. One can mistake cut and polished emerald for aquamarine, +diamond, glass, jade, prasiolite (green quartz), sapphire, or +zircon. + +GLASS is common throughout the world in jewelry, statues, and +other objects. Most people prefer the colored kinds, which +resemble gems. Merchants, at least, can distinguish glass from +true gemstones. + Glass is sacred to Bolongo, and to some other Pamaltelan +cults. Along the Pamaltelan coastline, people say that it is +pieces of Trickster's brain. A local god (which varies with the +region) knocked these pieces out of his head. + Glass occurs world-wide, and many know the secret of making +glass from sand. Other secrets are scattered and jealously +guarded, such as the secret of unbreakable glass. Form/Set Glass +is a fairly common sorcery spell. + Glass costs 1 to 1000 p. per kilogram at the source. Piece +size is limited only by magic and technology. One can mistake +glass for almost anything. + +GROW STONE looks like a plant part or (rarely) a whole plant. +The common leaf stones come in hues ranging from first growth's +gold green to late summer spinach color. Flower stones come in +the same colors flowers do. There are also root and berry +stones. Rarest of all are whole-plant stones. + Grow stone has a naturally smooth and shiny surface. The +elves claim that these stones are slowly growing, thus the name. +(Petrified wood, by contrast, is dead.) Elves can distinguish +fakes easily, baffling human traders who thought pieces genuine. +Elves can also tell if a trader has broken a stone, and will +react unpredictably if he has. + Grow stone is sacred to Flamal and to all Plant cultists. +Elves can awaken grow stones with enchantments, including one +which enables an elf to attune a stone. Humans know that much, +but no more. Even among elves, only Mineral Lore experts know +that an attuned grow stone deepens one's elf-sense perceptions. +The attuned know the wonder of sensing and joining in life +through a grow stone. + Elves tell a legend about a Dogwood clan elf named Laslak +Axehead, who lived in Ballid. He was a hero of the Lesser +Darkness. He could "smell the wind in the leaves, feel the +darkness under the roots, hear the heat of decay in the forest +floor, and see the sap flow inside distant plants." He went to +sleep with the rest of his clan. When Flamal returned and the +Mreli awoke, Laslak was gone. A whole dogwood grow stone stood +over his resting place. Dwarves broke the tree, but elves +recovered most of the pieces. + Miners find grow stone where Aldryami woods vanished in the +godtime. No known sorcery spells affect grow stone. + Grow stone costs 100 p. per piece at the source. Pieces +occur in sizes from 10 grams to 100 kilograms, and larger in very +rare finds. Humans can mistake leaf grow stone for chrysoprase, +glass, jade, or prase. Root and stem stones look like petrified +wood or topaz. Flower and berry stones look like shaped gems of +the appropriate color. + +HAWK'S EYE is an opaque orange and brown striped stone which +craftsmen cut en cabochon. A polished hawk's eye reveals a small +ray of light on its surface, resembling a hawk or falcon's eye. +It is sacred to Vrok, god of hawks, and blessed by his associated +cults Yelm and Yelmalio. + Hawk's eyes come from mines in Teshnos, Laskal, Jrustela, +and the East Isles. There, it costs .1 p per gram. Pieces weigh +from 10 to 500 grams. It is hard to mistake, except for tiger's +eye, after it is cut and polished. Uncut, it looks like a brown +stone, such as topaz. + +IRONROCK is a grayish near-gem made by dwarves. Humans believe +it is either the raw material for making iron or a by-product of +making iron. They cannot make iron from it, which implies it is +a by-product. It burns elves and trolls, however, and deadens +magic in the same way iron does. + In any case, specimens are usually one to two ENC in size. +Ironrocks are irregular, faceted, shiny, and hard. Humans use it +as a symbol of power on scepters and other ritual objects. +Enchant Iron does not affect it, and causes the enchanter to lose +the POW put into the spell. + Ironrock is very rare in human lands. Mostali trade it +rarely. Much of it comes from human raids on factories the +dwarves have abandoned. These raiders can get 1000 p. per +kilogram. + +IVORY is a near-gem, but some sages call it a true gem. The term +"ivory" includes not only the tusks of elephants and narwhals but +also the teeth of hippopotami, sea lion, and wild boar. +Fossilized elephant tusks also fall under this term. Young ivory +is white, and old ivory is yellow. + Crafters use ivory for jewelry, magic and mundane talismans, +and ritual objects. It is sacred to Wachaza and to the Elephant +God of Enkloso. Elephant ivory is the finest type, and it comes +from Teshnos and much of Pamaltela. Spells that affect teeth +affect ivory. + Ivory costs 10 to 100 p. per kilogram at the source. Tusks +are 20 to 100 kilograms, and larger in very rare finds. Ivory +looks something like white jade. One can make cut pieces look +like pearl. + +JADE is a green, white, violet, or yellowish stone that comes in +many shades and hues. It often bears stripes or spots of another +color. Most specimens are opaque, but a few are translucent. +The most valuable varieties are translucent green with a few +stripes of white or black. + Kralorelans and Teshnans use jade to make ceremonial axes. +They also make musical chimes out of it, and the trolls of the +Kingdom of Ignorance and Koromondol have imitated this use. +Craftsmen in Teshnos carve fantastic designs in it. Still +fancier items come from Hsiang Wan in Kralorela where the +sorcerers know Form/Set Jade. + The white kind is sacred to Lhankor Mhy and Emperor Metsyla, +but for different reasons. Lhankor Mhy scholars say that its +color represents the purity of truth. Emperor Metsyla's devotees +say that white jade was the Emperor's medium of writing. They +claim to be able to detect traces of writing in many specimens. + Green jade is sacred to the Rice Mother. A piece of green +jade at the end of the drawstring on a rice bag will repel +insects. + Dark specimens of violet and brown jade are sacred to +Tsankth. They represent the blood of his foes, solidified by +contact with his weapons and feet. + Jade guides lost souls after death, so in the East a close +relative usually places a small stone in the corpse's mouth. +Common folk credit this power of jade to spirits. Philosophers +explain that it comes from jade's "right alignment with the earth +axis." + There are jade mines in Teshnos, Kralorela, and Onlaks. +Teshnos is the only source for imperial jade, an emerald green +translucent variety which merchants value highly. Mining +companies charge their middlemen 100 to 1000 p. per kilogram, +depending on quality. Pieces range from 10 grams to 100 +kilograms. Green jade looks like chrysoprase, emerald, or prase. +White jade looks like ivory or very good chalcedony. Brown jade +looks like chalcedony. Violet jade looks like amethyst or +chalcedony. + +JASPER is a striped or spotted opaque stone. Its colors include +dark red combined with white, orange, brown, or black. Lodrili +craftsmen carve it into cylinder seals or amulets to ward off +blindness, drought, and the bites of poisonous snakes. It is +blessed of Yelm's pantheon (but not Yelm), and of the Earth cults +as well. + The largest mines are in Bastis, but other mines exist +elsewhere in Maniria, in Pent, and on Vormain. + Jasper costs from 1 to 2 p per gram at the source. Pieces +range from 10 to 1000 grams. Cut and polished jasper looks like +coral, bloodstone, onyx, petrified wood, or sard. + +JET is a very hard black or dark brown coal which can take a +polish. It is the softest of gems, with a velvety waxy luster. +Some jets have little bits of pyrite in them, giving them a +shimmering surface dotted with gold. + Legends say that jet is the crushed and burned bodies of +Flamal and his followers. Zorak Zoran and his train chopped up +Flamal and thousands of Flamali, then used darkness magic to +blacken the corpses. Pieces which the army ate and excreted +became coal, and pieces which they missed became jet. + Trolls say that jet has an unusual Darksense "image," and +that it tastes good. It is blessed of Zorak Zoran and Xiola +Umbar, and Darkness cults in general. + Jet, like all coal, is sacred to Aldrya. An extremely rare +powered crystal, called Flamal's Sap, is jet. Rumor gives it +powers of fertility and growth. + Jet occurs in coal mines in Dagori Inkarth, Jrustela, and +Fonrit. Flamal's Sap comes from coal mines on the border of +Ralios and Seshnela. No known Form/Set affects coal or jet. + Jet costs from 1 to 2 p per gram at the source. Pieces +range from 100 to 10,000 grams. Uncut jet looks like ordinary +coal. Cut and polished jet looks like much black coral or +obsidian. + +JEWELFLOR is a human name for the plant and the gem which elves +call Laslak. It is quite rare, yet is the most common of the +Aldryami jewel-plants. The plant is a small biennial which makes +one to three bright crystalline flowers in late Earth Season of +its second year. The plant is delicate and needs extensive care. +The blossoms are glassy and shaped like tiny daffodil flowers. +When fresh, they have an enthralling scent. They are fragile, +but do not decay. Most are transparent white. Rare specimens +are perfectly clear or white tinged with violet or blue. No +known Form/Set affects any jewel-plant. + Elves say that Laslak was a prince of the white elves, who +loved himself above all. When he caught sight of his reflection +in a pond, he lingered there until he died of hunger. His body +became a flower. + Elves give Jewelflor to their friends, and often expect +something in return. A typical flower, with stem, weighs 50 +grams. Jewelflor looks like a shaped gem of the appropriate +color. + +LAPIS LAZULI is a dark blue gem, usually spotted or striped with +many shades of blue. It is lustrous and opaque. It makes pretty +jewelry, pigment, murals, and ritual objects. A golden-spotted +variety is sacred to Lorian Godriver. All types are sacred to +river gods, because rivers carry the stone down from their +sources. Lapis lazuli washes away melancholy. + Lapis Lazuli mines exist in the Dagori Inkarth and Elder +Wilds regions of the Rockwood Mountains, in the upper Hachuan +Shan, and near Bad Deal, in Vesmonstran, Ralios. + Lapis lazuli costs from .1 to .5 p. per gram at the source. +Pieces range from 100 grams to 100 kilograms. Cut and polished +lapis lazuli looks like coral or turquoise. + +OBSIDIAN is a type of volcanic glass, black or gray with some- +times a golden or silver sheen. Flowering obsidian is a variety +with white circles. Obsidian holds a very sharp edge, and the +dragonewts use it in their weapons. + It is sacred to Argan Argar and his mother, Xentha, and to +Raven and some minor godlings. The power enhancing Nipple Stone +is an obsidian, said to be one of Xentha's ten million nipples. +Obsidian is symbolic of the triumph of darkness and cold over +heat and light. + Obsidian occurs in most volcanic areas, including Maniria, +Mari, Kimos, and some East Isles. Many multi-ton pieces survive +from Argan Argar's Castle of Black Glass in the Shadowlands. +Spells that affect glass also affect obsidian. + Obsidian costs from 1 to 5 p. per kilogram at the source. +Trolls charge the same price in bolgs. Cut and polished obsidian +looks like black diamond, coral, or jet. + +ONYX is a stone with even layers of opaque dark and light, often +white and black. Sard-onyx is a type which has brown and white +layers. + Onyx is sacred to various thief gods and to Disorder +cultists. It provokes discord and induces lack of passion. +Trickster wore a cloak of woven onyx when he stole the roc's +eggs, and used the cloak to fool the roc. + A Befuddle focus carved into onyx gives a bonus to casting. +A carved Befuddle matrix gives a +1 to +5 MP bonus to overcoming +MP. + Onyx comes from Umathela, the East Isles, and Vesmonstran. + Onyx costs from 1 to 5 p. per kilogram at the source. +Pieces range from .1 to 100 kilograms. Cut and polished onyx +looks like agate, mottled coral, or jasper. + +OPAL is an iridescent precious stone, displaying a rainbow of +playing colors. The lighter "white opal" is translucent, showing +light blue, red, and sometimes green. It is sacred to Issaries. +Issarites say it is an example of how their god made something +out of nothing. In this case, he took ordinary rock and gave it +sparkles of color and light. + There is also a darker "black opal," which rarely has a +truly black background. Both white and black opal are sacred to +Kyger Litor. Trolls say that opals have an odd humming "image" +when Darksensed. They say that opals are the lining of giant +trolls' eyes. + Opal mines exist in the mountains of Peloria. In recent +years, splendid opals have come from the East Isles. Kralorelans +consider the stone a symbol of loyalty and hope. Spells which +affect opal also affect some non-gems that look nothing like +opal, generally called false opals. + Opal costs from 1 to 5 p. per gram at the source. Pieces +range from 50 to 500 grams. Cut and polished precious opal is +unmistakable. + +PEARL is a white, black, blue, gray, or off-white sphere or +spheroid. Oysters form pearls inside their bodies. Pearl is +soft, and decomposes over a period of 100 to 200 years. Mother +of pearl is a similar substance taken from the shells of pearl +oysters. + Black pearls are sacred to Molocca, the goddess of mollusks. +Blue pearls are sacred to Tholaina, and white pearls to +Brastalos. All varieties are sacred to Beast cultists. + White pearls make their owners friendly, and fill them with +integrity and purity. Legend says that white pearls are the +purified souls of the humble and gregarious oysters. + Rumor states that Zabdamar have Form/Set Pearl. + Pearls costs from 10 to 500 p. each at the source, depending +on size, quality, and color. The rarer blue and black varieties +are more expensive than the white. Off-white pearls are less +expensive than white, and gray pearls are the cheapest. +Individual pearls weigh from 1 to 25 grams. Rare giant pearls +(from giant oysters) weigh up to 500 grams and bidding begins at +10,000 p. One can mistake pearls for beads or ivory. + +PETRIFIED WOOD is a near-gem. Polished pieces may be quite +attractive, but they are still opaque brown or gray rocks. + Humans have little use for petrified wood. Mostali view it +as blasphemous, and avoid or smash it. Elves and their ilk, +however, weep and wail over it, and carve it for memorials to +dead loved ones. Thus, human traders sometimes bring pieces to +elf forests, hoping for valuable goods in return. + Stonewood is the largest concentration of petrified wood in +Glorantha. It is next to Foulblood Wood in Heortland. Other +places have a petrified branch, tree, or small stand of trees at +most. + It is difficult to put a price on petrified wood, because of +the wide range of attitudes toward it and the elves' peculiar +economics. Pieces range in size up to entire trees. One can +mistake a cut piece for a poor-quality hawk's eye or tiger's eye, +sard, or a root grow stone. + +PRASE is a lustrous light gray-green stone. It is opaque, and +many pieces are mottled. All Fertility cults bless it, +especially Deezola and Hon-Eel. They say that it is a drop of +dew fallen from the cup of fertility. + Prase comes from small mines in Fronela and Ralios. It +costs 1 to 2 p. per gram at the source. Pieces weigh between 10 +and 100 grams. One could mistake cut and polished prase for +chrysoprase, growstone, or green jade. + +The term QUARTZ covers a diverse group of stones, confusingly +named. "Rock crystal" is a synonym for quartz, but sometimes +refers only to the clear variety. The term "magic crystal" +refers to a different but overlapping class of gems, some clear +and some white or with color. Many unpowered crystals are, in +fact, clear quartz. + Clear quartz is sacred to Himile and Valind, because it is +ice that has turned to stone. Quartzes with other minerals +inside them are sacred to various other deities, depending on the +color and shape of the inclusion. + Star cults value two kinds, both called star-quartz. One is +a quartz with star-shaped filaments inside it. The other is the +true star-quartz, which reflects light as a star sapphire does. +Both are blessed of the star cults. Yelm blesses quartzes that +have gold inside them, and other deities bless quartzes that have +bits of their associated metal in them. + Citrine is a lemon-yellow quartz. One can distinguish it +from chrysoberyl because it does not send off rays of light. It +is blessed of Yelmalio and other lesser deities of light, such as +Golden Bow, Yelorna, and Lorkanos. + Prasiolite is a leek-green quartz, blessed of Fertility +cults. + Rose quartz is blessed of the lunar pantheon. + Aventurine is a dark green quartz with mica glitter. It is +blessed of Asrelia. + Blue quartz is blessed of the Felster Lake Spirit. + Quartz occurs in small deposits around the world. +Spelunkers and trolls often run across outcroppings in caves. + Quartz costs 10 to 25 p. per kilogram at the source. Pieces +weigh between .1 and 100 kilograms. Traders often mistake quartz +for various gems, depending on the color. + +RUBY can be transparent or opaque, but is always a lustrous red +stone. Some rubies display a star pattern, catseye, or silky +sheen. Only inferior stones have uneven or pale color. Some +gem-traders use the term "spinel" for those, but sages reject the +term. Catseye rubies are called Snakeseye, Turtleseye, or +Owlseye, depending on the sacred animal of a culture. + Humakti hold all rubies sacred as the solidified blood of +heroes. Star rubies are especially sacred because they fell from +the Sword Stars or the constellation Humakt. + Cultists of Lodril and the Lowfires hold all brilliant +rubies sacred. For other members of the Yelm pantheon, star +rubies are blessed stones. A Pelorian legend says that rubies +are the ripe berries of the Yunia bush, which grows in the sky. +Sapphires are the unripe berries, and Yelmists sometimes bury +them so they can ripen. + Since the rising of the Red Moon, Lunar cultists have prized +all red stones. This is purely for the color, and not for any +ancient affinity. + The so-called Esrolian Ruby is a power enhancing crystal. +Some Arroin's Tears and Chalana's Blessings are rubies. + Ruby wards off evil thoughts, lust, pestilential vapors, +disputes, and loss of rank. Most rubies come from Teshnos, but a +few come from the Hungry Plateau, in Peloria, and the island of +Teleos. + Ruby costs 1 to 10 p. per gram at the source. Pieces weigh +between .1 and 30 grams. One can mistake Ruby for almandine, +amber, arkatite (by firelight), cornelian, sard, or zircon. + +SAPPHIRE is a blue or bluish-green gem, transparent and bril- +liant. It comes in various hues. + The cult of Uleria holds all sapphires sacred. They claim +that these gems multiply through the power of love. + Shamans also value the stone as aiding in communication with +the spirits. In fact, some milky sapphires are Ghost Shields +spirit supporting crystals. + Star sapphires are blessed of the Yelm pantheon, whose +cultists say that they are the skin of angels. + Catseye sapphires are blessed by Heler, for obscure reasons. + Sapphire wards off envy, fraud, and poison, while giving its +owner wisdom and vigilance. + Sapphires come from Porent, Brolia, and Umathela, but the +best and largest ones come from Teshnos. It costs 1 to 10 p. per +gram at the source. Pieces weigh between .1 and 100 grams. One +can mistake Sapphire for aquamarine, blue diamond, emerald, or +zircon. + +SARD is a red-brown stone, similar to cornelian. Some varieties +are transparent, while others are milky. No known cult prizes +it. Mines in Wenelia yield small amounts annually. Craftsmen +cut it, and con men try to sell it as another gem. + Sard costs .1 p. per gram at the source. Pieces weigh +between 5 and 500 grams. One can mistake Sard for bloodstone, +coral, cornelian, jasper, petrified wood, ruby, or zircon. + +TIGER'S EYE is a brown and yellow striped stone, sometimes with +dark red lines. When cut en cabochon, it reveals a line of light +within the stone, like the eye of a tiger. It is sacred to the +Tiger God, and Teshnans and Kralorelans use it to ward off the +Tiger People. + Most of it comes from Teshnos and the East Isles, but some +comes from Elamle. Tiger's eye costs .2 p. per gram at the +source. Pieces weigh between 5 and 500 grams. One can mistake +polished or unpolished tiger's eye for hawk's eye. One can also +mistake unpolished tiger's eye for chalcedony and various other +stones, including topaz. + +TOPAZ is a transparent brown or yellow gem of too deep a color to +be called chrysoberyl. Green or red-tinted yellow stones are +also topaz, and are sacred to the Earth. One translucent brown +variety is called smoky topaz because it creates a haze in the +light around it. + Smoky topaz manifests the Disorder rune and the Disorder +cults hold it sacred or blessed. Smoke Rocks, a kind of Spell +Reinforcing crystal, are smoky topaz. + Very light yellow topazes charm spirits and please the +ancestors. Thus, magicians use them in amulets. + Topaz comes from the Wenelian Islands of Maniria. It costs +1 to 5 p. per gram at the source, with the yellow gems being more +valuable than the brown. Pieces weigh between 5 and 500 grams. +One can mistake Topaz for chalcedony, brown diamond, root or stem +grow stone, or unpolished hawk's eye or tiger's eye. + +TURQUOISE is a blue opaque stone, often with veins of black, +brown, or white. + It is sacred to Annilla and Artmal. Annilla landed on a bed +of turquoise when she fell from the sky. That bed broke her +fall, say the Artmali. + Turquoise protects its wearer from falling and from being +under falling structures. How this works is a matter of some +speculation. + Mines exist in Dragon Pass, Teshnos, and Kralorela, as well +as Teleos, Loral, and Onlaks. Turquoise costs .1 to .5 p. per +gram at the source. Pieces weigh between 5 and 5000 grams. One +can mistake Turquoise for any of several types of coral or for +lapis lazuli. + +ZIRCON is a beautiful but fragile translucent stone, occurring in +a variety of colors. Humans consider it a weak relative of +diamond. + The Hyacinth variety, a yellow-red, is sacred to Voria. A +red variety is sacred to Babeester Gor, and gemcutters cut it +into the shape of drops of blood. + Zircon occurs all over Genertela, but the best and largest +stones come from Teshnos. It costs .5 to 1 p. per gram at the +source. Pieces weigh between 5 and 500 grams. One can mistake +Zircon for almost anything, depending on its color. + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/gems.3 b/textfiles.com/science/gems.3 new file mode 100644 index 00000000..86947ea4 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/gems.3 @@ -0,0 +1,169 @@ + BONUSES TO ENCHANT + Magicians get a bonus to the Enchant roll when enchanting a +gem with a spell appropriate to the stone's divine association. +For sacred stones, the bonus ranges from 10 to 50 percentiles, +depending on the size and quality of the stone. Blessed stones +receive a bonus between 5 and 25. + Gems give an increased bonus when engraved with the image of +an appropriate god. Gems give a further bonus to enchant when +they bear holy words or words of the spell. A gem gives a bonus +to enchant a Control or Dominate [animal] spell if the animal's +image is on the gem. A gem in the shape of the animal also gives +such a bonus. Different enchantments may get different bonuses +with the same stone. + Very rare stones have a deep mystical receptivity for +enchantments. On a special success with the Enchant skill, the +enchanted spell has double strength in some way. If the gem +ordinarily gives a bonus, that bonus is doubled. On a critical +success, the spell has vastly increased power. On a fumble, +however, the caster loses the ability to use the spell. + + MAGICAL DETECTION SPELLS + The following list provides Detect and Find Substance spells +for each cult that has them. Note that the rules give many cults +Find (substance) spells without specifying which cult finds which +substances. This list includes gems and non-gems, to fill a need +for this information. It includes all the published cults, and +some unpublished ones. + +Deity Magical Detection Spells +----- ------------------------------------------- +Aldrya Find (amber, coal [including jet], copper, + grow stone, jewelflor, petrified wood) +Ancestor Worship all Detects available from shamans, no Find + +Annilla Find (moonrock, turquoise) +Aranea all Detects available from shamans, no Find + +Argan Argar Find (bronze, lead, obsidian) +Artmal Find (turquoise) + +Asrelia Detect (any precious metal or gem), Find + (any precious metal or gem) -- precious + metal means any rune metal except lead; gem + means any substance in the list above, + except bezoar, coral, echostone, glass, + ironrock, ivory, pearl, mother of pearl, + and petrified wood +Babeester Gor Find (bone, copper, iron, zircon) + +Bagog all Detects available from shamans, no Find +Basko Find (diamond, lead) + +Basmol all Detects available from shamans, no Find +Blood Sun Find (bloodstone) + +Bloody Tusk no Detect or Find +Brastalos Find (bronze, pearl, quicksilver) + +Caladra and + Aurelion Find (copper, diamond, earthblood, firebone + [coal], gold) +Chalana Arroy Find (bloodstone, cornelian) + +City God usually none +Dayzatar Find (diamond, tin) + +Dendara Find (agate, copper, diamond, emerald, + jasper, topaz) +Dormal Find (agate, coral, quicksilver) + +East Isles Gods varies +Eiritha Find (bezoar, copper) + +Ernalda Find (agate, copper, diamond, emerald, + jasper, topaz) +Etyries Find (diamond, emerald, opal, ruby, + sapphire) + +Eurmal one shrine teaches Find Fool's Gold, + another teaches Turn Stone into Chrysoprase +Godunya Godunya-magic: any + +Gorakiki all Detects available from shamans, no Find +Gorgorma Find (bloodstone, iron) + +Grain Goddess Find (amethyst, chrysoprase, copper) +Heler Find (quicksilver, sapphire) + +Himile Find (lead, quartz) +Horned Man all Detects available from shamans, no Find + +Humakt Find (bloodstone, iron, ruby) +Hykim and Mikyh all Detects available from shamans, no Find + +Invisible God Animate, Form/Set, and Sense (substance) + for all common substances and many rare + ones +Issaries Find (diamond, emerald, opal, ruby, + sapphire) + +Krarsht Find (acid, poison) +Kyger Litor Find (echostone, lead, opal) + +Lhankor Mhy all Detects and Finds available, in theory; + minor temples have the names of spirits + that teach the Detect spells for all common + substances +Lodril Find (aluminum, chrysoberyl, gold, iron, + jasper, ruby, sapphire, silver) + +Lokarnos Find (chrysoberyl, jasper, ruby, sapphire) +Magasta Find (aquamarine, coral, teeth [including + ivory], pearl, quicksilver) + +Malia all Detects available from shamans, no Find +Maran Gor Find (copper, iron) + +Mee Vorala Find (plants) +Moorgarki Find (lead) + +Mostal Animate, Form/Set, and Sense (substance) + for all metals and inorganic minerals; + Sense (truestone) available to Silver + caste; no one has Form/Set or Animate + truestone; Refine Truestone is legendary +Murthdrya Find (coral, quicksilver) + +Ompalam Find (iron) +Orlanth Find (agate, flintstone, iron) + +Pamalt Find (copper, glass, teeth [including + ivory]) +Rathor all Detects available from shamans, no Find + +Rice Mother Find (copper, jade) +River Gods Find (lapis lazuli, quicksilver) + +Storm Bull Find (agate, iron) +Thed all Detects available from shamans, no Find + +Tholaina Find (coral, shell of [animal], +quicksilver) +Triolina Find (coral, quicksilver) + +Ty Kora Tek Find (bone, copper, diamond) +Valind Find (quartz) + +Voria Find (zircon) +Vrok Find (gold, hawk's eye) + +Wachaza Find (iron, teeth [including ivory], + quicksilver) +Waha all Detects available from shamans, no Find + +Xiola Umbar Find (bloodstone, coal [includes jet], + lead) +Yelm Find (chrysoberyl, gold, hawk's eye, iron, + ruby, sapphire) + +Yelmalio Find (chrysoberyl, citrine, gold, hawk's + eye, iron, jasper, ruby, sapphire) +Zorak Zoran Find (coal [includes jet], deadstone, lead) + +Bolongo, Cacodemon, Elmal, Flamal, Gagarth, Geo, Hunter, Immanent +Mastery, Mastakos, Pocharngo, Primal Chaos, Red Goddess, Subere, +Thief Gods, Tsankth, Uleria, and Xentha teach no Find or Detect +spells. + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/gems.4 b/textfiles.com/science/gems.4 new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4740c22e --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/gems.4 @@ -0,0 +1,190 @@ + What Someone with Mineral Lore at 51% Knows + + People in Glorantha have as much trouble telling gems apart +as people on Earth do. They may have more, because the shape of +a stone gives no information about it. With some exceptions, any +stone could have its shape because a sorceror formed it that way. +Sorcerors can also mold a mottled or banded stone like clay until +it has a consistent color. Sorcerors or simple craftsmen can +change a stone's texture. This leaves color, transparency, +toughness, and fragility as the main distinguishing +characteristics. Glass is the great unknown. It can be flecked, +banded, layered, milky, silky or catseye. It can be transparent +or translucent, or opaque if a dark color. + +Notes: +s = solid (assume all gems are solid unless an m or b note + appears) +f = flecked +m = milky or waxy +b = banded +l = layered +c = catseye +w = waxy +g = glittering +Multicolored stones are of the same transparency as solid stones +of the same type; where there is none, Tp (Transparent), Tl +(Translucent), or O (Opaque) appears. + +If it is... Then the gem could be: + Black and + Transparent Diamond, or Zircon + Translucent Diamond, or Zircon + Opaque Alabaster (dyed), Chalcedony (dyed), + Coral (s, f), Jet (s, f, g, w), Obsidian + (s, f, b), Pearl + + Blue and + Transparent Aquamarine, Diamond, Jewelflor (whitish), + Quartz, Sapphire, or Zircon + Translucent Aquamarine, Jewelflor (whitish), Quartz, or + Zircon + Opaque Alabaster (dyed), Chalcedony (dyed), Coral + (s, f), Lapis Lazuli (f), Pearl, Turquoise + (s, f) + + Brown and + Transparent Diamond + Opaque Alabaster (dyed), Chalcedony (f, or dyed s), + Jet (s, f, g, w), Petrified Wood, Sard, + Tiger's Eye, or Topaz + Orange Hawk's Eye (O: c) + Yellow Chalcedony (b) + Yellow & White Chalcedony (b) + + Clear and + Transparent Diamond, Jewelflor, Quartz, or Zircon + Translucent Jewelflor (m, w), or Zircon + + Gray and + Translucent Agate, + Opaque Agate (f), Alabaster (dyed), Bezoar (s, f), + Chalcedony (dyed), Echostone (s, f), + Ironrock, Pearl, Petrified Wood, or Prase + (greenish) + Orange Agate (b) + + Green and + Transparent Aquamarine (bluish), Arkatite (in daylight), + Diamond, Emerald (s, f, b), Jewelflor, + Quartz, Sapphire (bluish), or Zircon + Translucent Aquamarine (bluish), Emerald (s, f, b), Jade + (s, f, m, b), Jewelflor (m, w), Sapphire + (bluish) + Opaque Alabaster (dyed), Chalcedony (dyed), + Chrysoprase (f, b), Grow Stone (s, f), Jade + (s, f, m, b), Jewelflor (m, w, g), Prase + (grayish) + Brown Chrysoprase (b), Jade (f, b) + White Chrysoprase (b, f), Jade (f, b) + + Orange and + Transparent Amber, Diamond, Zircon + Translucent Agate + Opaque Agate (f), Alabaster (dyed), Chalcedony + (dyed), Grow Stone + Brown Hawk's Eye (o) + Gray Agate (b) + + Pink and + Transparent Quartz, Ruby, or Zircon + Translucent Ruby + Opaque Alabaster (dyed), Chalcedony (dyed), Coral + (s, f), Grow Stone, Sard, + + Red and + Transparent Amber, Arkatite (by firelight), Ruby + Translucent Almandine, Cornelian (m, w), Ruby + Opaque Alabaster (dyed), Bloodstone (f), Chalcedony + (dyed), Coral (s, f) + Black Bloodstone (f), Coral (f, b), Jasper (O: b, + f) + Brown Bloodstone (f), Coral (f), Jasper (O: b, f) + Green Bloodstone (f) + Orange Jasper (O: b, f) + White Jasper (O: b, f) + + Onyx (dark and light), Opal (spectrum of speckles), Tiger's + Eye (brown and yellow, perhaps with red lines), or Turquoise + (blue and one or more of: black, brown, or white) + + Violet and + Transparent Amethyst, Jewelfor (whitish), Zircon + Translucent Almandine, Jewelflor (whitish) + Opaque Amethyst (f), Alabaster (dyed), Chalcedony + (f, b, or dyed s), Grow Stone + White Amethyst (b), Chalcedony (b), Jade (f, b), + Jewelflor (m) + + White and + Transparent Jewelflor + Translucent Alabaster (see notes), Jade (s, f, b) + Opaque Alabaster (natural), Chalcedony (b or dyed + s), Coral, Grow Stone, Ivory, Jade (s, f, b), + Pearl + Violet Amethyst (b), Chalcedony (b), Jade (f, b) + Yellow & Brown Chalcedony (b), Jade (f, b) + + Yellow and + Transparent Amber, Chrysoberyl (s, c), Diamond, Zircon + Translucent Jade (f, b), Jewelflor + Opaque Alabaster (dyed), Chalcedony (f, b, or dyed + s), Grow Stone, Ivory, Jade (s, f, m, b), + Topaz + Brown Chalcedony (f or b), Jade (f, b) + Brown & White Chalcedony (f or b), Jade (f) + + SUMMARY: + +Gem Color(s) Transparency +AGATE O, Gy, banded Op, Tl +ALABASTER W Op +ALMANDINE R-Vt Tl +AMBER O, Y, or R Tp, Tl +AMETHYST Vt (+W) Tp (W=Op) +AQUAMARINE Bu, Bu-Gn Tp, (Tl) +ARKATITE Gn in daylight, lt R by firelight + or magical light Tl +BEZOAR Gray Op +BLOODSTONE Dark Gn + R Op +CHALCEDONY banded/mottled waxy, dull, or + Tl +CHRYSOBERYL golden-Y Tp +CHRYSOPRASE mottled/banded Gn Tl and Op +CORAL R, W, P, Bk, Bu Op +CORNELIAN cherry R waxy or milky +DIAMOND C, Y, Bn, Bu, Gn, O, Bk Tp +ECHOSTONE Gray Op +EMERALD Gn Tp or Tl + lustrous +GLASS Any Tp or Tl +GROW STONE Gn Op +HAWK'S EYE O + Bn striped Op +IRONROCK Gray Op +IVORY W Op +JADE Gn, W or Y Op, Tl +JASPER dark red and white, brown, or + black, striped/spotted Op +JET Bk, Bn Op +JEWELFLOR W, C, W/Gn, W/Bu Tp +LAPIS LAZULI Bu (spotted/striped) Op +OBSIDIAN Bk Op +ONYX even layers dark and light, + especially white and black Op +OPAL iridescent rainbow Tp, Op +PEARL W, Bk, Bu, G Op +PETRIFIED WOOD Bn, Gy Op +PRASE Lt Gy-Gn, mottled Op +QUARTZ C Tp +RUBY R Tp, Tl +SAPPHIRE Bu or Bu-Gn Tp +SARD R-Bn Tp or milky +TIGER'S EYE Bn + Y striped, (+ dark R lines) Op +TOPAZ Bn or Y, too deep to be + chrysoberl, or Gn- or R-tinted + yellow stones Tp, Tl +TURQUOISE Bu (+Bk, Bn, or W) Op +ZIRCON variety Tl + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/genelife.txt b/textfiles.com/science/genelife.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0963f5a2 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/genelife.txt @@ -0,0 +1,127 @@ + + +PATENTING NEW FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE: +IS NATURE JUST A FORM OF PRIVATE PROPERTY? +By Jeremy Rifkin +from the NY Times + + Under a radical new policy that it adopted in April, the +Patent and Trademark Office now will consider patenting all forms +of animals on earth, with the exception of homo sapiens. Any +animal engineered with characteristics not attainable through +classical breeding techniques is now considered a "human +invention," qualifying as "patentable subject matter." + + The social, economic and cultural consequences of this +regulatory edict are frighteningly clear in the language the +Patent Office uses to defend its new policy. Patent officials +argue that, for patent purposes, all of life can now be regarded +as a "manufacture or composition of matter." If a researcher +implants a foreign gene into an animal's genetic code -- for +example a human growth hormone gene into a pig -- the genetically +altered animal is considered a human invention, like a toaster, +automobile or tennis ball. + + In economic terms, the Patent Office decision signals the +beginning of a long-term transition out of the age of fossil +fuels and petrochemicals into the age of biological resources. +The world economy is shifting from industrial technologies to +biotechnologies and the patent Office decision provides the +necessary government guarantee that the raw materials of the +biotechnology age -- that is, all living things on the planet -- +can now be exploited for commercial gain by chemical, +pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies. + + Thus, the new patent policy transforms the status of the +blotic community from a common heritage to private preserve of +major corporations. In years to come, multinational corporations +will increasingly joust among themselves for ownership and +control of the planet's gene pool, patenting everything that +lives, breaths and moves. The battle to control the gene pool +and the genetic age began in earnest last week. + + The new patent policy probably will have its most dramatic +impact in agriculture. By extending patent protection to all +forms of animals, the Patent Office has provided the chemical, +pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies with the incentive to +complete their takeover of American agriculture, a process that +has been gaining momentum over the past two decades. In the past +10 years, the chemical companies have quietly taken over the +world's seed companies, guaranteeing them a lock on the +domesticated plants of the planet. Now, they are in position to +take over animal husbandry. + + For hog farmers, dairymen, sheep ranchers and cattlemen, +this week's decision is likely to touch off a bitter struggle +with the big corporations, with the survival of the family farm +hanging in the balance. Will farmers be forced to buy patented +animals from the multinational corporations in the years ahead? +Will they have to pay a royalty for every piglet and calf they +birth? Will they have to make special arrangements with the +corporations everytime they want to sell part of their herd? + + A new and insidious form of tenant farming looms on the +horizon. This time around, however, the new farmers of the +Genetic Age will be leasing their plants an animals as well as +their land. + + The shock with which last week's decision was received shows +that the policy has touched a raw nerve. Patenting all forms of +life! For many of us, this decision is a harbinger of a brave +new future where pigs and primates, dogs and cats, birds and +beasts are suddenly reclassified, stripped of their species +integrity, robbed of their special biological bonds and reduced +to the level of chemical compositions. + + The specter of the new policy is haunting, indeed, +mindboggling. A handful of non-elected bureaucrats in a +Government agency, sealed off and isolated from public +participation, have taken it upon themselves to reduce all living +things to a new lowly status of "manufactured processes." + + Even human genetic traits are now patentable, according to +the new ruling. Any number of human genes can now be transferred +to other animals. The engineered animals, with human genes +functioning in their genetic code , can then be patented. Of +course, patent officials were quick to point out this week that, +for now constitutional safeguards prevent homo sapiens from +becoming patentable subject matter. + + The genetic engineering revolution has been growing +exponentially for over a decade, and as it has, two issues have +surfaced repeatedly: One, the need to facilitate rapid +commercial exploitation of genetically engineered processes and +products, and two, the ethical and social considerations in +engineering and redesigning the genetic code. Now, these two +issues are joined in direct and open confrontation. Is all life +to be redefined as a manufactured process subject to patenting +and ownership by private companies? Or are living things to be +spared this ultimate form of technological reductionism? + + The resolution of these issues will affect generations to +come, establishing the context for how our children's children +will define life. Will future generations come to perceive life +as mere chemical, manufactured processes or inventions of no +greater value than industrial products? Or will we act to +respect life, by resisting the ultimate temptation to turn living +things into pure utility? + + Ultimately, the patenting question will be decided by +Congress. Will our elected officials meekly accept the edict +handed down by the Patent Office? Or will ethical concerns +override commercial pressures, leading Congress to prohibit the +patenting of animals? The American public will be watching +carefully to see how they respond to this historic issue. + +***** + + Jeremy Rifkin is president of the Foundation on Economic +Trends. + +--------------------------------------------------------------- + + +in is president of the Foundation on Economic +Trends. + +----------------------------------------------- \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/genetic.txt b/textfiles.com/science/genetic.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d5ed8345 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/genetic.txt @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ + + +GENETIC ENGINEERED ORGANISM RELEASE ILLEGALLY IN ARGENTINA + + WASHINGTON -- The National Institute of Health has been +petitioned to immediately investigate and impose sanctions +against an American geneic engineering company which is releasing +a recombinant DNA vacine in Argentina without notifying either +the United States or Argentine governments. + + Jeremy Rifkin, who heads the Foundation on Economic Trends, +a public watchdog on the geneic engineering field, charged that +the Winstar Institute of Philadelphia was conducting tests of the +vaccine without complying with the NIH guidelines on recombinant +DNA research. + + Rifkin's petition calls for the NHI to investigate Wistar's +violations of Part III-a of the guidelines, which are applicable +to experiments and projects done abraod to to impose significant +penalties against Wistar. + + "If no significant sanctions are imposed on Winstar +Institute, other institutions will follow its example and will +engage in irresponsible 'shopping' for countries with little or +no biotechnology experience or knowledge to regulate it in which +to conduct their experiments," charged Rifkin. + + Public reaction to this field test has been growing since it +was first disclosed two months ago. Argentina halted the tests +and has repeatedly expesssed outrage about the content and manner +of Winstar's action. Winstar has publicly stated that U.S. +regulations do not apply to field tests conducted outside of the +U.S. + + Winstar has received millions of dollars in NHI funds and at +this time the NHI appears to be ignor the company's viloation of +its own guidelines. + + *********** + + For more information contact Foundation on Economic Treads, +1130 17th St.,NW, Suite 630, Washington, DC 20036 - Telephone +(202) 466-2823 +----------------------------------------------------------------- + + + +30, Washington \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/genetics.cat b/textfiles.com/science/genetics.cat new file mode 100644 index 00000000..380f188a --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/genetics.cat @@ -0,0 +1,1709 @@ + + + + FELINE GENETICS + + R. Roger Breton + Nancy J Creek + + ------------------------------ + + Cells, Chromosomes, and Genes + + From a 35-pound Main Coon to a 5-pound Devon Rex; from the small + folded caps of a Scottish Fold to the great, delicate ears of a Bali- + nese; from the 4-inch coat of a Chinchilla Persian to the fuzzy down + of a Sphinx; from the deep Ebony of a Bombay to the translucent white + of a Turkish Angora; from the solid color of a Havana Brown to the + rich tabbiness of a Norwegian Forest Cat: the variety and beauty to + be found in the domestic cat is beyond measure. When these character- + istics are coupled with the genetically-patterned and environmentally- + tailored personalities of the individuals, it can be seen that each + animal is as unique as it is possible to be. There truly is a cat for + everyone. + + Wide as the range of cats is, it pales when compared with the varie- + ties of Other Pet. Why should the dog exhibit such a wide spectrum of + body types, looking like completely different creatures in some cases, + while cats always look like cats (as horses always look like horses)? + The secrets behind the wide variations in possible cats, and why cats, + unlike dogs, resist gross changes and always look like cats, can be + found in its genetic makeup. + + In order to understand what happens genetically when two cats do their + thing, it is necessary to understand a few basic things about genetics + in general. To study genetics, is to study evolution in miniature, + for it is through the mechanism of genetics that evolution makes + itself felt. In chapter 1, we showed how the gross evolution of the + cat came about, and how this gross mechanism was applied to the Euro- + pean Wildcat to evolve the African Wildcat, the immediate forerunner + of our cats. We will examine this mechanism itself to better under- + stand how the first domestic cat has become the dozens of breeds + available today, and how cat breeders use this mechanism to create new + breeds or improve existing ones. + + Cats, like people, are multi-cellular creatures: that is, their + bodies are composed of cells, lots and lots of cells. Unlike primi- + tive multicellular creatures, cat bodies are not mere colonies of + cells, but rather societies of cells, with each type of cell doing a + specific task. To one specific type of cells, the germ cells (ova in + females and sperm in males), fall the task of passing the genetic code + to the next generation. The method the Great Engineer has developed + to carry this out is one of the most awesome, most elegant, and most + beautiful processes in nature. + + The cells of a cat, with few special exceptions, are eukaryotic, that + is, they have a membrane surrounding them (acting as a sort of skin), + are composed of cytoplasm (cell stuff) containing specialized orga- + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 1 + + + + nelles (the parts that do the cell's task), and have an inner membrane + surrounding a nucleus. It is this nucleus that contains all the + genetic materials. + + Within the nucleus of a cell are found the chromosomes, long irregular + threads of genetic material. These chromosomes are arranged in pairs: + 19 pairs in a cat, 23 pairs in a human. It is these 38 chromosomes + that contain the "blueprint" for the individual cat. + + When inspected under a microscope, the chromosomes reveal irregular + light and dark bands: hundreds of thousands, perhaps millions per + chromosome. These light and dark bands are the genes, the actual + genetic codes. Each gene controls a single feature or group of fea- + tures in the makeup of the individual. Many genes interact: a single + feature may be controlled by one, two, or a dozen genes. This makes + the mapping of the genes difficult, and only a few major genes have + been mapped out for the cat. + + The chromosome is itself composed primarily of the macromolecule DNA, + (deoxyribonucleic acid): one single molecule running the entire + length of the chromosome. DNA is a double helix, like two springs + wound within each other. Each helix is composed of a long chain of + alternating phosphate and deoxyribose units, connected helix to helix + by ladder-like rungs of four differing purine and pyridamine com- + pounds. + + It is not the number of differing compounds that provide the secret of + DNA's success, but rather the number of rungs in the ladder (uncounted + millions) and the order of the amino acids that make up the rungs. + The four different amino acids are arranged in groups of three, form- + ing a 64-letter alphabet. This alphabet is used to compose words of + varying length, each of which is a gene (one particular letter is + always used to indicate the start of a gene). Each gene controls the + development of a specific characteristic of the lifeform. There is an + all-but-infinite number of possible genes. As a result, the DNA of a + lifeform contains its blueprint, no two alike, and the variety and + numbers of possible lifeforms has even today barely begun. + + Mitosis and Mendel + + When a cell has absorbed enough of the various amino acids and other + compounds necessary, it makes another cell by dividing. This process + is called mitosis, and is fundamental to life. + + Not too long ago, it was thought that the chromosomes were generated + immediately prior to mitosis, and dissolved away afterwards. This + turned out not to be true. The extremely tiny chromosomes, normally + invisible in an optical microscope, shorten and thicken during mito- + sis, becoming visible temporarily. + + The rather complex process of mitosis can perhaps be explained simply + as a step-by-step process: + + Mitosis begins when the cell senses sufficient growth and nutrients to + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 2 + + + + support two cells. + + The invisible chromosomes duplicate themselves through the wonder of + DNA replication. Various enzymes are used as keys to unlock and + unwind the double helix into two single helices. Each of these he- + lices then uses other enzymes to lock the proper parts (the amino + acids and other stuff) together to build a new second helix, complete + with all transverse rungs, so that the results will be exact replicas + of the original double helix. This winding and unwinding of the DNA + can take place at speeds up to 1800 rpm! The two daughter chromosomes + remain joined at a single point, called the centromere. + + The cromosomes then wind themselves up, shortening and thickening, + making them visible under the microscope, and attach themselves to the + nuclear membrane. + + The nuclear membrane then dissolves into a fibrous spindle, with at + least one fiber passing through each centromere (there are many more + fibers than centromeres). + + The fibers then stretch and pull the centromeres apart, pulling the + chromosomes to opposite sides of the cell. + + The spindles dissolve into two new nuclear membranes, one around each + group of chromosomes. + + The chromosomes unwind back into invisibility, the cell divides, and + mitosis is complete. Genetically, each daughter cell is an exact + duplicate of the parent cell. + + Since the genetic coding is carried in the rungs of the DNA and only + consists of four different materials arranged in groups of three to + form words of varying length written with a 64-letter alphabet, the + instructions for a "cat" may be considered to consist of two sets of + 19 "books," each millions of words long, one set from each of the + cat's parents. The numbers of possible instructions are more than + astronomical: there are far more possible instructions in one single + chromosome than there are atoms in the known universe! + + A single gene is a group of instructions of some indeterminate length. + Somewhere among all the other codes is a set of instructions composing + the "white" gene, and what that set says will determine if the cat is + white or non-white. + + Since a cat receives two sets of instructions, one from each parent, + what happens when one parent says "make the fur white" and the other + says "make the fur non-white"? Will they effect a compromise and make + the fur pastel? No, they will not. Each and every single gene has at + least two levels of expression (many have more), called alleles, which + will determine the overall effect. In the case given, the "make the + fur white" allele, "W", is dominant, while the "make the fur non- + white" allele, "w", is recessive. As a result, the fur may be white + or non-white, not pastel (we're only speaking of the "white" gene + here, a gray cat is caused by an entirely different gene). + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 3 + + + + + In order to understand how this works, lets run through a couple of + simple examples using the white gene. A cat has two and only two + white genes. Since each white gene, for the purposes of our examples, + consists of one of two alleles, "W" or "w", a cat may have one of four + possible karyotypes (genetic codes) for white: "WW", "Ww", "wW", + "ww". Since "W" is dominant to "w", the codes "WW", "Ww", and "wW" + produce white cats, while the code "ww" produces a non-white cat. + + | W w + --+-------- + W | WW Ww + w | wW ww + + The double-dominant "WW" white cat has only white alleles in its white + genes. It is classed as homozygous (same-celled) for white, and will + produce only white offspring, regardless of the karyotype of its mate. + + The single-dominant "Ww" or "wW" white cat has one of each allele in + its white genes. It is classed as heterozygous (different-celled) for + white, and may or may not produce white offspring, depending upon the + karyotype of its mate. + + The recessive "ww" non-white cat has only non-white alleles in its + white genes. It is classed as homozygous for non-white, and may or + may not produce white offspring, depending upon the karyotype of its + mate. + + Assuming these cats mate, there are sixteen different possible karyo- + type combinations. Since each cat in these sixteen combinations will + pass on to their offspring one and only one allele, there are four + possible genetic combinations from each mating. There are sixty-four + possible combinations of offspring. + + | WW | Ww | wW | ww + | W W | W w | w W | w w + ------+--------+--------+--------+-------- + WW W | WW WW | WW Ww | Ww WW | Ww Ww + W | WW WW | WW Ww | Ww WW | Ww Ww + ------+--------+--------+--------+-------- + Ww W | WW WW | WW Ww | Ww WW | Ww Ww + w | wW wW | wW ww | ww wW | ww ww + ------+--------+--------+--------+-------- + wW w | wW wW | wW ww | ww wW | ww ww + W | WW WW | WW Ww | Ww WW | Ww Ww + ------+--------+--------+--------+-------- + ww w | wW wW | wW ww | ww wW | ww ww + w | wW wW | wW ww | ww wW | ww ww + + Inspecting these possible offspring, several patterns emerge. Of the + 64 possible offspring, 16, or exactly one-quarter, have any given + pattern. This means that one quarter of all possible matings will be + homozygous for white, "WW", two quarters will be heterozygous for + white, "Ww" or "wW" (which are really the same thing), and one quarter + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 4 + + + + will be homozygous for non-white, "ww". Since homozygous white and + heterozygous white will both produce white cats, three-quarters of all + possible combinations will produce white cats, and only one-quarter + will produce non-white cats. This 3:1 ratio is known as the Mendelian + ratio, after Gregor Johann Mendel, the father of the science of genet- + ics. + + + Further inspection leads us to several conclusions. If a homozygous + white cat mates, all offspring will be white. If two homozygous white + cats mate, all offspring will be homozygous white. If a homozygous + white cat mates with a heterozygous white cat, there will be both + homozygous white and heterozygous white offspring in a 1:1 ratio. If + a homozygous white cat mates with a homozygous non-white cat, all + offspring will be heterozygous white. Thus, a homozygous white cat + can only produce white offspring, regardless of the karyotype of its + mate, and is said to be true breeding for white. + + If two heterozygous white cats mate, there will be homozygous white, + heterozygous white, and homozygous non-white offspring in a ratio of + 1:2:1. The ratio of white to non-white offspring is the Mendelian + ration of 3:1. If a heterozygous white cat mates with a homozygous + non-white cat, there will be both heterozygous white and homozygous + non-white offspring in a 1:1 ratio. + + If two homozygous non-white cats mate, all offspring will be homozy- + gous non-white. Homozygous non-white cats are therefore true-breeding + for non-white when co-bred. + + Geneticists differentiate between what a cat is genetically versus + what it looks like by defining its genotype versus its phenotype. A + homozygous white cat has a white genotype and a white phenotype. + Likewise, a homozygous non-white cat has a non-white genotype and a + non-white phenotype. A heterozygous white cat, on the other hand, has + both a white genotype and a non-white genotype, but only a white + phenotype. + + Naturally, in a given litter of four kittens the chances of having a + true Mendelian ratio are slim (slightly better than 1:11), so several + generations of pure white kittens could be bred, still carrying a + recessive non-white allele. In all good faith you then breed your + several-generations-all-white-but-heterozygous female to a similar + several-generation-all-white-but heterozygous male and voila! A black + kitten! The non-white genotype has finally shown itself. + + This Mendelian patterning is the basic rule of genetics. Since the + rule is so simple, why is it so hard to predict things genetically? + The reason is that we are dealing with more than one gene from each + parent. The number of possible offspring combinations is two to the + power of the number of genes: one gene from each parent is two genes, + two squared is four possibilities; two from each parent is four, two + to the fourth is sixteen; three from each is six, two to the sixth is + 64;... There are literally hundreds of millions of genes for one cat, + yet a mere hundred from each parent produces a 61-digit number for the + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 5 + + + + possible offspring combinations! + + Meiosis + + Since each cell contains the entire chromosome set, 19 pairs, how is + it possible for a parent to pass on only the genes from one chromosome + of a pair, and not both. This is accomplished via the gametes: the + germ cells, ova for females and sperm for males. Within the gonads + (ovaries or testes), these special cells go through a division process + known as meiosis. + + Unlike the normal process of mitosis, where the chromosomes are faith- + fully replicated into duplicates of themselves, in meiosis the result- + ant gametes have only half the number of chromosomes, one from each + original pair. This involves a double division. + + As in mitosis, meiosis begins when the cell senses sufficient growth + and nutrients to support division. The invisible chromosomes are + duplicated through DNA replication. As usual, the two daughter chro- + mosomes remain joined at the centromere. The chromosomes wind them- + selves up, shortening and thickening, becoming visible under the + microscope. Each new chromosome twin aligns itself with its homolo- + gous counterpart: the twin chromosome from its opposite number in the + original chromosome pair. The two twin chromosomes intertwine into a + tetrad and exchange genes in a not clearly understood process that + randomizes the genes between the twins. The tetrad attaches itself to + the nuclear membrane. The nuclear membrane dissolves into a spindle, + with at least one fiber passing through both centromeres of each + tetrad. The fibers stretch and pull the tetrads apart, pulling the + chromosomes twins to opposite sides of the cell. Once the chromosome + twins are at the poles of the spindle, the spindle dissolves and + reforms as two separate parallel spindles at right angles to the + original spindle, with at least one fiber through each centromere. At + this time there are effectively two mitoses taking place. The paral- + lel spindles pull the centromeres apart, forming four separate groups + of chromosomes, each of which consists of one-half the normal number. + The spindles dissolve and four new nuclear membranes form, one around + each group of chromosomes. The chromosomes unwind back into invisi- + bility, the cell divides into four gametes, each having 19 chromo- + somes, and meiosis is complete. + + At the moment of conception, a single sperm penetrates a single ovum, + the ovum absorbs the sperm, merging the sperm's nucleus with its own + and pairing the two sets of chromosomes. The ovum has now become a + zygote, which begins dividing through the normal mitosis process, and + a kitten is on its way. + + Male, Female, and Maybe + + The 19 pairs of chromosomes in a cat carry the numbers 1 through 18, + plus "X" and "Y". The "X" and "Y" chromosomes are very special, for + they determine the sex of the kitten. A female cat has two "X" chro- + mosomes, "XX", while a male cat has one "X" and one "Y" chromosome, + "XY", so if we follow the Mendelian pattern for sex determination we + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 6 + + + + find that the female parent can provide only an "X" chromosome to her + offspring, while the male parent can provide either an "X" chromosome + or a "Y" chromosome. The resulting kittens are either "XX" or "XY", + as determined by the father. The same rule also applies to people + (Sorry guys, if you and the wife have seven girls, it's your fault, + not hers!). + + Since the sex chromosomes follow the same rules as the other chromo- + somes, why bother mentioning them separately? Because they don't + exactly follow the same rules: the "X" chromosome is longer than the + "Y" chromosome, and it is this extra length that carries the codes for + the female. When there is only one set of these extra codes, they act + as recessives, allowing the male characteristic to dominate. When + there are two sets, they act as dominants, and suppress the male + characteristics. Thus, female and male kittens. + + We could end the argument here if it weren't for two complications. + First, the extra-length of the "X" chromosome carries some genes that + are for other than sex characteristics (such as the gene for orange + fur): such characteristics are said to be sex-linked, and operate + differently in males and females. + + A further complication comes with incomplete separation of the "X" + gene twin at the centromere. An "X-X" gene twin has its centromere + exactly where "Y"'s would become "X"'s. If an "X" were to fracture at + the centromere during the process of separation, it would become an + effective "Y". This is rare but by no means unheard of, and produces + a "false" "Y" (shown as "y" to differentiate it from a female "XX" + parent. + + Another variation is incomplete separation, where only a "false cen- + tromere" is separated from the gene twin, with or without a part of + the twin, causing one gamete to have 18 chromosomes (neither an "X" or + a "y" while the other has 20 (either two "X"'s, an "Xy", or two "y"'s, + depending on the point and angle of fracture). + + These variations on the sex chromosomes mean that a female, being "XX" + in nature, can produce ova with the following: "XX", "Xy", "yy", "X", + "y", or "O" (no sex chromosome). A male, being "XY", can produce + sperm with "XY", "Yy", "X", "Y", "y", or "O". A zygote, taking one + gamete from each parent, may then be any of the following 36 possibil- + ities: + + | XX Xy yy X y O + ---+-------------------------------- + XY | XXXY XXYy XYyy XXY XYy XYO + Yy | XXYy XYyy Yyyy XYy Yyy YyO + X | XXX XXy Xyy XX Xy XO + Y | XXY XYy Yyy XY Yy YO + y | XXy Xyy yyy Xy yy yO + O | XXO XYO yyO XO yO OO + + Since at least one "X" is required (can't build a puzzle without all + the pieces), we may immediately ignore "Yyyy", "Yyy", "yyy", "YyO", + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 7 + + + + "yyO", "Yy", "yy", "YO", "yO", and "OO". + + In a like manner, "XXXY", "XXYy", and "XYyy" have too many pieces and + are unstable, usually dying at conception, in the womb, or soon after + birth (and invariably before puberty) from gross birth defects due to + over-emphasis of various sex-linked traits. + + Turner females, "XO", show all normal female characteristics save that + they have difficulty reproducing due to the absence of a paired sex + chromosome, which inhibits normal meiosis. + + Kleinfelter superfemales, "XXX", tend to exhibit an unusually strong + maternal instinct, often refusing to wean or surrender their young. + This leads to psychological damage in the young, usually resulting in + antisocial behavior. + + Kleinfelter supermales, "XYy" or "Xyy", tend to exhibit a generally + antisocial behavior, often leading to unnecessary fighting to the + point of inhibiting mating. As an interesting aside, among us humans + approximately 5 per cent of convicted male felons are supermales. + Hermaphrodites, "XXy" and "XXY", have male bodies but tend to exhibit + various female characteristics, often adopting orphan kittens or other + young. One such cat adopted a litter of mice, which it lovingly + raised while gleefully hunting their relatives. Hermaphrodites are + invariably sterile, sometime having both sets of sexual organs with + neither fully developed. This is the most common of the aberrant + sexual makeups. + + Pseudoparthenogenetic females, "XXO", or males, "XYO", are identical + to normal cats in every way save that their sex and sex-linked charac- + teristics come only from one parent. + + Gene-reversal males, "Xy", suffer partial gene reversal, receiving a + normal "X" from one parent and a "y" from the other parent's "X". + This is the rarest of the aberrant sexual makeups. + + Pseudoparthenogenetic and gene-reversal animals often suffer from + birth defects and other signs of the aberrant genetic construct. + + Normal females, "XX", and males, "XY", are by definition the norm and + vastly outnumber all other type combined. Chances are less than + 1:10000 that any given cat has a genetically aberrant sexual makeup, + the most common of which is hermaphroditism, about 1:11000. + + Mutations + + Going back to genes in general, those genes that are found in the + African Wildcat, felis lybica, the immediate ancestor of our cats, are + termed "wild." These genes may be considered to be the basic stock of + all cats. + + Since all cats do not look like African Wildcats (brown tabbies), it + is obvious that some changes have taken place in the genetic codes. + These changes occur all the time, and are called mutations. Unlike + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 8 + + + + the distortions shown in cheap post-apocalypse or ecological-disaster + movies, mutations rarely occur at the gross level, but rather at the + level of the genetic codes themselves. + + Mutations occur when, in the course of mitosis or meiosis, there is an + imperfect replication or joining of the components of the DNA macro- + molecule. Such imperfections can occur as a result of a chemical + imbalance within the body which affects replication. Most commonly + these days such an imbalance is caused by the introduction of some + foreign agent into the body (such as nicotine or, for an extreme + example, thalidomide) which acts as a catalyst and affects the keying + action of the enzymes during replication. Such agents are called + mutagens. + + The greatest of all mutagens is radiation. It is believed that the + vast majority of spontaneous mutations, such as extra toes, long hair, + albinism, etc., that keep reoccurring in an otherwise clean gene pool + are caused by solar radiation, cosmic rays, the Earth's own background + radiation, and most probably, by radioactive isotopes of the atoms + making up DNA itself, most significantly carbon-14. (One of the + dangers of nuclear war, other than the obvious, is that the increase + in background radiation and atmospheric carbon-14 may increase the + numbers of spontaneous mutations to the point where the germ cells + lose viability, and whole species, even genera, would go the way of + the dinosaur.) + + Mutations are the very essence of evolution (or of a breeding program, + which is merely evolution guided by man). It is through mutation that + the survival of the fittest takes place. + + To illustrate this, let's assume a species of striped cat living on + the plains. He undergoes a mutation creating a spotted coat (the + stripes get broken up). For our plains friend, the spots don't blend + as well as stripes with the long shadows and colors of the grasses, + his prey can see and avoid him better, and he soon evolves out. This + was a detrimental mutation (most are). + + Now let's assume the same species of striped cat living in woodlands. + He undergoes the same mutation creating a spotted coat. In his case, + the spots blend better with the dapple of light and shadow playing + through the trees, his prey can't see or avoid him as well, and spots + are soon the "in" thing. This was a beneficial mutation. From the + same parent stock we soon have two differing sub-species, one striped, + living on the plains, and one spotted, living in the woods. + + In a domestic situation, a litter is born to two normal cats, wherein + one of the kittens is hairless. Thinking the hairlessness is differ- + ent enough to be a desired feature, especially for those with aller- + gies, the kitten is very carefully bred to other cats, back and forth + over several generations, until the hairlessness breeds true. Thus + the Sphinx, a hairless domestic cat and the ultimate in hypo-allergen- + ic cats, was developed. + + The Mapped-out Genes + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 9 + + + + + As stated earlier, a few of the common cat genes have been identified + and mapped. These genes are grouped according to the effects they + have: the body-conformation genes which affect the shape of the body + of body parts; the coat-conformation genes which affect the texture + and length of the coat; and the color-conformation genes which affect + the color and pattern of the coat. + + The color-conformations genes are themselves divided into three + groups: the color genes which control the color of the coat and its + density; the color-pattern genes which control the pattern of the coat + and expression of the color; and the color-masking genes which control + the degree and type of masking of the basic color. + + The Body-Conformation Genes + + The body-conformation genes affect the basic conformation of the parts + of the body: ears, tail and feet. There are literally thousands of + body conformation genes, but only a few have been mapped: normal or + Scottish fold ears, normal or Japanese bobtail, normal or Manx tail- + lessness and spinal curve, and normal or polydactyl feet. + + The Scottish-fold gene: normal or folded ears. The wild allele, + "fd", is recessive and produces normal ears. The mutation, "Fd", is + dominant and produces the cap-like folded ears of the Scottish Fold. + This mutant gene is crippling when homozygous. + + The Japanese Bobtail gene: normal or short tail. The wild allele, + "Jb", is dominant and produces normal-length tails. The mutation, + "jb", is recessive and produces the short tail of the Japanese Bob- + tail. Unlike the Manx mutation, this mutation is not crippling and + does not cause deformation of the spine. + + The Manx gene: normal or missing tail. The wild allele, "m", is + recessive and produces normal-length tails and proper spinal conforma- + tion. The mutation, "M", is dominant and produces the missing tail + and shortened spine of the Manx. This mutation is lethal when homozy- + gous. When heterozygous, it is often crippling, sometimes resulting + in spinal bifida, imperforate anus, chronic constipation, or inconti- + nence. + + The polydactyl gene: normal-number or extra toes. The wild allele, + "pd", is recessive and produces the normal number of toes. The muta- + tion, "Pd", is dominant and produces extra toes, particularly upon the + front paws. + + Interestingly, humans also have a similar dominant polydactyl gene + controlling the number of fingers. Homozygous people with six fingers + on each hand will pass that trait on to all their children, heterozy- + gous people to one in four of their children, even with a normal mate: + the gene is dominant. Just because a given mutation is dominant, + however, doesn't mean it will dominate the species. If a given muta- + tion is not conducive to survival of the individual or inhibits mating + in any way, it will never become "popular," no matter how dominant it + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 10 + + + + may be. + + The Coat-Conformation Genes + + The coat conformation genes affect such things as the length and + texture of the coat. + + The Sphinx gene: hairy or hairless coat. The wild allele, "Hr", is + dominant and produces a normal hairy coat. The mutation, "hr", is + recessive and produces the hairless or nearly hairless coat of the + Sphinx. + + The longhaired gene: short or long coat. The wild allele, "L", is + dominant and produces a normal shorthaired coat. The mutation, "l", + is recessive and produces the longhaired coat of the Persians, Ango- + ras, Main Coons, and others. + + The Cornish Rex gene: straight or curly coat. The wild allele, "R", + is dominant and produces a normal straighthaired coat. The mutation, + "r", is recessive and produces the very short curly coat, without + guard hairs, of the Cornish Rex. + + The Devon Rex gene: straight or curly coat. The wild allele, "Re", + is dominant and produces a normal straighthaired coat. The mutation, + "re", is recessive and produces the very short curly coat of the Devon + Rex. Unlike the Cornish Rex, the Devon Rex retains guard hairs in its + coat. + + The Oregon Rex gene: straight or curly coat. The wild allele, "Ro", + is dominant and produces a normal straighthaired coat. The mutation, + "ro", is recessive and produces the very short curly coat of the + Oregon Rex. Like the Cornish Rex, the Oregon Rex lacks guard hairs. + + The American Wirehair gene: soft or bristly coat. The wild allele, + "wh", is recessive and produces a normal soft straighthaired coat. + The mutation, "Wh", is dominant and produces the short, stiff, wiry + coat of the American Wirehair. + + Note that there are three different Rex mutations producing almost + identical effect. There are still three different genes involved, + however. + + The Color-Conformation Genes + + The color-conformation genes determine the color, pattern, and expres- + sion of the coat. Since these characteristics are among the most + important of the cat's features, at least from a breeding point of + view, more emphasis is given the color conformation genes than the + others. + + These genes fall into three logical groups: those that control the + color, those that control the pattern, and those that control the + color expression. Each of these groups contains several differing but + interrelated genes. + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 11 + + + + + The Color Gene + + The first of the genes controlling coat color is the color gene. This + gene controls the actual color of the coat and comes in three alleles: + black, dark brown, or light brown. This three-level dominance is not + at all uncommon: the albinism gene, for example, has five levels. + + The black allele, "B", is wild, is dominant, and produces a black or + black-and-brown tabby coat, depending upon the presence of the agouti + gene. Technically, the black is an almost-black, super-dark brown + that is virtually black -- true black is theoretically impossible, but + often reached in the practical sense (so much for theory). + + The dark-brown allele, "b", is mutant, is recessive to black but + dominant to light brown, and reduces black to dark brown. + + The light-brown allele, "bl", is mutant, is recessive to both black + and dark brown, and reduces black to a medium brown. + + The Orange-Making Gene + + The second of the genes controlling coat color is the orange-making + gene. This gene controls the conversion of the coat color into orange + and the masking of the agouti gene and comes in two alleles: non- + orange and orange. + + The non-orange allele, "o", is wild and allows full expression of the + black or brown colors. The orange allele, "O", is mutant and converts + black or brown to orange and masks the effects of the non-agouti + mutation of the agouti gene (all orange cats are tabbies). + + This gene is sex-linked -- it is carried on the "X" chromosome beyond + the limit of the "Y" chromosome. Therefore, in males there is no + homologous pairing, and the single orange-making gene stands alone. + As a result there is no dominance effect in males: they are either + orange or non-orange. If a male possesses the non-orange allele, "o", + all colors (black, dark brown, or light brown) will be expressed. If + he possesses the orange allele, "O", all colors will be converted to + orange. + + In females there is an homologous pairing, one gene being carried on + each of the two "X" chromosomes. These two genes act together in a + very special manner (as a sort of tri-state gene), and again there is + no dominance effect. + + If the female is homozygous for non-orange, "oo", all colors will be + expressed. If she is homozygous for orange, "OO", all colors will be + converted to orange. It is when she is heterozygous for orange, "Oo", + that interesting things begin to happen: through a very elegant + process, the black-and-orange tortoiseshell or brindled female is + possible. + + Shortly after conception, when a female zygote is only some dozens of + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 12 + + + + cells in size, a chemical trigger is activated to start the process of + generating a female kitten. This same trigger also causes the zygote + to "rationalize" all the sex-linked characteristics, including the + orange-making genes. In this particular case, suppression of one of + the orange-making genes in each cell takes place in a not-quite-random + pattern (there is some polygene influence here). Each cell will then + carry only one orange-making gene. + + Since the zygote was only some dozens of cells in size at the time of + rationalization, only a few of those cells will eventually determine + the color of the coat (the orange-making genes in the other cells will + be ignored). If the zygote were homozygous for non-orange, "oo", then + all cells will contain "o", and the coat will be non-orange. Like- + wise, if the zygote were homozygous for orange, "OO", then all cells + will contain "O", and the coat will be orange. If, however, the + zygote were heterozygous, "Oo", then some of the cells will contain + "O" and the rest of the cells will contain "o". In this case, those + portions of the coat determined by "O" cells will be orange, while + those portions determined by "o" cells will be non-orange. Voila! A + tortoiseshell cat! + + A female kitten has two "X" chromosomes, and therefore two orange- + making genes, one from each parent. Assuming for the sake of discus- + sion an equal likelihood of inheriting either allele from each parent + -- an assumption that is patently false, but used here for demonstra- + tion only -- then one quarter of all females would be non-orange, one- + quarter would be orange, and one-half would be tortoiseshell. A male + kitten, on the other hand, has only one "X" chromosome, and therefore + only one orange-making gene. Keeping the same false assumption of + equal likelihood, then one-half of all males would be non-orange and + one-half would be orange. This means that there would be twice as + many orange males as females if our assumption were correct. + + Our equal-likelihood assumption is not correct, however. The orange- + making gene is located adjacent to the centromere and is often damaged + during meiosis. This damage tends to make an orange allele into a + non-orange allele, giving the non-orange allele a definite leg up, so + to speak, in a 7:3 ratio. This means that among female kittens 49% + will be non-orange, 42% will be tortoiseshell, and only 9% will be + orange, while among male kittens 70% will be non-orange and 30% will + be orange: there will be more than 3 times as many orange males as + females. That's why there are so many Morris-type males around. + + Since a male has only one orange-making gene, there cannot be a male + tortie. An exception to this rule is the hermaphrodite, which has an + "XXY" genetic structure. Such a cat can be tortie, since it has two + "X" chromosomes, but must invariably be sterile. In fact, despite the + presence of male genitalia, a hermaphrodite is genetically an underde- + veloped female, and may have both ovaries and testes, with neither + fully functional. + + The Color-Density Gene + + The third and last of the genes controlling the coat color is the + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 13 + + + + color-density gene. This gene controls the uniformity of distribution + of pigment throughout the hair and comes in two alleles: dense, "D", + and dilute, "d". + + The dense allele, "D", is wild, is dominant, and causes pigment to be + distributed evenly throughout each hair, making the color deep and + pure. A dense coat will be black, dark brown, medium brown, or or- + ange. + + The dilute allele, "d", is mutant, is recessive, and causes pigment to + be agglutinated into microscopic clumps surrounded by translucent + unpigmented areas, allowing white light to shine through and diluting + the color. A dilute coat will be blue (gray), tan, beige, or cream. + + The Eight Cat Colors + + All possible expressions of the color, orange-making, and color- + density genes produce the eight basic coat colors: black, blue + (gray), chestnut or chocolate (dark-brown), lavender or lilac (tan), + cinnamon (medium brown), fawn (beige), red (orange), and cream. + + | Sex | "BB Bb Bbl bb bbl blbl" + -----+--------+------------------------------------------------------- + ooDD | Either | Black Black Black Chestnut Chestnut Cinna + -----+--------+------------------------------------------------------- + ooDd | Either | Black Black Black Chestnut Chestnut Cinna + -----+--------+------------------------------------------------------- + oodd | Either | Blue Blue Blue Lavender Lavender Fawn + -----+--------+------------------------------------------------------- + oODD | Female | Blk/Red Blk/Red Blk/Red Chs/Red Chs/Red Cin/Red + | Male | Black Black Black Chestnut Chestnut Cinna + -----+--------+------------------------------------------------------- + oODd | Female | Blk/Red Blk/Red Blk/Red Chs/Red Chs/Red Cin/Red + | Male | Black Black Black Chestnut Chestnut Cinna + -----+--------+------------------------------------------------------- + oOdd | Female | Blu/Crm Blu/Crm Blu/Crm Lav/Crm Lav/Crm Fwn/Crm + | Male | Blue Blue Blue Lavender Lavender Fawn + -----+--------+------------------------------------------------------- + OoDD | Female | Blk/Red Blk/Red Blk/Red Chs/Red Chs/Red Cin/Red + | Male | Red Red Red Red Red Red + -----+--------+------------------------------------------------------- + OoDd | Female | Blk/Red Blk/Red Blk/Red Chs/Red Chs/Red Cin/Red + | Male | Red Red Red Red Red Red + -----+--------+------------------------------------------------------- + Oodd | Female | Blu/Crm Blu/Crm Blu/Crm Lav/Crm Lav/Crm Fwn/Crm + | Male | Cream Cream Cream Cream Cream Cream + -----+--------+------------------------------------------------------- + OODD | Either | Red Red Red Red Red Red + -----+--------+------------------------------------------------------- + OODd | Either | Red Red Red Red Red Red + -----+--------+------------------------------------------------------- + OOdd | Either | Cream Cream Cream Cream Cream Cream + + The brown and dilute colors are rarer (hence generally more prized) + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 14 + + + + because they are recessive. A table of all possible combinations of + the three genes controlling color will show all eight basic coat + colors, among which are six female or twelve male black cats but only + one female or two male fawn: + + Note that although tortoiseshell females are two-color they introduce + no new colors. + + It may also be noted that red and cream dominate any of the true + (black or brown) colors: a red coat is red regardless of whether the + color gene is black, dark brown, or light brown. The color gene is + masked by the orange-making gene. This, coupled with the fact that + males are either red or non-red require that the color chart show "oO" + and "Oo" as distinctly separate. A male has only the first of the two + genes: "o" from "oO" or "O" from "Oo". In some texts, the orange- + making genes are indicated as "o(O)" and "O(o)" to emphasize the + sexual distinction. + + The Albinism Gene + + The first of the color-conformation genes affect coat pattern is the + albinism gene. This gene controls the amount of body color and comes + in five alleles: full color, "C", Burmese, "cb", Siamese, "cs", blue- + eyed albino, "ca", and albino, "c". + + The full color allele, "C" is wild, is dominant, and produces a full + expression of the coat colors. This is sometimes called the non- + albino allele. + + The Burmese allele, "cb", is mutant, is recessive to the full color + allele, codominant with the Siamese allele, and dominant to the blue- + eyed albino and albino alleles, and produces a slight albinism, reduc- + ing black to a very dark brown, called sable in the Burmese breed, and + producing green or green-gold eyes. + + The Siamese allele, "cs", is mutant, is recessive to the full color + allele, codominant with the Siamese allele, and dominant to the blue- + eyed albino and albino alleles, and produces an intermediate albinism, + reducing the basic coat color from black/brown to a light beige with + dark brown "points" in the classic Siamese pattern and producing + bright blue eyes. + + The Burmese and Siamese alleles are codominant, that is they each have + exactly as much dominance or recessivity. It is possible to have one + of each allele, "cbcs", producing a Siamese-patterned coat with a + darker base body color and turquoise (aquamarine) eyes: the Tonkinese + pattern. + + The blue-eyed albino allele, "ca", is mutant, is recessive to the full + color, Burmese and Siamese alleles and dominant to the albino allele, + and produces a nearly complete albinism with a translucent white coat + and very washed-out pale blue eyes. + + The albino allele, "c", is mutant, is recessive to all others, and + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 15 + + + + produces a complete albinism with a translucent white coat and pink + eyes. + + The albanism genes combine in some rather interesting ways: + + | C cb cs ca c + ---+----------------------------------------------------------- + C | full color full color full color full color full color + cb | full color Burmese Tonkinese Burmese Burmese + cs | full color Tonkinese Siamese Siamese Siamese + ca | full color Burmese Siamese B-E Albino B-E Albino + c | full color Burmese Siamese B-E Albino Albino + + Notice how the dominance characteristics among the alleles are normal + except for the combination of Burmese and Siamese, which produce the + Tonikinese pattern. + + The Agouti Gene + + The next gene controlling the pattern of the coat is the agouti gene. + This gene will control ticking and comes in two alleles: agouti, "A", + and non-agouti, "a". + + The agouti allele, "A", is wild, is dominant, and produces a banded + or ticked (agouti) hair, which in turn will produce a tabby coat + pattern. + + The non-agouti allele, "a", is mutant, is recessive, and suppresses + ticking, which in turn will produce a solid-color coat. This gene + only operates upon the color gene (black, dark brown, or light brown) + in conjunction with the non-orange allele of the orange-making gene + and is masked by the orange allele of the orange-making gene. + + The Tabby Genes + + The last of the genes affecting the coat pattern is the tabby gene. + This gene will control the actual coat pattern (striped, spotted, + solid, etc.) and comes in three alleles: mackerel or striped tabby, + "T", Abyssinian or all-agouti-tabby, "Ta", and blotched or classic + tabby, "tb". + + The mackerel-tabby allele, "T", is wild, is co-dominant with the + spotted tabby and Abyssinian alleles and dominant to the classic-tabby + allele, and produces a striped cat, with vertical non-agouti stripes + on an agouti background. This is the most common of all patterns and + is typical grassland camouflage, where shadows are long and strait. + + A spotted tabby is genetically a striped tabby with the stripes broken + up by polygene influence. There is no specific "spotted-tabby" gene. + This spotted coat is a typical forest camouflage, where shadows are + dappled by sunlight shining through the trees. Do not confuse the + spots of our domestic cats with the rosettes of the true spotted cats: + entirely different genes are involved. + + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 16 + + + + The Abyssinian allele, "Ta", is mutant, is codominant to the mackerel- + tabby allele and dominant to the classic-tabby allele, and will pro- + duce an all-agouti coat without stripes or spots. This all-agouti + coat is a basic type of bare-ground camouflage, seen in the wild + rabbit and many other animals. + + A special case occurs when both the mackerel-tabby and Abyssinian + alleles are expressed, "TTa". This will produce a unique coat con- + sisting of the beige ground color with each hair tipped with the + expressed color. By selective breeding, the ground color has become a + soft gold, producing the beautiful golden chinchilla cats. + + The blotched- or classic-tabby allele, "tb", is recessive to both the + mackerel-tabby and the Abyssinian alleles and will produce irregular + non-agouti blotches or "cinnamon-roll" sworls on an agouti background. + When the "cinnamon-rolls" are clean and symmetrical, and nicely cen- + tered on the sides, a strikingly beautiful coat is achieved. + + The "coat of choice" in Europe is the classic tabby (hence the name), + probably because of the similarity in appearance of a large mackerel + tabby domestic cat and the European Wildcat, the former being soft and + cuddly and the latter prone to remove fingers. In the U.S., the + reverse is true. + + The Color-Inhibitor Gene + + The first of the color-conformation genes controlling color expression + is the color-inhibitor gene. This gene controls the expression of + color within the hair and comes in two alleles: the non-inhibitor, + "i", and the inhibitor, "Y". + + The non-inhibitor allele, "i", is wild, is recessive, and allows + expression of the color throughout the length of the hair, producing a + normally colored coat. + + The inhibitor allele, "I", is mutant, is dominant, and inhibits ex- + pression of the color over a portion of the hair. + + The inhibitor allele is variably-expressed. When slightly expressed, + the short down hairs (underfur) are merely tipped with color, while + the longer guard and awn hairs are clear for about the first quarter + of their lengths: the coat is said to be smoked. When moderately + expressed, the down hairs are completely clear and the longer hairs + are clear for about half their lengths: the coat is shaded. When + heavily expressed, the down hairs are completely clear and the longer + hairs are clear for about three-quarters (or more) of their lengths: + the coat is then tipped or chinchilla. + + Neither allele has anything to do with the actual color or pattern, + only with whether that color is laid upon a clear undercoat or one of + the beige ground color. + + The Spotting Gene + + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 17 + + + + The next gene controlling color expression is the white-spotting gene. + This gene controls the presence and pattern of white masking the + normal coat pattern, and has four alleles: non-spotted, "s", spotted, + "S", particolor, "Sp", and Birman, "sb". The presence of the parti- + color and Birman alleles of this gene are still subject to argument at + this time: their effect is not.The non-spotted allele, "s", is wild, + is recessive, and produces a normal coat without white. + + The spotted allele, "S", is mutant, is dominant, and produces white + spotting which masks the true coat color in the affected area. This + is a variably-expressed allele with a very wide expression range: + From a black cat with one white hair to a white cat with one black + hair. + + The particolor allele, "Sp", if it exists, is a variation of the + spotted allele affecting the pattern of white. The classic particolor + pattern is an inverted white "V" starting in the center of the fore- + head and passing through the centers of the eyes. The chin, chest, + belly, legs and feet are white. Variable expressions of this allele + range downward to a simple white locket or a white spot on the fore- + head. + + The Birman allele, "Sb", if it exists, is a variation of the spotted + allele producing white feet. Variable expression ranges from white + legs and feet to white toes only. + + Unlike the white gene or the albinism gene, the white-spotting gene + does not affect eye color: if your all white cat has green eyes, it + is most definitely a colored cat with one big white spot all over. + + The Dominant-White Gene + + The final gene controlling color expression is the dominant-white + gene. This gene determines whether the coat is solid white or not, + and comes in three alleles: non-white, "w", white, "W", and van, + "Wv". The existence of the van allele is open to argument: it may be + a separate gene. + + The non-white allele, "w", is wild, is recessive, and allows full + expression of the coat color and pattern. + + The white allele, "W", is mutant, is dominant, and produces a translu- + cent all-white coat with either orange or pale blue. Blue-eyed domi- + nant-white cats are often deaf, orange-eyed cats occasionally so. + Interestingly, a white cat may be odd-eyed, having one blue and one + orange eye. Such a cat is often deaf on the blue side. + + The van allele, "Wv", if it exists, is a variation of the white allele + allowing color in the classic van pattern: on the crown of the head + (often a two small half-caps separated by a thin white line), on the + ears, and on the tail. Variable expression controls cap size and + shape and the presence of color on the ears and tail. Occasionally, + the caps will be missing and only the ears and/or tail will be col- + ored. + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 18 + + + + + It is important to remember that, genetically speaking, white is not a + color, but rather the suppression of the pigment that would normally + be present. A heterozygous white cat can an often does produce col- + ored kittens, sometimes with no white at all. + + Polygenes + + The genes described above control color and coat, and several breed- + specific body features, but what about the genes that control the body + structure itself? Can we not develop a cat with long floppy ears + (sort of a bassett-cat)? The answer is a qualified no. Not within + the realms of normal breeding, and not without a much better means of + genetic engineering than is currently available to us. The reason + cats (and horses) resist major changes, whereas dogs do not, is be- + cause the genes controlling these features are scattered among the + genetic codes of other genes (remember, a gene is not a physical + entity but rather a series of instructions). This type of scattered + gene is called a "polygene". Polygenes are in firm control of many of + those things that define the cat, and breeding programs can only + change these characteristics slowly, bit-by-bit. + + The Eye Colors + + There are no specific genes for the eye colors. Rather, the color of + the eyes is intimately linked to the color and pattern of the coat via + several polygenes. + + There is much about eye color that is not yet understood. As an + example, the British Blue usually has orange or copper eyes while + those of the Russian Blue are usually green, in spite of the fact that + the breeds have identical coat genotypes. + + The range of eye color is from a deep copper-orange through yellow to + green. The blue and pink eyed cats are partial or full albinos, with + suppression of the eye color. + + Color Abr Description + ------------------------------------------------------------- + Copper cpr Deep copper-orange + Orange org Bright orange + Amber amb Yellow-orange + Yellow yel Yellow + Gold gld Dark yellow with hint of green + Hazel hzl Dark greenish-yellow + Green grn Green + Turquoise trq Bluish-green (common in Tonkinese) + Siamese Blue sbl Royal Blue to medium-pale grayish-blue + Dominant-White Blue wbl Medium blue + Dominant-White Odd odd One blue, one orange + Albino Blue abl Very pale blue, almost gray + Albino Pink pnk Pink + + There is a definite interaction between the color genes, "B", "b", and + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 19 + + + + "bl", the color density genes, "D" and "d", and eye color. This + interaction is especially evident in those cats with Siamese coats + where the eye color can range from a strikingly deep, rich blue for a + Seal Point coat to a medium-pale, grayish blue for a lilac point coat. + + Naming the Colors + + When it came to naming the colors, those who did so were firm believ- + ers in using the thesaurus: never call a color brown when you can + call it chocolate or cinnamon. + + The colors naturally fall into distinct groups: the "standard" col- + ors, the shaded colors, the "exotic" colors, the oriental colors, and + the whites. Each group may then be subdivided into several distinct + smaller groups, each with a common characteristic. Each color name is + followed by its karyotype in three groups (as they were discussed + above), and the usual eye colors. Bear in mind that all possible + combinations of color and pattern will eventually be realized, but not + necessarily recognized: especially by the various cat fancies. + + The Standard Solid Colors + + The solids form the basis for all other colors in nomenclature and + karyotypes: these are the fundamental rendition of the eight basic + coat colors. Solids are called "selfs" in Britain. + + The black solid technically has a brown undercoat, but selective + breeding has managed to eliminate the brown undercoat and has produced + cats that are "black to the bone." + + The subtle differences possible in blues (grays) has made this one of + the most popular colors among breeders, with several breeds being + exclusively blue. Blues, regardless of pattern, are often referred to + as "dilutes." + + The terms "chestnut" and "chocolate" are synonymous, as are the terms + "lavender" and "lilac." + + Since the orange allele of the orange-making gene also masks the non- + agouti allele of the agouti gene, red and cream solids are genetically + identical to red and cream tabbies. Careful selective breeding has + made cause the non-agouti areas (the stripes) to widen and overlap, + effectively canceling the paler agouti background and obscuring the + tabby pattern. A generation or two of random breeding, however, and + the stripes will return. + + The patched solids, solid-and-whites or bi-colors, are formed by + adding the white-spotting gene, "S*", to the solids. If, instead of + the normal random white spotting gene, the particolor gene, "Sp*", is + present, then the coat will show white in the particolor pattern. If + both the random white-spotting and particolor genes, "SSp", are + present, then a composite pattern will be evident. If the Birman + gene, "sbsb", is present, then the pattern will be white feet only. + + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 20 + + + + The tortoiseshells or torties are formed by combining both the domi- + nant and recessive sex-linked orange genes, "Oo", with the solids. + Because of the sex-linking of the orange genes, the tortie is always + female. A tabby pattern may be visible in the orange areas, with any + tabby pattern being permitted. In some individuals, the agouti and + non-agouti orange areas may offer such contrast as to produce a false + tri-color (black-orange-cream). + + The patched tortoiseshells or calicos are formed by combining both the + dominant and recessive sex-linked orange-making genes, "Oo", to the + solids and adding the white-spotting gene, "S*". Like the torties, + the calicos are always female, and like the patches, any white- + spotting pattern is permitted. + + Color | Karyotype | Usual eye color + ---------------------+--------------------------+---------------- + Black | B*ooD* C*aa** iissww | cpr org grn + Blue | B*oodd C*aa** iissww | cpr org grn + Chestnut | b*ooD* C*aa** iissww | cpr org + Lavender | b*oodd C*aa** iissww | cpr org gld + Cinnamon | blblooD* C*aa** iissww | org + Fawn | blbloodd C*aa** iissww | org gld + Red | **OOD* C***T* iissww | cpr org + Cream | **OOdd C***T* iissww | cpr org + ---------------------+--------------------------+---------------- + Black patch | B*ooD* C*aa** iiS*ww | cpr org grn + blue patch | B*oodd C*aa** iiS*ww | cpr org grn + chestnut patch | b*ooD* C*aa** iiS*ww | cpr org + lavender patch | b*oodd C*aa** iiS*ww | cpr org grn + cinnamon patch | blblooD* C*aa** iiS*ww | org + fawn patch | blbloodd C*aa** iiS*ww | org grn + red patch | **OOD* C***T* iiS*ww | cpr org + cream patch | **OOdd C***T* iiS*ww | cpr org + + The Standard Tabby Colors + + The tabbies are formed by adding the agouti gene, "A*", to the solids. + This causes the otherwise solid color to show the pattern dictated by + the tabby gene: light and dark stripes (mackerel allele, "T*") or + blotches (blotched allele, "tbtb"). + + The brown tabby corresponds to the black solid: sufficient undercoat + color shows in the agouti areas to provide a brownish cast. When in + mackerel pattern, this is the "all wild" genotype, and represents the + natural state of the cat. + + The red tabby, when in mackerel pattern, presents an alternate stable + coat often found on feral domestic cats, usually as a pale ginger. + + The patched tabbies or tabby-and-whites are formed by adding the white + spotting gene, "S*", to the tabbies. Like the patched solids, any + white spotting pattern is permitted. + + The tabby-tortoiseshells or torbies are formed by combining both the + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 21 + + + + dominant and recessive sex-linked orange genes, "Oo", with the tabbies + colors. Like the torties, the torbies are always female. + + Color | Karyotype | Usual eye color + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + tortie | B*OoD* C*aaT* iissww | cpr org + blue tortie | B*Oodd C*aaT* iissww | cpr org grn + chestnut tortie | b*OoD* C*aaT* iissww | cpr org + lavender tortie | b*Oodd C*aaT* iissww | cpr org grn + cinnamon tortie | blblOoD* C*aaT* iissww | org + fawn tortie | blblOodd C*aaT* iissww | org grn + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + calico | B*OoD* C*aaT* iiS*ww | cpr org + blue calico | B*Oodd C*aaT* iiS*ww | cpr org grn + chestnut calico | b*OoD* C*aaT* iiS*ww | cpr org + lavender calico | b*Oodd C*aaT* iiS*ww | cpr org grn + cinnamon calico | blblOoD* C*aaT* iiS*ww | org + fawn calico | blblOodd C*aaT* iiS*ww | org grn + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + brown tabby | B*ooD* C*A*T* iissww | cpr org yel hzl + blue tabby | B*oodd C*A*T* iissww | cpr org yel hzl + chestnut tabby | b*ooD* C*A*T* iissww | cpr org yel hzl + lavender tabby | b*oodd C*A*T* iissww | cpr org yel hzl + cinnamon tabby | blblooD* C*A*T* iissww | org yel hzl + fawn tabby | blbloodd C*A*T* iissww | org yel hzl + red tabby | **OOD* C***T* iissww | cpr org yel hzl + cream tabby | **OOdd C***T* iissww | cpr org yel hzl + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + brown patched tabby | B*ooD* C*A*T* iiS*ww | cpr org yel hzl + blue patched tabby | B*oodd C*A*T* iiS*ww | cpr org yel hzl + chestnut patched tabby | b*ooD* C*A*T* iiS*ww | cpr org yel hzl + lavender patched tabby | b*oodd C*A*T* iiS*ww | cpr org yel hzl + cinnamon patched tabby | blblooD* C*A*T* iiS*ww | org yel hzl + fawn patched tabby | blbloodd C*A*T* iiS*ww | org yel hzl + red patched tabby | **OOD* C***T* iiS*ww | cpr org yel hzl + cream patched tabby | **OOdd C***T* iiS*ww | cpr org yel hzl + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + torbie | B*OoD* C*A*T* iissww | cpr org yel hzl + blue torbie | B*Oodd C*A*T* iissww | cpr org yel hzl + chestnut torbie | b*OoD* C*A*T* iissww | cpr org yel hzl + lavender torbie | b*Oodd C*A*T* iissww | cpr org yel hzl + cinnamon torbie | blblOoD* C*A*T* iissww | org yel hzl + fawn torbie | blblOodd C*A*T* iissww | org yel hzl + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + torbico | B*OoD* C*A*T* iiS*ww | cpr org yel hzl + blue torbico | B*Oodd C*A*T* iiS*ww | cpr org yel hzl + chestnut torbico | b*OoD* C*A*T* iiS*ww | cpr org yel hzl + lavender torbico | b*Oodd C*A*T* iiS*ww | cpr org yel hzl + cinnamon torbico | blblOoD* C*A*T* iiS*ww | org yel hzl + fawn torbico | blblOodd C*A*T* iiS*ww | org yel hzl + + The patched tabby-tortoiseshells, or patched torbies or torbicos, are + formed by combining the dominant and recessive orange-making genes, + "Oo", with the standard tabbies and adding the white spotting gene, + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 22 + + + + "S*", to the torbie colors. Like the patched solids, any white- + spotting pattern is permitted. + + The Shaded Colors + + The shaded colors are formed by adding the inhibitor gene, "I*", to + the standard solids. If the expression is light, a smoked coat is + produced, if moderate, a shaded coat, and if heavy, a tipped or chin- + chilla coat. Only six of the eight possible colors are recognized. + + The tortie chinchillas are formed by adding a moderate-to heavy ex- + pression of the inhibitor gene, "I*", to the standard torties. Only + four of the six possible colors are recognized. + + Color | Karyotype | Usual eye color + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + (silver) smoke | B*ooD* C*aa** I*ssww | cpr org yel + blue smoke | B*oodd C*aa** I*ssww | cpr org yel + chestnut smoke | b*ooD* C*aa** I*ssww | cpr org yel + lavender smoke | b*oodd C*aa** I*ssww | cpr org yel + red smoke | **OOD* C***T* I*ssww | cpr org yel + cream smoke | **OOdd C***T* I*ssww | cpr org yel + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + (silver) shade | B*ooD* C*aa** I*ssww | cpr grn + blue shade | B*oodd C*aa** I*ssww | cpr grn + chestnut shade | b*ooD* C*aa** I*ssww | cpr grn + lavender shade | b*oodd C*aa** I*ssww | cpr grn + red shade | **OOD* C***T* I*ssww | cpr grn + cream shade | **OOdd C***T* I*ssww | cpr grn + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + (silver) chinchilla | B*ooD* C*aa** I*ssww | grn + blue chinchilla | B*oodd C*aa** I*ssww | grn + chestnut chinchilla | b*ooD* C*aa** I*ssww | grn + lavender chinchilla | b*oodd C*aa** I*ssww | grn + red chinchilla | **OOD* C***T* I*ssww | grn + cream chinchilla | **OOdd C***T* I*ssww | grn + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + tortie chinchilla | B*OoD* C*aaT* I*ssww | cpr org yel + blue tortie chinchilla | B*Oodd C*aaT* I*ssww | cpr org yel + chestnut tortie chinch | b*OoD* C*aaT* I*ssww | cpr org yel + lavender tortie chinch | b*Oodd C*aaT* I*ssww | cpr org yel + + The Golden Chinchilla Colors + + The golden chinchillas are formed by combining the mackerel and Abys- + sinian alleles of the tabby gene, "TTa", with the standard solids. + This produces a coat of undercoat-colored hairs tipped with the stand- + ard colors. Selective breeding has altered the undercoat polygenes to + produce a striking warm-gold color. Only three of the eight possible + colors are recognized. + + The golden chinchilla torties are formed by combining the mackerel and + Abyssinian alleles of the tabby gene, "TTa", with the standard + torties. This produces a coat with hairs of undercoat color tipped + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 23 + + + + with the standard tortie colors. While any combination is possible, + only two colors are recognized. + + Color | Karyotype | Usual eye color + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + golden chinchilla | B*ooD* C*A*TTa iissww | gld + honey chinchilla | b*ooD* C*A*TTa iissww | gld + copper chinchilla | **OOD* C***TTa iissww | cpr gld + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + golden tortie chinch | B*OoD* C*A*TTa iissww | gld + honey tortie chinch | b*OoD* C*A*TTa iissww | gld + + The Silver Tabby Colors + + The silver tabbies are obtained by adding a moderate expression of the + inhibitor gene, I*, to the standard tabbies. Only six of the eight + possible colors are recognized. + + Color | Karyotype | Usual eye color + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + silver tabby | B*ooD* C*A*T* I*ssww | hzl grn + silver blue tabby | B*oodd C*A*T* I*ssww | hzl grn + silver chestnut tabby | b*ooD* C*A*T* I*ssww | hzl grn + silver lilac tabby | b*oodd C*A*T* I*ssww | hzl grn + silver red tabby | **OOD* C***T* I*ssww | hzl grn + silver cream tabby | **OOdd C***T* I*ssww | hzl grn + + The Spotted Tabby Colors + + The bronze spotted tabbies are genetically standard mackerel tabbies + with the mackerel striping broken into spots by the effects of various + polygenes. Ideal coats have evenly spaced round spots. Only six of + the eight possible colors are recognized. + + The silver spotted tabbies are bronze spotted tabbies with a moderate + expression of the inhibitor gene, "I*", added. This produces a pat- + tern of jet black spots on a silvery agouti background. Only six of + the eight possible colors are recognized. + + Color | Karyotype | Usual eye color + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + bronze | B*ooD* C*A*T* iissww | gld + bronze blue | B*oodd C*A*T* iissww | cpr gld + bronze chocolate | b*ooD* C*A*T* iissww | cpr gld + bronze lavender | b*oodd C*A*T* iissww | cpr gld + copper | **OOD* C***T* iissww | cop + bronze cream | **OOdd C***T* iissww | gld + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + silver | B*ooD* C*A*T* I*ssww | hzl grn + silver blue | B*oodd C*A*T* I*ssww | hzl grn + silver chocolate | b*ooD* C*A*T* I*ssww | hzl grn + silver lilac | b*oodd C*A*T* I*ssww | hzl grn + silver red | **OOD* C***T* I*ssww | org hzl grn + silver cream | **OOdd C***T* I*ssww | org hzl grn + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 24 + + + + + The Abyssinian Colors + + The Abyssinians are primarily standard tabbies with the Abyssinian + allele of the tabby gene, "Ta*". This produces an all-agouti coat, + similar to that of the wild rabbit. + + The silver Abyssinians are Abyssinians with a moderate expression of + the inhibitor gene, "I*". This produces the all-agouti ticking on a + pale silver undercolor. + + It should be noted that among Abyssinians there are two genetically + different reds that are virtually identical in appearance: "red," + which is in reality cinnamon, and "true red," which is red. + + Color | Karyotype | Usual eye color + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + ruddy | B*ooD* C*A*Ta* iissww | org amb grn + blue | B*oodd C*A*Ta* iissww | org amb grn + chestnut | b*ooD* C*A*Ta* iissww | org amb grn + lavender | b*oodd C*A*Ta* iissww | org amb grn + red | blblooD* C*A*Ta* iissww | org amb + fawn | blbloodd C*A*Ta* iissww | org amb + true red | **OOD* C***Ta* iissww | cpr org amb + cream | **OOdd C***Ta* iissww | cpr org amb + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + silver | B*ooD* C*A*Ta* I*ssww | grn + silver blue | B*oodd C*A*Ta* I*ssww | grn + silver chestnut | b*ooD* C*A*Ta* I*ssww | grn + silver lilac | b*oodd C*A*Ta* I*ssww | grn + silver red | blblooD* C*A*Ta* I*ssww | yel + silver fawn | blbloodd C*A*Ta* I*ssww | yel + true silver red | **OOD* C***Ta* I*ssww | org yel + silver cream | **OOdd C***Ta* I*ssww | org yel + + The Oriental Solid Colors + + The oriental solids are identical in every way to the standard solids + except in their names. Oriental color names tend to be used with cats + of oriental build, effectively solid-color Siamese. + + Color | Karyotype | Usual eye color + ----------------------+--------------------------+---------------- + ebony | B*ooD* C*aa** iissww | grn + blue | B*oodd C*aa** iissww | grn + chocolate | b*ooD* C*aa** iissww | grn + lilac | b*oodd C*aa** iissww | grn + caramel | blblooD* C*aa** iissww | grn + fawn | blbloodd C*aa** iissww | grn + red | **OOD* C***T* iissww | grn + cream | **OOdd C***T* iissww | grn + + + + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 25 + + + + The Burmese Colors + + The Burmese colors are formed from the standard solid colors by the + reduction in color expression from full, "C*", to the Burmese alleles, + "cbcb". This is a partial albinism and causes a slight reduction in + color intensity: black becomes sable. These colors are used almost + exclusively for the Burmese and related breeds, such as the Malayan + and Tiffany. + + Color | Karyotype | Usual eye color + ----------------------+--------------------------+---------------- + sable | B*ooD* cbcbaa** iissww | gld + blue | B*oodd cbcbaa** iissww | gld + champagne | b*ooD* cbcbaa** iissww | gld + platinum | b*oodd cbcbaa** iissww | gld + cinnamon | blblooD* cbcbaa** iissww | gld + fawn | blbloodd cbcbaa** iissww | gld + red | **OOD* cbcb**T* iissww | gld + cream | **OOdd cbcb**T* iissww | gld + + The Tonkinese Colors + + The Tonkinese colors are formed from the standard solid colors by the + reduction of color expression from full, "C*", to combined Burmese and + Siamese, "cbcs". This is a partial albinism and causes a downgrade in + color expression, the body color becoming a light-to-medium brown and + the points becoming Burmese. These colors are used only with the + Tonkinese breed. + + Color | Karyotype | Usual eye color + ----------------------+--------------------------+---------------- + natural mink | B*ooD* cbcsaa** iissww | trq + blue mink | B*oodd cbcsaa** iissww | trq + honey mink | b*ooD* cbcsaa** iissww | trq + champagne mink | b*oodd cbcsaa** iissww | trq + cinnamon mink | blblooD* cbcsaa** iissww | trq + fawn mink | blbloodd cbcsaa** iissww | trq + red mink | **OOD* cbcs**T* iissww | trq + cream mink | **OOdd cbcs**T* iissww | trq + + The Siamese Colors + + The Siamese solid-point formed from the standard colors by the reduc- + tion of color expression from full, "C*", to Siamese, "cscs". This is + a partial albinism and causes a downgrade in color expression, the + body color becoming fawn and the points becoming Burmese. The solid- + point colors are formed from the standard solids, the tortie-point + from the standard torties, the lynx-point from the standard tabbies, + and the torbie-point from the standard torbies. Only six of the eight + possible solid- or lynx-point and four of the six possible tortie- or + torbie-point colors are recognized. + + + + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 26 + + + + Color | Karyotype | Usual eye color + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + seal point | B*ooD* cscsaa** iissww | sbl + blue point | B*oodd cscsaa** iissww | sbl + chocolate point | b*ooD* cscsaa** iissww | sbl + lilac point | b*oodd cscsaa** iissww | sbl + red point | **OOD* cscsT* iissww | sbl + cream point | **OOdd cscsT* iissww | sbl + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + seal tortie point | B*OoD* cscsaaT* iissww | sbl + blue tortie point | B*Oodd cscsaaT* iissww | sbl + chocolate tortie point | b*OoD* cscsaaT* iissww | sbl + lilac tortie point | b*Oodd cscsaaT* iissww | sbl + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + seal lynx point | B*ooD* cscsA*T* iissww | sbl + blue lynx point | B*oodd cscsA*T* iissww | sbl + chocolate lynx point | b*ooD* cscsA*T* iissww | sbl + lilac lynx point | b*oodd cscsA*T* iissww | sbl + red lynx point | **OOD* cscs**T* iissww | sbl + cream lynx point | **OOdd cscs**T* iissww | sbl + -----------------------+-------------------------+---------------- + seal torbie point | B*OoD* cscsA*T* iissww | sbl + blue torbie point | B*Oodd cscsA*T* iissww | sbl + chocolate torbie point | b*OoD* cscsA*T* iissww | sbl + lilac torbie point | b*Oodd cscsA*T* iissww | sbl + + The Van Colors + + The van colors are formed from the standard solid colors by the addi- + tion of the van gene, "Wv". This is a masking gene, covering the + effects of the agouti, color-expression, tabby, inhibitor, and white- + spotting genes. The van gene, a modified dominant-white gene, causes + the coat to be white with color on the crown of the head, ears, and + tail only. The preferred van color is auburn (orange). The tail is + often tabby-ringed. + + Color | Karyotype | Usual eye color + ----------------------+--------------------------+---------------- + black van | B*ooD* ****** ****Wv* | org wbl odd + blue van | B*oodd ****** ****Wv* | org wbl odd + chestnut van | b*ooD* ****** ****Wv* | org wbl odd + lavender van | b*oodd ****** ****Wv* | org wbl odd + cinnamon van | blblooD* ****** ****Wv* | org wbl odd + fawn van | blbloodd ****** ****Wv* | org wbl odd + auburn van | **OOD* ****** ****Wv* | org wbl odd + cream van | **OOdd ****** ****Wv* | org wbl odd + + The Whites + + White is not a color, but rather a masking of the color genes result- + ing in an absence of color. There are five ways a cat can have an all + white coat: be full-inhibited white, be full-spotted white, be domi- + nant white, be blue-eyed albino, or be albino. Each of these ways is + genetically different. + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 27 + + + + + The full-inhibited white coat comes from a 100% expression of the + inhibitor gene, "I*", masking all colors and patterns. Since the + current trend in chinchilla coats is to have just a hint of tipping, + certain kittens are bound to be born where the "hint" is effectively + zero, creating an all-white cat. Since the colors still exist, the + eyes will be the proper color for the masked "true" coat colors, and + may be anything except dominant-white blue, albino blue, or pink. + + The full-spotted white coat comes from a 100% expression of the white + spotting gene, "S*", masking all colors and patterns. This coat may + have a few non-white hairs, especially on a kitten. Like the full- + inhibited white, the eyes will be the proper color for the masked + "true" coat colors, and may be anything except dominant-white blue, + albino blue, or pink. + + The dominant white coat comes from expression of the dominant-white + gene, "W*", masking all colors and patterns. The eyes are always + orange, dominant-white blue, or odd. + + The blue-eyed albino comes from expression of the blue-eyed albino + allele of the albino gene, "ca*", masking all colors and patterns. + The eyes are always albino blue. + + The albino coat comes from expression of the albino allele of the + albino gene, "cc", masking all colors and patterns. The eyes are + always pink. + + Color | Karyotype | Usual eye color + ----------------------+--------------------------+---------------- + full-inhibited white | ****** ****** I***** | not wbl/abl/pnk + full-spotted white | ****** ****** **S*** | not wbl/abl/pnk + dominant white | ****** ****** ****W* | org wbl odd + blue-eyed albino | ****** ca***** ****** | alb + albino | ****** cc**** ****** | pnk + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Feline Genetics Page 28 +  \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/goddard b/textfiles.com/science/goddard new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c0df5aef --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/goddard @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ + A Severe Strain on the Credulity + +As a method of sending a missile to the higher, and even to the highest +parts of the earth's atmospheric envelope, Professor Goddard's rocket +is a practicable and therefore promising device. It is when one +considers the multiple-charge rocket as a traveler to the moon that one +begins to doubt ... for after the rocket quits our air and really +starts on its journey, its flight would be neither accelerated nor +maintained by the explosion of the charges it then might have left. +Professor Goddard, with his "chair" in Clark College and countenancing +of the Smithsonian Institution, does not know the relation of action to +re-action, and of the need to have something better than a vacuum +against which to react ... Of course he only seems to lack the +knowledge ladled out daily in high schools. + -- New York Times Editorial, 1920 diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/gun.txt b/textfiles.com/science/gun.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e429da37 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/gun.txt @@ -0,0 +1,292 @@ +GUN ASSEMBLY + +The basic problem of a fission weapon is to assemble two subcritical fragments +of U-235 in the shortest time possible. The gun assembly is the most +intuitive way to do this. The fragments have to be assembled quickly since +there is the possibility of the weapon blowing up way before a chain reaction +has started. + +The way to do this is to machine the fragments into a pac-man shape, and a +wedge. You fit these into a cylindrical tube, and bring them together using +an explosive charge. + +This sort of technique +won't work with Pu-239 since it is extremely difficult to separate +large quantities of Pu-239 from Pu-240 and other contaminants. These unwanted +materials emit neutrons through spontaneous fission, all before super- +criticality. They would give a premature start to any chain +reaction before you could achieve a full assembly. + +You can have gun assemblies small enough to fit into artillery shells. +(See the gifs for an example of this.) supplies +the examples: + + M454 155mm Nuclear Projectile: + 2'10" long, 155mm diameter, 119.5 lbs weight, + W-48 nuclear warhead, 1-2kt yield, 8.75 mile range. + +and + + XM785 155mm Nuclear Projectile: + 2'10.3" long, 155mm diameter, 96 lbs weight, + W-82-1 fission warhead, 1-2kt yield, 18.5 mile range using + rocket assistance. + +============================================================================ + + [Gravity Bomb Model] + ---------------------------- + -> Cutaway Sections Visible <- + + + /\ + / \ <---------------------------[1] + / \ + _________________/______\_________________ + | : ||: ~ ~ : | + [2]-------> | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | :______||:_____________________________: | + |/_______||/______________________________\| + \ ~\ | | / + \ |\ | | / + \ | \ | | / + \ | \ | | / + \ |___\ |______________| / + \ | \ |~ \ / + \|_______\|_________________\_/ + |_____________________________| + / \ + / _________________ \ + / _/ \_ \ + / __/ \__ \ + / / \ \ + /__ _/ \_ __\ + [3]_______________________________ \ _| + / / \ \ \ + / / \/ \ \ + / / ___________ \ \ + | / __/___________\__ \ | + | |_ ___ /=================\ ___ _| | + [4]---------> _||___|====|[[[[[[[|||]]]]]]]|====|___||_ <--------[4] + | | |-----------------| | | + | | |o=o=o=o=o=o=o=o=o| <-------------------[5] + | | \_______________/ | | + | |__ |: :| __| | + | | \______________ |: :| ______________/ | | + | | ________________\|: :|/________________ | | + | |/ |::::|: :|::::| \| | + [6]----------------------> |::::|: :|::::| <---------------------[6] + | | |::::|: :|::::| | | + | | |::==|: :|== <------------------------[9] + | | |::__\: :/__::| | | + | | |:: ~: :~ ::| | | + [7]----------------------------> \_/ ::| | | + | |~\________/~\|:: ~ ::|/~\________/~| | + | | ||:: <-------------------------[8] + | |_/~~~~~~~~\_/|::_ _ _ _ _::|\_/~~~~~~~~\_| | + [9]-------------------------->_=_=_=_=_::| | | + | | :::._______.::: | | + | | .:::| |:::.. | | + | | ..:::::'| |`:::::.. | | + [6]---------------->.::::::' || || `::::::.<---------------[6] + | | .::::::' | || || | `::::::. | | + /| | .::::::' | || || | `::::::. | | + | | | .:::::' | || <-----------------------------[10] + | | |.:::::' | || || | `:::::.| | + | | ||::::' | |`. .'| | `::::|| | + [11]___________________________ ``~'' __________________________[11] + : | | \:: \ / ::/ | | + | | | \:_________|_|\/__ __\/|_|_________:/ | | + / | | | __________~___:___~__________ | | | + || | | | | |:::::::| | | | | + [12] /|: | | | | |:::::::| | | | | + |~~~~~ / |: | | | | |:::::::| | | | | + |----> / /|: | | | | |:::::::| <-----------------[10] + | / / |: | | | | |:::::::| | | | | + | / |: | | | | |::::<-----------------------------[13] + | / /|: | | | | |:::::::| | | | | + | / / |: | | | | `:::::::' | | | | + | _/ / /:~: | | | `: ``~'' :' | | | + | | / / ~.. | | |: `: :' :| | | + |->| / / : | | ::: `. .' <----------------[11] + | |/ / ^ ~\| \ ::::. `. .' .:::: / | + | ~ /|\ | \_::::::. `. .' .::::::_/ | + |_______| | \::::::. `. .' .:::<-----------------[6] + |_________\:::::.. `~.....~' ..:::::/_________| + | \::::::::.......::::::::/ | + | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ | + `. .' + `. .' + `. .' + `:. .:' + `::. .::' + `::.. ..::' + `:::.. ..:::' + `::::::... ..::::::' + [14]------------------> `:____:::::::::::____:' <-----------------[14] + ```::::_____::::''' + ~~~~~ + + + + + + + ============================================================================ + + + - Diagram Outline - + --------------------- + + [1] - Tail Cone + [2] - Stabilizing Tail Fins + [3] - Air Pressure Detonator + [4] - Air Inlet Tube(s) + [5] - Altimeter/Pressure Sensors + [6] - Lead Shield Container + [7] - Detonating Head + [8] - Conventional Explosive Charge + [9] - Packing + [10] - Uranium (U-235) [Plutonium (See other diagram)] + [11] - Neutron Deflector (U-238) + [12] - Telemetry Monitoring Probes + [13] - Receptacle for U-235 upon detonation + to facilitate supercritical mass. + [14] - Fuses (inserted to arm bomb) + +[5] Altimeter + --------- + + An ordinary aircraft altimeter uses a type of Aneroid Barometer which +measures the changes in air pressure at different heights. However, changes +in air pressure due to the weather can adversely affect the altimeter's +readings. It is far more favorable to use a radar (or radio) altimeter for +enhanced accuracy when the bomb reaches Ground Zero. + + While Frequency Modulated-Continuous Wave (FM CW) is more complicated, +the accuracy of it far surpasses any other type of altimeter. Like simple +pulse systems, signals are emitted from a radar aerial (the bomb), bounced off +the ground and received back at the bomb's altimeter. This pulse system +applies to the more advanced altimeter system, only the signal is continuous +and centered around a high frequency such as 4200 MHz. This signal is +arranged to steadily increase at 200 MHz per interval before dropping back to +its original frequency. + + As the descent of the bomb begins, the altimeter transmitter will send +out a pulse starting at 4200 MHz. By the time that pulse has returned, the +altimeter transmitter will be emitting a higher frequency. The difference +depends on how long the pulse has taken to do the return journey. When these +two frequencies are mixed electronically, a new frequency (the difference +between the two) emerges. The value of this new frequency is measured by the +built-in microchips. This value is directly proportional to the distance +travelled by the original pulse, so it can be used to give the actual height. + + In practice, a typical FM CW radar today would sweep 120 times per +second. Its range would be up to 10,000 feet (3000 m) over land and 20,000 +feet (6000 m) over sea, since sound reflections from water surfaces are +clearer. + + The accuracy of these altimeters is within 5 feet (1.5 m) for the higher +ranges. Being that the ideal airburst for the atomic bomb is usually set for +1,980 feet, this error factor is not of enormous concern. + + The high cost of these radar-type altimeters has prevented their use in +commercial applications, but the decreasing cost of electronic components +should make them competitive with barometric types before too long. + + +[3] Air Pressure Detonator + ---------------------- + + The air pressure detonator can be a very complex mechanism, but for all +practical purposes, a simpler model can be used. At high altitudes, the air +is of lesser pressure. As the altitude drops, the air pressure increases. A +simple piece of very thin magnetized metal can be used as an air pressure +detonator. All that is needed is for the strip of metal to have a bubble of +extremely thin metal forged in the center and have it placed directly +underneath the electrical contact which will trigger the conventional +explosive detonation. Before setting the strip in place, push the bubble in +so that it will be inverted. + + Once the air pressure has achieved the desired level, the magnetic bubble +will snap back into its original position and strike the contact, thus +completing the circuit and setting off the explosive(s). + + +[7] Detonating Head + --------------- + + The detonating head (or heads, depending on whether a Uranium or +Plutonium bomb is being used as a model) that is seated in the conventional +explosive charge(s) is similar to the standard-issue blasting cap. It merely +serves as a catalyst to bring about a greater explosion. Calibration of this +device is essential. Too small of a detonating head will only cause a +colossal dud that will be doubly dangerous since someone's got to disarm and +re-fit the bomb with another detonating head. (an added measure of discomfort +comes from the knowledge that the conventional explosive may have detonated +with insufficient force to weld the radioactive metals. This will cause a +supercritical mass that could go off at any time.) The detonating head will +receive an electric charge from the either the air pressure detonator or the +radar altimeter's coordinating detonator, depending on what type of system is +used. + + +[8] Conventional Explosive Charge(s) + -------------------------------- + + This explosive is used to introduce (and weld) the lesser amount of +Uranium to the greater amount within the bomb's housing. + + Plastic explosives work best in this situation since they can be +manipulated to enable both a Uranium bomb and a Plutonium bomb to detonate. + + +[11] Neutron Deflector + ----------------- + + The neutron deflector is comprised solely of Uranium-238. Not only is +U-238 non-fissionable, it also has the unique ability to reflect neutrons back +to their source. + + The U-238 neutron deflector can serve 2 purposes. In a Uranium bomb, the +neutron deflector serves as a safeguard to keep an accidental supercritical +mass from occurring by bouncing the stray neutrons from the `bullet' +counterpart of the Uranium mass away from the greater mass below it (and vice- +versa). The neutron deflector in a Plutonium bomb actually helps the wedges +of Plutonium retain their neutrons by `reflecting' the stray particles back +into the center of the assembly. + + +[6] Lead Shield + ----------- + + The lead shield's only purpose is to prevent the inherent radioactivity +of the bomb's payload from interfering with the other mechanisms of the bomb. +The neutron flux of the bomb's payload is strong enough to short circuit the +internal circuitry and cause an accidental or premature detonation. + + +[14] Fuses + ----- + + The fuses are implemented as another safeguard to prevent an accidental +detonation of both the conventional explosives and the nuclear payload. These +fuses are set near the surface of the `nose' of the bomb so that they can be +installed easily when the bomb is ready to be launched. The fuses should be +installed only shortly before the bomb is launched. To affix them before it +is time could result in an accident of catastrophic proportions. + + +============================================================================ + +1994 diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/hazchem.txt b/textfiles.com/science/hazchem.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..bed4d855 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/hazchem.txt @@ -0,0 +1,189 @@ + This is a FAST ACCESS VERSION of a RUTGERS COOPERATIVE +EXTENSION FACT SHEET. Because of the mode of transmission it +is possible that certain graphics intended to be included with +the original FACT SHEET have been deleted. You can obtain the +complete FACT SHEET from any county office of RUTGERS +COOPERATIVE EXTENSION. + + HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS IN YOUR HOME: + PROPER USE AND DISPOSAL + + Theodore B. Shelton, Ph.D. + Specialist in Water Resources Management + + Michael T. Olohan + Public Information Coordinator + Navesink River Watershed Project + + +WHAT IS A HAZARDOUS HOUSEHOLD PRODUCT? + + The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) +considers a substance hazardous if it can catch fire, if it +can react or explode when mixed with other substances, if it +is corrosive, or if it is toxic. Each of these categories is +explained in its regulations. EPA has designated 400 specific +substances to be hazardous. + + EPA estimates that the average household contains between +3 and 10 gallons of hazardous chemicals. Even improper +disposal of such small amounts of hazardous wastes can make an +underground water source unusable for decades if the +contamination is not prevented. + +HOW SHOULD YOU HANDLE HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS? + + Generally, most household products should never be +disposed of by dumping into a sink, toilet, street drain, or +roadway. Your household plumbing system usually leads to a +municipal wastewater treatment plant or a septic tank +wastewater disposal system. However, neither is designed to +remove hazardous chemicals completely from wastewater. You +should also be aware that storm sewers (street drains) usually +flow directly into nearby streams or rivers without treatment, +leading to direct pollution of the waterways. Homeowners +should reduce the purchase of products containing hazardous +chemicals and consider nontoxic alternatives to prevent +potential disposal, poisoning, and water pollution problems. + +WHAT DISPOSAL OPTIONS DO YOU HAVE? + + The following list offers advice for using and disposing +of most hazardous products in your home and, where possible, +it proposes alternatives. The recommendations listed apply to +quantities less than 1 quart. Your local health department, +county health department, or State Department of Environmental +Protection (NJDEP) Hazardous Waste Advisement Program should +be consulted for larger quantities. In all cases, proper +disposal at a local hazardous waste collection center or +program or recycling, is preferred. + +(T)=TRASH - This symbol identifies products that should never +be poured down a drain, but can be safely disposed of by +placing in the garbage. Make sure products are sealed or +capped to prevent leakage. + +(H)=HOLD - This symbol identifies hazardous products that must +be held for disposal at a local collection center or program +or given to a hazardous waste disposal contractor. (Even +empty containers of these products should be handled in these +ways.) For more information, contact NJDEP Hazardous Waste +Advisement Program at 609-292-8341. + +(R)=RECYCLE - This symbol identifies products that can or +should be recycled. Take these products to the recycling +program in your area. If no recycling program exists, +encourage local officials to start one. For more information, +contact the NJDEP Office of Recycling at 609-292-0331. + +HAZARDOUS HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS + + (H) OVEN, DRAIN, AND TOILET CLEANERS - Most of these +products are corrosive and poisonous. Follow directions +carefully, exchange unused portions to neighbors and friends +to use instead of discarding. An alternative to oven cleaners +is baking soda and water. Instead of chemical drain cleaners, +you might use a metal snake to clear pipes. Instead of toilet +cleaners, use a toilet brush and baking soda or a mild +detergent. + + (H) FURNITURE POLISH, FLOOR POLISH - Certain brands are +flammable. Offer unused quantities to friends and neighbors. +Do not pour down drains. Do not dispose of these substances +in normal trash. + + (T) OLD MEDICINES - Many products are hazardous. Some +medicines can be disposed of with regular trash. Contact your +local health department or New Jersey Department of +Environmental Protection Hazardous Waste Advisement Program at +609-292-8341 for more information. + + (T) DISINFECTANTS - These products are usually corrosive +and toxic. Do not dispose of down drains. Fully use these +products or recycle unused portions by exchanging them with +friends or neighbors. + + (H) RUG AND UPHOLSTERY CLEANERS - These products are +irritants, and are corrosive and toxic. Do not dispose of +these substances with regular garbage. These products might +be exchanged with a neighbor. + + (H) BLEACH CLEANERS - Products containing bleach are +strong oxidizers and are corrosive. Fully use these products +or exchange them with neighbors or friends. Do not dispose of +with regular trash. + +GARAGE AND WORKSHOP CHEMICALS + + (H)(R) USED MOTOR OIL, BATTERY ACID, DIESEL FUEL, FUEL +OIL, GASOLINE, KEROSENE, PAINT BRUSH CLEANER WITH SOLVENT, +PAINT THINNER, TURPENTINE - These products are toxic, +flammable, and corrosive. Do not dispose of these substances +in the sink, toilet, street drain, or roadway. In New Jersey, +service stations, retail outlets, and reinspection stations +that sell motor oil must accept up to 5 gallons of used motor +oil for recycling. Other products should be saved for +disposal at local collection centers. + + (S) ANTIFREEZE, AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION FLUID, BRAKE +FLUID, CAR WAX WITH SOLVENT, OTHER OILS, GLUE, OIL-BASED +PAINT, PAINT STRIPPER, PRIMER, RUST REMOVER, VARNISH, WOOD +PRESERVATIVE - These products are toxic, corrosive, and/or +flammable. Do not dispose of these substances in the sink, +toilet, street drain, or roadway. If possible, exchange or +save for local collection centers. + + (T)(R) METAL POLISH WITH SOLVENT, PAINT BRUSH CLEANER +WITH TSP (TRISODIUM PHOSPHATE), WATER-BASED GLUE, LATEX PAINT, +PAINT STRIPPER (lye base) - These products are toxic. +Exchange with neighbors. Recycle is possible or seal tightly +and discard with regular trash. + +CHEMICALS USED OUTDOORS + + (H) PESTICIDES, HERBICIDES, INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES - +Toxic. Pesticide is usually a catch-all term for all types of +lawn, garden, and agricultural chemicals. Use only according +to label or recommendations of an agricultural agent in the +Rutgers Cooperative Extension office in your county. +Triple-rinse containers and reuse rinse water as a +full-strength pesticide. Garden pesticide alternatives +include keeping your garden weed-free by handpulling, +importing predators, or using insecticidal soap. Consult the +Rutgers Cooperative Extension office in your county for +specific agricultural and garden pesticide recommendations. + + (H) POOL CHEMICALS - In addition to being corrosive and +toxic, these products are strong oxidizers and pose a fire and +explosive hazard. NEVER DISPOSE of pool chemicals with +household trash. Store safely until they can be fully used or +exchanged with neighbors. + + +OTHER HAZARDOUS HOME PRODUCTS + + (H)(R) HOBBY CHEMICALS (CRAFTS, PHOTOGRAPHY, LABS) - +These can be irritants, and are often corrosive, toxic, and +flammable. Do not dispose of these substances. These +chemicals should be safely stored in original containers. +NEVER pour down drains. + + (H) ARTISTS' PAINTS, MEDIUMS, ADHESIVES - These can be +irritants, and are often toxic and flammable. Work area +should be well ventilated. Store these containers until they +can be safely disposed of. + +For more information on hazardous household chemicals: + +1) Household Hazardous Waste: Solving the Disposal Dilemma. +Gina Purin, Golden Health Empire Health Planning Center, 2100 +21st Street, Sacramento, CA 95818. + +2) Nontoxic and Natural: How to Avoid Dangerous Everyday +Products and Buy or Make Safe Ones. Debra Lynn Dadd. +Nontoxic Lifestyles Inc., Box 210019, San Francisco, CA 94121. + +* Information in this reference appears with the understanding +that no discrimination is intended and no endorsement by +RUTGERS COOPERATIVE EXTENSION is implied. + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/health.myt b/textfiles.com/science/health.myt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..65ba0d12 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/health.myt @@ -0,0 +1,156 @@ +Newsgroups: alt.folklore.urban +From: snopes@netcom.com (snopes) +Subject: Health myths +Date: Thu, 16 Jun 1994 01:48:08 GMT + + The 'Myth Busters' column from the Health section of the L.A. Times: + + +GO AHEAD AND CROSS YOUR EYES + + It was the kind of health information you never questioned. After all, it +came from an authority -- not your doctor, but from your mom, your grandpa or +maybe even your pal Jimmy, who once dated a med student. From time to time, +we'll look at these long-held health "facts" and answer the question -- Sorry, +Mom -- true or false? + +"Cross your eyes and they will stay that way." + + Not so, says Dr. Art Corish, an Irvine optometrist and former president of +the Orange County Optometric Society. "Crossing the eyes is a perfectly normal +activity, an ability eye doctors expect you to have. It will not hurt your +eyes." He tells parents to ignore their children's crossed-eye antics if +they're clearly clowning around. The less said, he says, the better. + +"Swallow gum and it will not only bind you up, but will stay in your stomach +for seven years." + + Not true, says Dr. Kenneth Hepps, a gastroenterologist on staff at +Northridge Hospital Medical Center. "It would pass uneventfully in the majority +of cases," he says. Normal transit time through the body? About three to five +days. + + What we should be warned about is swallowing hair or persimmons. Swallow +enough of either, and you could develop a bezoar -- medical-ese for a very +tightly packed accumulation of hair or vegetable matter that's only partially +digested. + + Hairballs -- known to stomach doctors as trichobezoars -- are most common in +psychiatric patients, Hepps says, although teen-age girls, fond of twisting and +nibbling on their hair, might legitimately be considered an above-average +risk. + + "We had a patient at a Texas hospital from the psychiatric ward who had +plucked out and swallowed nearly a 1-pound ball of hair over time," Hepps +recalls. Hepps and his colleagues were forced to remove the hairball with a +scope inserted through the mouth. + + Bezoars caused by persimmons, which are pulpy, are called phytobezoars. They +are a particular hazard for people who have undergone stomach surgery or for +diabetics, for whom the functioning of smooth muscles in the digestive tract +and elsewhere may decline over time. + +"Walk barefoot and your feet will grow and grow." + + False, says Franklin Kase, a Burbank podiatrist and chairman of the San +Fernando Valley division of the Los Angeles County Podiatric Medical Assn. + + This myth should be rewritten, Kase says, to something like: "Become +pregnant and your feet might grow." During pregnancy, the extra weight puts +pressure on the legs, feet and ankles. "The soft tissue in the feet may stretch +and expand, elongating the foot and arch and causing splaying or widening of +the front part of the foot," he says. + + With age, your feet also tend to get longer, but this happens whether you +are shoeless or shod. + + Also, the more you walk, the more chance your feet will undergo an adult +growth spurt. + +"Stop working out and your muscles will turn to fat." + + "Impossible," says Julie Silverstein, an exercise physiologist at Centinela +Hospital's Fitness Institute in Culver City. "Muscle and fat are two separate +entities. One cannot turn into another. + + "If you decrease exercise and continue to eat (the same amount), the extra +calories you take in will be stored as fat," she says. "You feel flabby because +your muscles aren't as toned (once you quit workouts). You lose muscle mass and +you gain fat. But one doesn't turn into another." + +Newsgroups: alt.folklore.urban +From: snopes@netcom.com (snopes) +Subject: Health myths +Date: Thu, 16 Jun 1994 01:49:32 GMT + +More health myths: + + DON'T BE BUGGED BY DRAFTS -- VIRUSES CAUSE COLDS + + It was the kind of health information you never questioned. After all, it +came from an authority -- not your doctor, but from your mom, your grandpa or +maybe even your pal who once dated a med student. + + From time to time, we'll look at these long-held health "facts" and answer +the question -- sorry, Mom -- true or false. + + * + + "Sitting in a drafty room increases your chance of catching cold." + + "False," says Elliot Dick, professor of preventive medicine at the +University of Wisconsin Medical School, Madison, and a longtime researcher of +the cold virus. + + "The draft would have to contain a virus that went up your nose and attached +to a mucosal cell," he says. In other words, a draft doesn't give you a cold, a +virus does. + + Once you have a cold, drafts don't make them worse, he adds, citing research +by colleagues. + + * + + "Get out of those wet clothes before you catch your death." + + Forget it, Dick says. "Wet clothes don't increase the risk of a cold, +either." + + * + + "Cranberry juice will cure a urinary tract infection." + + A recent study, published in the Journal of the American Medical Assn. and +funded by Ocean Spray Cranberries Inc., suggests cranberry juice can reduce +bacteria in the urine. The Harvard researchers, who led the study, aren't +certain how the juice might work, but speculate a chemical in it might deserve +the credit. The researchers suggest more research. + + Until more data is in, cranberry juice probably can't hurt, says Dr. Eila +Skinner, USC assistant professor of urology. But it won't necessarily rule out +the need to see a doctor, she adds: "In adult women with symptoms of urinary +tract infection, 50% will clear without treatment, usually by drinking lots of +fluid -- and if it happens to be cranberry juice, great. Any liquid helps get +out the bacteria. If symptoms don't clear in two or three days, though, see a +doctor." Antibiotics might be necessary. + + Infections in men and children can be associated with potentially serious +disorders, so they should always see a doctor. + + * + + "If a man isn't bald by age 30, he probably never will be." + + Not true. "Some people start balding later," says Dr. Bernard Raskin, a +Valencia dermatologist and UCLA assistant clinical professor of +medicine/dermatology. + + "People who start balding earlier tend to lose more hair and become bald +earlier," he says. "People who lose hair later tend to lose it more slowly. If +they do become bald, it occurs at a later age." + + Raskin is often asked if baldness passed through the mother's side of the +family. His answer? No. Laying to rest another misconception, he adds: "There +is no relationship between baldness and sexual potency, sterility or +fertility." + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/hi-e-wt.txt b/textfiles.com/science/hi-e-wt.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..db5a3faf --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/hi-e-wt.txt @@ -0,0 +1,229 @@ + +GLOSSARY OF HIGH ENERGY WEAPONS TERMS + + +ALPHA PARTICLE + +Helium nuclei. Not very penetrating. Stopped by epidermis. + +BECQUEREL + +Symbol: Bq +1 disintegration/second. 1 Curie = 3.7 x 10^10 Bq. Unit of activity. Things +with small half-lives have the biggest activity. + +BERYLLIUM + +Symbol: Be +Element 4 with atomic weights b/w 6 and 11. A neutron reflector and neutron +source. Has low thermal neutron absorption cross section. Has high neutron +scattering cross section. Be has the highest number of atoms / c.c. than any +other element. Absorbs high energy neutrons to become a neutron source. +Used in the core of boosted fission devices. + +number 4 +symbol Be +name Beryllium +density 1.85 +heatVapor 73.9 +heatFusion 2.8 +elecConduct .25 +thermalConduct .38 +specificHeat .45 +weight 9.012182 +boilPoint 2472 deg C +meltPoint 1289 deg C +thermalConduct 2.01 +specificGrav 1.848 (20 deg C) +valence 2 +configuration [He] 2s^2 + +BETA PARTICLE + +Electrons, more penetrating than alphas. Can go through air, but are stopped +by protective clothing. + +BETA DECAY + +Radioactive emission of an electron (beta particle) from a nucleus. + +BOOSTING + +Injecting the hollow core of a fissile weapon with T and D gases, soon after +core implosion and fission initiation. Done to improve efficiency - there is +a synergy b/w fission and fusion reactions. + +DEUTERIUM + +Symbol: D +Heavy hydrogen isotope. Atomic number of 1, atomic weight of 2. +i.e. nucleus has 1 proton, 1 neutron. Deuterium is not radioactive. Found as +1/6000 of tap water. Nuclear fuel used in fusion into helium. + +GAMMA RAY + +Short wavelength electromagnetic radiation, extremely high energy light. Highly +penetrating. Can go through inches of steel or lead. Need metres of lead for +protection. + +GRAY + +Symbol: Gy +SI unit for 1 Joule deposited/kilogram of flesh. 1 Rad = 0.01 Gy. + +ION + +Atom stripped of its electron cloud. + +INERTIAL CONFINEMENT + +A technique which compresses a mass of fusion fuel, thereby increasing the +probability and rate of fusion. Abbreviation: ICF + +LEVITATION + +Method of separating the pusher and core so that there is an air gap in +between. This lets the pusher develop momentum (and maximises impulse) as +the pusher implodes. + +LITHIUM + +Symbol: Li +Element 3 with atomic weights b/w 5 and 9. Used as a fusion fuel. It is usually +compounded with deuterium to form Li-6D. Neutron bombardment transforms Li +into T. THe T fuses with the D to release He nuclei, more neutrons, and +radiation. + +LITHIUM 6 DEUTERIDE + +Called "Liddy" by Igor Kurchatov its discoverer, it serves as a dry fuel in +secondaries. + +MEGATON + +1,000,000 tons of TNT. 1 ton of TNT = 4.184^9 J. [From 'A Physicist's +Desk Reference', Ed. Herbert L. Anderson] + +NEUTRON + +Chargeless particle, and highly penetrating due to this property. +It hardly interacts, and hence is difficult to block. Can only be +blocked by metres of concrete or deep water. Neutron absorption by +nuclei can make the nuclei radioactively unstable. + +NUCLEON + +A proton or neutron in a nucleus. + +ORALLOY + +Symbol: Oy +Oak Ridge Alloy, about 93.5% U-235. + +PLUTONIUM + +Sumbol: Pu +Element 94 with atomic weights b/w 232 and 246. Radioactive, man-made. Half- +life is 24,360yrs, and it alpha decays. Pu-239 metal is used in weapons. + +number 94 +symbol Pu +name Plutonium +weight [244] +boilPoint 3230 deg C +meltPoint 640 deg C +heatVapor +heatFusion +elecConduct +thermalConduct 0.0670 +specificHeat +specificGrav (alpha modification) 19.84 (25 deg C) +valence 3, 4, 5, or 6 +configuration [Rn] 5f^6 7s^2 + +RAD + +Radiation Absorbed Dose, unit for measuring specific amounts of radiation +absorbed by human tissue. + +REM + +Radiation Equivalent Man, measures biological damage done to tissue by +specific amounts of radiation. The type of radiation is taken into account. +For beta and gamma radiation, 1 RAD = 1 REM. For neutrons and alphas, +1 RAD = up to 20 REM, depending on particle energy. Low rad dosages are +a few REM, high doses are > 100 REM. High doses give rise to immediate +radiation sickness: hypodermal bleeding, hair loss, sickness. Under 25 REM, +no short term effects are observed. In the long term, however, it will +lead to greater possibility for cancer and genetic abnormality in offspring. + +ROENTGEN + +Symbol: R or r + +Unit for measuring ionising radiation in air. Replaced by the Coulomb/kg. +1 roentgen = 2.58 x 10^-4 C/kg. + +SHAKE + +10 ns + +SIEVERT + +Symbol: Sv +SI unit defined as Gy x Quality_factor. 1 REM = 0.01 Sv. Unit for dose +equivalent. QF of gammas and betas is 1, QF for alphas is 20. So absorbed dose +of 1 Gy of gammas = 1 Sv, whereas the dose of 1 Gy of alphas is 20 Sv. +Background rad is 0.03 Sv. + +SPARKPLUG + +Oy or Pu-239 rod used as a fission igniter in a fusion cell. When compressed +and bombarded at one end by neutrons, it fissions. It heats the surrounding +compressed fusion fuel, and provides neutrons for T generation. + +TRITIUM + +Symbol: T +Heavy hydrogen isotope. Atomic number of 1, atomic weight of 3. +i.e. nucleus has 1 proton, 2 neutrons. Tritium is radioactive, with a half- +life of 12.3yrs. Not found in Nature. Produced via neutron bombardment of Li. + +URANIUM + +Symbol: U +Element 92 with atomic weights b/w 227 and 240. The U-235 and U-238 isotopes +are used in weapons. U-238 produces Pu-239 via neutron bombardment in reactors. +A heavy, silvery-white metal which is pyrophoric (spontaneous ignition) when +finely divided. Highly corrosive to most materials when in metallic vapour +form. Melting point: 1132 C. Boiling point: 3818 C. Has 6 electrons in +highest shell, contributing to a complicated chemistry for U. + +number 92 +symbol U +name Uranium +weight 238.0289 +boilPoint 4134 deg C +meltPoint 1135 deg C +heatVapor +heatFusion +elecConduct +thermalConduct 0.275 +specificHeat +specificGrav ~18.95 +valence 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 +configuration [Rn] 5f^3 6d 7s^2 + +URANIUM HEXAFLUORIDE + +Symbol: UF6 +Used in separation techniques since there is only 1 isotope of F. Molecular +weight is 349 or 352, corresponding to U-235 and U-238 respectively. Highly +symmetrical moelcule. Fluorines arranged arround central U atom, along the +3 perpendicular axes. UF6 is highly reactive, especially against water and +many organic compounds. Strong fluorinating agent. Corrosive to most metals. +Only Ni or Al and their alloys are suitable for UF6 handling in separators. +Colorless solid at room temp. At room pressure, it sublimes at 56.5 C. cf +dry ice. + +1994 diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/hot_wate.fas b/textfiles.com/science/hot_wate.fas new file mode 100644 index 00000000..28e479ec --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/hot_wate.fas @@ -0,0 +1,90 @@ +From: sichase@csa2.lbl.gov (SCOTT I CHASE) +Subject: Re: Hot water +Followup-To: rec.martial-arts +Date: 25 Jul 92 06:12:10 GMT +Organization: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory - Berkeley, CA, USA +Lines: 75 +Distribution: na +Message-ID: <24887@dog.ee.lbl.gov> +References: <1992Jul20.174611.28999@uwm.edu> <59140@mimsy.umd.edu> <1992Jul22.095347.16@antioc.antioch.edu> +Reply-To: sichase@csa2.lbl.gov +NNTP-Posting-Host: 128.3.254.197 +News-Software: VAX/VMS VNEWS 1.3-4 + +In article <1992Jul22.095347.16@antioc.antioch.edu>, mbaya@antioc.antioch.edu writes... +> +>and is it also true that Hot/boiling water will freeze faster than +>cold water? I know I heard this somewhere a long time ago. Why does it +>do this? +> +Yes, under some conditions. This is in the sci.physics FAQ. Here is +the appropriate text: + +******************************************************************************** +Item 10. + +Hot Water Freezes Faster than Cold! updated 11-May-1992 +----------------------------------- original by Richard M. Mathews + + You put two pails of water outside on a freezing day. One has hot +water (95 degrees C) and the other has an equal amount of colder water (50 +degrees C). Which freezes first? The hot water freezes first! Why? + + It is commonly argued that the hot water will take some time to +reach the initial temperature of the cold water, and then follow the same +cooling curve. So it seems at first glance difficult to believe that the +hot water freezes first. The answer lies mostly in evaporation. The effect +is definitely real and can be duplicated in your own kitchen. + + Every "proof" that hot water can't freeze faster assumes that the +state of the water can be described by a single number. Remember that +temperature is a function of position. There are also other factors +besides temperature, such as motion of the water, gas content, etc. With +these multiple parameters, any argument based on the hot water having to +pass through the initial state of the cold water before reaching the +freezing point will fall apart. The most important factor is evaporation. + + The cooling of pails without lids is partly Newtonian and partly by +evaporation of the contents. The proportions depend on the walls and on +temperature. At sufficiently high temperatures evaporation is more +important. If equal masses of water are taken at two starting +temperatures, more rapid evaporation from the hotter one may diminish its +mass enough to compensate for the greater temperature range it must cover +to reach freezing. The mass lost when cooling is by evaporation is not +negligible. In one experiment, water cooling from 100C lost 16% of its mass +by 0C, and lost a further 12% on freezing, for a total loss of 26%. + + The cooling effect of evaporation is twofold. First, mass is +carried off so that less needs to be cooled from then on. Also, +evaporation carries off the hottest molecules, lowering considerably the +average kinetic energy of the molecules remaining. This is why "blowing on +your soup" cools it. It encourages evaporation by removing the water vapor +above the soup. + + Thus experiment and theory agree that hot water freezes faster than +cold for sufficiently high starting temperatures, if the cooling is by +evaporation. Cooling in a wooden pail or barrel is mostly by evaporation. +In fact, a wooden bucket of water starting at 100C would finish freezing in +90% of the time taken by an equal volume starting at room temperature. The +folklore on this matter may well have started a century or more ago when +wooden pails were usual. Considerable heat is transferred through the +sides of metal pails, and evaporation no longer dominates the cooling, so +the belief is unlikely to have started from correct observations after +metal pails became common. + +References: + "Hot water freezes faster than cold water. Why does it do so?", + Jearl Walker in The Amateur Scientist, Scientific American, + Vol. 237, No. 3, pp 246-257; September, 1977. + + "The Freezing of Hot and Cold Water", G.S. Kell in American + Journal of Physics, Vol. 37, No. 5, pp 564-565; May, 1969. + +-------------------- +Scott I. Chase "The question seems to be of such a character +SICHASE@CSA2.LBL.GOV that if I should come to life after my death + and some mathematician were to tell me that it + had been definitely settled, I think I would + immediately drop dead again." - Vandiver + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/how2dotv.txt b/textfiles.com/science/how2dotv.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..5522a04b --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/how2dotv.txt @@ -0,0 +1,87 @@ +A one-minute course on how to do T.V. + +by Richard Freeman +---------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +A SHORT TIME BEFORE I DROPPED out of Anthropology, I was regaled with what +I now think of as suburban legends. The one I still remember concerned a +tribe somewhere that was shown, perhaps on a bedsheet hung from a tree limb, +their first motion picture. No one in the tribe knew what to make of the +action. Instead, they all followed a chicken that was in one of the scenes. +I wonder (not only what movie had a chicken in it but whether this story +could possibly be true). + +What makes me wonder is my experience producing television programs. I've +helped set up a TV station in town for almost no money at all, and I've +watched fifth-graders learn to use all the equipment in under 15 minutes - +and go on to do their own shows with interviews and trivia contests and +music. Either the technology is very simple or we are watching a miracle. + +Whenever I teach someone how to use a TV camera, I always feel like +apologizing that it wasn't more complicated. That there isn't more to learn +and more to say. The only trick is learning that it is this easy. What stops +most people, I think, is the idea that TV is terribly technologically +complex and expensive ... whereas all that you need, if you have cable +access, is a camcorder and about $500 worth of sound equipment. Anything +else is gravy. + +First you need to live in a small town with a cable access channel that +isn't being used. I assume there are lots of towns like mine - Yellow +Springs, Ohio - that have that cable capability but haven't used it yet. + +Certainly the equipment needed is simple. For the audio, we use a Radio +Shack control board (the under-$100 model works fine) which allows us to +plug in three microphones, a cassette deck, and a CD player. Add a small +pair of $50 monitor speakers, some wire, and a telephone and you can go on +the air as a radio station. + +To do just radio (over the TV), all you need to do is plug a connection cord +from the board into the tuner that's hooked up to the cable modulator. + +The next step is to produce TV. To do this you need a camcorder and a +tripod. It too plugs right in. Kids learn to handle the camcorder in under a +minute (all there is to learn is what button to push to zoom in and out). +Another five minutes will be enough to show everyone how to work the control +board. They already know how to use cassette decks and CD players. + +Kids have watched enough television (unlike those poor tribesmen) to know +exactly how it's done. Whatever else needs to be taught, they'll teach you. +Our studio is a basement room in the village building. Though most of it +still looks like a combination of Castle Dracula and junk storage, one wall +has a gray rug hung on it. With a table in front of the rug and a couple of +home-made spotlights, we have a set that looks great on TV. + +The trick to producing television seems to be to teach the kids how to use +all of the equipment as quickly as you can and then, the same night, let +them do their shows. When an audience shows up to watch, you can teach them +as well. And there is an audience. Our kids get 80 phone calls in a +half-hour trivia contest. + +I find it particularly funny that I can produce TV and use a computer while +I don't know how to drive a car. In 1962 only a few people could do the +first two and I felt completely out of things not being able to do the +latter. This century is just full of such jokes. + +---------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X + + Another file downloaded from: NIRVANAnet(tm) + + & the Temple of the Screaming Electron Jeff Hunter 510-935-5845 + Rat Head Ratsnatcher 510-524-3649 + Burn This Flag Zardoz 408-363-9766 + realitycheck Poindexter Fortran 415-567-7043 + Lies Unlimited Mick Freen 415-583-4102 + + Specializing in conversations, obscure information, high explosives, + arcane knowledge, political extremism, diversive sexuality, + insane speculation, and wild rumours. ALL-TEXT BBS SYSTEMS. + + Full access for first-time callers. We don't want to know who you are, + where you live, or what your phone number is. We are not Big Brother. + + "Raw Data for Raw Nerves" + +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/htt.txt b/textfiles.com/science/htt.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ac470796 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/htt.txt @@ -0,0 +1,99 @@ +Tension testing of four different twines +By Derek Voll +EM 307 +4/30/92 + +Abstract + In this experiment I pulled apart cotton, jute, hemp and nylon twine to +test their ultimate strength. I used a standard tension testing machine +equipped with a load versus displacement plotter. I could not calculate +strain and was thereby limited by the lack of theory to back up my +observations and make descriptive numerical calculations. I did repeat the +tests to produce an average value of ultimate load for each twine group. I +used this value to make a rough stress calculation. Nylon is the strongest, +cotton the weakest and jute and hemp are about equal in strength. I had quite +a bit of difficulty with the nylon specimens because of their high strength +but the others worked out all right. + +Introduction + For my independent project I choose to test the strength of four +different kinds of twine, cotton, jute, hemp, and nylon. There are many +factors in choosing the right twine of the job it will be used for, cost, +temperature to be used at, availability, creep and fatigue characteristics. +These and other parameters could be analyzed in future studies to find the +best twine but my project will focus on tensile strength. I think the results +will be meaningful to someone buying twine and the twine producers. In fact +the suppliers of the hemp twine were quite interested in my report and would +like some copies; they would like more scientific information on hemp since +there is so little scientific investigation or research concerning hemp. + + My procedure was to obtain twines with similar dimensions, pull them +apart using a standard tension testing machine, collect load versus +displacement plots for each of the specimens and then compare and analyze the +data. I used a tension testing machine with a capacity of 1000 pounds which +had a load versus displacement plotting machine connected to it. By wrapping +the twine around the round spool three times, I relied on the large friction +force to hold the twine in place. This force was not large enough for the +nylon twine and I used the pneumatic grips instead. The pneumatic grips +provided more friction which I needed to hold the nylon twine in place. + +OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS + I would like to start with some general observations of the experiment. +First, the tests of the cotton, jute and hemp twines proceeded with few +problems and their failure occured in the middle of the specimen, which is +desirable in any tensile test since the experimenter can more easily observe +the fracture area and disregard any stress concentration at the clamp-twine +connection. however, for my first two samples of nylon I tried to use the +same clamps that I had used for the other twines but in both cases the twine +overcame the clampUs friction force before failure but after some stretching +(the twine was pulled out of the clamps). Therefore, I switched to the +pneumatic clamps but the nylon still slipped some, wearing the surface of the +twine and causing stress concentrations. The nylon broke at this worn area +near the clamps. Stress concentrations are the very tiny notches and +imperfections in a material that produced a high localized stress. Also, I +did not have enough nylon so I used the same specimens that I had used in the +other clamps and one new specimen. The first two specimens broke sooner and +under less load (see Fig #XX) and this was expected since they had already +undergone some plastic deformation and recovery. I did not realize how strong +and difficult to test the nylon would be. I know my procedure and the +following results for nylon are not accurate but it should be obvious that the +nylon is definitely the strongest of the four twines. I have graphed each of +the specimens together in their respective group (Figs XX- XX) to show the +variances between the individual specimens; nylon has the greatest variance in +displacement and ultimate load as expected but it should be noted that hemp +twines show the second largest variance in ultimate load (all hemp specimens +are from Hungary but the specimens with the lower ultimate load were from a +different supplier than the other three). From these graphs we see that +cotton is the weakest and nylon is the strongest. I would like to point out +that these graphs do not tell the whole story and a better indication of +strength would be a stress versus strain plot, which was impossible to make +since stains could not be calculated because we did not have access to an +extensometer. However, if you look at the sample calculations in the appendix +you will see that the hemp twine had a slightly thicker cross section and the +corresponding stress was comparable to that of the jute twine. Even with this +fundamental calculation we must realize that each twine was probable woven +differently and all their diameters were slightly different. + + Looking closely at the graphs for the cotton and nylon specimens you will +see that there are little ridges and drop-offs before fracture; these points +are where the rope must have been slipping in the grips. The curves reach a +high point and then drop off suddenly, the high point is the ultimate strength +point. This high point can be considered the failure point too but I would +like to point out the sharp rises after this point. These sharp rises occur +in the jute, cotton and hemp twine and represent the few fibers that did not +snap at the ultimate strength point. These last fibers stretched a little +further and then snapped under a lesser load. This is different from the +characteristic necking and fracturing that we have learned about in class +where we mainly dealt with metals. + +CONCLUSION + + In conclusion, I have learned more about tensile testing and the +improvements needed in different applications involving the fundamentals of +stress, strain and fracture mechanics that we have learned in class. I think +that with more accurate tests the results I have found would hold up. I +observed that nylon is indubitably the strongest, cotton the weakest and hemp +and jute are about even. There was some slipping, variance in cross sections +and some amount of error attributed to operator inexperience and the overall +measuring procedure. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/humble.how b/textfiles.com/science/humble.how new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e3ed9527 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/humble.how @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ + THE HUMBLE TELESCOPE + David Daye + Columbus, OH + + A quick, fun telescope project for kids and lazy adults is the +Humble Telescope, a solar viewer that can produce foot- to yard- +sized images of the sun, including sunspots down to a few earth +diameters. And although far simpler than a similarly-named +instrument, the Humble Telescope may be a more reliable, cost- +effective way of viewing of detail on a heavenly body. + + Since a pinhole camera works not by refraction but by simple +geometry, it follows that a tiny MIRROR should create as good an +image as a pinhole in a lightproof box. The advantage of the +mirror is that you can shoot its image anywhere you please, into a +darkened room far enough back to produce big if somewhat dim +images. You can only do that with a pinhole by making a barn-sized +viewer. + + As with the Other telescope, the key element here is a special +mirror -- but this one only needs to be a flat FRONT-silvered one, +in almost any shape of 1 square inch or more. While you, too, can +have one specially made by a government contractor, you can also +pick one up in any shopping mall parking lot, where they are +produced by the timeless forces of automobile fender-benders. + + The shiny part has to be on top, because the image is ruined +if light has to pass in and out of glass. Clamp the mirror to your +camera tripod (kids: stick it on a dry rock with bubble gum). Now +make the pinhole "mask" that does the actual imaging. Take your +business card (the gum wrapper) and poke a 1/8" to 1/4" hole with +your executive pen (rusty nail). + + Open the window of your viewing room--glass, screen and all-- +and block off most of the opening with shades or towels. Go out +into the sun and use the light of the full mirror to aim the image +into the room. (Prop your mounting rock into position.) Gently +tack the mask over the mirror with tape so that only the pinhole +area is exposed. + + Dash in and watch or photograph at will! Sunspots appear as +dim smudges that wiggle and move along with the image of the disk. +You have about a minute before the disk tracks away from the +window. The farther the mirror from the wall, the bigger but +dimmer the image. The bigger the pinhole, the brighter but +blurrier the image. + + For better viewing: 1) Set up a flat, white cardboard or +screen for the image. 2) Keep the room the same temperature as +outoors to minimize heat distortion. 3) Keep the room dark as +possible so as to see more dim sunspots. 4) Have parent or teacher +do the aiming so you can keep your eyes used to the dark. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/implosion.txt b/textfiles.com/science/implosion.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7082548e --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/implosion.txt @@ -0,0 +1,254 @@ +"The problem of nuclear weapon proliferation will not be solved until the + root cause is attacked. This is the belief that nuclear weapons are desirable + things to have, whether for use in fighting wars, in deterring and/or + intimidating adversaries, or only as symbols of technological power or + political equality with the mighty. Until all these motivations are shown to + be empty, and until nuclear weapons are outlawed by a world consensus that + they are too dangerous, politically and militarily counter-productive and + morally unacceptable, the threat of nuclear proliferation will remain." + +p.83, Uranium Enrichment & Nuclear Weapon Proliferation, SIPRI, A. Krass et al. + +IMPLOSION ASSEMBLY + +The idea here is to have a hollow shell of fissionable material, and compress +it using carefully placed surrounding explosives. By pressuring the material +into a smaller volume, you increase the density. By doing so, you increase the +probability of a neutron split over neutron loss. You need a precise spherical +shock wave for compression. + +The collapsed core is then irradiated with external neutrons to start fission. +The number of nuclei fissioning during later generations is proportional to +how many nuclei you have fissioning initially. This depends on the initial +neutron flux. + +Fusion Boosting + +At the centre of the core you can have solid Li6D. Some time before detonation +you could also inject the core with T gas, from some exterior device. The idea +is to achieve a fusion reaction in the central pit. + +During implosion, the core gains a high enough temperature and +pressure for fusion reactions to occur. The synergy between fusion and fission +reactions greatly improves chain reaction efficiency. Neutrons released from +fusion have much higher energies than those released via fission processes. +When these ultra fast neutrons hit U-235 nuclei, the splitting releases more +neutrons than when U-235 are hit with fission neutrons. The chain reaction +multiplies rapidly, leading to higher temperatures, and more fusion. The +ultimate result is more U-235 splitting than you would have without the +boost. + +The shell may be made of U-235 or Pu-239. The first Chinese test employed +a U-235 shell. + +Another technique is to introduce a tamper of some sort, which is another shell +surrounding the fissionable material. This shell is usually made of +Beryllium or U-238. It's purpose is to reflect escaping neutrons back into +the reaction. This has the effect of reducing the amount of fissionable +material needed for a reaction. + +The Fat Man bomb used a hollow core, but present day weapons might employ a +solid (subcritical) core of fissile material. The density increase in a solid +core reduces the amount of critical mass required for a chain reaction. This +is because the reaction cross section is substantially increased. + +Core Levitation + +To increase the impact of the tamper on the fissionable shell, you can +levitate the shell. You leave an air gap between the two materials. This +has the effect of increasing momentum transfer, and hence facilitating +implosion. According to Ted Taylor, in John McPhee's book (see Refs): + +"[Taylor] said there was something about the structure of implosion +bombs that he had not gone into, and that he could not go into, which +contributed greatly to their yield... 'All I can say is this: They +had known all along that the way to get more energy into the middle was +to hit the core harder. When you hammer a nail, what do you do? Do you +put the hammer on the nail and push?'" + + +============================================================================ + + [1] Uranium Detonator + ----------------- + + Comprised of 2 parts. Larger mass is spherical and concave. + Smaller mass is precisely the size and shape of the `missing' + section of the larger mass. Upon detonation of conventional + explosive, the smaller mass is violently injected and welded + to the larger mass. Supercritical mass is reached, chain + reaction follows in one millionth of a second. + + [2] Plutonium Detonator + ------------------- + + Comprised of 32 individual 45-degree pie-shaped sections of + Plutonium surrounding a Beryllium/Polonium mixture. These 32 + sections together form a sphere. All of these sections must + have the precisely equal mass (and shape) of the others. The + shape of the detonator resembles a soccerball. Upon detonation + of conventional explosives, all 32 sections must merge with the + B/P mixture within 1 ten-millionths of a second. + + ____________________________________________________________________________ + + - Diagram - + ------------- + ____________________________________________________________________________ + | + [Uranium Detonator] | [Plutonium Detonator] + ______________________________________|_____________________________________ + _____ | + | :| | . [2] . + | :| | . ~ \_/ ~ . + | [2]:| | .. . .. + | :| | [2]| . |[2] + | .:| | . ~~~ . . . ~~~ . + `...::' | . . . . . + _ ~~~ _ | . . ~ . . + . `| |':.. | [2]\. . . . [1] . . . ./[2] + . | | `:::. | ./ . ~~~ . \. + | | `::: | . . : . . + . | | :::: | . . . . . + | [1] | ::|:: | . ___ . ___ . + . `. .' ,::||: | [2]| . |[2] + ~~~ ::|||: | .' _ `. + .. [2] .::|||:' | . / \ . + ::... ..::||||:' | ~ -[2]- ~ + :::::::::::::||||::' | + ``::::||||||||:'' | + ``:::::'' | + | + | + | + | + [1] = Collision Point | [1] = Collision Point + [2] - Uranium Section(s) | [2] = Plutonium Section(s) + | + | + ______________________________________|_____________________________________ +============================================================================ + + + - Diagram for Plutonium Bomb - + -------------------------------- + [Gravity Bomb - Implosion Model] + -------------------------------- + -> Cutaway Sections Visible <- + + + +============================================================================ + + + + /\ + / \ <---------------------------[1] + / \ + _________________/______\_________________ + | : ||: ~ ~ : | + [2]-------> | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | : ||: : | + | :______||:_____________________________: | + |/_______||/______________________________\| + \ ~\ | : |:| / + \ |\ | : |:| / + \ | \ | :__________|:| / + \ |:_\ | :__________\:| / + \ |___\ |______________| / + \ | \ |~ \ / + \|_______\|_________________\_/ + |_____________________________| + / \ + / \ + / \ + / _______________ \ + / ___/ \___ \ + /____ __/ \__ ____\ + [3]_______________________________ \ ___| + / __/ \ \__ \ + / / \/ \ \ + / / ___________ \ \ + / / __/___________\__ \ \ + ./ /__ ___ /=================\ ___ __\ \. + [4]-------> ___||___|====|[[[[[|||||||]]]]]|====|___||___ <------[4] + / / |=o=o=o=o=o=o=o=o=| <-------------------[5] + .' / \_______ _______/ \ `. + : |___ |*| ___| : + .' | \_________________ |*| _________________/ | `. + : | ___________ ___ \ |*| / ___ ___________ | : + : |__/ \ / \_\\*//_/ \ / \__| : + : |______________:|:____:: **::****:|:********\ <---------[6] + .' /:|||||||||||||'`|;..:::::::::::..;|'`|||||||*|||||:\ `. + [7]----------> ||||||' .:::;~|~~~___~~~|~;:::. `|||||*|| <-------[7] + : |:|||||||||' .::'\ ..:::::::::::.. /`::. `|||*|||||:| : + : |:|||||||' .::' .:::''~~ ~~``:::. `::. `|\***\|:| : + : |:|||||' .::\ .::''\ | [9] | /``::: /::. `|||*|:| : + [8]------------>::' .::' \|_________|/ `::: `::. `|* <-----[6] + `. \:||' .::' ::'\ [9] . . . [9] /::: `::. *|:/ .' + : \:' :::'.::' \ . . / `::.`::: *:/ : + : | .::'.::'____\ [10] . [10] /____`::.`::.*| : + : | :::~::: | . . . | :::~:::*| : + : | ::: :: [9] | . . ..:.. . . | [9] :: :::*| : + : \ ::: :: | . :\_____________________________[11] + `. \`:: ::: ____| . . . |____ ::: ::'/ .' + : \:;~`::. / . [10] [10] . \ .::'~::/ : + `. \:. `::. / . . . \ .::' .:/ .' + : \:. `:::/ [9] _________ [9] \:::' .:/ : + `. \::. `:::. /| |\ .:::' .::/ .' + : ~~\:/ `:::./ | [9] | \.:::' \:/~~ : + `:=========\::. `::::... ...::::' .::/=========:' + `: ~\::./ ```:::::::::''' \.::/~ :' + `. ~~~~~~\| ~~~ |/~~~~~~ .' + `. \:::...:::/ .' + `. ~~~~~~~~~ .' + `. .' + `:. .:' + `::. .::' + `::.. ..::' + `:::.. ..:::' + `::::::... ..::::::' + [12]------------------> `:____:::::::::::____:' <-----------------[12] + ```::::_____::::''' + ~~~~~ + + + + + + +============================================================================ + + + - Diagram Outline - + --------------------- + + [1] - Tail Cone + [2] - Stabilizing Tail Fins + [3] - Air Pressure Detonator + [4] - Air Inlet Tube(s) + [5] - Altimeter/Pressure Sensors + [6] - Electronic Conduits & Fusing Circuits + [7] - Lead Shield Container + [8] - Neutron Deflector (U-238) + [9] - Conventional Explosive Charge(s) + [10] - Plutonium (Pu-239) + [11] - Receptacle for Beryllium/Polonium mixture + to facilitate atomic detonation reaction. + [12] - Fuses (inserted to arm bomb) + + + + +============================================================================ + +1994 diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/indylook.txt b/textfiles.com/science/indylook.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a8834014 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/indylook.txt @@ -0,0 +1,127 @@ + + +Industrial aesthetics and design -- interior decorating + +I picked this book up at the local used book store the other day: + + Joan Kron and Suzanne Slesin, High-Tech: The Industrial Style and +Source Book for the Home, (New York, Clarkson N. Potter, Inc., 1978), 286 pp. + foreword by Emilio Ambasz + designed by Walter Bernard + + Yes, here it is: how to furnish your home, industrial style. +Here's the info from the jacket, including author bios. Let's just say +it's a combination of RE/Search and Better Homes & Gardens. Enjoy: + +_______________________________________________________________________ + +HIGH-TECH +The Industrial Style and Source Book for the Home + + How to outfit your home with paraphernalia originally developed for +factories, battleships, dry cleaners, laboratories, Chinese restaurants, and +hundreds of other commercial and industrial users. + + _CONTENTS_ + THE INDUSTRIAL AESTHETIC + STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS + SYSTEMS + STORAGE + FURNITURE + MATERIALS + LIGHTING + THE WORKS + FINISHING TOUCHES + plus the High-Tech Directory, a 42-page illustrated buying guide, +listing hundreds of hard-to-find industrial sources. + + Gym lockers in the bedroom, factory lamps over the dining table, +detection mirrors over the dressing table, movers' pads for upholstery, +Con Ed guardrails for towel racks, I beams for end tables, steno chairs +for dining chairs, supermarket doors swinging into the kitchen, warehouse +shelving in the living room, scaffolding beds, test tubes for bud vases -- +something exciting is happening in home furnishings and it's called +high-tech. If you haven't heard about it yet, you will soon. And its +meaning will soon become as familiar as art deco or art nouveau. + + A play on the words "high-style" and "technology", "high-tech" is a +term being used in archtectural circles to describe an increasing number of +residences and public buildings with a nuts-and-bolts-exposed-pipes +technological look or to describe residences made of prefabricated components +more commonly used to build warehouses or factories. Authors Joan Kron and +Suzanne Slesin, two infuential home-furnishings reporters, have expanded this +definition to include a parallel trend in interior design -- the use of +commonplace commercial and industrial equipment in the home. + + HIGH-TECH is a breakthrough book about a revolution in design that is +sweeping the country -- in fact, the world. It is the first in-depth look +at the industrial aesthetic as applied to architecture and home furnishings. + + Whether you live in a split-level, a loft, a penthouse, a carriage +house, or an efficiency apartment, this book will change the way you look +at the world and inspire you to explore the commercial and industrial +landscape. Why limit yourself to what is offered in traditional +furniture outlets when there is a wealth of underutilized equipment that can +moonlight residentially? + + In his foreword to HIGH-TECH, Emilio Ambasz, prizewinning architect +and designer and former curator of design at the Museum of Modern Art, +explains how many of these alternative artifacts are noble pieces of +anonymous design unencumbered by the artificial need to reflect status. +In HIGH-TECH you will see, beautifully illustrated, how top designers and +architects have used ordinary, basic assembly-line products -- +prefabricated mezzanines, dry cleaners' racks, pallets (right off forklift +trucks), beakers and fleakers, Sonotubes, and Colorlith laboratory +counter tops -- with style and panache, and how you can follow suit. + + Neither funky nor pie in the sky, HIGH-TECH is meant to do more than +sit there on the coffee table looking pretty. It is organized logically +according to your design problems, from structural elements for renovations +to systems, storage, furniture, materials, lighting, hardware, kitchen and +bathroom appliances, and finishing touches. + + In the 32-page Storage chapter, for instance, you'll learn how to use +lockers and wardrobes, file cabinets and art supply drawers, pick racks, +doughnut baskets, small parts bins, revolving warehouse racks, and electric +conveyor systems to organize and simplify your home environment -- and that's +just the beginning. + + More than the first comprehensive book about the industrial revolution +in design, more than a history of the genre, more than an interior design +book with hundreds of color pictures showing innovative uses for many +familiar industrial and commercial products and materials -- HIGH-TECH +is a source book. Unlike any previous design book, it includes estimated +prices (ranging from $1 to $10,000) for many of the products illustrated as +well as the names and addresses of their manufacturers and distributors +throughout the world. + + HIGH-TECH is _the_ guide to the new industrial revolution in design. + + + + Joan Kron is a former reporter for the Home section of the New +York Times, former senior editor and home furnishings writer for New York +magazine, and associate editor at Philadelphia magazine. She has also +written for the Ladies' Home Journal and Town & Country. + + Suzanne Slesin, a senior editor at Esquire, writes about design and +home furnishings. She is a former contributing editor of New York +magazine, where she covered home furnishings. She has also contributed +to American Home, Industrial Design, Architecture Plus, Abitare, and Domus. + + Walter Bernard is the art director of Time magazine, which he +redesigned last year, and the former art director of New York magazine. +He has won numerous art direction awards and is a visiting professor at +Cooper Union. + + _Jacket photo_: In an East Hampton living room by Bray-Schaible +Design, a high-tech hearth/coffee table combination is surfaced in "deck +plate," a common industrial material often used on the floors of battleship +boiler rooms. The fruit bowl is a concrete birdbath. + + + +______________________________________________________________________ + + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/infinity.jok b/textfiles.com/science/infinity.jok new file mode 100644 index 00000000..1d26dc49 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/infinity.jok @@ -0,0 +1,93 @@ +Article 410 of misc.misc: +Xref: puukko sci.math:453 misc.misc:410 +Path: puukko!santra!tut!enea!mcvax!uunet!seismo!sundc!pitstop!sun!decwrl!decvax!ucbvax!jade!ig!uwmcsd1!csd4.milw.wisc.edu!markh +From: markh@csd4.milw.wisc.edu (Mark William Hopkins) +Newsgroups: sci.math,misc.misc +Subject: Re: Properties of Infinity +Summary: Laissez-Faire +Keywords: Infinity properties +Message-ID: <4235@uwmcsd1.UUCP> +Date: 17 Jan 88 02:49:51 GMT +References: <1990@pdn.UUCP> +Sender: daemon@uwmcsd1.UUCP +Reply-To: markh@csd4.milw.wisc.edu (Mark William Hopkins) +Organization: University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee +Lines: 74 + +In article <1990@pdn.UUCP> ken@pdn.UUCP (Ken Auer) writes: +>For reasons which I'd rather not explain, I need to find out several +>properties of infinity and negative infinity which I'm sure are in some +>8th grade math book (which I don't have immediate access to). +> +>I've got lots of educated guesses, but I really need concrete answers +>for things like the following (concrete meaning I can call a routine +>which can supply me with a concrete answer). +> +> infinity is not even, +> infinity is not odd, +> infinity + infinity = infinity +> infinity - infinity = ? +> . +> . +> . +> +>I really don't want to start any highly theoretical discussions here, I +>just want to know what to do when some one tries to use infinity as s/he +>would use a finite number in an equation, etc. +> +>-------------------------------------------------------------------------- +>Ken Auer Paradyne Corporation +>{gatech,rutgers,attmail}!codas!pdn!ken Mail stop LF-207 +>Phone: (813) 530-8307 P.O. Box 2826 +> Largo, FL 34649-9981 +> +>"The views expressed above do not necessarily reflect the views of my +>employer, which by no means makes them incorrect." + +Addition: Multiplication: + +Infinity + Finite = Infinity Infinity x Infinity = Infinity + +Infinity + Infinity = Infinity Infinity x Finite = Infinity, + but Infinity x 0 is undefined +Infinity + -Infinity can be +absolutely anything finite or not Infinity x -Infinity = -Infinity + +-Infinity + Finite = -Infinity -Infinity x Finite = -Infinity, + with the same exception for 0 as before +-Infinity + -Infinity = -Infinity + -Infinity x -Infinity = Infinity +Subtraction: +Same as addition, with u-v treated as u+(-v): +where +-(Infinity) = -Infinity +-(-Infinity) = Infinity + +Division: +Same as multiplication, with u/v treated as u x (1/v): +where +1/(-Infinity) = -0 +1/(Infinity) = +0 +1/(-0) = -Infinity +1/(+0) = Infinity + +You'll need to make the distinction between +0 and -0, if you're going to say +anything useful about division with infinity. + +These rules are made in such a way that all the properties (+,x,-,/) will +remain true when infinite limits are included. It is possible for a limit +to be infinite without its positive or negative sign being determined. This +limit will represent the unsigned infinity. Its negative is itself and its +reciporical is 0 (without the + or - sign). You'll need to use all three +kinds of infinity. Much of Calculus is devoted to resolving those limits +involving the undefined operations above, like + + Infinity - Infinity, Infinity x 0, Infinity/Infinity + +There is a theory of infinitesimals based on what is known as Non-Standard +Analysis. Its content is completely equivalent to Calculus. In fact, it is +a reformulation of Calculus that matches very closely the original formulation +of Calculus as a calculation system for infinite and infinitesimal numbers. + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/insulate.txt b/textfiles.com/science/insulate.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8dd6ab49 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/insulate.txt @@ -0,0 +1,254 @@ +____________________________________________________________________________ + +Solar radiation data for the indicated cities measured +in Watt-hours per square meters per day. + + Solar Radiation (Wh/m2/day) +State/ Lattitude/Longitude + City Global Direct Diffuse + horizontal normal horizontal +----------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +AL/BIRMINGHAM 33,34 N/ 86,45 W 4449 3960 2020 +AL/HUNTSVILLE 34,39 N/ 86,46 W 4368 3991 1912 +AL/MOBILE 30,41 N/ 88,15 W 4442 3870 2019 +AL/MONTGOMERY 32,18 N/ 86,24 W 4614 4043 2095 +AK/ANCHORAGE 61,10 N/150, 1 W 2403 2340 1341 +AK/ANNETTE 55, 2 N/131,34 W 2623 2344 1482 +AK/BARROW 71,18 N/156,47 W 2005 1900 1289 +AK/BETHEL 60,47 N/161,48 W 2396 2396 1416 +AK/BETTLES 66,55 N/151,31 W 2436 3027 1219 +AK/BIG DELTA 64, 0 N/145,44 W 2561 3137 1268 +AK/COLD BAY 55,12 N/162,43 W 2181 1224 1627 +AK/FAIRBANKS 64,49 N/147,52 W 2551 2905 1333 +AK/GULKANA 62, 9 N/145,27 W 2702 3215 1327 +AK/KING SALMON 58,41 N/156,39 W 2416 2234 1468 +AK/KODIAK 57,45 N/152,20 W 2476 2491 1381 +AK/KOTZEBUE 66,52 N/162,38 W 2421 2976 1233 +AK/MCGRATH 62,58 N/155,37 W 2471 2712 1353 +AK/NOME 64,30 N/165,26 W 2480 3023 1272 +AK/ST PAUL IS. 57, 9 N/170,13 W 2201 1159 1691 +AK/TALKEETNA 62,18 N/150, 6 W 2491 2774 1343 +AK/YAKUTAT 59,31 N/139,40 W 2275 1854 1465 +AZ/FLAGSTAFF 35, 8 N/111,40 W 5141 6433 1427 +AZ/PHOENIX 33,26 N/112, 1 W 5733 6794 1560 +AZ/PRESCOTT 34,39 N/112,26 W 5334 6778 1382 +AZ/TUCSON 32, 7 N/110,56 W 5700 7020 1430 +AR/FORT SMITH 35,20 N/ 94,22 W 4558 4502 1854 +AR/LITTLE ROCK 34,44 N/ 92,14 W 4514 4303 1893 +CA/ARCATA 40,59 N/124, 6 W 3900 3537 1845 +CA/BAKERSFIELD 35,25 N/119, 3 W 5205 5735 1605 +CA/DAGGETT 34,52 N/116,47 W 5778 7465 1352 +CA/FRESNO 36,46 N/119,43 W 5166 5630 1638 +CA/LONG BEACH 33,49 N/118, 9 W 4960 4966 1817 +CA/LOS ANGELES 33,56 N/118,24 W 4946 4833 1884 +CA/SACRAMENTO 38,31 N/121,30 W 4933 5505 1556 +CA/SAN DIEGO 32,44 N/117,10 W 5026 5252 1726 +CA/SAN FRANCISCO 37,37 N/122,23 W 4716 5022 1609 +CA/SANTA MARIA 34,54 N/120,27 W 5172 5720 1620 +CO/ALAMOSA 37,27 N/105,52 W 5260 6826 1432 +CO/COLORADO SPRINGS 38,49 N/104,43 W 4690 5647 1510 +CO/BOULDER 40, 1 N/105,15 W 4576 5407 1517 +CO/EAGLE 39,39 N/106,55 W 4669 5429 1594 +CO/GRAND JUNCTION 39, 7 N/108,32 W 4981 5860 1608 +CO/PUEBLO 38,17 N/104,31 W 4976 6082 1478 +CT/BRIDGEPORT 41,10 N/ 73, 8 W 3836 3535 1799 +CT/HARTFORD 41,56 N/ 72,41 W 3806 3327 1899 +DE/WILMINGTON 39,40 N/ 75,36 W 4065 3781 1863 +FL/DAYTONA BEACH 29,11 N/ 81, 3 W 4817 4286 2078 +FL/JACKSONVILLE 30,30 N/ 81,42 W 4587 4175 1966 +FL/KEY WEST 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3964 1849 +IN/FORT WAYNE 41, 0 N/ 85,12 W 3858 3305 1907 +IN/INDIANAPOLIS 39,44 N/ 86,17 W 4097 3594 1970 +IN/SOUTH BEND 41,42 N/ 86,19 W 3799 3145 1928 +IA/DES MOINES 41,32 N/ 93,39 W 4120 4215 1725 +IA/MASON CITY 43, 9 N/ 93,20 W 3969 3931 1769 +IA/SIOUX CITY 42,24 N/ 96,23 W 4111 4299 1690 +IA/WATERLOO 42,33 N/ 92,24 W 3963 3841 1795 +KS/DODGE CITY 37,46 N/ 99,58 W 4861 5429 1686 +KS/GOODLAND 39,22 N/101,42 W 4737 5594 1543 +KS/TOPEKA 39, 4 N/ 95,38 W 4300 4405 1752 +KS/WICHITA 37,39 N/ 97,25 W 4553 4825 1728 +KY/COVINGTON 39, 4 N/ 84,40 W 4000 3524 1905 +KY/LEXINGTON 38, 2 N/ 84,36 W 4057 3562 1932 +KY/LOUISVILLE 38,11 N/ 85,44 W 4119 3674 1917 +LA/BATON ROUGE 30,32 N/ 91, 9 W 4474 3933 1984 +LA/LAKE CHARLES 30, 7 N/ 93,13 W 4608 3941 2097 +LA/NEW ORLEANS 29,59 N/ 90,15 W 4553 3982 2009 +LA/SHREVEPORT 32,28 N/ 93,49 W 4612 4244 1974 +ME/CARIBOU 46,52 N/ 68, 1 W 3553 3274 1840 +ME/PORTLAND 43,39 N/ 70,19 W 3899 3933 1736 +MD/BALTIMORE 39,11 N/ 76,40 W 4048 3885 1785 +MA/BOSTON 42,22 N/ 71, 2 W 3910 3720 1803 +MA/WORCHESTER 42,16 N/ 71,52 W 3861 3482 1888 +MI/ALPENA 45, 4 N/ 83,34 W 3719 3539 1722 +MI/DETROIT 42,25 N/ 83, 1 W 3779 3294 1853 +MI/FLINT 42,58 N/ 83,44 W 3719 3177 1879 +MI/GRAND RAPIDS 42,53 N/ 85,31 W 3798 3283 1873 +MI/HOUGHTON 47,10 N/ 88,30 W 3556 3375 1697 +MI/LANSING 42,47 N/ 84,36 W 3759 3219 1885 +MI/MUSKEGON 43,10 N/ 86,15 W 3835 3300 1849 +MI/SAULT STE. MARIE 46,28 N/ 84,22 W 3667 3491 1726 +MI/TRAVERSE CITY 44,44 N/ 85,35 W 3647 3153 1810 +MN/DULUTH 46,50 N/ 92,11 W 3710 3661 1752 +MN/INTERNATIONAL FALLS 48,34 N/ 93,23 W 3553 3551 1718 +MN/MINNEAPOLIS 44,53 N/ 93,13 W 3892 3990 1706 +MN/ROCHESTER 43,55 N/ 92,30 W 3839 3709 1780 +MN/SAINT CLOUD 45,33 N/ 94, 4 W 3847 3981 1703 +MS/JACKSON 32,19 N/ 90, 5 W 4599 4213 1970 +MS/MERIDIAN 32,20 N/ 88,45 W 4467 3873 2059 +MO/COLUMBIA 38,49 N/ 92,13 W 4331 4234 1852 +MO/KANSAS CITY 39,18 N/ 94,43 W 4283 4415 1733 +MO/SPRINGFIELD 37,14 N/ 93,23 W 4364 4330 1797 +MO/ST. LOUIS 38,45 N/ 90,23 W 4222 4062 1835 +MT/BILLINGS 45,48 N/108,32 W 4136 4795 1539 +MT/CUT BANK 48,36 N/112,22 W 3911 4600 1538 +MT/GLASGOW 48,13 N/106,37 W 3857 4381 1562 +MT/GREAT FALLS 47,29 N/111,22 W 3990 4456 1617 +MT/HELENA 46,36 N/112, 0 W 3961 4524 1526 +MT/KALISPELL 48,18 N/114,16 W 3618 3679 1612 +MT/LEWISTOWN 47, 3 N/109,27 W 3923 4426 1555 +MT/MILES CITY 46,26 N/105,52 W 4108 4783 1538 +MT/MISSOULA 46,55 N/114, 5 W 3758 3954 1572 +NC/ASHEVILLE 35,26 N/ 82,32 W 4292 4102 1818 +NC/CAPE HATTERAS 35,16 N/ 75,33 W 4468 4326 1814 +NC/CHARLOTTE 35,13 N/ 80,56 W 4438 4211 1896 +NC/GREENSBORO 36, 5 N/ 79,57 W 4369 4183 1876 +NC/RALEIGH 35,52 N/ 78,47 W 4395 4031 1991 +NC/WILMINGTON 34,16 N/ 77,54 W 4493 4208 1937 +ND/BISMARCK 46,46 N/100,45 W 4030 4453 1634 +ND/FARGO 46,54 N/ 96,48 W 3834 4084 1659 +ND/MINOT 48,16 N/101,17 W 3856 4392 1578 +NE/GRAND ISLAND 40,58 N/ 98,19 W 4410 4917 1629 +NE/NORFOLK 41,59 N/ 97,26 W 4252 4555 1685 +NE/NORTH PLATTE 41, 8 N/100,41 W 4431 4988 1620 +NE/OMAHA 41,22 N/ 96,31 W 4202 4245 1773 +NE/SCOTTSBLUFF 41,52 N/103,36 W 4434 5123 1562 +NH/CONCORD 43,12 N/ 71,30 W 3902 3783 1793 +NJ/ATLANTIC CITY 39,27 N/ 74,34 W 4030 3834 1809 +NJ/NEWARK 40,42 N/ 74,10 W 3899 3491 1883 +NM/ALBUQUERQUE 35, 3 N/106,37 W 5569 6694 1577 +NM/TUCUMCARI 35,11 N/103,36 W 5210 6146 1562 +NV/ELKO 40,50 N/115,47 W 4606 5520 1495 +NV/ELY 39,17 N/114,51 W 4912 5978 1535 +NV/LAS VEGAS 36, 5 N/115,10 W 5650 7050 1494 +NV/RENO 39,30 N/119,47 W 4998 6165 1448 +NV/TONOPAH 38, 4 N/117, 8 W 5221 6667 1405 +NV/WINNEMUCCA 40,54 N/117,48 W 4717 5628 1519 +NY/ALBANY 42,45 N/ 73,48 W 3792 3283 1894 +NY/BINGHAMTON 42,13 N/ 75,59 W 3663 2962 1953 +NY/BUFFALO 42,56 N/ 78,44 W 3679 3107 1852 +NY/MASSENA 44,56 N/ 74,51 W 3723 3555 1770 +NY/NEW YORK CITY 40,47 N/ 73,58 W 3991 3455 1975 +NY/ROCHESTER 43, 7 N/ 77,40 W 3693 3167 1856 +NY/SYRACUSE 43, 7 N/ 76, 7 W 3721 3231 1846 +OH/AKRON 40,55 N/ 81,26 W 3763 3024 1956 +OH/CLEVELAND 41,24 N/ 81,51 W 3754 3040 1916 +OH/COLUMBUS 40, 0 N/ 82,53 W 3828 3158 1951 +OH/DAYTON 39,54 N/ 84,13 W 3943 3458 1899 +OH/MANSFIELD 40,49 N/ 82,31 W 3791 3108 1945 +OH/TOLEDO 41,36 N/ 83,48 W 3893 3401 1885 +OH/YOUNGSTOWN 41,16 N/ 80,40 W 3630 2778 1981 +OK/OKLAHOMA CITY 35,24 N/ 97,36 W 4762 5038 1754 +OK/TULSA 36,12 N/ 95,54 W 4500 4516 1818 +OR/ASTORIA 46, 9 N/123,53 W 3219 2705 1701 +OR/BURNS 43,35 N/119, 3 W 4411 5007 1596 +OR/EUGENE 44, 7 N/123,13 W 3730 3533 1659 +OR/MEDFORD 42,22 N/122,52 W 4374 4699 1559 +OR/NORTH BEND 43,25 N/124,15 W 3868 3693 1705 +OR/PENDLETON 45,41 N/118,51 W 4103 4487 1566 +OR/PORTLAND 45,36 N/122,36 W 3517 3077 1738 +OR/REDMOND 44,16 N/121, 9 W 4403 4948 1627 +OR/SALEM 44,55 N/123, 1 W 3692 3377 1740 +PI/GUAM 13,33 N/144,50 E 4981 3589 2533 +PA/ALLENTOWN 40,39 N/ 75,26 W 3858 3352 1906 +PA/BRADFORD 41,48 N/ 78,38 W 3724 2951 1987 +PA/ERIE 42, 5 N/ 80,11 W 3768 3115 1877 +PA/HARRISBURG 40,13 N/ 76,51 W 3938 3490 1909 +PA/PHILADELPHIA 39,53 N/ 75,15 W 3987 3672 1846 +PA/PITTSBURGH 40,30 N/ 80,13 W 3797 2915 2061 +PA/WILKES-BARRE 41,20 N/ 75,44 W 3760 3102 1930 +PA/WILLIAMSPORT 41,16 N/ 77, 3 W 3768 3099 1923 +PR/SAN JUAN 18,26 N/ 66, 0 W 5301 4409 2276 +RI/PROVIDENCE 41,44 N/ 71,26 W 3879 3585 1835 +SC/CHARLESTON 32,54 N/ 80, 2 W 4604 4218 1999 +SC/COLUMBIA 33,57 N/ 81, 7 W 4520 4249 1921 +SC/GREENVILLE 34,54 N/ 82,13 W 4453 4389 1806 +SD/HURON 44,23 N/ 98,13 W 4056 4353 1658 +SD/PIERRE 44,23 N/100,17 W 4163 4631 1615 +SD/RAPID CITY 44, 3 N/103, 4 W 4256 4997 1538 +SD/SIOUX FALLS 43,34 N/ 96,44 W 4059 4317 1665 +TN/BRISTOL 36,29 N/ 82,24 W 4138 3745 1868 +TN/CHATTANOOGA 35, 2 N/ 85,12 W 4270 3734 1985 +TN/KNOXVILLE 35,49 N/ 83,59 W 4233 3710 1971 +TN/MEMPHIS 35, 3 N/ 89,59 W 4519 4330 1881 +TN/NASHVILLE 36, 7 N/ 86,41 W 4369 3882 2006 +TX/ABLIENE 32,26 N/ 99,41 W 5080 5477 1742 +TX/AMARILLO 35,14 N/101,42 W 5029 5810 1593 +TX/AUSTIN 30,18 N/ 97,42 W 4859 4631 1926 +TX/BROWNSVILLE 25,54 N/ 97,26 W 4754 3949 2125 +TX/CORPUS CHRISTI 27,46 N/ 97,30 W 4568 3979 1997 +TX/EL PASO 31,48 N/106,24 W 5732 6694 1591 +TX/FORT WORTH 32,50 N/ 97, 3 W 4891 4837 1910 +TX/HOUSTON 29,59 N/ 95,22 W 4434 3814 2024 +TX/LUBBOCK 33,39 N/101,49 W 5105 5749 1645 +TX/LUFKIN 31,14 N/ 94,45 W 4649 4193 2010 +TX/MIDLAND 31,56 N/102,12 W 5330 5905 1722 +TX/PORT ARTHUR 29,57 N/ 94, 1 W 4550 4004 2008 +TX/SAN ANGELO 31,22 N/100,30 W 5130 5471 1752 +TX/SAN ANTONIO 29,32 N/ 98,28 W 4950 4541 2050 +TX/VICTORIA 28,51 N/ 96,55 W 4606 3854 2159 +TX/WACO 31,37 N/ 97,13 W 4870 4830 1868 +TX/WICHITA FALLS 33,58 N/ 98,29 W 4902 5185 1762 +UT/CEDAR CITY 37,42 N/113, 6 W 5047 6188 1507 +UT/SALT LAKE CITY 40,46 N/111,58 W 4584 5107 1587 +VT/BURLINGTON 44,28 N/ 73, 9 W 3725 3342 1841 +VA/LYNCHBURG 37,20 N/ 79,12 W 4385 4320 1831 +VA/NORFOLK 36,54 N/ 76,12 W 4188 3983 1809 +VA/RICHMOND 37,30 N/ 77,20 W 4219 3921 1904 +VA/ROANOKE 37,19 N/ 79,58 W 4236 3976 1888 +VA/STERLING 38,57 N/ 77,27 W 4121 3701 1953 +WA/OLYMPIA 46,58 N/122,54 W 3263 2673 1743 +WA/QUILLAYUTE 47,57 N/124,33 W 3016 2597 1596 +WA/SEATTLE 47,27 N/122,18 W 3328 2940 1645 +WA/SPOKANE 47,38 N/117,32 W 3843 4215 1541 +WA/YAKIMA 46,34 N/120,32 W 4097 4680 1503 +WV/CHARLESTON 38,22 N/ 81,36 W 3947 3282 1971 +WV/ELKINS 38,53 N/ 79,51 W 3768 2893 2014 +WV/HUNTINGTON 38,22 N/ 82,33 W 3933 3290 1967 +WI/EAU CLAIRE 44,52 N/ 91,29 W 3781 3668 1777 +WI/GREEN BAY 44,29 N/ 88, 8 W 3809 3676 1775 +WI/LA CROSSE 43,52 N/ 91,15 W 3872 3787 1758 +WI/MADISON 43, 8 N/ 89,20 W 3915 3543 1901 +WI/MILWAUKEE 42,57 N/ 87,54 W 3890 3654 1796 +WY/CASPER 42,55 N/106,28 W 4401 5316 1487 +WY/CHEYENNE 41, 9 N/104,49 W 4428 5210 1547 +WY/LANDER 42,49 N/108,44 W 4582 5475 1591 +WY/ROCK SPRINGS 41,36 N/109, 4 W 4600 5433 1578 +WY/SHERIDAN 44,46 N/106,58 W 4180 4737 1603 + + Information from NREL, downloaded 5/25/94 + Note: "Normal" refers to the angle of incidence to the collector + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/intro.txt b/textfiles.com/science/intro.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3d1b2917 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/intro.txt @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +Last Updated: 19/9/1995 + +Introduction and Charter of the High Energy Weapons Archive + +At the time of the Gulf War, Norman Schwarzkopf remarked: + +"War is a profanity because, let's face it, you've got two opposing sides +trying to settle their differences by killing as many of each other as +they can." + +Which brings us to nuclear weapons... + +Since the first test at Alamogordo, our world governments have exploded +in total over 2000 of these devices at their bombing ranges (Lop Nor, +Kazhakstan, Nevada, Micronesia). They've done it in the air, on the ground, +below the ground, and in the water. The tests still go on today. + +The purpose of this archive is to illuminate to the reader the effects +of these nasty devices, and to warn against their use. + +At this time, although the threat of a nuclear world war has reduced, +there are other threats to our tentative peace which have emerged. +These involve regional conflicts, and the activities of terrorist parties +or nations. They involve issues such as plutonium smuggling, and the sale +of weapons technology (possibly clandestine) to militaristic nations. + +Continued nuclear testing is also another problem. It reinforces the +position of the London Club nations, and gives incentive to the rest of +the world for removing their monopoly. In fact, this was China's +justification for joining the Club. With Pakistan and North Korea's incipient +entry, horizontal proliferation is a tangible threat. You can expect nations +involved in regional conflicts to back their threats up with a nuclear fist if +they have one. If you have a weapon and your survival is threatened, there is a +strong chance you will use it in defense, no matter the consequences. This was +the U.S. Government's justification for the A-bombing of Japan. It saved the +lives of their soldiers. Little mention was made of Japanese +civilians (collateral damage). + +The decision to bomb Japan was made in secret. This led directly to the arms +race we are currently involved in. Russia felt threatened, and embarked on +its own bomb program, eventually producing one in 1949. In turn, the Americans +felt threatened, and embarked on the thermonuclear program. This culminated in +the pivotal Mike test of 1952. Nuclear blackmail during the Korean War led +China to make a bomb. Public disclosure and discussion before Hiroshima would +have helped avoid the situation we are in today. Hence the need for an informed +and vigilant worldwide public. + +My aim in setting up this archive is to shine a light on the shadowy world of +high energy weapons, particularly the thermonuclear kind. You will find here +brief notes describing the conceptual basis of nuclear weapons, the +experiences of Hiroshima and Nagasaki survivors, and graphics of nuclear +explosions. The conceptual notes are based on public domain references, +and do not contain technical specifications to weapon design. In other words, +there is no quantitative information. The notes are there to show where the +product particles of nuclear weapons come from, and how they can cause damage. +These include neutrons, X-rays, and the highly radioactive fission fragments +such as strontium-90 and cesium-137. A basic grasp of what goes on inside +a weapon is helpful in understanding issues like plutonium smuggling, and +the problems of a monitoring nuclear test ban. + +I set up this archive because I saw the need for a collation of nuclear +material on the net. To make informed decisions one needs correct and relevant +knowledge. Equipped with these brief notes, and other material found in +the References, you can be more informed on the proliferation issue. + +Please note that some of the material in the archive is pure assumption. To +support or deny some of the statements requires an extensive weapons testing +program. Please use the material as a guide only, and always check the factual +base of the material, no matter where it comes from. + + +Note on this Archive's History + +The HEW Archive was at Melbourne University, Australia for a year, until +it was closed down by enforcement of university regulations concerning +use of computing facilities. On its impending closure, however, Xgateway +Finland Ltd offered it a new home in Espoo, Finland, just outside Helsinki. + +Note on the Archive Maintainer + +Gary Au was born in 1971, Hong Kong, and is a naturalised Australian +citizen. He holds a BSc(Hons) in theoretical physics from Melbourne +University, Australia. He is currently submitting a PhD on theoretical +particle physics at the same institution. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/invent.rpt b/textfiles.com/science/invent.rpt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4a312572 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/invent.rpt @@ -0,0 +1,470 @@ +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + FILE CONTAINED: INVENT.TXT + ACTUAL TOPIC: Inventions of the early nineteenth century. +AUTHOR AND RESEARCHER: Big Brother @ The Works (617) 861-8976 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +This file was originally researched and typed by Big Brother. All material +used in the file is original and unplagerized, so these files are SAFE to +use AS-IS with no modifications other than specifics to cover the actual +required topic for school. Because school can be a BITCH, these files +have been prepared to aide you in your research, and are not intended to be +actually turned in AS-IS, but many of you will turn them in since they are +worry free files... don't fuck up your life, study and get good grades, then +get a good job, make some money, marry someone you love, and live happily +ever after... ...because, after all - Big Brother is Watching You! +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + + + Big Brother's Guide to School + + The Dreaded Reports + + actual examples........... + + +START OF FILE +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + + + INVENTIONS OF THE EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY + + + + The art of inventing has been around since remedies have + + been needed and solutions have been required to make our + + lives easier and more enjoyable. From the time our + + forefathers colonized the shores of a new land, up till the + + time of the modern day super-conductor: people have created + + devices and made discoveries on our behalf to make life + + easier for everyone. + + + + Before the early nineteenth century communications + + were inadequate. The limitations of our hearing meant that + + distant events were known long after they had occurred. + + Systems of communication existed which were quicker then the + + speed of a messenger - smoke signals, fires lit on hills, + + signalling flags. But these methods could only be used for + + communicating in code with pre-established sayings rather + + than out-right communication. These methods also required + + certain meteorological or geographical conditions in order to + + function properly. + + In the nineteenth century conditions were present that + + made the need for new forms of communications indispensable. + + Industrial society needed a method of communicating + + information quickly, safely and accurately. Artist-inventor + + Samuel F.B. Morse holds credit for devising American's first + + commercially successful electromagnetic telegraph (patented + + in January 1836). The telegraph was a device used to + + + + + + + + + + + + + + electrically send signals over a wire for long distances + + allowing an established communication link to be made from + + one city to another. (And everything in-between.) The basic + + principle of the telegraph was the opening and closing of an + + electrical circuit supplied by a battery: the variations of + + the current in the electromagnet would attract or repel a + + small arm connected to a pencil which would trace zigzag + + signs onto a strip of paper running under the arm at a + + constant speed. This early plan didn't offer great practical + + possibilities, mainly because the batteries then available + + could not produce a current strong enough to push the signal + + great distances. + + As an artist and sculptor, Morse had the personal + + qualities to succeed as inventor of the telegraph: + + intelligence, persistence, and a willingness to learn. What + + he lacked was: knowledge of recent scientific developments, + + adequate funds, mechanical ability, and political influence. + + Like all successful inventors of the nineteenth century, + + Morse exploited his strengths and worked on his weaknesses. + + Morse used Professor Leonard D. Gale's suggestions of + + improving both his battery and electromagnet by following the + + suggestions of Joseph Henry. Together they incorporated + + Henry's suggestions and stepped up the distance they could + + send messages from fifty feet to ten miles. This invention, + + no less important than the telegraph itself, was the so- + + called relay system, widely used today for automatic controls + + and adjustments. Morse introduced a series of electromagnets + + + + + + + + + + + + + + along the line, each of which opened and shut the switch of a + + successive electric circuit, supplied by it's own battery. + + At the same time Morse improved the transmitting and + + receiving devices and perfected the well-know signalling + + system based on dots and dashes, which is still in use today. + + The first telegraph line, connecting Baltimore to New + + York, was inaugurated in 1844. Before this however, on May + + 24th, 1843 wires were strung between Washington and Baltimore + + where Morse sent the first message from the Supreme Court + + room in Washington to Alfred Vail, Morse's assistant who was + + in Baltimore at a railroad depot (41 miles away): "What hath + + God wrought?" + + On May 29th, 1844 word flashed by wire from the + + democratic convention in Baltimore that James K. Polk had + + been nominated for the Presidency. People were fascinated by + + the "Magic key" and it was decided that the telegraph would + + be used for now to report congressional doings. + + By 1848 every state east of the Mississippi except + + Florida was served be the telegraph; by the end of the civil + + war more than 200,000 miles of line were used for business + + communications and personal messages as well as news of + + battles, politics, and sports results. The telegraph was a + + success. Samuel F. B. Morse died in 1872. + + + + While communications were important in the nineteenth + + century, there were some other inventions that made life a + + little easier. In April of 1849, Walter Hunt patented his + + + + + + + + + + + + + + invention which to this day we probably wouldn't get by + + without. Hunt invented the safety pin, patented it, and then + + without hesitation sold all rights to the pin for $400. In + + 1846, Elias Howe invented the sewing machine which "was + + becoming a fixture in the homes of [all] American newlyweds." + + Soon to be followed by industry turning it's attention to the + + home by producing labor-saving appliances - novelties that + + soon became necessities. + + + + Charles Goodyear, one of the nineteenth century's + + greatest inventors and father of today's vast rubber industry + + discovered vulcanization, the process that toughens rubber + + and rids it of stickiness, in January of 1839. + + The riddle of rubber - how to prevent the stuff from + + becoming sticky in the summer, brittle in the winter and + + horrid-smelling in between. After years of anguish, Goodyear + + discovered quite by accident that by adding sulphur to raw + + rubber and heating the material from four to six hours at + + about 270 degrees F. the rubber would be cured by the sulphur + + resulting in increased strength and stiffness while + + preserving its flexibility. + + After spending many hundreds of hours, Goodyear, in his + + make-shift lab adding one substance after another to rid the + + rubber of it's natural stickiness using every ingredient he + + could get his hands on to put into the rubber mixture, (He + + used salt, paper, talcum powder, anything...) one afternoon + + when all else had failed, Goodyear dropped by accident a + + + + + + + + + + + + + + mixture of sulphur and rubber onto his hot stovetop. Goodyear + + looked at the blob in disbelief because it didn't melt as + + "gum elastic" always had in the past. Instead, it solidified + + and "[the rubber] charred like leather". + + Before Goodyear's discovery, rubber's bad qualities + + permitted few uses. French savants had studied the new + + substance for waterproof qualities; someone had found that + + the gray gum rubbed out pencil marks on paper, and thus the + + word "rubber" was born. + + By 1839 British manufacturers had learned a few other + + uses for uncured rubber. Charles Macintosh, a chemist, + + patented in 1823 a fabric that included a thin layer of + + rubber. From this he made raincoats that in England, the + + climate helped satisfy purchasers. In American winters they + + hardened like armor, in American summers it they softened + + like taffy. + + Eldest son of Amasa Goodyear, a New Haven merchant and + + sometimes inventor, Charles helped his father sell a + + "Patented Spring Steel Hay and Manure Fork" invented by his + + father. Amasa manufactured the first pearl buttons made in + + America and metal buttons that U.S. soldiers wore in the war + + of 1812. + + Goodyear foresaw many products - rubber gloves, toys, + + conveyor belts, watertight seals, water-filled rubber + + pillows, balloons, printing rollers, and rubber bands were + + among some of the brainstorms he would jot down, one after + + the other into his notebook. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Also envisioned were rubber banknotes, musical + + instruments, flags, jewelry, "imitation buffalo-robes," vanes + + or "sails" for windmills, and ship's sails, even complete + + ships. While the automobile tire did escape his imagination, + + it was not without reason - the auto hadn't been invented + + yet! + + + + From barbed wire to keep our railways safe, to revolvers + + to keep our country safe, the nineteenth century marked a big + + boom in inventive history. Soon following all of these + + inventions, the civil war became a full blown testing field + + for all these inventions. Whether it was the coin operated + + hairbrush meant for public restrooms, or the automatic hat + + tipper (for when women are near and your hands are occupied,) + + the inventions of this time proved to be both interesting and + + useful. Well, most of them. + + Today, we still use a lot of the inventions of the early + + nineteenth century, but technology is passing us by at a pace + + we may not be ready for. Inventions are no longer just there + + to make life easier, safer, more enjoyable, and more + + entertaining, but they give us something to keep us occupied + + in this never-ending quest for - "perfectness?" + + Maybe in a hundred years someone will be looking back + + through their history books, searching though the libraries + + of the future and seeing our super-conductors, our computers, + + our High Definition t.v.s, our Super VHS video recorders, and + + our Digital Audio Tape players. Could they be saying "isn't + + + + + + + + + + + + + + that silly" just like the coin operated hairbrush, or the + + combination food masher/rat and mouse trap (?) Time will + + tell. + + + + + + + + __________________________________________________________ + + Bibiliography: + + Men Of Science and Invention + - Editors of American Heritage + Published American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc. + Harper & Row (c)1960 + + Those Inventive Americans + - Poduced by National Geographic Society Publications Div. + Published N.G.S + N.G.S. (c)1971 + + Big Brother + - The Works (617) 861-8976 + Largest Text File Base (FBBS) Spam! Spam! Spam! + (c)1990 Homework Helper! + + The Picture History of Inventions + - Umberto Eco & G.B. Zorzoli (Translated from italian by + Anthony Lawrence) + Malmillan Co., NY. (c)1963 + + Various photocopied charts and pictures from other + references were also used. + +----------------------------------------------------------------------------- +Special thanks to Big Brother... since he did all of the actual work for you! +----------------------------------------------------------------------------- +END OF FILE + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/j-p b/textfiles.com/science/j-p new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e27d38eb --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/j-p @@ -0,0 +1,506 @@ + OBSERVATION OF + COLD NUCLEAR FUSION IN CONDENSED MATTER + + S. E. Jones, E. P. Palmer, J. B. Czirr, D. L. Decker, G. L. Jensen, + J. M. Thorne, and S. F. Taylor + + Department of Physics and Chemistry + Brigham Young University + Provo, Utah 84602 + + and + + J. Rafelski + Department of Physics + University of Arizona + Tucson, Arizona 85721 + March 23, 1989 + +Fusion of istopic hydrogen nuclei is the principal means of producing +energy in the high-temperature interior of stars. In relatively cold +terrestrial conditions, the nuclei are clothed with electrons and +approach one another no closer than allowed by the molecular Coulomb +barrier. The rate of nuclear fusion in molecular hydrogen is then +governed by the quantum-mechanical tunneling through that barrier, or +equivalently, the probability of finding the two nuclei at zero +separation. In a deuterium molecule, where the equilibrium separation +between deuterons (d) is 0.74 A, the d-d fusion rate is exceedingly +slow, about 10E-70 per D molecule per second. [1] + 2 + +By replacing the electron in a hydrogen molecular ion with a more +massive charged particle, the fusion rate is greatly increased. In +muon-catalyzed fusion, the internuclear separation is reduced by a +factor of approximately 200 (the muon to electron mass ratio), and the +nuclear fusion rate correspondingly increases by roughly eighty orders +of magnitude [1]. Muon-catalyzed fusion has been demonstrated to be +an effective means of rapidly inducing fusion reactions in low- +temperature hydrogen isotopic mixtures [2]. + +A hypothetical quasi-particle a few times as massive as the electron +would increase the cold fusion rate to readily measureable levels, +about 10E-20 fusions per d-d molecule per second [1]. Our results +imply that an equivalent distortion on the internuclear hydrogen +wavefunction can be realized under certain conditions when hydrogen +isotopic nuclei are loaded into metallic crystalline lattices and +other forms of condensed matter. + +We have discovered a means of inducing nuclear fusion without the use +of either high temperatures or radioactive muons. We will present +direct experimental results as well as indirect geological evidence +for the occurrence of cold nuclear fusion. + +DETECTION OF COLD FUSION NEUTRONS + +We have observed deuteron-deuteron fusion at room temperature during +low-voltage electrolytic infusion of deuterons into metallic titanium +or palladium electrodes. The fusion reaction + + 3 + d + d -> He (0.82 MeV) + n (2.45 MeV) (1a) + + + +is evidently catalyzed as d and metal ions from the electrolyte are +depostited at (and into) the negative electrode. Neutrons having +approximately 2.5 MeV energy are clearly detected with a sensitive +neutron spectrometer. The experimental layout is portrayed in Figure +1. We have not yet obtained results regarding the parallel reaction + + d + d -> p (3.02 MeV) + t (1.01 MeV) (1b) + +as this requires different measuring procedures. However, it can be +presumed that the reaction (1b) occurs at a nearly equal rate as the +reaction (1a), which is usually the case. + +The neutron spectrometer, developed at Brigham Young University over +the past few years [3], has been crucial to the identification of this +cold fusion process. The detector consists of a liquid organic +scintillator (BC-505) contained in a glass cylinder 12.5 cm in +diameter, in which three lithium-6-doped glass scintillator plates are +embedded. Neutrons deposit energy in the liquid scintillator via +collisions and the resulting light output yields energy information. +These, now low-energy neutrons are then scavenged by lithium-6 nuclei + 6 4 +in the glass plates where the reaction n + Li --> t + He results in +scintillations in the glass. Pulse shapes from the two media differ +so that distinct signals are registered by the two photomultiplier +tubes (whose signals are summed). A coincidence of signals from the +two media with 20 microseconds identifies the neutrons. + +An energy calibration of the spectrometer was obtained using 2.9 and +3.2 MeV neutrons, generated via deuteron-deuteron interactions at 90 +degrees and 0 degrees, respectively, with respect to the deuteron beam +from a Van de Graaf accelerator. The observed energy spectra show a +broad structure which implies that 2.45 MeV neutrons should appear in +the multi-channel analyzer spectrum in channels 45-150. Stability of +the detector system was checked between data runs by measuring the +counting rate for fission neutrons from a broad-spectrum californium- +252 source. We have performed other extensive tess proving that our +neutron counter does not respond in this pulse height range to other +sources of radiation such as thermal neutrons. + +Background rates in the neutron counter are approximately 10E-3 1/s in +the energy region where 2.5 MeV neutrons are anticipated. By +comparing energy spectra from gamma and neutron sources we have +determined that nearly all of the background stems from accidental +coincidences of gamma-ray events. Improvements in the shielding and +gamma-ray rejection were pursued throughout the experiments, resulting +in significant reduction in background levels. + +During the search for suitable catalytic materials, we developed the +following (unoptimized) prescription for the electrolytic cells. The +electrolyte is a mixture of 160 g deutermium oxide (D O) plus various + 2 + +metal salts in 0.2 g amounts each: FeSO . 7H O, NiCl . 6H O, + 4 2 2 2 + +PdCl , CaCO , Li SO . H O, NaSO . 10H O, CaH (PO ) . H O, + 2 3 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 2 2 + +TiOSO . H SO . 8H O, and a very small amount of AuCN. + 4 2 4 2 + +(Our evidence indicates the importance of co-deposition of deuterons +and metal ions at the negative electrode.) The pH is adjusted to +pH < 3 with HNO . Titanium and palladium, intially selected because + 3 +of their large capacities for holding hydrogen and forming hydrides, +were found to be effective negative electrodes. + +Other metals receiving preliminary tests include lanthanum, nickel, +iron, copper, zirconium, tantalum, and lithium-aluminum hydride. +Individual electrodes consisted of approximately 3 g purified "fused" +titanium in pellet form, or 0.5 g of 0.25 mm thick palladium foils, or +5 g of mossy palladium. Typically 4-8 cells were used simultaneously. +The palladium pieces were sometimes re-used after cleaning and +roughening the surfaces with dilute acid or abrasives. Hydrogen +bubbles were observed to form on the Pd foils only after several +minutes of electrolysis, suggesting the rapid absorption of deuterons +into the foil; oxygen bubbles formed at the anode immediately. Gold +foil was used for the positive electrodes. DC power supplies provided +3-25 volts across each cell at currents of 10-500 mA. Correlations +between fusion yield and voltage, current density, or surface +characteristics of the metallic cathode have not yet been established. + +Small jars, approximately 4 cm high x 4 cm diameter, held 20 ml of +electroylte solution each. The electrolytic cells were placed on or +alongside the neutron counter, as shown in Figure 1. The cells are +simple and doubtless far from optimum at present. Nevertheless, the +present combination of our cells with the state-of-the-art neutron +spectrometer is sufficient to establish the phenomenon of cold nuclear +fusion during the electrolytic infusion of isotopic hydrogen into +metals. + +Figure 2 displays the energy spectrum obtained under conditions +described above, juxtaposed with the background spectrum. Assuming +conservatively that all deviations from background are statistical +fluctuations, we scale the background counts by a factor of 0.46 to +match the foreground counts over the entire energy range (Figure 2). A +feature in channels 45-150 still rises above background by nearly +four standard deviations. This implies that our assumption is too +conservative and that this structure represents a real physical effect. +By re-scaling the background by a factor of 0.44 to match the +foreground level in regions outside this feature, the difference plot +(Figure 3) is obtained. It shows a robust signal centered at channel +100 of over five standard-deviation statistical significance. A +Guassian fit to this peak yields a centroid at channel 101 and a +sigma of 28 channels. This is precisely where 2.5 MeV fusion +neutrons should appear in the spectrum according to our calibration. +The fact that a significant signal appears above background with the +correct energy for d-d fusion neutrons ( 2.5 MeV) provides strong +evidence that room temperature nuclear fusion is indeed occurring in +our electrolytic catalysis cells. + +FUSION RATE DETERMINATION + +It is instructive to scrutinize the fourteen individual runs which +enter into the combined data discussed above. Figure 4 displays, for +each run, the ratio of foreground count rate in the 2.5 MeV-energy +region with background rates obtained for each run. Background rates +were improved upon during the experiments, so we plot the data in +terms of foreground-to-background ratios rather than absolute rates. + +Run 6 is particular noteworthy, having a statistical significance of +approximately 5 standard deviations above background. Fused titanium +pellets were used as negative electrodes with a total mass of about 3 +g. The neutron production rate increased after about one hour of +electrolysis. After about eight hours, the rate dropped dramatically +as shown in the follow-on run 7. At this time, surfaces of the Ti +electrodes showed a dark gray coating. An analysis using electron +microscopy with a microprobe showed that the surface coating was +mostly iron, deposited with deuterons at the cathode. The same +phenomenon of having the neutron signal drop after about eight hours +of operation appears in run 13 follwed by run 14. Runs 13 and 14 used +the same eight electrochemical cells, and again the negative +electrodes developed coatings after a few hours of electrolysis. +These observations suggest the importance of surface conditions on the +cold fusion process. Indeed, wide variations in surface +conditions are anticipated in the operating electrochemical cells with +numerous ionic species, and these variations may account for the +fluctuations in the signal level which are evident in Figure 4. In +particular, the observed "turning off" of the signal after 8 hours +may account for a low signal-to-background ratio in runs 1 and 3, in +that a few-hour signal may have been overwhelmed after a long (20 +hour) running time. + +When run 10 started with rates substantially above background, we +stopped the run and removed half of the electrochemical cells as a +test. The neutron production rate dropped off as expected (run 11). +In determining the statistical significance of the data, we included +runs 1, 3, 7, 11 and 13, even though we see a systematic reason for +their low foreground-to-background ratios as explained above. Run 8, +shown in Figure 4, was inadvertently lost from the magnetic storage +device and could not be included in Figures 2 and 3. This does not +change our conclusions. + +Extensive efforts were made to generate fake neutron signals by using +various gamma and neutron sources. We also turned auxiliary equipment +on and off; the Van de Graaf accelerators were kept off. The signals +persisted as shielding was moved and as electronics modules were +tuned and even replaced. Background runs taken using operating +electrochemical cells similar to those described above but with +H O replacing the D O were featureless. No net counts above + 2 2 +background when standard cells were used with no current flowing. + +The cold nuclear fusion rate during electrolytic fusion is estimated +specifically for run 6 (Figure 4) as follows: + + [ R ] / [ d ] + Fusions per deuteron pair = [ --- ] / [ M x --- ] (2) + [ e ] / [ 2M ] + +where the observed fusion rate R = (4.1 +- 0.8) x 10E-3 fusions/s; the +neutron detection efficiency, including geometrical acceptance, is +calculated using a monte carlo neutron-photon transport code [4] to +be e = (1.0 +- 0.3)%; M = 4x10E22 titanium atoms for 3 g of +titanium; and the deuteron-pair per metal ion ration d/(2M) = 1 is +based on the assumption that nearly all tetrahedral sites in the +titanium lattice are occupied, forming the gamma-TiD hydride. Then + 2 +the estimated cold nuclear fusion rate by equation (2) is + + lambda 10E-23 fusions/deuteron pair/second (3) + f + +If most fusions take place near the surface or if the titanium lattice +is far from saturated with deuterons, or if conditions favoring fusion +occur intermittently, then the inferred fusion rate must be much +larger, perhaps 10E-20 fusions/d-d/second. + +We note that such a fusion rate could be achieved by "squeezing" the +deuterons to half their normal (0.74 A) separation in molecules. That +such rates are now observed in condensed matter suggests +"piezonuclear" fusion as the explanation [1]. A possible cause is +that quasi-electrons form in the deuterated metal lattic having an +effective mass a few times that of a free electron. Isotopic hydrogen +is known to accumulate at imperfections in metal lattices [5] and +local high concentrations of hydrogen ions might be conducive to +piezonuclear fusion. Since we have not seen any evidence for fusion +in equilibrated, deuterated metals or compounds such and +methylamine-d dueteriochloride or ammonium-d chloride, we conclude + 2 4 +that non-equilibrium conditions are essential. Electrolysis is one +way to produce conditions which are far from equilibrium. + +It seems remarkable that one can influence the effective rate of +fusion by varying external parameters such as pressure, heat and +electromagnetic fields, but just such effects are confirmed in another +form of cold nuclear fusion; muon-catalyzed fusion [6]. Such +variations are naturally encountered in the geological environment +where heat, pressure, and contact potentials will generate serverly +non-equilibrium conditions. + +GEOPHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS + +The observation of evidence for cold d-d fusion in the laboratory has +profound geophysical implications. Thermal effects in the earth and + 3 +the distribution of He and tritium can be explained in part by the +fusion reactions (1) and + + 3 + p + d -> He + gamma (5.4 MeV) (4) + +Deuterium was incorporated in the earth during its formation. The +current abundance in sea water is about 1.5x10E-4 deuterons per +proton. Water is carried down into the earth's upper mantle at +converging plate margins, and seawater is transported as deep as the +Moho at spreading regions [7]. Estimates of water subduction suggest +that a water mass equal to the ocean mass is cycled through the mantle +in about 1-billion years [7]. Thus, 1.4x10E43 deuterons are cycled +through the mantle in 3x10E16 s. Since each p-d fusion releases 5.4 +MeV (8.6x10-13 J), we calculate that a heat flux of 750 mW/(m*m), +averaged over the earth, would result if all deuterium fused at the +rate at which it is supplied by subduction. This is more than ten +times the estimate of the actual flux of 60 mW/(m*m) [8]. Thus, +geological p-d fusion could possibly contribute to the observed heat +flux, the high temperatures of the earth's core and provide an energy +source for plate tectonics. + +The foregoing data allow a geological fusion rate lambda to be + f +calculated. We assume a first-order rate equation for p-d +fusion: dN = lambda N dt, or lambda = (dN/N)dt. The fraction (dN/N) + f f +is the ratio of the number of fusions which take place to the number +of atoms available. It is also the rate of fusion divided by the rate +of supply of deuterons; thus, dN/N is equal to the actual heat flux +from the earth divided by the possible heat flux so that + + -1 + lambda = (60/750)/3x10E16 s = 3x10E-18 s (5) + f + +Consider next the possibility that the localized heat of volcanism at +subduction zones is supplied by fusion. As much as 10E6 J/kg is +required to turn rock into magma, and this must be supplied from a +local source of energy. Subducting rock contains about 3 percent +water [7], or 3x10E30 deuterons/kg. If the time available for melting +is equal to the time required for a plate to travel down a slant +distance of 700 km at a speed of 2.5 cm/year, about 10E15 s, the +inferred fusion rate is: + + lambda = (10E6 J/kg)/(3x10E20 d/kg x 8.6E10-13 J/fusion x 10E15 s) + f + lambda = 4x10E-18 fusions/d/s (6) + f + +This requires only about 0.3 percent of the available nuclear fuel. +The limit on the available heat is therefore the fusion rate constant, +rather than the scarcity of fuel. + +While some of the earth's heat must certainly derive from several +sources, "cold" geological nuclear fusion could account for steady- + 3 +state production of considerable heat and He in the earth's interior. + 3 4 +High values of the He/ He ratio are found in the rocks, liquids, and +gases from volcanoes and other active tectonic regions [9]. + 3 +Primordial He will be present from the formation of the earth [9], +but some may be generated by terrestrial nuclear fusion. The +discovery of cold nuclear fusion in the laboratory, with a rate +constant comparable to that derived from geologic thermal data, +supports our hypothesis. + +Based on this new concept, we predict that some tritium should be +produced by d-d fusion in the earth (see equation 1). Since tritium + 3 +decays according to t -> He + beta with a 12-year half-life, +detection of tritium in volcanic emissions would imply cold-fusion +production of tritium. This is supported by the following +observations. A tritium monitoring station was operated at Mauna Loa +on Hawaii Island from August 1971 to the end of 1977. We have found +strong correlations between tritium detected at Mauna Loa and nearby +volcanic activity in this period of time. Figure 4 displays data +compiled by Ostlund for HT gas measured at the Mauna Loa station in +1972 [10]. Similar data taken at Miami, Florida, are provided for +comparison. A striking spike in the tritium level is clearly seen in +the February-March 1972 Mauna Loa data. Ostlund notes that these +significant tritium readings over a several-week period have not been +previously understood; in particular, the timing and shape of the peak +is inconsistent with hydrogen bomb tests in Russia five months earlier +[10]. However, this signal is coincident with a major eruption of the +Mauna Ulu volcano [11] 40 km to the southeast. Furthermore, winds in +March 1972 carried volcanic gases northwest, towards the Mauna Loa +station and on towards Honolulu 200 km away: "Trade winds [from the +northeast] were infrequent and the southerly flow that replaced them +occasionally blanketed the state with volcanic haze from an eruption +on Hawaii Island ... High particulate matter measurements in Honolulu +confirmed the northward spread of haze from the Mauna Ulu Volcano +eruption on Hawaii Island." [12] + +This remarkable set of cirumstances permits us to estimate the amount +of tritium released during the February-March 1972 eruption of Mauna +Ulu. Based on the distance to the Mauna Loa station and average 8 mph +winds [12], we estimate that on average 100 curies of tritium were +released per day for 30 days. An accidental release of this magnitude +of man-made tritium sustained for several weeks on a nearly +uninhabited island is highly unlikely. We conclude that this volcanic +eruption freed tritium produced by geological nuclear reactions. + +Other HT data from the Mauna Loa station, such as the high reading in +the latter half of 1972, are also coincident with volcanic activity, +although a tritium-releasing bomb test also occurred in Russia in late +August. A major spike in the atmospheric HT observed near Hawaii in Dec +1974 - June 1975 [10] coincides with another large volcanic eruption +on Hawaii Island, but the significance is again obscured by H-bomb +tests. Finally, no significant deviations in HT reading are noted in +1976 or 1977 [10] when no volcanic activity is noted, except for +"gentle" activity at Kileau on September 17, 1977 [13]. + +OTHER EVIDENCES FOR COLD FUSION + +Further evidence for cold nuclear fusion in condensed matter comes + 3 4 +from studies of He and He in diamonds and metals. Using laser- +slicing of diamonds, H. Craig (private communication) has measured the + 4 3 4 +absolute concentrations of both He and He. He was found to be +smoothly distributed through the crystal as if it were derived from + 3 +the environment. On the other hand, He was found to be concentrated +in spots implying in-situ formation. Cold piezonuclear p-d or d-d +fusion provides a plausible explanation for these data. + + 3 +Concentration anomalies of He have also been reported in metal foils + 3 +[14]. The spotty concentrations of He suggest cold piezonuclear + 3 +fusion as the origin of the observed He. Note that electrolytic +refining of the metals in deuterium-bearing water could have provided +conditions for cold nuclear fusion. Among several possible +explanations, the authors [14] suggest an "analog" of muon catalysis. +We think they were close to the mark! + +Cold nuclear fusion may be important in other celestial bodies besides +earth. Jupiter, for example, radiates about twice as much heat as it +receives from the sun [1]. It is interesting to consider whether cold +nuclear fusion in the core of Jupiter, which is probably metallic +hydrogen plus iron silicate, could account for its excess heat. Heat +is radiated at an approximate rate of 10E18 W, which could be produced +by p-d fusions occurring at a rate of 10E20(1/s) [1]. Assuming a +predominately hydrogen core of radius 4.6x10E9 cm, having a density += 10 g/(cm*cm*cm) and a deuteron/proton ratio of roughly 10E-4, we +deduce a required p-d fusion rate of lambda = 10E-19 + f +fusions/deuteron/second--in remarkable agreement with cold fusion +rates found in terrestrial conditions. + +CONCLUSIONS + +A new form of cold nuclear fusion has been observed during +electrolytic infusion of deuterons into metals. While the need for +off-equilibrium conditions is clearly implied by our data, techniques +other than electrochemical may also be successful. We have begun to +explore the use of ion implantation, and of elevated pressures and +temperatures mimicking geological conditions. + +If deuteron-deuteron fusion can be catalyzed, then the d-t fusion +reaction is probably favored due to its much larger nuclear cross +section. Thus, while the fusion rates observed so far are small, +the discovery of cold nuclear fusion in condensed matter opens the +possibility at least of a new path to fusion energy. + +We acknowlege valuable contributions of Douglas Bennion, David Mince, +Lawrence Rees, Howard Vanfleet and J. C. Wang of Brigham Young +University, and of Mike Danos, Fraser Goff, Berndt Muller, Albert +Nier, Gote Ostlund, and Clinton Van Siclen. We especially thank Alan +Anderson for advice on the data analysis and Harmon Craig for +continuing encouragement and for use of his data on diamonds before +their publication. + +The research is supported by the Advanced Energy Projects Division of +the U.S. Department of Energy. + +REFERENCES + + 1. Van Siclen, C. D. & Jones, S. E. "Journal of Physics G. Nucl. Phys." + 12, 213-221 (1986). + + 2. Jones, S. E. "Nature" 321, 127-133 (1986); Rafelski, J. & Jones, + S. E. "Scientific American" 257, 84-89 (July 1987). + + 3. Jensen, G. L., Dixon, D. R., Bruening, K. & Czirr, J. B. "Nucl. + Inst. and Methods" 200, 406 (1984); and paper in preparation. + + 4. MCNP: Monte Carlo Neutron and Photon Transport Code, CCC-200. + Available from Radiation Shielding Information Center, Oak Ridge + National Laboratory (Version 3). + + 5. Bowman, R. C. Jr. in "Metal Hydrides" (ed. G. Bambakides) 109-144 + (New York, Plenum, 1981). + + 6. Jones, S. E., et al. "Physical Review Letters" 51, 1757-1760 + (1983). + + 7. Fyfe, W. S., Price, N. J., & Thompson, A. B. "Fluids in the Earth's + Crust" (Elsevier, New York, 1978). + + 8. Chapman, D. S. & Pollack, H. N. "Earth and Planet Sci. Lett" 28, 23 + (1975) + + 9. Craig, H., Lupton, J. E., Welhan, J. A., & Proveda, R. "Geophys. + Res. Lett." 5, 897 (1978); Lupton, J. E., & Craig, H. "Science" + 214, 13 (1981); Mamyrin, B. A. & Tolstikhin, L. N., "Helium + Isotopes in Nature (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1984). + +10. Ostlund, H. G. & Mason, A. S. Atmospheric Tritium 1968-1984, + Tritium Laboratory Report No. 14, University of Miami, Miami, + Florida; Ostlund, H. G., private communication. + +11. Bullard, F. M. "Volcanoes of the Earth", 2nd ed., (Univ. Texas + Press, Austin, 1984). + +12. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, "Climatological Data, Hawaii" 68, 29 + (1972). + +13. Smithsonian Institution, "Volcanoes of the World", (Stroudsburg, + P. A., Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co., 1981). + +14. Mamyrin, B. A., Khabarin L. V. & Yudenich, V. S. "Sov. Phys. + Dokl." 23, 581 (1978). + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/jcs-report-1947.txt b/textfiles.com/science/jcs-report-1947.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e441ed3b --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/jcs-report-1947.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@ +If used in numbers, atomic bombs not only can nullify any nation's military +effort, but can demolish its social and economic structure and prevent their +re-establishment for long periods of time. With such weapons, especially if +employed in conjunction with other weapons of mass destruction such as +pathogenic bacteria, it is quite possible to depopulate vast areas of the +earth's surface, leaving only vestigal remnants of man's material works. + + Report of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, + Operations Crossroads, June 30, 1947. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/ka.txt b/textfiles.com/science/ka.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..596ed8a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/ka.txt @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +First, a quick explanation about why Ka band photo radar units are so +hard to pick up, then a few off the wall ways of avoiding them. + +The main reason they are hard to detect is that they operate at a very +low power level, usually less than a half a milliwatt (compared to +an effective radiation power of a normal radar gun of up to 4 watts, +usually 80mw actual power, making them 1/160 as powerful). The second +part is that they are aimed at an angle across traffic (something like +37.5 degrees). The reason for this is twofold - first, it is hard to +detect the beam if it isn't aimed down the lane of traffic at you. Second, +if it was aimed down the lane of traffic, the unit would be able to determine +the speed of a semi at up to something on the order of 1/4 mile, making a +3 x 5 snapshot of the highway scenery with a speck on the road-picture of +the oncoming truck. You have to pass "across" the beam to trigger the camera +so as to prevent highly reflective objects from triggering the camera too +soon. By the way, as to the cosine effect, the unit is set up at a +precise angle across the highway and the computer (if you want to call it +a computer) in the photo radar unit automatically compensates for the +difference. + + +Ways to get around photo radar: +1. They typically use infrared film at night - paint your license plate +with infrared-reflecting paint so as to make the F's on your license plate +look like E's, 3's look like 8's, etc. You get the picture (but hopefully +the photo radar unit won't :-) + +2. Remove your license plate and put it in the windshield instead. + +3. Another trick on the infrared film deal - turn on your defrosters. +It will make the usually see-through glass look like a red wall. + +4. Bend your license plate almost in half - if you get pulled over for +having it like that, say that your friend must have gotten it caught on +one of those concrete blocks that they have in parking lots and bent it. + +5. My favorite (for those with guts). Plant a small transmitter on the +Blazer or whatever that houses the photo radar unit. Have it send a pulse +out every second or so. Build a receiver that tells you when you are near +the transmitter - make it so it can be received about a mile away. Better +than a detector! It is sure to work! You can probably sell the receivers +and make a few bucks along the way... + +6. Make a high-power transmitter that operates on the same frequency of +the photo radar unit. Drive by the unit while it is operating and blast +it with a few hundred watts of radiation, effectively frying the receiver's +front end/detector circuitry, rendering the unit useless. + +Any more ideas?!?!?!? Send mail - I'm interested in hearing how creative +the rest of you outlaws are.... + + --- Jeff + ++----------------------------------------------+------------------------------+ +| Jeff DePolo [depolo@eniac.seas.upenn.edu] | o The best things in life | +| => The University of Pennsylvania <= | come in six-packs. | +| Class of 1991 - Computer Science Engineering | o Life begins at 85 MPH. | ++----------------------------------------------+ o It's not illegal if they | +| DISCLAIMER: Someone else used my account. | don't catch you. | ++----------------------------------------------+------------------------------+ diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/kennedy.txt b/textfiles.com/science/kennedy.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..bd581c3c --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/kennedy.txt @@ -0,0 +1,192 @@ + +JOHN F. KENNEDY SPACE CENTER +Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899 + + + Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is located on the east coast of + Florida, 150 miles south of Jacksonville and approximately 50 miles + east of Orlando. It is immediately north and west of Cape + Canaveral. The center is about 34 miles long and varies in width + from 5 to 10 miles. The total land and water area occupied by the + installation is 140,393 acres. Of this area, 84,031 acres is + NASA-owned. The remainder is owned by the State of Florida. This + area, with adjoining water bodies, provides sufficient space to + afford adequate safety to the surrounding civilian community during + launches, landings of other hazardous operations. Agreements have + been made with the Department of the Interior regarding the use of + non-operational areas as a wildlife refuge and national seashore on + a non-interference basis. + + The center was originally created in the early 1960s to serve as + the launch site for the Apollo lunar landing missions. After the + Apollo program ended in 1972, Kennedy's Complex 39 was used for the + launch of the Skylab spacecraft and later, the Apollo spacecraft + for the Apollo Soyuz Test Project. + + Kennedy Space Center serves as the primary center within NASA for + the test, checkout and launch of payloads and space vehicles. This + presently includes launch of manned and unmanned vehicles at + Kennedy, the adjacent Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and at + Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. + + The center is responsible for the assembly, checkout and launch of + Space Shuttle vehicles and their payloads, landing operations and + the turn-around of Space Shuttle orbiters between missions, as well + as preparation and launch of unmanned vehicles. + + Kennedy also is responsible for the operation of the KSC + Vandenberg Launch Site Resident Office, located at Vandenberg Air + Force Base in Santa Barbara County, on the California central + coast. + + The KSC Vandenberg Launch Site Resident Office serves as the + interface with the U.S. Air Force to arrange for base support at + Vandenberg of all NASA elements and for VLS and range support of + all NASA projects supported by the Resident Office. It supports + spacecraft requirements of other NASA centers, commercial and U.S. + government agencies not affiliated with the Department of Defense + by providing operational and administrative support. + + Forrest S. McCartney, Lt. General USAF-Retired, is Director of the + Kennedy Space Center. + + +THE PEOPLE AND FACILITIES OF THE KENNEDY SPACE CENTER + + The Kennedy Space Center, and the people who work there, are a + very special type of resource for the United States and the world. + The NASA/industry launch teams, and the people who support them, + have skills and capabilities found only at the national spaceport. + Every American manned space flight to date was launched by the + people of Kennedy. This NASA Center is one of just two places + capable of launching Space Shuttle vehicles. The second site, on + Vandenberg AFB in California, belongs to the U.S. Air Force, and is + not operational at present. It is being maintained in case it is + needed in the future for Space Shuttle polar orbit missions. Over + the years the NASA/industry teams have also launched over 300 + unmanned space vehicles, primarily Deltas, Atlas-Centaurs, + Atlas-Agenas, and Titan-Centaurs. These lifted off from + NASA-operated facilities on Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and + Vandenberg AFB. + + Every person who works at the spaceport is a member of the team, + even if their jobs are not directly involved with launch + operations. Most of the hands-on work is performed by contractors. + When fully manned, the Center has a workforce of (in round numbers) + about 2,400 NASA civil servants and 13,000 to 14,000 contractor + personnel. The largest contractor organization works in the area + of Shuttle processing and launch operations, the second largest + provides maintenance and support for the Center itself, and the + third helps customers prepare their spacecraft and other payloads + for launch. Several other contractors provide various operational, + support and housekeeping functions. + + The operation of the launch and support facilities at Kennedy + demands unusual, sometimes unique, personnel skills. But for most + NASA and contractor employees, the same knowledge and abilities + that serve them here would work equally well in many other places. + + Some of the more unusual facilities in which people work are the + giant Vehicle Assembly Building, one of the largest enclosed + structures in the world; the Orbiter Processing Facility, filled + with complicated equipment used to prepare Shuttle orbiters for + flight; Pads 39A and 39B, from which Shuttles lift off; Delta and + Atlas-Centaur launch complexes on Cape Canaveral; and a host of + other processing and support facilities. These include buildings + especially designed for spacecraft assembly and checkout, and + others for hazardous work such as installing explosive ordnance and + loading propellants. + + The heart of the Kennedy Space Center is its engineering work + force, both contractor and NASA. People with electrical, + mechanical, electronic and computer engineering degrees have the + necessary background to begin work here. After that, it may take + years to learn some of the more unusual jobs. + + Many spaceport professionals deal with more routine matters, such + as designing and overseeing the construction of office or supply + buildings, setting up and operating computer systems, or performing + materials and structures tests. + + The engineering departments do their work along with other groups + who might be found at any industrial facility. Several logistics + organizations order supplies and keep them available in warehouses. + Another operates a facility-wide bus system and supplies vehicles + for local use. Writing and graphics departments produce a variety + of publications. A local printshop prints them. A janitorial + force keeps the facilities clean. A guard force provides security. + It is the very different nature of the major function of Kennedy -- + serving as the nation's spaceport -- that makes it such a special + place. Watching a rocket blaze a fiery trail into the sky, + hearing the thunder of its passage, is a fringe benefit not + available at very many workplaces. + + +A PLACE TO VISIT + + Whether it's the bustle of spaceport activity, the solitude of a + nature trail or the unspoiled beauty of a pristine seashore, the + Kennedy Space Center offers the visitor a wide variety of things to + do and see. + + A must stop on anyone's space itinerary is the Kennedy visitors + center, Spaceport USA -- a modern, sprawling complex of exhibit + halls, theaters and supporting amenities that lure well over two + million visitors a year, ranking it among the top tourist + attractions in Florida. + + Open every day of the year except Christmas, Spaceport USA + provides visitors a rare opportunity to experience the sights, + sounds, color and drama of America's role in space. + + Indoor and outdoor exhibits and displays feature the spacecraft, + the rockets and the programs that have extended our reach beyond + the Earth. Dramatic large-screen IMAX movies offer a spectacular + view of space as seen by the astronauts. Bus tours of the Kennedy + Space Center and Cape Canaveral facilities trace the evolution of + the nation's space program from its infancy to the Space Shuttle + era. + + Educational services are available as well. The Educators + Resource Laboratory provides extensive facilities to aid teachers + in the preparation of aerospace-related teaching materials. Slides, + videotapes and text materials can be copied for use in the + classroom. + + At the Exploration Station, educational programs and hands-on + activities illustrate and explain the principals of rocketry and + space science to students of all ages. Students often work with + actual hardware used for space missions. + + Spaceport USA is located two miles south of Titusville, Florida, + off U.S. Highway 1. It is operated under a concessionaire + contract, and is entirely self-supporting. Parking and exhibits + are available free. Modest fees and admission prices are charged + for bus tours and the IMAX movie. Cafeterias and snack shops are + available, and gift shops offer a wide range of space memorabilia + and souvenirs. Educational services are provided by the Center's + Education Office. + + The "other side" of America's Spaceport is less known, perhaps, + but an equally treasured national asset. Under agreements between + NASA and the Department of Interior, all but the operational areas + of the Kennedy Space Center are designated as a wildlife refuge, + including 25 miles of undeveloped ocean beach that forms the + Canaveral National Seashore. + + This gentle but untamed land swarms with wildlife. Over 500 + species of birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians are found here. + Some, like the American bald eagle, woodstork, alligator and the + ponderous manatee, or sea cow, are on the endangered or threatened + species list. + + Recreational activities abound: fresh water and surf fishing, + waterfowl hunting in season, birdwatching, swimming at the ocean + beaches, canoeing and hiking nature trails. + + Most of the refuge and all of the seashore are open to visitors + during daylight hours, except when space operations require + closure. Seashore headquarters and a refuge visitors center are + located several miles east of Titusville, on State Road 402. + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/land-tur.txt b/textfiles.com/science/land-tur.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..44cc0419 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/land-tur.txt @@ -0,0 +1,329 @@ +"6_2_4_5_2.TXT" (4238 bytes) was created on 01-02-89 + +SHUTTLE LANDING OPERATIONS + + When a mission's planned in-orbit operations have been accomplished, +the emphasis on board the orbiter turns to the task of preparing the +vehicle for its return to Earth. Usually, the last full day in orbit +is devoted primarily to stowing equipment, cleaning up the living +areas and making final systems configurations which will facilitate +post-landing processing. + + The crew schedule, or timeline, is designed such that crew members +are awake and into their "work day" 6 to 8 hours before landing. At +about 4 hours before deorbit maneuvers are scheduled, the crew and +flight controllers have finished with the Crew Activity Plan for that +mission. They now work from the mission's Deorbit Prep handbook, +which covers the major deorbit events leading up to touchdown. Major +events include the "go" from MCC to close the payload bay doors, and +the final OK to perform the deorbit burn which will bring the orbiter +back to Earth. + + However, before the deorbit burn is performed, the orbiter is turned +to a tail-first attitude. (That is, the aft end of the orbiter faces +the direction of travel.) At a predesignated time, the OMS engines +are fired to slow the orbiter down and to permit deorbit. The RCS +thrusters are then used to turn the orbiter back into a nose-first +attitude. These thrusters are used during much of the reentry pitch, +roll and yaw maneuvering until the orbiter's aerodynamic, +aircraft-like control surfaces encounter enough atmospheric drag to +control the landing. This is called Entry Interface (EI) and usually +occurs 30 minutes before touchdown at about 400,000 ft. At this +time, a communications blackout occurs as the orbiter is enveloped in +a sheath of plasma caused by electromagnetic forces generated from +the high heat experienced during entry into the atmosphere. + + As the orbiter glides toward a landing, initially at a velocity of +25,000 feet per second at the EI point, its velocity is gradually +slowed by a series of banks and roll reversals. As the atmospheric +density increases, the forward RCS thrusters are turned off, while +the aft RCS jets continue to maneuver the orbiter until a dynamic +pressure of 10 lb. per square foot is sensed by instruments on board. + At this point, the ailerons on orbiter's delta-shaped wings begin to +operate and the aft RCS roll thrusters are stopped. + + When the dynamic pressure reaches 20 lb. per square foot, the +orbiter's wing elevators become operational and the RCS pitch +thrusters are stopped. A speed brake on the vertical tail opens when +the orbiter's velocity falls below Mach 10. Then, at Mach 3.5, the +rudder is activated and the final RCS burns -- the yaw jets -- are +stopped. The orbiter is now at an altitude of 45,000 ft., and is +beginning what are called "area energy management maneuvers" which +enable it to intercept the landing approach corridor at the desired +altitude and velocity. + + As it nears the landing site, the orbiter is steered into the +nearest of two heading alignment circles called HACs. Each has a +radius of 18,000 ft. The orbiter is now in subsonic flight, at +49,000 ft., and about 22 mile from its touchdown point. + + In the future, final approach and landing will be controlled at this +point the commander takes over control of the orbiter for final +approach and landing maneuvers by the Microwave Scanning Beam Landing +System (MSBLS) -- called autoland -- which will take over control 2 +minutes before touchdown while the orbiter is at an altitude of +15,489 ft., 9.8 mile from the runway touchdown point, traveling at a +speed of 410 mph. This phase of the flight will be completely +automatic and the crew's main task will be to monitor the MSBLS. + + The initial orbiter landing approach is at a glide slope of 19 +degrees. This is six times steeper than the 3-degree glide slope of +a typical commercial jet airliner as it approaches landing. + + Just before the orbiter touches down, flare or pull-up maneuvers are +required to bring it into its final landing glide slope of l.5 +degrees. At touchdown -- nominally about 2,500 ft. beyond the runway +threshold -- the orbiter is traveling at a speed ranging from 213 to +226 mph. + + +"6_2_4_5_3.TXT" (7930 bytes) was created on 01-02-89 + +POST-LANDING OPERATIONS + + Once the orbiter has rolled to a stop on the runway, post-landing +activities get underway involving the Orbiter Recovery Convoy. +Mission responsibility has shifted from the Johnson Space Center back +to the Kennedy Space Center. + + Recovery Convoy. The Orbiter Recovery Convoy consists of a number +of specially-designed vehicles and a team of specialists who safe and +service the orbiter and assist in crew egress. Included in the +convoy are ll special vehicles and units. A brief description of +these follows. + + Scape Trailer . Self-Contained Atmospheric Protection Ensemble +(SCAPE), vehicle, parked at a midfield location during landing, +contains the equipment necessary to support recovery including +recovery crew SCAPE suits, liquid air packs, and a crew who assist +recovery personnel in suiting-up in protective clothing. + + Vapor Dispersal Unit. The Vapor Dispersal Unit is a mobile +wind-making machine able to produce a directed wind stream of up to +45 mph. It is an adaptation of a standard 14-ft. agricultural wind +machine designed to protect fragile agricultural crops from frost +damage or freezing. It is used by the recovery team to blow away +toxic or explosive gases that may occur in or around the orbiter +after landing. The fan can move 200,000 square feet of air a minute. + + Coolant Umbilical Access. This apparatus is a stair and platform +unit mounted on a truck bed which permits access to the aft port side +of the orbiter where ground support crews attach coolant lines from +the Orbiter Coolant Transporter. + + Orbiter Coolant Transporters. This unit is a tractor-trailer +carrying a refrigeration unit that provides Freon ll4 through the +orbiter's T-O umbilical into its cooling system. + + Purge Umbilical Access Vehicle. This vehicle is similar to the +Coolant Umbilical Access Vehicle in that it has an access stairway +and platform allowing crews to attach purge air lines to the orbiter +on its aft starboard side. + + Orbiter Purge Transporter. This vehicle is a tractor-trailer which +carries an air conditioning unit powered by two 300 KW, 60 Hz +electric generators. The unit blows cool or dehumidified air into +the payload bay to remove possible residual explosive or toxic gases. + + Cres Hatch Access Vehicle. The Crew Hatch Access Vehicle consists +of a stairway and platform on which is located a white room equipped +with special orbiter interface seals. It contains pressurized +filtered air to keep toxic or explosive gases, airborne dust or other +contaminants from getting into the orbiter during crew egress. + + Astronaut Transporter Van. As its name implies, this van is used to +transport the flight crew from the landing area. It is a modified +recreational vehicle in which the crew can remove their flight suits +and be examined by a physician while enroute. + + Helium Tube Bank. This specialized vehicle is a trailer on which is +mounted a 12-tube bank container which provides helium to purge +hydrogen from the orbiter's main engines and lines. The bank +contains 85,000 cubic feet of helium at 6,000 psi. + + Orbiter Tow Vehicle. This unit is very much like the typical towing +units used for large aircraft. However, it is equipped with a +special towing bar designed specifically for the orbiter. It is used +to move the orbiter from the landing facility to the OPF. It also is +used for moving the orbiter from the OPF to the VAB. + + Mobile Ground Power Unit. The final special vehicle for orbiter +post-landing operations is the Mobile Ground Power Unit which +provides power to the orbiter if the fuel cells have to be shut down. +It can deliver a nominal load of 10 of direct power to the orbiter. + +Augmenting these special orbiter recovery convoy vehicles are various +conventional command and emergency vehicles. + + Recovery Convoy Operations. The main job of the recovery convoy is +to service the orbiter, prepare it for towing, assist the crew in +leaving the orbiter and finally to tow it to servicing facilities. + + Even before the Shuttle is launched, the recovery convoy begins its +post-landing preparations by warming up coolant and purge equipment, +readying ground service equipment and carrying out extensive +communications checks. + + During the Shuttle flight, the recovery convoy is on call in the +event an earlier than planned landing is necessary. + + Major activity begins at about 2 hours before the orbiter is +scheduled to land. At this time chilldown of the purge and coolant +units begins. About 1 hour, 40 minutes before landing, the recovery +crew puts on their SCAPE suits and makes final communications checks. + At 5 minutes before touchdown, the recovery convoy is ready to go to +work. + + After landing, the first staging position of the convoy is 200 ft. +up wind from the orbiter. The safety assessment team in the SCAPE +van moves to about 100 ft. of the port side of the orbiter. A +SCAPE-dressed crew then moves to the rear of the orbiter using a high +range flammability vapor detector to obtain vapor level readings and +to test for possible explosive hazards and toxic gases. Two readings +from three different locations are made to determine concentrations +of hydrogen, monomethyl hydrazine, and hydrazine and ammonia. If +they find that high levels of gases are present, and if wind +conditions are calm, the Vapor Dispersal Unit -- the mobile wind +machine -- moves into place and blows away the potentially dangerous +gases. + + Meanwhile, the Purge and Coolant Umbilical Access Vehicles are moved +behind the orbiter and the safety assessment team continues to +determine whether hazardous gases are present in the area. Once the +umbilical access vehicles are in position, and as soon as it is +possible to connect up to the liquid hydrogen T-O umbilical on the +orbiter, the ground half of the on board hydrogen detection sample +lines are connected to determine the hydrogen concentration. If the +concentration is less than 4 percent, convoy operations continue. +However, if it should be greater than 4 percent, an emergency power +down of the orbiter is ordered. The flight crew is evacuated from +the orbiter immediately and the convoy personnel clear the area and +wait for the hydrogen to disperse. + + If the hydrogen level is below 4 percent, the carrier plate for the +starboard liquid oxygen T-O umbilical is attached to permit insertion +of purge air ducts. After the carrier plates have been installed, +the Freon line and purge duct connections are completed and the flow +of coolant and purge air through the umbilical lines begins. + + Purge air provides cool and humidified air conditioning to the +payload bay and other cavities thereby removing any residual +explosive or toxic fumes. + + When it is determined that the area around and in the orbiter is +safe, non-SCAPE suit operations begin. First, in the forward orbiter +area, the priority is to assist the flight crew off the orbiter. + + The Crew Hatch Access Vehicle moves to the hatch side of the +orbiter. When the access white room is secured, the orbiter hatch is +opened and a physician boards the orbiter to make a brief preliminary +medical examination of the crew. The crew then leaves the orbiter +and departs in the Astronaut Transporter Van. + + The flight crew is replaced on board the orbiter by an exchange crew +who make preparations for ground towing operations, installing switch +guards and removing data packages from onboard experiments, if +required. + + Meanwhile, after allowing for a 30-minute orbiter tire cool down, +the Tow Vehicle crew installs the landing gear lock pins, and +disconnects the nose landing gear drag link. The Tow Vehicle is +positioned in front of the orbiter and the tow bar connection is +made. Finally, about two hours after landing the orbiter is towed +off the runway. + + +"6_2_4_5_4.TXT" (4554 bytes) was created on 01-02-89 + +SOLID ROCKET BOOSTER RETRIEVAL OPERATIONS + + After the Space Shuttle is launched, the Solid Rocket Boosters (SRB) +are jettisoned at 2 minutes, 7 seconds into the flight. They are +retrieved from the Atlantic Ocean by special recovery vessels and +returned for refurbishment and eventual reuse on future Shuttle +flights. + + SRB separation occurs at an altitude of about 30 miles The +separated boosters then coast up to an altitude of 47 miles and +free-fall into an impact zone in the ocean about 158 miles downrange. + The so-called splash "footprint" is in an area about 7 miles wide +and about 10 miles long. + + When a free-falling booster reaches an altitude of about 3 miles its +nose cap is jettisoned and the SRB pilot parachute pops open. The +pilot parachute then pulls out the 54-ft. diameter, l,100-lb. drogue +parachute. The drogue parachute stabilizes and slows down the +descent to the ocean. + + At an altitude of 6,240 ft., the frustum, a truncated cone at the +top of the SRB where it joins the nose cap, is separated from the +forward skirt, causing the three main parachutes to pop out. These +parachutes are 115 ft. in diameter and have a dry weight of about +l,500 lb. each. When wet with sea water they weight about 3,000 lb. + + At 6 minute and 44 seconds after liftoff, the spent SRBs, weighing +about 165,000 lb., have slowed their descent speed to about 62 mph +and splashdown takes place in the predetermined area. + + The parachutes remain attached to the boosters until they are +detached by recovery personnel. + + Waiting near the impact area are two 176-ft.-long, +specially-designed SRB recovery vessels. Their first job is to +recover the main SRB parachutes. Each vessel is equipped with four 5 +ft. 6 in. -diameter reels which wind the parachute winch lines onto +the reel similar to the way line is wound onto a fishing reel. + + The frustum-drogue parachute also is reeled in until the 5,000-lb. +frustum is about 100 ft. from the recovery ship. The drogue +parachute lines are then reeled in until the frustum can be lifted +out of the ocean by a 10-ton-capacity crane. + + Next, the empty SRB casings are recovered using a special device +called the Diver Operated Plug (DOP). This procedure calls for a +team of underwater divers to descend to a depth of about 110 ft. and +place the DOP into the nozzle of the casing. A 2,000-ft.-long air +line attached to the DOP is plugged into an air compressor on the +recovery vessel. Air is pumped into the booster at 120 psi to empty +water from the casing -- a procedure called "dewatering." + + Under ideal weather and sea conditions, the retrieval operation +takes about 5 and 1/2 hours. The recovery ships with the retrieved +SRBs in tow, sail to Port Canaveral, travel north up the Banana River +and dock near Hangar AF at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, +their mission completed. + + SRB Disassembly Operations. The retrieval ships take the SRBs to a +dock at the Solid Rocket Booster Disassembly Facility (SRBDF) located +at Hangar AF -- a building originally used for Project Mercury, the +first U.S. manned space program. + + The SRBs are unloaded onto a hoisting slip and mobile gantry cranes +lift them onto tracked dollies where they are safed and undergo their +first washing. + + The casings are then taken to the SRBDF for disassembly into their +four main segments: two aft skirt and two forward skirt assemblies. +The main casing segments undergo further cleaning, after which they +are placed on railroad cars and shipped to the manufacturing plant in +Utah where they undergo final refurbishment and are again loaded with +propellant. + + Meanwhile, the nose cone frustums and parachutes are processed at +the Parachute Refurbishment Facility in the KSC Industrial Area. + + Parachute Refurbishment . The SRB Parachute Refurbishment Facility +(PRF) was originally built to process the parachutes used in the +Gemini manned space program and was modified for the Shuttle program. + + The SRB parachutes are taken to the PRF for refurbishment on the +reels from the recovery vessels. The PRF also receives and stores +new parachutes and hardware for the SRBs. + + Specific procedures for refurbishment of the SRB parachutes include +untangling the lines, and hanging them on an overhead monorail and +automatically washing and drying them. When this is completed, and +final inspections are conducted, the parachutes are folded on +64-ft.-long tables and stored in canisters for eventual reuse. + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/larson.ph b/textfiles.com/science/larson.ph new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e327da9d --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/larson.ph @@ -0,0 +1,547 @@ +Path: spies!sgiblab!sdd.hp.com!caen!uwm.edu!zazen!uwec.edu!mcelwre +From: mcelwre@cnsvax.uwec.edu +Newsgroups: sci.energy +Subject: LARSONIAN Physics +Message-ID: <1992Dec3.185938.2626@cnsvax.uwec.edu> +Date: 3 Dec 92 18:59:38 -0600 +Organization: University of Wisconsin Eau Claire +Lines: 538 + + + + LARSONIAN "Reciprocal System" + + Orthodox physicists, astronomers, and astrophysicists + CLAIM to be looking for a "Unified Field Theory" in which all + of the forces of the universe can be explained with a single + set of laws or equations. But they have been systematically + IGNORING or SUPPRESSING an excellent one for 30 years! + + The late Physicist Dewey B. Larson's comprehensive + GENERAL UNIFIED Theory of the physical universe, which he + calls the "Reciprocal System", is built on two fundamental + postulates about the physical and mathematical natures of + space and time: + + (1) "The physical universe is composed ENTIRELY of ONE + component, MOTION, existing in THREE dimensions, in DISCRETE + UNITS, and in two RECIPROCAL forms, SPACE and TIME." + + (2) "The physical universe conforms to the relations of + ORDINARY COMMUTATIVE mathematics, its magnitudes are + ABSOLUTE, and its geometry is EUCLIDEAN." + + From these two postulates, Larson developed a COMPLETE + Theoretical Universe, using various combinations of + translational, vibrational, rotational, and vibrational- + rotational MOTIONS, the concepts of IN-ward and OUT-ward + SCALAR MOTIONS, and speeds in relation to the Speed of Light + (which Larson called "UNIT VELOCITY" and "THE NATURAL + DATUM"). + + At each step in the development, Larson was able to + MATCH objects in his Theoretical Universe with objects in the + REAL physical universe, (photons, sub-atomic particles + [INCOMPLETE ATOMS], charges, atoms, molecules, globular star + clusters, galaxies, binary star systems, solar systems, white + dwarf stars, pulsars, quasars, ETC.), even objects NOT YET + DISCOVERED THEN (such as EXPLODING GALAXIES, and GAMMA-RAY + BURSTS). + + And applying his Theory to his NEW model of the atom, + Larson was able to precisely and accurately CALCULATE inter- + atomic distances in crystals and molecules. + + All of this is described in good detail, with-OUT fancy + complex mathematics, in his books. + + + + BOOKS of Dewey B. Larson + + The following is a complete list of the late Physicist + Dewey B. Larson's books about his comprehensive GENERAL + UNIFIED Theory of the physical universe. Some of the early + books are out of print now, but still available through + inter-library loan. + + "The Structure of the Physical Universe" (1959) + + "The Case AGAINST the Nuclear Atom" (1963) + + "Beyond Newton" (1964) + + "New Light on Space and Time" (1965) + + "Quasars and Pulsars" (1971) + + "NOTHING BUT MOTION" (1979) + [A $9.50 SUBSTITUTE for the $8.3 BILLION "Super + Collider".] + [The last four chapters EXPLAIN chemical bonding.] + + "The Neglected Facts of Science" (1982) + + "THE UNIVERSE OF MOTION" (1984) + [FINAL SOLUTIONS to most ALL astrophysical + mysteries.] + + "BASIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER" (1988) + [Available from: + The International Society of Unified Science + (ISUS) + 1680 E. Atkin Ave. + Salt Lake City, Utah 84106 ] + + + + Physicist Dewey B. Larson's Background + + Physicist Dewey B. Larson was a retired Engineer + (Chemical or Electrical). He was about 91 years old when he + died a couple of years ago. He had a Bachelor of Science + Degree in Engineering Science from Oregon State University. + He developed his comprehensive GENERAL UNIFIED Theory of the + physical universe while trying to develop a way to COMPUTE + chemical properties based only on the elements used. + + Larson's lack of a fancy "PH.D." degree might be one + reason that orthodox physicists are ignoring him, but it is + NOT A VALID REASON. Sometimes it takes a relative outsider + to CLEARLY SEE THE FOREST THROUGH THE TREES. At the same + time, it is clear from his books that he also knew ORTHODOX + physics and astronomy as well as ANY physicist or astronomer, + well enough to point out all their CONTRADICTIONS, AD HOC + ASSUMPTIONS, PRINCIPLES OF IMPOTENCE, IN-CONSISTENCIES, ETC.. + + Larson did NOT have the funds, etc. to experimentally + test his Theory. And it was NOT necessary for him to do so. + He simply compared the various parts of his Theory with OTHER + researchers' experimental and observational data. And in + many cases, HIS explanation FIT BETTER. + + A SELF-CONSISTENT Theory is MUCH MORE than the ORTHODOX + physicists and astronomers have! They CLAIM to be looking + for a "unified field theory" that works, but have been + IGNORING one for over 30 years now! + + "Modern physics" does NOT explain the physical universe + so well. Some parts of some of Larson's books are FULL of + quotations of leading orthodox physicists and astronomers who + agree. And remember that "epicycles", "crystal spheres", + "geocentricity", "flat earth theory", etc., ALSO once SEEMED + to explain it well, but were later proved CONCEPTUALLY WRONG. + + + Prof. Frank H. Meyer, Professor Emeritus of UW-Superior, + was/is a STRONG PROPONENT of Larson's Theory, and was (or + still is) President of Larson's organization, "THE + INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF UNIFIED SCIENCE", and Editor of + their quarterly Journal "RECIPROCITY". He moved to + Minneapolis after retiring. + + + + "Super Collider" BOONDOGGLE! + + I am AGAINST contruction of the "Superconducting Super + Collider", in Texas or anywhere else. It would be a GROSS + WASTE of money, and contribute almost NOTHING of "scientific" + value. + + Most physicists don't realize it, but, according to the + comprehensive GENERAL UNIFIED Theory of the late Physicist + Dewey B. Larson, as described in his books, the strange GOOFY + particles ("mesons", "hyperons", ALLEGED "quarks", etc.) + which they are finding in EXISTING colliders (Fermi Lab, + Cern, etc.) are really just ATOMS of ANTI-MATTER, which are + CREATED by the high-energy colliding beams, and which quickly + disintegrate like cosmic rays because they are incompatible + with their environment. + + A larger and more expensive collider will ONLY create a + few more elements of anti-matter that the physicists have not + seen there before, and the physicists will be EVEN MORE + CONFUSED THAN THEY ARE NOW! + + Are a few more types of anti-matter atoms worth the $8.3 + BILLION cost?!! Don't we have much more important uses for + this WASTED money?! + + + Another thing to consider is that the primary proposed + location in Texas has a serious and growing problem with some + kind of "fire ants" eating the insulation off underground + cables. How much POISONING of the ground and ground water + with insecticides will be required to keep the ants out of + the "Supercollider"?! + + + Naming the "Super Collider" after Ronald Reagon, as + proposed, is TOTALLY ABSURD! If it is built, it should be + named after a leading particle PHYSICIST. + + + + LARSONIAN Anti-Matter + + In Larson's comprehensive GENERAL UNIFIED Theory of the + physical universe, anti-matter is NOT a simple case of + opposite charges of the same types of particles. It has more + to do with the rates of vibrations and rotations of the + photons of which they are made, in relation to the + vibrational and rotational equivalents of the speed of light, + which Larson calls "Unit Velocity" and the "Natural Datum". + + In Larson's Theory, a positron is actually a particle of + MATTER, NOT anti-matter. When a positron and electron meet, + the rotational vibrations (charges) and rotations of their + respective photons (of which they are made) neutralize each + other. + + In Larson's Theory, the ANTI-MATTER half of the physical + universe has THREE dimensions of TIME, and ONLY ONE dimension + of space, and exists in a RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIP to our + MATERIAL half. + + + + LARSONIAN Relativity + + The perihelion point in the orbit of the planet Mercury + has been observed and precisely measured to ADVANCE at the + rate of 574 seconds of arc per century. 531 seconds of this + advance are attributed via calculations to gravitational + perturbations from the other planets (Venus, Earth, Jupiter, + etc.). The remaining 43 seconds of arc are being used to + help "prove" Einstein's "General Theory of Relativity". + + But the late Physicist Dewey B. Larson achieved results + CLOSER to the 43 seconds than "General Relativity" can, by + INSTEAD using "SPECIAL Relativity". In one or more of his + books, he applied the LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION on the HIGH + ORBITAL SPEED of Mercury. + + Larson TOTALLY REJECTED "General Relativity" as another + MATHEMATICAL FANTASY. He also REJECTED most of "Special + Relativity", including the parts about "mass increases" near + the speed of light, and the use of the Lorentz Transform on + doppler shifts, (Those quasars with red-shifts greater than + 1.000 REALLY ARE MOVING FASTER THAN THE SPEED OF LIGHT, + although most of that motion is away from us IN TIME.). + + In Larson's comprehensive GENERAL UNIFIED Theory of the + physical universe, there are THREE dimensions of time instead + of only one. But two of those dimensions can NOT be measured + from our material half of the physical universe. The one + dimension that we CAN measure is the CLOCK time. At low + relative speeds, the values of the othe two dimensions are + NEGLIGIBLE; but at high speeds, they become significant, and + the Lorentz Transformation must be used as a FUDGE FACTOR. + [Larson often used the term "COORDINATE TIME" when writing + about this.] + + + In regard to "mass increases", it has been PROVEN in + atomic accelerators that acceleration drops toward zero near + the speed of light. But the formula for acceleration is + ACCELERATION = FORCE / MASS, (a = F/m). Orthodox physicists + are IGNORING the THIRD FACTOR: FORCE. In Larson's Theory, + mass STAYS CONSTANT and FORCE drops toward zero. FORCE is + actually a MOTION, or COMBINATIONS of MOTIONS, or RELATIONS + BETWEEN MOTIONS, including INward and OUTward SCALAR MOTIONS. + The expansion of the universe, for example, is an OUTward + SCALAR motion inherent in the universe and NOT a result of + the so-called "Big Bang" (which is yet another MATHEMATICAL + FANTASY). + + + + THE UNIVERSE OF MOTION + + I wish to recommend to EVERYONE the book "THE UNIVERSE + OF MOTION", by Dewey B. Larson, 1984, North Pacific + Publishers, (P.O. Box 13255, Portland, Oregon 97213), 456 + pages, indexed, hardcover. + + It contains the Astrophysical portions of a GENERAL + UNIFIED Theory of the physical universe developed by that + author, an UNrecognized GENIUS, more than thirty years ago. + + It contains FINAL SOLUTIONS to most all Astrophysical + mysteries, including the FORMATION of galaxies, binary and + multiple star systems, and solar systems, the TRUE ORIGIN of + the "3-degree" background radiation, cosmic rays, and gamma- + ray bursts, and the TRUE NATURE of quasars, pulsars, white + dwarfs, exploding galaxies, etc.. + + It contains what astronomers and astrophysicists are ALL + looking for, if they are ready to seriously consider it with + OPEN MINDS! + + The following is an example of his Theory's success: + In his first book in 1959, "THE STRUCTURE OF THE PHYSICAL + UNIVERSE", Larson predicted the existence of EXPLODING + GALAXIES, several years BEFORE astronomers started finding + them. They are a NECESSARY CONSEQUENCE of Larson's + comprehensive Theory. And when QUASARS were discovered, he + had an immediate related explanation for them also. + + + + GAMMA-RAY BURSTS + + Astro-physicists and astronomers are still scratching + their heads about the mysterious GAMMA-RAY BURSTS. They were + originally thought to originate from "neutron stars" in the + disc of our galaxy. But the new Gamma Ray Telescope now in + Earth orbit has been detecting them in all directions + uniformly, and their source locations in space do NOT + correspond to any known objects, (except for a few cases of + directional coincidence). + + Gamma-ray bursts are a NECESSARY CONSEQUENCE of the + GENERAL UNIFIED Theory of the physical universe developed by + the late Physicist Dewey B. Larson. According to page 386 of + his book "THE UNIVERSE OF MOTION", published in 1984, the + gamma-ray bursts are coming from SUPERNOVA EXPLOSIONS in the + ANTI-MATTER HALF of the physical universe, which Larson calls + the "Cosmic Sector". Because of the relationship between the + anti-matter and material halves of the physical universe, and + the way they are connected together, the gamma-ray bursts can + pop into our material half anywhere in space, seemingly at + random. (This is WHY the source locations of the bursts do + not correspond with known objects, and come from all + directions uniformly.) + + I wonder how close to us in space a source location + would have to be for a gamma-ray burst to kill all or most + life on Earth! There would be NO WAY to predict one, NOR to + stop it! + + Perhaps some of the MASS EXTINCTIONS of the past, which + are now being blamed on impacts of comets and asteroids, were + actually caused by nearby GAMMA-RAY BURSTS! + + + + LARSONIAN Binary Star Formation + + About half of all the stars in the galaxy in the + vicinity of the sun are binary or double. But orthodox + astronomers and astrophysicists still have no satisfactory + theory about how they form or why there are so many of them. + + But binary star systems are actually a LIKELY + CONSEQUENCE of the comprehensive GENERAL UNIFIED Theory of + the physical universe developed by the late Physicist Dewey + B. Larson. + + I will try to summarize Larsons explanation, which is + detailed in Chapter 7 of his book "THE UNIVERSE OF MOTION" + and in some of his other books. + + First of all, according to Larson, stars do NOT generate + energy by "fusion". A small fraction comes from slow + gravitational collapse. The rest results from the COMPLETE + ANNIHILATION of HEAVY elements (heavier than IRON). Each + element has a DESTRUCTIVE TEMPERATURE LIMIT. The heavier the + element is, the lower is this limit. A star's internal + temperature increases as it grows in mass via accretion and + absorption of the decay products of cosmic rays, gradually + reaching the destructive temperature limit of lighter and + lighter elements. + + When the internal temperature of the star reaches the + destructive temperature limit of IRON, there is a Type I + SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION! This is because there is SO MUCH iron + present; and that is related to the structure of iron atoms + and the atom building process, which Larson explains in some + of his books [better than I can]. + + When the star explodes, the lighter material on the + outer portion of the star is blown outward in space at less + than the speed of light. The heavier material in the center + portion of the star was already bouncing around at close to + the speed of light, because of the high temperature. The + explosion pushes that material OVER the speed of light, and + it expands OUTWARD IN TIME, which is equivalent to INWARD IN + SPACE, and it often actually DISAPPEARS for a while. + + Over long periods of time, both masses start to fall + back gravitationally. The material that had been blown + outward in space now starts to form a RED GIANT star. The + material that had been blown OUTWARD IN TIME starts to form a + WHITE DWARF star. BOTH stars then start moving back toward + the "MAIN SEQUENCE" from opposite directions on the H-R + Diagram. + + The chances of the two masses falling back into the + exact same location in space, making a single lone star + again, are near zero. They will instead form a BINARY system, + orbiting each other. + + According to Larson, a white dwarf star has an INVERSE + DENSITY GRADIENT (is densest at its SURFACE), because the + material at its center is most widely dispersed (blown + outward) in time. This ELIMINATES the need to resort to + MATHEMATICAL FANTASIES about "degenerate matter", "neutron + stars", "black holes", etc.. + + + + LARSONIAN Solar System Formation + + If the mass of the heavy material at the center of the + exploding star is relatively SMALL, then, instead of a single + white dwarf star, there will be SEVERAL "mini" white dwarf + stars (revolving around the red giant star, but probably + still too far away in three-dimensional TIME to be affected + by its heat, etc.). These will become PLANETS! + + In Chapter 7 of THE UNIVERSE OF MOTION, Larson used all + this information, and other principles of his comprehensive + GENERAL UNIFIED Theory of the physical universe, to derive + his own version of Bode's Law. + + + + "Black Hole" FANTASY! + + I heard that physicist Stephen W. Hawking recently + completed a theoretical mathematical analysis of TWO "black + holes" merging together into a SINGLE "black hole", and + concluded that the new "black hole" would have MORE MASS than + the sum of the two original "black holes". + + Such a result should be recognized by EVERYone as a RED + FLAG, causing widespread DOUBT about the whole IDEA of "black + holes", etc.! + + After reading Physicist Dewey B. Larson's books about + his comprehensive GENERAL UNIFIED Theory of the physical + universe, especially his book "THE UNIVERSE OF MOTION", it is + clear to me that "black holes" are NOTHING more than + MATHEMATICAL FANTASIES! The strange object at Cygnus X-1 is + just an unusually massive WHITE DWARF STAR, NOT the "black + hole" that orthodox astronomers and physicists so badly want + to "prove" their theory. + + + By the way, I do NOT understand why so much publicity is + being given to physicist Stephen Hawking. The physicists and + astronomers seem to be acting as if Hawking's severe physical + problem somehow makes him "wiser". It does NOT! + + I wish the same attention had been given to Physicist + Dewey B. Larson while he was still alive. Widespread + publicity and attention should NOW be given to Larson's + Theory, books, and organization (The International Society of + Unified Science). + + + + ELECTRO-MAGNETIC PROPULSION + + I heard of that concept many years ago, in connection + with UFO's and unorthodox inventors, but I never was able to + find out how or why they work, or how they are constructed. + + I found a possible clue about why they might work on + pages 112-113 of the book "BASIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER", by + the late Physicist Dewey B. Larson, which describes part of + Larson's comprehensive GENERAL UNIFIED Theory of the physical + universe. I quote one paragraph: + + "As indicated in the preceding chapter, the development + of the theory of the universe of motion arrives at a totally + different concept of the nature of electrical resistance. + The electrons, we find, are derived from the environment. It + was brought out in Volume I [Larson's book "NOTHING BUT + MOTION"] that there are physical processes in operation which + produce electrons in substantial quantities, and that, + although the motions that constitute these electrons are, in + many cases, absorbed by atomic structures, the opportunities + for utilizing this type of motion in such structures are + limited. It follows that there is always a large excess of + free electrons in the material sector [material half] of the + universe, most of which are uncharged. In this uncharged + state the electrons cannot move with respect to extension + space, because they are inherently rotating units of space, + and the relation of space to space is not motion. In open + space, therefore, each uncharged electron remains permanently + in the same location with respect to the natural reference + system, in the manner of a photon. In the context of the + stationary spatial reference system the uncharged electron, + like the photon, is carried outward at the speed of light by + the progression of the natural reference system. All + material aggregates are thus exposed to a flux of electrons + similar to the continual bombardment by photons of radiation. + Meanwhile there are other processes, to be discussed later, + whereby electrons are returned to the environment. The + electron population of a material aggregate such as the earth + therefore stabilizes at an equilibrium level." + + Note that in Larson's Theory, UNcharged electrons are + also massLESS, and are basically photons of light of a + particular frequency (above the "unit" frequency) spinning + around one axis at a particular rate (below the "unit" rate). + ("Unit velocity" is the speed of light, and there are + vibrational and rotational equivalents to the speed of light, + according to Larson's Theory.) [I might have the "above" and + "below" labels mixed up.] + + Larson is saying that outer space is filled with mass- + LESS UN-charged electrons flying around at the speed of + light! + + If this is true, then the ELECTRO-MAGNETIC PROPULSION + fields of spacecraft might be able to interact with these + electrons, or other particles in space, perhaps GIVING them a + charge (and mass) and shooting them toward the rear to + achieve propulsion. (In Larson's Theory, an electrical charge + is a rotational vibration of a particular frequency (above + the "unit" frequency) superimposed on the rotation of the + particle.) + + The paragraph quoted above might also give a clue to + confused meteorologists about how lightning is generated in + clouds. + + + + SUPPRESSION of LARSONIAN Physics + + The comprehensive GENERAL UNIFIED Theory of the physical + universe developed by the late Physicist Dewey B. Larson has + been available for more than 30 YEARS, published in 1959 in + his first book "THE STRUCTURE OF THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE". + + It is TOTALLY UN-SCIENTIFIC for Hawking, Wheeler, Sagan, + and the other SACRED PRIESTS of the RELIGION they call + "science" (or "physics", or "astronomy", etc.), as well as + the "scientific" literature and the "education" systems, to + TOTALLY IGNORE Larson's Theory has they have. + + Larson's Theory has excellent explanations for many + things now puzzling orthodox physicists and astronomers, such + as gamma-ray bursts and the nature of quasars. + + Larson's Theory deserves to be HONESTLY and OPENLY + discussed in the physics, chemistry, and astronomy journals, + in the U.S. and elsewhere. And at least the basic principles + of Larson's Theory should be included in all related courses + at UW-EC, UW-Madison, Cambridge, Cornell University, and + elsewhere, so that students are not kept in the dark about a + worthy alternative to the DOGMA they are being fed. + + + + UN-altered REPRODUCTION and DISSEMINATION of this + partial summary is ENCOURAGED. + + + Robert E. McElwaine + B.S., Physics and Astronomy, UW-EC + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/launch.92 b/textfiles.com/science/launch.92 new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e03b611c --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/launch.92 @@ -0,0 +1,351 @@ +From: "Jonathan McDowell" +Newsgroups: bit.listserv.sedsnews +Subject: "Jonathan's 1992 Launch Summary (JSR 139)" +Date: Wed, 13 Jan 93 17:12:56 GMT +Message-ID: <9301131712.AA20807@gap.cco.caltech.edu> +Reply-To: News about Space from SEDS +Lines: 343 + +Jonathan's Space Report : 1992 Launch Summary + +No. 139 1993 Jan 13 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +Stop press: Space Shuttle OV-105 Endeavour was launched at 1359 UTC on Jan 13 +from pad 39B at Kennedy Space Center on mission STS-54. It will deploy the +TDRS-F satellite and operate the Diffuse X-ray Spectrometer. + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + ORBITAL PAYLOADS 1992 + + Orbits are given for late Dec 1992: perigee (km) x apogee (km) x inclination + (deg) + +INT'L NAME AGENCY TYPE LAUNCH ORBIT OR STATU +S +DESIGN. DATE + +1992- +01A Kosmos-2175 MOM Imaging Recon Jan 21 Landed in Kazakh +stan Mar 20 +02A Discovery STS-42 NASA Spaceship Jan 22 Landed at Edward +s AFB Jan 30 +02A Spacelab IML-1 NASA/ESA/CSA Science lab Jan 22 Remained attache +d to + STS-42 +03A Kosmos-2176 MOM Early Warning Jan 24 948 x 39402 x +63.9 +04A Progress M-11 NPOE Cargo ferry Jan 25 Deorbited over P +acific Mar 13 +05A Kosmos-2177 MOM Navigation Jan 29 19109 x 19150 x +64.8 +05B Kosmos-2178 MOM Navigation Jan 29 19087 x 19172 x +64.8 +05C Kosmos-2179 MOM Navigation Jan 29 19112 x 19147 x +64.8 +- Kosmos RKA SIGINT Feb 5 Failed to orbit +06A DSCS III F-5 USAF Comsat Feb 10 35780 x 37580 x + 0.0 ? +07A Fuyo 1 NASDA Remote sensing Feb 11 569 x 573 x +97.7 +08A Kosmos-2180 RKA Navigation Feb 17 962 x 1015 x +82.9 +09A Navstar GPS 24 USAF Navigation Feb 23 20029 x 20336 x +54.5 +10A Superbird B SCCJ Comsat Feb 26 35768 x 35804 x + 0.0 162.0E +10B Arabsat 1C ASCO Comsat Feb 26 35666 x 35902 x + 0.1 31.0E +11A Molniya-1 RKA Comsat Mar 4 837 x 35918 x +62.9 +12A Kosmos-2181 RKA Navigation Mar 9 973 x 1013 x +82.9 +13A Galaxy V HCI Comsat Mar 14 35781 x 35789 x + 0.0 124.8W +14A Soyuz TM-14 NPOE Spaceship Mar 17 Landed in Kazakh +stan Aug 10 +15A Atlantis STS-45 NASA Spaceship Mar 24 Landed at KSC Ap +r 2 +15A Spacelab Atlas-1 NASA/ESA Science lab Mar 24 Remained attache +d to STS-45 +16A Kosmos-2182 RKA Imaging Recon Apr 1 Landed in Kazakh +stan May 30 +17A Gorizont RKA Comsat Apr 2 35774 x 35796 x + 0.9 103.2E +18A Kosmos-2183 RKA Imaging Recon Apr 8 240 x 284 x +62.8 +19A Navstar GPS 28 USAF Navigation Apr 10 19992 x 20371 x +55.3 +20A Kosmos-2184 RKA Navigation Apr 15 966 x 1015 x +82.9 +21A Telecom 2B CNES Comsat Apr 15 35769 x 35803 x + 0.0 4.9W +21B Inmarsat II F4 INMAR Comsat Apr 15 35722 x 35852 x + 2.2 54.0W +22A Progress M-12 NPOE Cargo ferry Apr 19 Deorbited over P +acific Jun 27 +23A USA-81 NRO Recon? Apr 25 791 x 797 x +85.0 +24A Resurs-F RKA Remote sensing Apr 29 Landed in Kazakh +stan May 29 +25A Kosmos-2185 RKA Mapping Apr 29 Landed in Kazakh +stan Jun 11 +26A Endeavour STS-49 NASA Spaceship May 7 Landed at Edward +s AFB May 16 +27A Palapa B4 TCI Comsat May 14 35685 x 35889 x + 0.1 118.1E +28A SROSS 3 ISRO Science May 20 Reentered Jul 14 +29A Kosmos-2186 RKA Imaging Recon May 28 Landed in Kazakh +stan Jul 24 +30A Kosmos-2187 RKA Comsat Jun 2 1401 x 1481 x +74.0 +30B Kosmos-2188 RKA Comsat Jun 2 1388 x 1479 x +74.0 +30C Kosmos-2189 RKA Comsat Jun 2 1416 x 1480 x +74.0 +30D Kosmos-2190 RKA Comsat Jun 2 1430 x 1480 x +74.0 +30E Kosmos-2191 RKA Comsat Jun 2 1473 x 1502 x +74.0 +30F Kosmos-2192 RKA Comsat Jun 2 1471 x 1486 x +74.0 +30G Kosmos-2193 RKA Comsat Jun 2 1445 x 1480 x +74.0 +30H Kosmos-2194 RKA Comsat Jun 2 1457 x 1485 x +74.0 +31A EUVE NASA Science Jun 7 511 x 527 x +28.4 +32A Intelsat K INTEL Comsat Jun 9 35782 x 35791 x + 0.0 21.6W +33A Resurs-F RKA Remote sensing Jun 23 Landed in Kazakh +stan Jul 9 +34A Columbia STS-50 NASA Spaceship Jun 25 Landed at KSC Ju +l 9 +34A Spacelab USML-1 NASA Science lab Jun 25 Remained attache +d to STS-50 +35A Progress M-13 NPOE Cargo ferry Jun 30 Deorbited over P +acific Jul 24 +36A Kosmos-2195 RKA Navigation Jul 1 957 x 1010 x +82.9 +37A DSCS III F-6 USAF Comsat Jul 2 35780 x 35780 x + 0.0 ? +38A SAMPEX NASA Science Jul 3 512 x 684 x +81.7 +39A Navstar GPS 26 USAF Navigation Jul 7 19967 x 20397 x +55.0 +40A Kosmos-2196 RKA Early Warning Jul 8 727 x 39637 x +63.6 +41A Insat IIA ISRO Comsat Jul 9 35769 x 35803 x + 0.1 74.1E +41B Eutelsat II F-4 EUTEL Comsat Jul 9 35497 x 36066 x + 0.1 9.0E +42A Kosmos-2197 RKA Comsat Jul 13 1397 x 1416 x +82.6 +42B Kosmos-2198 RKA Comsat Jul 13 1409 x 1417 x +82.6 +42C Kosmos-2199 RKA Comsat Jul 13 1412 x 1426 x +82.6 +42D Kosmos-2200 RKA Comsat Jul 13 1404 x 1416 x +82.6 +42E Kosmos-2201 RKA Comsat Jul 13 1411 x 1422 x +82.6 +42F Kosmos-2202 RKA Comsat Jul 13 1407 x 1418 x +82.6 +43A Gorizont RKA Comsat Jul 14 35768 x 35806 x + 1.1 10.7W +44A Geotail ISAS Science Jul 24 In deep Earth-Mo +on space +44B DUVE NASA Science Jul 24 205 x 935 x +27.5 +45A Kosmos-2203 RKA Imaging Recon Jul 24 Landed in Kazakh +stan Sep 22 +46A Soyuz TM-15 NPOE Spaceship Jul 27 Docked to Mir co +mplex +47A Kosmos-2204 RKA Navigation Jul 29 19110 x 19149 x +64.9 +47B Kosmos-2205 RKA Navigation Jul 29 19110 x 19148 x +64.9 +47C Kosmos-2206 RKA Navigation Jul 29 19094 x 19165 x +64.9 +48A Kosmos-2207 RKA Imaging Recon Jul 30 Landed in Kazakh +stan Aug 13 +49A Atlantis STS-46 NASA Spaceship Jul 31 Landed at KSC Au +g 8 +49B EURECA-1 ESA Science Jul 31 495 x 498 x +28.5 +50A Molniya-1 RKA Comsat Aug 6 820 x 39533 x +62.9 +51A FSW-2 PRC Recon? Aug 9 Reentered Sep 1 +51A FSW-2 capsule PRC - Aug 9 Landed in China +Aug 15? +52A Topex/Poseidon NASA/CNES Science Aug 10 1634 x 1647 x +66.0 +52B Uribyol KAIST Remote sensing Aug 10 1305 x 1327 x +66.1 +52C S80/T CNES Comsat Aug 10 1303 x 1326 x +66.1 +53A Kosmos-2208 RKA SIGINT Aug 12 787 x 806 x +74.0 +54A Optus B1 OPTUS Comsat Aug 13 35783 x 35790 x + 0.1 160.0E +55A Progress M-14 NPOE Cargo ferry Aug 15 Deorbited over K +azakhstan Oct 21 +- Progress M-14 VBS NPOE Cargo capsule Aug 15 Landed in Kazakh +stan Oct 22 +56A Resurs-F RKA Remote sensing Aug 19 Landed in Kazakh +stan Sep 4 +56C Pion-Germes Germes Calibration Aug 19 Reentered Sep 25 +56D Pion-Germes Germes Calibration Aug 19 Reentered Sep 24 +- Galaxy IR HCI Comsat Aug 22 Failed to orbit +57A Satcom C4 GE Comsat Aug 31 35772 x 35796 x + 0.1 135.1W +58A Navstar GPS 27 USAF Navigation Sep 9 19911 x 20453 x +54.7 +59A Kosmos-2209 RKA Early Warning Sep 10 35764 x 35806 x + 1.1 24.3W +60A Hispasat 1A Hisp. Comsat Sep 10 35782 x 35793 x + 0.0 30.2W +60B Satcom C3 GE Comsat Sep 10 35783 x 35790 x + 0.1 131.1W +61A Endeavour STS-47 NASA Spaceship Sep 12 Landed at KSC Se +p 20 +61A Spacelab J NASDA Science lab Sep 12 Remained attache +d to STS-47 +62A Kosmos-2210 RKA Imaging Recon Sep 22 Landed in Kazakh +stan Nov 20 +63A Mars Observer NASA Space probe Sep 25 En route to Mars +64A Freja SSC Science Oct 6 597 x 1760 x +63.0 +64B FSW-1 PRC Imaging Recon Oct 6 Reentered Oct 31 +64B FSW-1 capsule PRC - Oct 6 Landed in China +Oct 14 +65A Foton RKA Science Oct 8 Landed in Kazakh +stan Oct 24 +66A Kopernikus 3 DBP Comsat Oct 12 35792 x 35797 x + 0.0 29.7E drifting +67A Molniya-3 RKA Comsat Oct 14 558 x 39794 x +62.8 +68A Kosmos-2211 RKA Comsat Oct 20 1401 x 1413 x +82.6 +68B Kosmos-2212 RKA Comsat Oct 20 1409 x 1413 x +82.6 +68C Kosmos-2213 RKA Comsat Oct 20 1412 x 1414 x +82.6 +68D Kosmos-2214 RKA Comsat Oct 20 1413 x 1422 x +82.6 +68E Kosmos-2215 RKA Comsat Oct 20 1412 x 1428 x +82.6 +68F Kosmos-2216 RKA Comsat Oct 20 1411 x 1415 x +82.6 +69A Kosmos-2217 RKA Early Warning Oct 21 711 x 39638 x +63.0 +70A Columbia STS-52 NASA Spaceship Oct 22 Landed at KSC No +v 1 +70B Lageos 2 ASI Science Oct 23 5616 x 5950 x +52.7 +70C CTA CSA Space Tech. Oct 31 Reentered Nov 1 +71A Progress M-15 NPOE Cargo ferry Oct 27 Docked to Mir co +mplex +- Mak-2 NPOE Science Nov 20 374 x 380 x +51.6 +72A Galaxy VII HCI Comsat Oct 28 35778 x 35796 x + 0.1 91.0W +73A Kosmos-2218 RKA Navigation Oct 29 968 x 1014 x +82.9 +74A Ekran RKA Comsat Oct 30 35780 x 35799 x + 1.4 99.1E +75A Resurs-500 EA500 Advertising Nov 15 Landed in Pacifi +c Ocean Nov 22 +76A Kosmos-2219 RKA SIGINT Nov 17 848 x 856 x +71.0 +77A Kosmos-2220 RKA Imaging Recon Nov 20 177 x 328 x +67.1 +78A MSTI-1 SDIO Military R&D Nov 21 317 x 420 x +96.8 +79A Navstar GPS 32 USAF Navigation Nov 23 20076 x 20289 x +54.9 +80A Kosmos-2221 RKA SIGINT Nov 24 635 x 665 x +82.5 +81A Kosmos-2222 RKA Early Warning Nov 25 644 x 39721 x +62.9 +82A Gorizont RKA Comsat Nov 27 35814 x 36528 x + 1.3 drifting +83A USA-86 NRO Imaging Recon Nov 28 Orbit unknown +84A Superbird A SCCJ Comsat Dec 1 35773 x 35800 x + 0.1 158.1E +85A Molniya-3 RKA Comsat Dec 2 410 x 39942 x +62.9 +86A Discovery STS-53 NASA Spaceship Dec 2 Landed at Edward +s AFB Dec 9 +86B Advanced Jumpseat 2? NRO/NSA SIGINT Dec 2 Orbit unknown +- ODERACS 1 - 6 NASA/DoD Calibration Dec 2 Failed to deploy + from Discovery +87A Kosmos-2223 RKA Imaging Recon Dec 9 235 x 283 x +64.7 +88A Kosmos-2224 RKA Comsat? Dec 17 35976 x 36069 x + 2.3 drifting +89A Navstar GPS 29 USAF Navigation Dec 18 20038 x 20325 x +54.8 +90A Optus B2 Optus Comsat Dec 21 208 x 1029 x +28.1 +91A Kosmos-2225 RKA Imaging Recon Dec 22 209 x 310 x +64.9 +92A Kosmos-2226 RKA Geodesy Dec 22 1478 x 1525 x +73.6 +93A Kosmos-2227 RKA SIGINT Dec 25 849 x 853 x +71.0 +94A Kosmos-2228 RKA SIGINT Dec 25 663 x 668 x +82.5 +95A Kosmos-2229 (Bion 10) RKA Science Dec 29 216 x 368 x +62.8 +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + +Notes: +Mak 2 (1986-17GX) was ejected from a Mir airlock on Nov 20. It was probably +brought into space aboard Progress M-15. + +Acronyms: + +ASCO Arab Satellite Communications Organization (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia) +ASI Agenzia Spaziale Italiano (Roma, Italy) +CNES Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (Paris, France) +CSA Canadian Space Agency +DBP Deutsche Bundespost (Germany) +DoD United States Department of Defense +EA500 Konsortium Evropa-Amerika 500 (Russia) +ESA European Space Agency +EUTEL Euro. Telecommunications Satellite Organization +GE GE American Communications +Germes Germes ("Hermes") Oil Co. (Russia) +HCI Hughes Communications Inc. +Hisp Hispasat SA, Spain +INMAR Int'l Maritime Satellite Organization +INTEL Int'l Telecommunications Satellite Organization +ISAS Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Japan +ISRO Indian Space Research Organization +KAIST Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology +KSC NASA Kennedy Space Center, Cape Canaveral, Florida +MOM Ministry of General Machine Building (Moskva, Russia) +NASA United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration +NASDA National Space Development Agency, Japan +NPOE NPO Energiya (Kaliningrad, Russia) +NRO National Reconnaissance Office (DoD/CIA/NSA) +NSA National Security Agency (Ft. Meade, MD) +Optus Optus Pty (Australia) +PRC Chinese Ministry of Astronautics +RKA Russian Space Agency (Moskva, Russia) +SCCJ Space Communications Corp. (Japan) +SDIO Strategic Defense Initiative Organization, DoD +SSC Swedish Space Corporation +TCI Telcom, Indonesia +USAF United States Air Force + + .-----------------------------------------------------------------------------. + | Jonathan McDowell | phone : (617) 495-7176 | + | Harvard-Smithsonian Center for | | + | Astrophysics | | + | 60 Garden St, MS4 | | + | Cambridge MA 02138 | inter : mcdowell@cfa.harvard.edu | + | USA | | + '-----------------------------------------------------------------------------' diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/launch.txt b/textfiles.com/science/launch.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8128142a --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/launch.txt @@ -0,0 +1,332 @@ + + L A U N C H V E H I C L E S + + (Overview) + +--------------------------------------------------------------------- + Overcoming the pull of Earth's gravity is the first challenge of +any space mission. Whether small and suborbital or large and +traveling to another planet, every spacecraft must be carried into +space before it can do its job. NASA has a family of launch +vehicles--a graduated series of multistage rockets--to accomplish +its space programs. + + A family of launch vehicles was developed because a number of +different vehicles were required for missions that ranged from simple +to complex. The vehicles are combinations of two or more stages, +which burn one after the other, each being discarded when it is no +longer needed, so only a small part of the whole vehicle is +necessary to propel the spacecraft into the final orbit or space +trajectory. + + When NASA was formed, its launch capability depended upon what +was available and most of the vehicles were derived from the military +missile program. In time, additional vehicles were developed, using +both solid and liquid propellant rockets, specifically to acquire a +variety of launch vehicle combinations suited to the expanded space +exploration program. + + NASA owns launch sites at the Eastern and Western Space and +Missile Centers (ESMC and WSMC) in Florida and California and the +Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia, and has access to the San Marco +launch complex off the east coast of Africa owned by Italy. + +--------------------------------------------------------------------- + +R E D S T O N E + + +STATUS: Inactive + +Adapted by NASA from an Army ballistic missile, the Redstone was used +to launch Project Mercury suborbital flights from 1960-61. Redstone +flew successfully five times after an initial failure. Two unmanned +flights and one with the chimpanzee Ham preceded the first U.S. +manned spaceflight by Alan B. Shephard, Jr. in May 1961, and Virgil +I. Grissom's flight in July 1961. + +Redstone measured 25 meters (83 ft) in height with capsule and escape +tower. It was a single stage launch vehicle using liquid propellant +(alcohol and liquid oxygen) and developed 35,380 kg (78,000 lbs) of +thrust. + + +M E R C U R Y - A T L A S + +STATUS: Inactive + +Mercury-Atlas was a modified Air Force missile. It stood 29 meters +(95.3 feet) high with capsule and escape tower. The vehicle was a +stage-and-a-half rocket that produced 139,797 kg (308,000 lbs) of +thrust, burning RP-1 (kerosene) and liquid oxygen. + +Mercury-Atlas was first used for John Glenn's orbital flight in 1962. +It launched all succeeding Project Mercury orbital flights. + + +G E M I N I - T I T A N + +STATUS: Inactive + +Titan, an Air Force ICBM, was modified by NASA as Titan II for +Project Gemini (1965-66). Titan was a two-stage rocket, standing +109 ft in height, burning Aerozine-50 and nitrogen tetroxide and +produced 430,000 lbs of thrust in the first stage, 100,000 lbs of +thrust in the second. + + + +A T L A S / A G E N A + +STATUS: Inactive + +The Atlas/Agena was a multipurpose two-stage liquid propellant +rocket. It was used to place unmanned spacecraft in Earth orbit, or +inject them into the proper trajectories for planetary or deep space +probes. + +The programs in which the versatile Atlas/Agena was utilized included +early Mariner probes to Mars and Venus, Ranger photographic missions +to the Moon, the Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO), and early +Applications Technology Satellites (ATS). The Agena upper stage was +used as the rendezvous target vehicle for the Gemini spacecraft +during this series of two-man missions in 1965-1966. In preparation +for the manned lunar landings, Atlas/Agena launched lunar orbiter +spacecraft which went into orbit around the Moon and took photographs +of possible landing sites. + +The Atlas/Agena stood 36.6 meters (120 ft) high, and developed a +total thrust at liftoff of approximately 1,725,824 newtons (288,000 +lbs). It was the last used in 1968 to launch an Orbiting Geophysical +Observatory (OGO). + + +S A T U R N I B + +STATUS: Inactive + +The Saturn IB was originally used to launch Apollo lunar spacecraft +into Earth orbit, to train for manned flights to the Moon. The first +launch of a Saturn IB with an unmanned Apollo spacecraft took place +in February 1966. A Saturn IB launched the first manned Apollo +flight, Apollo 7, on October 11, 1968. + +After the completion of the Apollo program, the Saturn IB launched +three missions to man the Skylab space station in 1973. In 1975 it +launched the American crew for the joint U.S./U.S.S.R docking +mission. + +Saturn IB was 69 meters (223 ft) tall with the Apollo Spacecraft and +developed 7.1 million newtons (1.6 million lbs) of thrust at liftoff. + + +S A T U R N V + +STATUS: Inactive + +The Saturn V, America's most powerful staged rocket, carried out the +ambitious task of sending astronauts to the Moon. The first Saturn V +vehicle, Apollo 4, was launched on November 9, 1967. Apollo 8, the +first manned flight of the Saturn V, was also the first manned flight +to the Moon; launched in December 1968, it orbited the Moon but did +not land. Apollo 11, launched on a Saturn V on July 16, 1969, +achieved the first lunar landing. + +Saturn V began its last manned mission on December 7, 1972, when it +sent Apollo 17 on the final lunar exploration flight. It was last +used on May 14, 1973, when it lifted the unmanned Skylab space +station into Earth orbit, where it was occupied by three crews for +171 days. + +All three stages of the Saturn V used liquid oxygen as the oxidizer. +The first stage burned kerosene with the oxygen, while the fuel for +the two upper stages was liquid hydrogen. Saturn V, with the Apollo +spacecraft and its small emergency escape rocket on top, stood 111 +meters (363 ft) tall, and developed 34.5 million newtons (7.75 +million lbs) of thrust at liftoff. + + +T I T A N I I I - E / C E N T A U R + +STATUS: Inactive + +The Titan III-E/Centaur, first launched in 1974, had an overall +height of 48.8 meters (160 ft). Designed to use the best features of +three proven rocket propulsion systems, this vehicle gave the U.S. an +extremely powerful and versatile rocket for launching large +spacecraft on planetary missions. + +The Titan III-E/Centaur was the launch vehicle for two Viking +spacecraft to Mars, and two Voyager spacecraft to Jupiter, Saturn, +Uranus and Neptune. It also launched two Helios spacecraft toward the +Sun. All provided remarkable new information about our solar system. +The Vikings and Voyagers produced spectacular color photographs of +the planets they explored. + +The Titan III-E booster was a two-stage liquid-fueled rocket with two +large solid-propellant rockets attached. At liftoff, the solid +rockets provided 10.7 million newtons (2.4 million lbs) of thrust. + +The Centaur stage, still in use today, produces 133,440 newtons +(30,000 lbs) of thrust from two main engines, and burns for up to +seven and one-half minutes. The Centaur can be restarted several +times which allows for more flexibility in launch times. + + +D E L T A + +STATUS: Active + +Delta is called the workhorse of the space program. This vehicle has +successfully transported over 160 scientific, weather, communications +and applications satellites into space. These include the TIROS, +Nimbus and ITOS satellites, and many Explorer scientific spacecraft. + +First launched in May, 1960, the Delta has been continuously upgraded +over the years. Today it stands 35.4 meters (116 ft) tall. Its first +stage is augmented by nine Caster IV strap-on solid propellant +motors, six of which ignite at liftoff and three after the first six +burn out 58 seconds into the flight. The average first-stage thrust +with the main engines and six solid-propellant motors burning is +3,196,333 newtons (718,000 lbs). Delta has liquid-fueled first and +second stages and a solid-propellant third stage. For most launches +today, this third stage has been replaced by a Payload Assist Module +(PAM) stage attached to the satellite. + +The new PAM upper stage is also used on Space Shuttle launches. It +boosts spacecraft from low Earth orbit achieved by the Shuttle +orbiter into higher ones. Many spacecraft, especially communications +satellites, operate in a geosynchronous (geostationary) orbit some +35,792 kilometers (22,240 miles) above the equator. With the PAM and +a recent change to a more powerful second stage, the Delta can lift +some 1,270 kilograms (2,800 lbs) into a highly elliptical orbit, for +transfer into geosynchronous orbit by a motor built into the +spacecraft. This is almost double the 680 kilograms (1,500 lbs) a +Delta could manage ten years ago. + + + +A T L A S / C E N T A U R + +STATUS: Active + +The Atlas/Centaur is NASA's standard launch vehicle for intermediate +payloads. It is used for the launch of Earth orbital, geosynchronous, +and interplanetary missions. + +Centaur was the nation's first high-energy, liquid-hydrogen +liquid-oxygen launch vehicle stage. It became operational in 1966 +with the launch of Surveyor 1, the first U.S. spacecraft to soft-land +on the Moon. + +Since 1966, both the Atlas booster and the Centaur second stage have +undergone many improvements. At present, the combined stages can +place over 4,530 kilograms (10,000 lbs) in low-Earth orbit, about +2,020 kilograms (4,453 lbs) in geosynchronous transfer orbit, and +over 1,000 kilograms (2,205 lbs) on an interplanetary trajectory. + +An Atlas Centaur stands 41.9 meters (137.6 ft) tall. At liftoff, the +Atlas booster develops over 1.9 million newtons (438,400 lbs) of +thrust. The Centaur second stage develops 146,784 newtons (33,000 +lbs) of thrust in a vacuum. + +Spacecraft launched by Atlas/Centaurs include Orbiting Astronomical +Observatories; Applications Technology Satellites; Intelsat IV, IV-A +and V communications satellites; Mariner Mars orbiters; a Mariner +spacecraft which made a fly-by of Venus and three of Mercury; Pioneer +spacecraft which accomplished fly-bys of Jupiter and Saturn, and +Pioneers that orbited Venus and plunged through its atmosphere to the +surface. + + +S C O U T + +STATUS: Active + +The Scout launch vehicle, which became operational in 1960, has been +undergoing systematic upgrading since 1976. The standard Scout +vehicle is a solid-propellant, four stage booster system +approximately 23 meters (75 ft) in length with a launch weight of +21,600 kilograms (46,620 lbs) and liftoff thrust of 588,240 newtons +(132,240 lbs). + +Recent improvements include an uprated third-stage motor which +increases the Scout's payload capability. It can now place up to 211 +kilograms (465 lbs) in low-Earth orbit. The third stage also has been +provided with an improved guidance system. + +Over 100 scouts have been launched to date. They have been used to +place a variety of U.S. and international payloads into inclined, +equatorial and polar orbits for orbital, probe and reentry missions. + + + +S P A C E S H U T T L E + +STATUS: Active + +The Space Shuttle consists of a reusable delta-winged spaceplane +called the orbiter; two solid-propellant rocket boosters, which are +recovered and also reused; and an expendable external tank containing +liquid propellants for the orbiter's three main engines. + +The assembled Space Shuttle is approximately 56 meters (184 ft) long, +23.3 meters (76 ft) high (to tip of orbiter's vertical tail), and 24 +meters (78 ft) wide, measured across the orbiter's wingtips. Liftoff +weight of the Shuttle vehicle is approximately 2,041,168 kilograms +(4,500,000 lbs). + +At launch, the orbiter's three liquid-fueled engines--drawing +propellants from the external tank--and the two solid propellant +rocket boosters burn simultaneously. Together, they generate about +28,650,000 newtons (6,400,000 lbs) of thrust at liftoff. As the Space +Shuttle reaches an altitude of about 50 kilometers (31 mi), the spent +solids are detached and parachuted into the ocean where they are +recovered by waiting ships for eventual refurbishment and reuse on +later missions. The orbiter and external tank, still attached to each +other, continue toward Earth orbit. When the orbiter's main engines +cut off, just before orbit is achieved, the external tank is +jettisoned, to impact in a remote ocean area. Using onboard orbital +maneuvering engines, the orbiter with its crew and payload +accelerates into orbit to carry out an operational mission, normally +lasting from two to seven days. + +When the mission is completed, the orbiter reenters the atmosphere, +and returns to Earth, gliding to an unpowered landing. Touchdown +speed is above 335 kilometers (210 mi) per hour. + + +E X P E N D A B L E L A U N C H V E H I C L E S + + +For the decade of the 1990s and beyond, NASA plans to employ a mixed +fleet of launch vehicles in which the Space Shuttle will be +complemented by expendable launch vehicles (ELVs). The latter +vehicles will not be purchased for NASA operation; NASA will +contract for launch services with aerospace companies or procure +such services through the Department of Defense. + +The intent of the plan is to reduce dependence on the Space Shuttle, +add flexibility to the space program, and free the Shuttle for manned +scientific, Shuttle-unique and important national security missions. +A major objective is to accelerate deployment of space science +missions backlogged by the Shuttle's temporary removal from service. + +The number of ELV launches required annually cannot be fixed +precisely since it is dependent upon future program approvals. +Generally, NASA foresees possible annual need for three to five +medium ELVs, one or two each in the intermediate and large classes, +and an undetermined number in the small vehicle category. The +vehciles available or being developed in these categories are the +medium ELV Delta II, built by McDonnell Douglas Corporation; the +intermediate Atlas Centaur (General Dynamics Corporation) and Titan +III (Martin Marietta Corporation); and the large Titan IV (also +Martin Marietta). LTV Aerospace Corporation manufactures the standard +small launch vehicle, the Scout. +--- +NASA Information Summaries, Countdown! NASA Launch Vehicles and +Facilities, PMS 018 (KSC), Nov 1986 +NASA, The First 25 Years 1958-1983, A Resource For Teachers, EP-182 +NASA FACT SHEET, Space Launch Vehicles , KSC 49-80 +SPINOFF 1987, Washington Headquarters, 1987-190-760 + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/magellan.txt b/textfiles.com/science/magellan.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..640a3367 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/magellan.txt @@ -0,0 +1,421 @@ + Magellan Fact Sheet + + + +*** Mission Summary *** + + + The Magellan spacecraft, named after the sixteenth-century + + Portuguese explorer whose expedition first circumnavigated the + + Earth, was launched May 4, 1989, and arrived at Venus on + + August 10, 1990. Magellan's solid rocket motor placed it into + + a near-polar elliptical orbit around the planet. During the + + first 8-month mapping cycle around Venus, Magellan collected + + radar images of 84 percent of the planet's surface, with + + resolution 10 times better than that of the earlier Soviet + + Venera 15 and 16 missions. Altimetry and radiometry data also + + measured the surface topography and electrical + + characteristics. During subsequent cycles the map will be + + completed, filling gaps in coverage from the first cycle and + + imaging the south polar region for the first time. Precision + + radio tracking of the spacecraft will measure Venus' + + gravitational field to show the planet's internal mass + + distribution and the forces which have created the surface + + + + + + + features. Magellan's data will permit the first global + + geological understanding of Venus, the planet most like Earth + + in our solar system. + + + +*** Venus *** + + + + Distance from Sun: 1.1 x 108 km + + Orbit Period: 225 Earth days + + Radius: 6051 km + + Rotational Period (sidereal): 243 Earth days + + Average Density: 5.2 g/cm3 + + Surface Gravity: .907 times that of Earth + + (8.87 m/s2) + + Surface Temperature: 850 F (730 K) + + Surface Atmospheric Pressure: 90 times that of Earth + + (90 q 2 bar) + + Atmospheric Composition: Carbon dioxide (96%); nitrogen + + (3+%); trace amounts of sulfur + + dioxide, water vapor, carbon + + monoxide, argon, helium, neon, + + hydrogen chloride, hydrogen + + + + + + + fluoride + + + +*** Major Mission Characteristics *** + + + + Interplanetary Cruise: May 4, 1989, to August 10, 1990 + + First Mapping Cycle: September 15, 1990 to May 15, + + 1991 + + Orbit Period: 3.25 hours + + Orbit Inclination: 86 degrees + + Radar Mapping Per Orbit: 37.2 minutes + + Planetary Coverage: 84% + + Extended Mission Plan: May 16, 1991 to May 15, 1993 + + Cycle 2: Image the south pole region and + + gaps from Cycle 1 + + Cycle 3: Fill remaining gaps and collect + + stereo imagery + + Cycle 4: Measure Venus' gravitational + + field + +*** Mission Objectives *** + + + + Obtain near-global radar images of Venus' surface, with + + resolution equivalent to optical imaging of 1 km per line pair + + Obtain a near-global topographic map with 50km spatial and + + 100m vertical resolution + + + + Obtain near-global gravity field data with 700km resolution + + and 2-3 milligals accuracy + + + + Develop an understanding of the geological structure of the + + planet, including its density distribution and dynamics + + + +*** Magellan Team *** + + + + NASA/Solar System Exploration Division + + - Elizabeth E. Beyer, Program Manager + + - Joseph M. Boyce, Program Scientist + + - David J. Okerson, Program Engineer + + + + JPL + + - James F. Scott, Project Manager + + - R. Stephen Saunders, Project Scientist + + + + + + + - Douglas G. Griffith, Mission Directory + + + + Principal Investigators + + - Radar: Gordon Pettengill (MIT) + + - Gravity: William Sjogren (JPL) + + Georges Balmino (France) + + + + System Contractors + + - Spacecraft: Martin Marietta/Denver + + F. McKinney, Manager + + - Radar: Hughes Aircraft + + B. Dagarin, Manager + + + +*** Key Spacecraft Characteristics *** + + + + Single radar instrument operates simultaneously (by + + interleaving) in Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), altimeter, + + and radiometer modes + + + + High Gain Antenna (3.7m diameter) is used as both the radar + + and telecommunications antenna + + + + + + + + + X-band downlink data rate of 268.8 or 115 kbps + + + + Coherent X- and S-band radio subsystem used for gravity field + + measurement by precision tracking of the spacecraft's orbit + + + + Spacecraft on-orbit dry mass of 1035 kg + + + + Monopropellant hydrazine thruster system (0.9 to 445N thrust) + + + + Powered by solar panels with rechargeable batteries + + + + Three orthogonal electrically powered reaction wheels used for + + spacecraft pointing control + + + +*** Key Radar Characteristics *** + + + + Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) + + - Frequency 2.385 GHz + + - Peak Power 325 W + + - Pulse Length 26.5 msec + + + + + + + - PRF 4400-5800 Hz + + - Swath Width 25 km (variable) + + - Data Acquisition Rate 806 kbps + + - Downlink Quantization 2 bits + + + + Operates in SAR, altimeter, and radiometer modes + + - SAR Resolution 150m range/150m azimuth + + - Altimeter Resolution 30m + + - Radiometer Accuracy 2 C + + + + Operating parameters controlled by ground command + + + +*** Key Scientific Results *** + + + + A preliminary assessment of the Magellan high-resolution + + global images is providing evidence to understand the role of + + impacts, volcanism, and tectonism in the formation of Venusian + + surface structures. + + + + The surface of Venus is mostly covered by volcanic materials. + + Volcanic surface features, such as vast lava plains, fields of + + + + + + small lava domes, and large shield volcanoes are common. + + + + There are few impact craters on Venus, suggesting that the + + surface is, in general, geologically young - less than 800 + + million years old. + + + + The presence of lava channels over 6,000 kilometers long + + suggests river-like flows of extremely low-viscosity lava that + + probably erupted at a high rate. + + + + Large pancake-shaped volcanic domes suggest the presence of a + + type of lava produced by extensive evolution of crustal rocks. + + + + The typical signs of terrestrial plate tectonics - continental + + drift and basin floor spreading - are not in evidence on + + Venus. The planet's tectonics is dominated by a system of + + global rift zones and numerous broad, low domical structures + + called coronae, produced by the upwelling and subsidence of + + magma from the mantle. + + + + Although Venus has a dense atmosphere, the surface reveals no + + evidence of substantial wind erosion, and only evidence of + + limited wind transport of dust and sand. This contrasts with + + Mars, where there is a thin atmosphere, but substantial + + evidence of wind erosion and transport of dust and sand. + + + +*** For More Information on Data *** + + + + Photographic images, digital data (CD ROMs) and display + + software, and videotapes showing computer-generated flights + + over Venus are available to researchers, educators, and the + + public through the National Space Science Data Center, Goddard + + Space Flight Center, Mail Code 933.4, Greenbelt, MD 20771, + + (301) 286-6695, Fax: (301) 286-4952. + + + + Detailed catalog information is available to researchers funded by + + NASA's Solar System Exploration Division through the Planetary Data + + System, Geosciences Node, Earth and Planetary Remote Sensing + + Laboratory, Washington University St. Louis, MO 63130-4899, + + (314) 935-5493, Fax: (314) 935-7361. + + + + Photographic imagery, CD-ROMs, and videotapes are available + + for browsing at NASA's 15 Regional Planetary Image Facilities. + + For additional information, call Mary Ann Harger at the Lunar + + and Planetary Institute at (713) 486-2136 or -2172, Fax: (713) + + 486-2153. + + + + Teachers can obtain information about Magellan, including + + copies of the videotapes, through NASA's Teacher Resource + + Centers. For more information, call the Jet Propulsion + + Laboratory's Teacher Resource Center at (818) 354-6916, Fax: + + (818) 354-8080. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/mars1.txt b/textfiles.com/science/mars1.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3890fed1 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/mars1.txt @@ -0,0 +1,113 @@ +1 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +MARSBIBLIOGRAPHY + + + + + + +GUNN, T.,PLANETARY RESEARCH AGENCY (PRA),"Handbook For + The Construction and Operation of a Profit-Making + Private Manned Spacecraft Center", MAR 1968, (Proposed + Joint Venture with LITTON INDUSTRIES), 300pp, PERLEX, INC. + Proprietary Classified, Document is FOR SALE. + + + +NASA,PLANETARY FLIGHT HANDBOOK,Vol.III, "Part 2 - + Supplimentary Trajectory Data: Earth to Venus and Earth + to MARS", 1963, Marshall Space Flight Center, NAS 8-2469. + + + +NASA,PLANETARY FLIGHT HANDBOOK,Vol.III, "Part 3 - + Supplimentary Trajectory Data: Venus to Earth and MARS + to Earth", 1963, MSFC, NAS 8-2469. + + + +TRWSYSTEMS COMPANY, MISSION TRAJECTORY CONTROL PROGRAM, + Final Report, 01 AUG 1965, NASA/MSC, NAS 9-2938. + + + +LOCKHEEDPROPULSION COMPANY, DESIGN STUDY OF A HYBRID + HOVER MOTOR,"Development Plan and Cost Estimate", + Final Report, 17 JAN 1964, Vol.II, LPC Pub. No. 593-F-1, + NAS 7-143. + + + +NASA,SPACECRAFT STERILIZATION TECHNOLOGY,Office of + Technology Utilization, 1966, NASA SP-108, 567 pp. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +MARSBIBLIOGRAPHY Continued... + + + + + +JPL,DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR BALLISTIC INTERPLANETARY + TRAJECTORIES,"Part 1. One-Way Transfers To MARS and + Venus", 16 JAN 1963, Technical Report No. 32-77, 398pp, + NAS 7-100. + + + +GENERAL DYNAMICSASTRONAUTICS COMPANY, FOOD + MANAGEMENT SYSTEM EVALUATION FOR SPACE FLIGHTS OF ONE + YEAR DURATION,Revision A, 64-26209, 14 OCT 1963, + NASA/Langley Research Center, 36 pp, NAS 1-2934. + + + +PHILCO,DIV. FORD MOTOR COMPANY, AERONUTRONIC DIVISION, + STUDY OF A MANNED MARS EXCURSION MODULE (U),Volume I of + III - Part II, Pub. No. C-2379, 20 DEC 1963, NASA/MSC, + 291 pp, NAS 9-1608. + + + +UNITEDAIRCRAFT CORPORATION, HAMILTON STANDARD DIVISION, + MARS LANDING AND RECONNAISSANCE MISSION ENVIRONMENTAL + CONTROL AND LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEM SYSTEM,Vol.2 of 3, + "Subsystems Studies", SLS 414-2, 15 JUL 1963 through + 15 MAR 1964, NASA/MSC, 300 pp, NAS 9-1701. + + + + + +Press ! \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/math.txt b/textfiles.com/science/math.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..95b6cf61 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/math.txt @@ -0,0 +1,601 @@ + + ======================================================================= + INFORMATION FOR BUILDING CAPACITORS: Comments + | + Puncture Voltage | + Material Dielectric strength per Mil | + "K" (0.001 inch) | + | | | + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + Miscellaneous + ------------- + Vacuum 1.0 + + Paper, bond 3.0 200 + Paper, Royal Grey 3.0 200 + Paper, telephone, treated 2.5 - 4 200 - 250 * + Paper, Parafin Coated 2 -3.5 + Paper, Kraft 2.2 + + Oil, Castor 4.67 + Oil, Mineral, Squibb 2.7 200 + Oil, Mineral 2.2 + Oil, Transformer 2.1 - 2.5 75 * + + Rubber 3.0 + Rubber, Hard 3.0 160 - 500 * + Rubber, Vulcanized 3.2 - 3.9 1 + + Fibre 5.0 - 7.5 150 - 180 + Fibre, Red 5.0 + + Mica 4.5 - 8.0 3800 - 5600 + Mica, Ruby 5.4 3800 - 5600 + + Quartz 3.8 - 5.0 1000 + Quartz (Fused) 4.2 150 - 200 * + + Shellac 2.5 - 4.0 200 - 400 + Spar Varnish 4.8 - 5.5 + + Steatite, low loss 5.8 150 - 315 + Steatites (Magnesium silicate,etc) 5.5 - 7.5 200 - 300 + + Cambric (Varnished) 4.0 2 + Alsimag 196 5.7 + Gutta Percha 4.0 3 + Amber 3.0 - 7.0 4 + Resin 2.48 - 2.57 + Enamel 5.1 450 + Mycalex 7.4 250 + Silicone RTV 3.6 550 + Wood 2.0 - 5.2 + Wax (Parafin) 2.1 - 2.5 250 - 450 * + Beeswax 2.9 - 3.0 + Slate 7.0 5 + Barium titanate(25 C) 1200 + Bariam titanate 6000 + Titanium dioxide 125 + Cellulose acetate 3.3 - 3.9 250 - 600 + Casein, Moulded 6.4 6 + Polytetraflourethylene 2.0 A + Aluminum oxide 8.7 + Tantalum pentoxide 22 + + Glass + ----- + Glass 4.8 - 10 300 + Plate Glass 6.8 - 8.4 + Pyrex Glass 4.8 - 10 335 + Window Glass 7.6 - 7.8 200 - 250 + + Ceramics + -------- + Cordierite ceramics 5.0 - 5.5 100 + Magnesium titanate ceramic 12 - 18 150 + Porcelain 5.1 - 7.5 40 - 280 + Titanium dioxide ceramic 70 - 90 100 + Titanium-zirconium dioxide ceramic 40 - 60 150 + + Plastics + -------- + Bakelite 4.4 - 5.8 300 + Bakelite, Mica filled 4.7 325 - 375 + Epoxy Circuit Board 5.2 700 + Formica 4.6 - 4.9 450 7 + Nylon (lowest values of 3 types) 3.2 407 + PVC (rigid type) 2.95 725 + Plexiglass 2.8 450 - 990 + Polyethylene 2.2 - 2.3 450 - 1200 + Polycarbonate (Lexan) 2.96 400 + Polyethylene Terphthalate (Mylar) 3.0 - 3.1 7500 + Polystyrene 2.5 - 2.6 500 - 700 + Teflon 2.1 1000 - 2000 + + Gases + -------- + Air (dry air at 1 atm) 1.0006 30 - 70 + Air (20 atm, 19 deg. C) 1.0108 500 * + Carbon dioxide ( 1 atm, 0 deg. C) 1.000985 36 * + Carbon dioxide (20 atm, 15 deg. C) 1.020 + Hydrogen (1 atm,0 deg.C) 1.000264 26.1 * + + Liquids + -------- + Amonia (liquid) 22 + Benzene 2.28 + Carbon tetrachloride 2.24 8 + Chlorinated diphenyl 6.5 9 + Ethyl Alcohol (O C) 28.4 + Ethyl alchohol (20 deg.C) 25.8 + Methyl alchohol 33.1 + Water (distilled) 80 - 81 + + LEGEND: + + * = Measured in Kilovolts per centimeter. All others are Volts per + mil (.001 inch) unless otherwise stated. + 1 = Vulcanized means it has been melted, or heated in some way. + 2 = Cambric is a finely woven white linen or cotton fabric. + 3 = Gutta Percha is a rubbery substance made from the latex of tropical + trees and is used in insulation, waterproofing, and dentist use it + in thin sheets sometimes when working on teeth. + 4 = Amber is a hard, translucent, yellow, orange, or brownish yellow + fossil resin, used in making ornamental objects like jewelry. + 5 = Slate is a fine grained metamorphic rock that splits into thin + smooth faced layers. Black Boards for writting are made of this. + Also used as roofing material in some areas. + 6 = Casein is a white, tasteless, oderless milk and cheese protein used + in the manufacture of plastics, glues, paints, and food. The word + 'moulded' means it has been shaped by a mold. + 7 = Formica is a trademark for any of various high-pressure laminated + plastic sheets of melamine and phenolic materials used for chemical + and heat-resistant surfaces. + 8 = Carbon tetrachloride is a very toxic substance. It has also been + shown to cause cancer in lab animals. It is banned in most labs. It + is a liquid that was used as a strong solvent. + 9 = Chlorinated diphenyl is a liquid dielectric that is used to + impregnate Kraft paper in small A.C. capacitors. This is a PCB + and may cause cancer, handle carefully. + A = Polytetraflourethylene films retain good properties even at + 200 degrees Celsius (200 C). + + atm = atmospheres (pressure of air at sea level is 1 atm). + deg.C = degrees Celsius. + + Warning - Some liquids and gases listed may be explosive + under the right conditions. Many solids can + catch fire and burn. Use CAUTION and GOOD COMMON SENSE. + + Note: Some books gave very different values for each substance so I + have given you the highest and lowest values reported. The values + will depend on the purity of the substance your using. If you + know your substance is very pure then use the higher value + reported. If you know your substance is contaminated or of poor + quality then use the lower values reported. If you have unknown + purity then use the average of the values given. + + ======================================================================= + EXPLAINATION OF EQUATIONS: + + Here are some real handy equations. They are very simple and easy to + use. + + + x = Multiply by + / = divide by ( may also use line seperating terms above and below + line as in standard mathematics). + ( ) = Terms in parentheses should be calculated first as in standard + algebraic equations. + pi = 3.141592654. The circumferance of a circle divided by it's + diameter will always give you this constant. + + 2 + Z = means the term "Z" multiplied by itself one time,"Z x Z". + + Note: In some cases I do not use the symbol "x" but instead simply + put the terms close together, example: "LC" instead of "L x C". + This is standard for algebraic equations and means "multiply by". + + ======================================================================= + MATH FOR TESLA COILS + + 1. Determine your neon sign transformer (or other transformer's) + Impedence: + + E + Z = --- + I + + Z = Impedence + E = volts + I = current in Amps + Note: divide milliamps by 1000 to get Amps. 30 milliamps = .030 Amps. + + The Impedence of the primary capacitor should match the Impedence of the + transformer at 60 Hz (60 Hz is the AC cycle rate of common household + wall sockets, at least in America). + + 2. To match Impedence and determine capacitor value: + + 1 + C = ------------------- + 2 x pi x Z x .00006 + + + C = capacitance in microfarads needed for primary capacitor. + Z = Impedence from equation one (Transformer Impedence) + pi = 3.141592654 + Note: The .00006 is the 60 Hz AC, if you live outside the US then + substitute your cycle rate. + + Next you need to find the Reactance of the primary capacitor at the + frequency you have choosen. Many times the frequency is decided by the + length of wire used on the secondary coil. See below for equations that + determine frequency by length of wire used on secondary. + When we find the Reactance , we can then find your needed Inductance + for the Primary coil. + + 3. To determine Reactance of capacitor: + + 1 + X(C) = --------------- + 2 x pi x C x F + + X(C) = capacitor Reactance + C = Capacitor value in microfarads, from equation 2) + F = Frequency in Mhz (megahertz) + pi = 3.141592654 + Note: To convert kilohertz to megahertz simply divide by 1000. + 190 Khz = .190 Mhz + + 4. To determine the Inductance needed for Primary coil: + + Set X(L) = X(C) + + X(L) + L = ------------ + 2 x pi x F + + L = Inductance in microhenries needed for Primary Coil. + To get millihenries divide the answer by 1000. + X(L) = Reactance from equation 3, same as X(C). + F = frequency in Megahertz. Divide Khz by 1000 to get Mhz. + pi = 3.141592654 + + Now you know the values for your capacitor and primary coil. These + values will give you the best ringing for your circuit (ie. more bang + for your buck)! Use the equations below to finnish the project. + + Note: Many people don't go to the trouble to work these equations out. + They simply slap the parts together and then try to tune. If you work + the equations out first you will save lots of time in tuning, you will + at least be in the right ball park! Also, just because you worked it + out on paper that doesn't mean it will work the first time you plug it + in. Trial and error is a large part of the Tesla Coil hobby! + + ======================================================================= + CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL: + | | + |__C1__| + | | + |__C2__| + | | + |__C3__| + | | + Capacitance = C1 + C2 + C3, etc... + + Maximum voltage rating will be equal to the voltage rating of the + lowest voltage capacitor of the group. + ======================================================================= + CAPACITORS IN SERIES: + | | + |__C1__C2__C3__| + | | + | | + + 1 1 1 + Capacitance = 1 / --- + --- + ---, etc... + C1 C2 C3 + + The total capacitance of several capacitors in series will always be + LESS than that of the smallest capacitor. + + Total voltage rating increases with number of capacitors in series. + Simply add the voltage ratings together. + When capacitors are placed in series to increase voltage rating they + should have the same capacitance and voltage rating else voltages will + divide unevenly, most likely causing failure. + ======================================================================= + EQUATION 1: PLATE TYPE CAPACITORS + + Capacitance (in microfarads) = (0.224 KA / d) (N-1) + + + 0.224 x Dielectric Strength x Area of plate + C = ----------------------------------------- x (Number of plates - 1) + distance between plates in inches + + ======================================================================= + EQUATION 2: LEYDEN JAR or SALT WATER TYPE CAPACITORS (jar/bottle type) + + 2 + C = .0884 k ( pi r + 2 pi r l ) + ------------------------------ + 1,000,000 t + + C = Capacitance in microfarads + k = dielectric strength + r = jar radius in centimeters + l = height of the jar portion used (in centimeters) + t = thickness of the jar wall in centimeters + pi = 3.141592654 + + 2 + r = r x r (radius squared) + + ======================================================================= + EQUATION 3: FREQUENCY OF A CIRCUIT + + 1 + f = -------------------- + __________ + 2 pi / L C + + f = frequency in cycles per second + L = circuit inductance in henries + C = circuit capacitance in farads + pi = 3.141592654 + + + _________ + The symbol " / " means the square root + For a result "f" in Khz: enter "C" in microfarads, "L" in microhenries + and multiply result by 1000. + ======================================================================= + EQUATION 4: INDUCTANCE OF A FLAT PANCAKE COIL + + Picture a 1 inch flat ribbon that is about 30 feet long. Now, roll + that ribbon into a spiral that has all its sides about 1/2 inch apart. + Most common material is Aluminum Roof Flashing. Use plastic bolts to + hold sections of strips together if you have short pieces of ribbon. + This makes a good mechanical connection (you can't solder aluminum). + + center axis + | + | | | | | | | | | | | <---cross section + | of flat spiral + |---A----| |---W---| coil. + | + + 2 2 + a x n + L = --------------- + 8 a + 11w + + + L = inductance in microhenries. + a = average radius in inches as measured from the central axis to + the middle of the winding. + n = number of turns in the winding. + w = width of the coil in inches. + Note: Make sure you measure "a" from center axis - the very middle + of your secondary sitting inside of your primary. + + ======================================================================= + EQUATION 5: NUMBER OF TURNS FOR A HELICAL PRIMARY + _________________________ + / + N = / L [( 9 x R) + (10 x H)] + / -------------------------- + / 2 + \/ R + + N = Number of turns needed. + L = inductance in microhenries desired. + R = radius (inches). + H = height (inches). + + _________ + The symbol " / " means the square root, in this case of whole + equation. + + ======================================================================= + EQUATION 5: LENGTH OF WIRE NEEDED FOR DESIRED FREQUENCY OF COIL + + 300,000 + L = ------- / 4 x (3 / .9144) + f + + + f = frequency, in Khz, that is desired for coil. + L = length of wire needed, in feet, for desired frequency. + / = divided by. + + Note - 300,000 is the speed of light in Kilometers per second. the + term "3/.9144" is a conversion factor to turn meters to feet. + You don't have to understand this. Just thought I would tell + those who were wondering. + + ======================================================================= + EQUATION 6: FRQUENCY OF COIL + + 300,000 + f = ------------------------------ + T x W x pi x (.9144 / 36) x 4 + + + f = frequency of coil in Khz + T = number of turns on coil + W = width of the coil in inches + pi = 3.141592654 + + ======================================================================= + EQUATION 7: CAPACITANCE OF A SPHERE IN SPACE + + R + C = ------- + 9 + 9 x 10 + + + C = capacitance in Farads + R = radius in meters + + 9 + 9x10 = 9,000,000,000 + 6 + Note: To convert Farads to microfarads simply multiply by 10 or in + other words by 1,000,000. + + ======================================================================= + EQUATION 8: CAPACITANCE OF A SPHERE SUSPENDED IN A DIELECTRIC + + K x R + C = --------- + 9 + 9 x 10 + + + C = capacitance in Farads + R = radius in meters + K = dielectric constant + 6 + Note: To convert Farads to microfarads simply multiply by 10 or in + other words by 1,000,000. + + ======================================================================= + EQUATION 9: CAPACITANCE OF A TOROID + ___________________ + / 2 + C =(1+ (0.2781 - d2/d1)) x 2.8 x / 2 pi (d1-d2)(d2/2) + / ------------------- + \/ 4 pi + + + C = capacitance in picofarads (+- 5% ) + d1 = outside diameter of toroid in inches + d2 = diameter of cross section (cord) of toroid in inches + + Equation courtesy of Bert Pool + ======================================================================= + + EQUATION 10: POWER FACTOR CORRECTION FOR NEON SIGN TRANSFORMERS + + Neons typically have an efficiency of about 50%, in that they + draw twice as much power as they put out. This problem can be + resolved with the use of power factor correction (pfc) capaci- + tance across the line. The pfc capacitors used are the same as + for capacitor starting motors. The voltage rating should be at + least twice the line current used, and I like a 4x voltage margin + for long life. The formula used to determine ballpark pfc is as + follows: + 9 + 10^ + C = Corrected kVA ------ 2 + 2(pi)fe^ + + This should read C = Corrected kVA times (10 to the ninth power) + over, (2 pi times f times e squared) + + C = required capacitance in microfarads + f = frequency of applied voltage + e = applied voltage + + CORRECTED KVA is determined by dividing the volt*amps (watts) + output of the neon sign xfrmr by 1000 + + Equation courtesy of Richard Quick + ===================================================================== + + + TESLA COIL SCHEMATIC -------- + | | TC + -------- + O + O + SG SC FCC PC SG P-COIL O S-COIL + O---------------OOOOO---------> <----- O O + NST O | | | | O O + O | | | | O O + -----O||O * --- --- |--->O O + O||O O O + -----O||O * --- --- O O + 110 | O | | | O O + Volts | O | | | O O + | O---------------OOOOO---------------------| | + | | + | | + Gnd Gnd + + + NST = Neon Sign Transformer, 110 volts primary, 15,000 volt secondary + at 30-60 miliamps. + SG = Safty Gap. A spark gap to insure your transformer doesn't get fried. + SC = Safty Capacitor. 300-500 picofarad rated at 50 KV. + FCC = Ferrite Core Choke. This prevents real high voltages from coming + back towards your transformer. It also seperates the capacitors. + PC = Primary Capacitor. Normally .01-.02 microfarads rated 50 KV. + SG = Spark Gap. + P-COIL = Primary Coil. + S-Coil = Secondary Coil. + TC = Terminal Capacitor. The big ball or coffee can on top. + Gnd = Ground. + + Note: This is one of several possible schematics. It's just the one I + happen to use. + ======================================================================= + + Bibliography: + + Books: + ------- + Theory and Applications of Electricity and Magnetism, Charles A. + Culver, 1947, McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc. + + Concept In Physics, Third edition, Frankln Miller Jr., Thomas J. + Dillon, Malcom K. Smith, 1980, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. + + Tesla Coil Secrets, R.A. Ford, 1985, Lindsay Publications Inc. + + Tesla Coil, George Trinkaus, 1989, High voltage Press @Lindsay + Publications. + + High frequency Apparatus, Thomas Stanley Curtis, 1916, Lindsay + Publications. + + Allied Electronics Data Handbook, 1970 + + Tesla Coil Design Manual, J.H. Couture, 1992 + + Radio Amateur's Handbook, 1972 + + Elements of Physics, 1964 + + Articles: + ---------- + Popular Electronics, Make Your Own High Voltage Capacitors, + Anthony charlton. + + ======================================================================= + WARNING: + + Only people who are experienced with High Voltage devices should + attempt to build Tesla Coils. They can be very deadly if you don't + know what your doing. Remember, if they find you on the floor + turning blue and frothing at the mouth - THERE IS NO SECOND CHANCE! + + A FEW Safety Tips: + + 1. Don't ever touch the machine when it is pluged in. + 2. Use a safe methode to short out the primary capacitor after the + machine has been run. + 3. Don't ever get close to a running Tesla coil, the Primary can + shoot hot white arcs at you that will kill you instantly! + 4. Always have a small fire extinguisher close by. + 5. Always use kickback preventer circuits so you don't send + 15,000 volts back through the wall! + 6. Pets, children, and irresponsible adults should be kept away from + your machine intirely!!! + 7. Read many books on Tesla Coils and other High Voltage devices + and learn as much as you can about High Voltage Safety! + 8. Review the FIDO text files compiled by Richard T. Quick II + + ======================================================================= + Special thanks to Bert Pool who caught some glaring errors in the second + draft and who contributed with an equation of his own. + + I wrote this file because I felt there was a need for some real + information for those of us who actually build Tesla Coils, as opposed + to those who just talk of building them (Grin). I will be adding to this + file from time to time, so watch for updates. I hope it helps you out! + + Jerry Gore, Member of Tesla Coil Builders Association (TCBA), + International Tesla Coil Society, and the North Dallas + Texas Tesla Coil Association. + + P.S. Let us not forget the words of Tesla," Let the future tell the + truth and evaluate each one according to his work and accomplishments. + The present is theirs, the future, for which I really worked, is mine". + + ======================= END OF FILE =================================== diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/measure.sug b/textfiles.com/science/measure.sug new file mode 100644 index 00000000..1cf0d92d --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/measure.sug @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ + ÉÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍËÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍ» + º Linear Measure º Liquid Measure º + º ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ º ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ º + º 12 inches = 1 foot º 4 gills = 1 pint º + º 3 feet = 1 yard º 2 pints = 1 quart º + º 5.5 yards = 1 rod º 4 quarts = 1 gallon º + º 40 rods = 1 furlong º 31.5 gallons = 1 barrel º + º 8 furlongs = 1 stat.mile º 2 barrels = 1 hogshead º + ÌÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÎÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍ͹ + º Mariner's Measure º Dry Measure º + º ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ º ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ º + º 6 feet = 1 fathom º 2 pints = 1 quart º + º 1000 fathoms = 1 naut.mile º 8 quarts = 1 peck º + º 3 naut.miles = 1 league º 4 pecks = 1 bushel º + ÌÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÎÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍ͹ + º Square Measure º Apothecaries Measure º + º ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ º ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ º + º 144 sq. inches = 1 sq. ft. º 60 minims = 1 fluid dram º + º 9 sq. feet = 1 sq. yd. º 8 fluid drams = 1 fluid ounce º + º 30.25 sq. yards = 1 sq. rd. º 16 fluid ounces = 1 pint º + º 160 sq. rods = 1 acre º 2 pints = 1 quart º + º 640 acres = 1 sq. mile º 4 quarts = 1 gallon º + ÈÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÊÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍͼ + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/medicine b/textfiles.com/science/medicine new file mode 100644 index 00000000..63e3e3d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/medicine @@ -0,0 +1,336 @@ + + + + + Chapter 9 + + MEDICINE AND THE HUMAN MACHINE + + + A Medical History + + In ancient Japan, teeth were extracted by dentists who used + only their fingers. + + Hundreds of years ago, Chinese doctors were not paid by their + sick patients, but only by those who they kept healthy. + + In the times of Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, people + thought that the liver, not the heart, was the center of emotion. + Now we know that it is not the heart, either. + + Before giving up on a patient they couldn't cure, doctors in + the Middle East used to display that patient in the center of + town, in case a passerby might speak up with a cure. + + After reading the books that interested him, Hippocrates (for + whom the Hippocratic oath of medicine is named) supposedly burned + down a library, so that his competitors would not have access to + the same information. + + The barber's pole dates from the time when barbers were also + surgeons. It represents a bandage wrapped around an injured arm. + + The Rx sign that pharmacists use was originally the + astrological sign for Jupiter. + + While Europeans were dying by the thousands, the Chinese were + using a vaccination against smallpox. They would inhale the + powdered material from the sores of a smallpox victim. + + One of the remedies recommended for the Black Plague was to + put the intestines of young pigeons or puppies on the forehead. + + A medical curiosity was David Kennison, who was born in 1736 + and participated in the Boston Tea Party. At the age of + seventy-six, serving in the War of 1812, he lost a hand to a + gunshot wound. Later, a tree fell on him, and fractured his + skull. Some years later, while training soldiers in the use of a + cannon, something went wrong and an explosion shattered his legs. + He recovered. Yet later, a horse damaged his face. He died + peacefully in 1851 at the age of 115. + + Cataract surgery (removal of lens from eye) was first done in + 1748. But the first anesthesia wasn't until 1842! + + In 1809, a woman had a twenty-two pound ovarian tumor removed + without anesthesia. + + + Here is some advice from a book 132 years old: (this is no longer + corsidered correct) + + "DROWNING. - Attend to the following essential rules: + - 1. Lose no time. 2. Handle the body gently. 3. Carry + the body with the head gently raised, and never hold it + up by the feet. 4. Send for medical assistance + immediately, and in the meantime act as follows: 1. + Strip the body, rub it dry: then rub it in hot blankets, + and place it in a warm bed in a warm room. 2. Cleanse + away the froth and mucus from the nose and mouth. 3. + Apply warm bricks, bottles, bags of sand, &c. to the + arm-pits, between the thighs and soles of the feet. 4. + Rub the surface of the body with the hands enclosed in + warm dry worsted socks. 5. If possible, put the body + into a warm bath. 6. To restore breathing, put the pipe + of a common bellows into one nostril, carefully closing + the other and the mouth; at the same time drawing + downwards, and pushing gently backwards the upper part + of the windpipe, to allow a more free admission of air; + blow the bellows gently, in order to inflate the lungs, + till the breast be raised a little; then set the mouth + and nostrils free, and press gently on the chest; repeat + this until signs of life appear. When the patient + revives apply smelling-salts to the nose, give warm + wine or brandy and water. Cautions. 1. Never rub the + body with salt or spirits. 2. Never roll the body on + casks. 3. Continue the remedies for twelve hours without + ceasing." + + And from that same old book: + + "LEECHES AND THEIR APPLICATION. - The leech used for + medical purposes is called the hirudo Medicinatis, to + distinguish it from other varieties, such as the + horse-leech and the Lisbon leech. It varies from two to + four inches in length, and is of a blackish brown + colour, marked on the back with six yellow spots, and + edged with a fellow line on each side. Formerly leeches + were supplied by Sweden but latterly most of the leeches + are procured from France, where they are now becoming + scarce. + When leeches are applied to a part, it should be + thoroughly freed from down or hair by shaving, and all + liniments, &c., carefully and effectually cleaned away + by washing. If the leech is hungry it will soon bite, + but sometimes great difficulty is experienced in getting + them to fasten on. When this is the case, roll the leech + into a little porter, or moisten the surface with a + little blood, or milk, or sugar and water, Leeches may + be applied by holding them over the port with a piece of + linen cloth or by means of an inverted glass, under + which they must be placed. + When applied to the gums, care should be taken to + us a a leech glass, as they are apt to creep down the + patient's throat; a large swan's quill will answer the + purpose of a leech glass. When leeches are gorged they + will drop off themselves; never tear them off from a + person., but just dip the point of a moistened finger + into some salt and touch them with it. + Leeches are supposed to abstract about two drachms + of blood, or six leeches draw about an ounce; but this + is independent of the bleeding after they have come off, + and more blood generally flows then than during the time + they are sucking." + + One hundred years ago (1890), in Connecticut, Idaho, North + Carolina, Oregon, Tennessee, Texas and West Virginia, it was legal + to practice medicine with no training whatsoever. Texas, however, + required a high school diploma. + + Surgeons used to have to operate quickly, before the patients + died of extreme pain or blood loss. Robert Liston worked so fast + that one day he accidentally cut off his nurse's fingers. It is + not known whether the rest of the operation was a success. + + As late as 34 years after the public introduction of + anesthesia, some doctors refused to use it. Some said that the + shock of pain is a necessary ingredient to recovery. Others were + afraid, because some preachers said that anesthesia was the work + of the devil. + + Most people don't realize that Charles Lindbergh was a + pioneer in medical technology. He worked on an early heart-lung + machine. + + The flu mutated into a killer in 1918 and killed 20 million + people. Over half a million Americans died. + + In 1976, doctors in Los Angeles went on strike because of the + rising cost of malpractice insurance. All elective and + non-emergency surgery and medical attention were canceled. During + that time, eighteen percent less people died than usual. + + From all our exposure to unnecessary penicillin through + medication as well as through treatment of cattle and pork, + life-threatening bacteria have grown resistant to our number-one + line of defense. In 1960, 13% of staphylococci infections were + resistant to penicillin. Now, 91% are resistant to penicillin. + + There were 1,647 heart transplants in 1988. There were 1,700 + liver transplants in 1988. + + In the future people will be able to regrow missing arms or + legs like a salamander can grow a new tail. Research has shown + promising results in getting bone to grow with the application of + electricity. Children under age five who lose the tip of a finger + up to half-way to the outermost joint, if left untreated, the + finger will completely regrow. If medical attention is applied, + stitches for example, the child's finger will not regrow. + + In Tibet, monks occasionally performed brain surgery + successfully. They would bore a hole through a person's forehead + and insert a tube into their pineal gland, at the bottom of their + brain. This was to induce a "mystical state of consciousness." + + Medical Miscellaneous + + Dr. James Muatt lived to the age of 120 and spent 95 years in + the practice of medicine. + + Two of every five Americans have never been to a dentist. + + + Modern Medicine + + One out of every eight Americans will spend some time as a + patient in a hospital this year. + + There is a phenomenon called noscomial disease. It means + coming to a hospital for some reason, and catching another disease + while in the hospital. Hospitals are not healthy places. One out + of every 21 Americans admitted will catch something else merely + from being in the hospital. Every year, 15,000 Americans die of + something other than what they were admitted for. + + Of all the people who work in hospitals, only 1.78% are + doctors. 17.27% are clerical workers. So there are nine times more + people involved with the paperwork, than those involved in the + actual work! + + An average person in America who is over 65 years old takes + between ten and twenty prescription pills every day. + + A woman started showing a bunch of general symptoms that + doctors could not diagnose. She went from one doctor to another. + One recommended that she have her uterus removed. Finally, her + problem was relieved by a dentist. He discovered she was + suffering mercury poisoning from her fillings. He removed the + fillings and substituted another material. + + EEG and EKG machines are not perfect. In one study EKG + machines indicated a heart problem in healthy people 20% of the + time. Sometimes in a room with more than one EKG, one machine + will read the electrical leaks of another. In another study a + researcher hooked up an EEG to a mannequin whose head was filled + with lime jello and the EEG found signs of life. + + The average doctor goes to medical school for four years, yet + gets only two and a half hours of education on nutrition as it + applies to preventive medicine or curative medicine. + + 16 out of every 100 doctors will be sued this year. + + A sociologist did a study that turned up some mortifying + results. It seems that the people who work in hospital emergency + rooms are more likely to administer resuscitation attempts on + patients who are brought in dead on arrival who are good looking, + than on those patients who are uglier. + + Anyone who thinks Western medicine is a joke should realize + that in Guinea, where modern medicine is not practiced, over 75% + of the people die before the age of 50. + + + Surgery + + Theoretically, a human can survive without the stomach, most + of the intestines, one kidney, 3/4 of the liver, and one lung. + Furthermore, the legs and arms and sex organs can be removed + successfully. Don't try this at home. + + A Case of Do-it-Yourself Surgery + In the 1600's a locksmith was suffering from bladder stones. + Being a locksmith, he was used to logical repairs to problems. He + took matters into his own hands, and removed his own bladder stone + with a kitchen knife. + + In Kenya, African fire ants are what doctors use to close + surgical wounds in place of sutures. The ant is induced to bite + the two sides of the wound with its mandibles, and hang on. + + The longest operation on record took 96 hours. During + February 4 - 8, 1951, surgeons in Michigan removed an ovarian cyst + from a woman. When they were done, she weighed 308 lbs less. + + Joseph Ascough who was born in 1935 holds the record for the + most major operations. He has had 327 surgeries for warts in his + windpipe. + + Sometimes doctors make mistakes that are like simple + bookkeeping errors. Surgeons once removed a kidney from a man who + had a kidney tumor. The problem was that they removed the good + kidney. And they have been known to saw the wrong leg off an + amputee. + + Sometimes surgeons take an organ totally out of a person, + overhaul it on a workbench, like a car mechanic working on a power + steering unit, then re-install it. This is done most often with + kidneys to remove difficult tumors. + + Want to improve your vision without using glasses or contact + lenses. Here's what you do: 1. Get a donated cornea. 2. Cool it + to -70 degrees. 3. Fasten it on a lathe and trim it to the proper + shape to refocus light. 4. Stitch it on over your present cornea. + - Or have an eye surgeon do it for you. This new technique is now + in frequent use. + + One out of every 243 Americans will have plastic surgery this + year. + + There is a new twist in plastic surgery. Surgeons can take a + bone from your body, smash it into paste, then mold it like clay + into a new shape and replace it. This has been done with one + seven-year-old boy whose skull was misshapen. They removed the + whole top of his head, pulverized it, then re-formed it and put it + back on. The headache the boy suffered was less than the ones he + was otherwise doomed to due to the previous shape of his head. + Perhaps surgeons of the future should be encouraged to play with + Play-Doh when they are growing up. + + + Birth + + Scientists are working on the possibility of removing a dying + woman's ovaries and save the eggs so that the woman can still have + children, even after she is dead. + + If you split a human embryo when it is less than a week old, + identical twins will develop. This is already done with cattle. + + Fetuses have gills. + + One out of every 88 births is twins. + + One out of every 512,000 births is quadruplets. + + One out of every 16 children are born with defects. Most of + these are minor, such as the babies born with tails. When a baby + is born with a tail, the doctors cut it off right away. Most + people do not know if they had a tail. + + "Ten years ago 80% of underweight, premature babies died, + while today 80% survive." - Allan Maurer + + "If you're pregnant, you go to the doctor and he treats you + as if you're sick. Childbirth is a nine-month disease which must + be treated, so you're sold on intravenous fluid bags, fetal + monitors, a host of drugs, the totally unnecessary episiotomy, and + - the top of the line product - the Caesarean delivery!" - Dr. + Robert S. Mendelsohn, from his book, Confessions of a Medical + Heretic + + The infant mortality rate in Canada is 25 percent lower than + in America. + + In 1793, in France a true cyclops was born. She was a girl + who lived to fifteen years old. She had a single eye in the middle + of her face. + + In Finland babies were born in saunas until the 1920's. The + babies probably were more comfortable arriving in a dark, warm + room than in a bright, cold hospital room. + + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/memetics b/textfiles.com/science/memetics new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c4f8b4e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/memetics @@ -0,0 +1,771 @@ +MEMETICS; THE NASCENT SCIENCE OF IDEAS AND THEIR TRANSMISSION + + J. Peter Vajk + + An Essay Presented to the Outlook Club + Berkeley, California + January 19, 1989 + + +In April 1917, a 47-year old lawyer-turned-journalist and a handful of +companions enter Russia by train. By November, they take control of +the government of Russia. Within another four years, a devastating +civil war kills some 10 million Russians. + +In 1924, a 34-year old handyman and would-be artist and architect is +arrested for starting a brawl in a tavern in southern Germany. In +jail over the next nine months, he writes a book expressing his +dissatisfactions with life and the world in which he lives, and lays +out a blueprint of what he plans to do to change it. Within nine years +he has total and sole control of the entire national government. Over +the ensuing thirteen years, his exercise of that power leads to the +deaths of some thirty million people across two continents and three +seas. + +In the early 1970's, two young men, both of them Vietnam War veterans, +go camping in the Sierra Nevada in California, about a mile from a Girl +Scout campground. The second afternoon of their stay, one of the men +breaks out in chills, sweats, and violent shivering, like he had +experienced a few times in Vietnam. About a week later, in the +San Francisco Bay area, six Girl Scouts become ill, with high fevers, +severe headaches, and violent shivering. + +In the mid-1970's, a charismatic minister attracts a large following +among the poor and disaffected population of a Northern California urban +center. After their activities draw increasing attention from the press, +the minister and nearly a thousand of his adherent move en masse to an +obscure village in the jungles of a small South American country. By +November 1978, he and 910 others, including children, lie dead in the +jungle, having drunk KoolAid which they knew was laced with cyanide. + +In the late 1970's, a handsome young French Canadian steward working for +Air Canada begins to make regular visits (using his free airline passes) +to New York's Greenwich Village, Los Angeles' Sunset Strip, and San +Francisco's Castro, Polk, and Mission Street areas. He has no trouble +picking up dates with dozens of gay men over a period of two or three +years. By 1980, over a hundred men from coast to coast are dead of dying +>from a strange form of cancer or from a rare form of pneumonia. + +In the fall, of 1988, a graduate student loads a short program into a few +mainframe computers. Within two days, dozens of mainframe computers all +across North America and Great Britain come to a halt: each computer is +repetitively doing nonsense copying of files, leaving no time at all for +productive computing. It takes as much as a week to get some of the +computer centers back to normal activity. + +These six episodes, from the disparate fields of politics, human disease, +religion, and computer technology, have a great deal in common. It is my +aim tonight to explore memetics, a science in the early stages of birth. +"Meme" (pronounced to rhyme with "cream") is a neologism, coined by +analogy to "gene," by the writer-zoologist Richard Dawkins in his book +_The Selfish Gene_ (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976). By the end +of this essay, the deep similarities (as well as some of the vital +differences) among these six episodes will, I hope, become clear. I will +also engage in some speculation about the implications of this nascent +science for current affairs. + +The roots of the idea of memetics as a science lie in the study of +biological evolution, in genetics, in modern information theory, in +artificial intelligence research, in epidemiology, and in studies of +patients with split brains. To set the stage for my discussion of memetics, +let me briefly recapitulate the modern understanding of biological evolution +and the role genes play in evolution. + +We now know that life originated on Earth about four billion years ago. +The earliest things we might consider to be on the threshhold of living +beings were in all probability complex organic molecules capable of +replication, that is, able to make identical copies of themselves from +less complex molecules in their environment. Complex molecules of this +sort, given a few hundred million years, could arise by chance at the +edges of the young oceans out of the primordial broth of substances like +water, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen sulfide, which were +all abundant in the original atmosphere of the Earth. This broth was +stimulated by ultraviolet light from the Sun (more intense since the Earth +had as yet no ozone layer); by lightning and tidal action (both of which +were more intense because the Moon was considerably closer and the day was +shorter); and volcanism (also more intense since the Earth's crust was newly +formed and thinner). Such stimuli, acting for a period of just a few weeks +on such a primordial broth, have been demonstrated in laboratory experiments +to produce molecules of intermediate complexity such as amino acids from +which all proteins are made. These amino acids, in turn, give rise in the +same laboratory experiments within a few months to nucleic acids, from which +the DNA in all living viruses, plants, and animals on Earth are made. + +Once even one self-replicating molecule had come together, evolution toward +diversity and greater complexity was inevitable. Once in a while, a copying +mistake would happen; if the new copy could still make copies of itself, a +new "species" would have emerged. Soon (speaking in geological time scales) +there would be a number of species of self-replicating molecules competing for +the shrinking supply of raw materials in the broth at the edge of the sea. +The populations of these different species would depend to a large extent +on three characteristics of the molecules: longevity, fecundity, and +copying-fidelity. + +If a particular type of molecule were only moderately stable against +disruption by ultraviolet light or by the acidity of the broth, for +example, it would not have much time available to make copies of itself. +On the other hand, even a short-lived molecule could come to outnumber a +very stable molecule if it can make new copies of itself very quickly. A +molecule which is not very selective about which bits of raw materials it +uses for a particular part of a copy may have numerous offspring, but they +will be of different species, so that the numbers of molecules which do not +have high fidelity replication will not grow; the species may, in fact, +become extinct fairly rapidly. + +As the numbers of self-replicating molecules increased, their food supply +declined, since the food was increasingly embodied in the replicators +themselves. Any molecule which accidentally had the capability of +breaking other species of molecules apart would then have access to more +raw materials, and predation appeared on the scene. In turn, molecules +resistant to being eaten in this way (perhaps by carrying around a coat of +proteins like modern viruses) would then increase in numbers relative to +those which molecules which could be eaten easily. At some unknown stage +in this process, the class of self-replicating molecules we know as DNA, +appeared on the scene. We do not know whether or not DNA was the original +replicating molecule, or whether it evolved from some earlier class of +molecules. In any case, it has been highly successful, since no other +class of self-replicating molecules survives on Earth today. + +At some later point in time, by processes which are still unknown, simple +single-celled organisms which we would clearly recognize as "living" arose. +These early creatures were still dependent on physical processes (lightning, +ultraviolet light, etc.) for the production of foodstuffs, on predation, or +on scavenging. Finally, about two billion years ago, a new molecule was +"invented" which changed the whole picture. That molecule was chlorophyll, +which enabled its inventors, the blue-green algae, to make complex foodstuffs +(sugars and starches) directly and rapidly from two of the simplest and most +abundant molecules in the environment, namely, water and carbon dioxide, with +a little help from the sunlight. This made it possible for several different +types of simple primitive cells to fuse together into the more complicated +modern cell in a mutually helpful, symbiotic relationship. The more complex +cell could now form multi-cellular entities, and higher plants and animals +appeared on the scene, creating the sort or biosphere we know today. + +But underneath it all, the self-replicating DNA molecule, the gene, is the +very essence of life. Trees, dogs, mosquitos, robins, earthworms, and human +beings are from a certain perspective nothing more than huge, elaborate robots +whose only function is to enhance the ability of the minute genes inside to +replicate themselves. In other words, a chicken is merely an egg's way of +making more eggs. + +While individual chickens or salmon or human beings have fairly short +lifespans, a particular gene, that is, a particular pattern of amino acids +in a DNA chain, may survive through many generations. Ignoring some of the +finer points of the way in which chromosomes are scrambled during the +formation of sperm cells and egg cells in sexual reproduction, a given gene +may actually survive for millions of years, although the survival machine, +the body it wears, is replaced frequently. + +Any particular body reflects the particular collection of genes it carries; +natural selection operates, not on species or on particular populations, but +on individual genes. As environments change, the survival probabilities for +a particular gene may be enhanced by tagging along with a different collection +of genes. Thus it is not surprising that the gene for Rh factor in human +blood is virtually identical to that in chimpanzees, and just a little bit +different in rhesus monkeys in which the expression of the gene was first +discovered. Each gene, like its distant ancestors, the primitive self- +replicating molecules of four billion years ago, is "selfish:" the survival +of that gene depends on making its survival machine (its body) act or grow in +a way that increases the changes that more copies of that gene (rather than +some other competing gene in the gene pool) will be made in new survival +machines. + +Let us turn now to human beings. It has been observed frequently that +cultural evolution has, by and large, become more important for humans than +biological evolution. It is, in any case, far faster: a new cultural idea +or mutation can spread through all the individuals in the same generation +which invented the new idea. A genetic mutation, on the other hand, can +only begin to spread when the next generation is born, and it will take many +generations before the mutation has any chance of being expressed in a +significant fraction of the population. It is thus of much more than passing +interest to consider how ideas are transmitted; whether and how they compete; +and what effects they have on the survival machines, originally built to help +genes propagate, which house the minds in which ideas are born and live. + +An early hint at some of these issues is in an article by neuro-physiologist +Roger W. Sperry titled _Mind, Brain, and Humanist Values_ (In John R. Platt, +ed., New Views on the Nature of Man. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, +1965.) Sperry writes, + + Ideas cause ideas and help evolve new ideas. They interact with each + other and with other mental forces in the same brain, in neighboring + brains, and, thanks to global communications, in far distant, foreign + brains. And they also interact with the external surroundings to + produce in toto a burstwise advance in evolution that is far behind + anything to hit the evolutionary scene yet, including the emergence + of the living cell. + +Molecular biologist Jacques Monod in the last chapter of _Chance and Necessity: + An Essay on the Natural Philosophy of Modern Biology_ began to explore the +evolution of ideas. + +For a biologist it is tempting to draw a parallel between the evolution of +ideas and that of the biosphere. For while the abstract kingdom stands at +a yet greater distance above the biosphere than the latter does above the +nonliving universe, ideas have retained some of the properties of organisms. +Like them, they tend to perpetuate their structure and to breed; they too can +fuse, recombine, segregate their content; indeed they too can evolve, and in +this evolution selection must surely play an important role. I shall not +hazard a theory of the selection of ideas. But one may at least try to define +some of the principal factors involved in it. This selection must necessarily +operate at two levels: that of the mind itself and that of performance. + +The performance value of an idea depends upon the change it brings to the +behavior of the person or the group that adopts it. The human group upon +which a given idea confers greater cohesiveness, greater ambition, and +greater self-confidence thereby receives from (the idea) an added power to +expand which will insure the promotion of the idea itself. Its capacity to +'take," the extent to which it can be 'put over' has little to do with the +amount of objective truth the idea may contain. The important thing about +the stout armature a religious ideology constitutes for a society is not what +goes into its structure, but the fact that this structure is accepted, that it +gains sway. So one cannot well separate such an idea's power to spread from +its power to perform. + +The 'spreading power' -- the infectivity, as it were, -- of ideas is much +more difficult to analyze. Let us say that it depends upon preexisting +structures in the mind, among them ideas already implanted by culture, but +also undoubtedly upon certain innate structure which we are hard put to +identify. What is very plain, however, is that the ideas having the highest +invading potential are those that explain man by assigning him his place in +an immanent destiny, in whose bosom his anxiety dissolves. + +Monod refers here to the pool of ideas present in human culture as "the +abstract kingdom. Douglas R. Hofstadter in his book _Metamagical Themas: +Questing for the Essence of Mind and Pattern_ (New York: Basic Books, +1985; New York: Bantam Books, 1986) suggests the word "ideosphere" instead, +in closer analogy to "biosphere." + +In the last chapter of his book The Selfish Gene, Dawkins further develops +this notion. He defines a meme as a replicating information pattern that +uses minds to get itself copies into other minds; it is the basic unit of +replication and selection in the ideosphere. The word meme is taken from +the same Greek root as the word memory; a memory is a more-or-less organized +collection of memes and other things. Memes float about in the soup of human +culture where they grow, replicate, mutate, compete, or become extinct. +Dawkins writes: + + "Examples of memes are tunes, ideas, catch-phrases, clothes fashions, + ways of making pots or of building arches. Just as genes propagate + themselves in the gene pool by leading from body to body via sperm + or eggs, so memes propagate themselves in the meme pool by leaping + from brain to brain via a process which, in the broad sense, can be + called imitation. If a scientist hears, or reads about, a good idea, + he passes it on to his colleagues and students. He mentions it in his + articles and his lectures. If the idea catches on, it can be said to + propagate itself, spreading from brain to brain." + +Dawkins then quotes the comments of a colleague, N. K. Humphrey, on a +draft by Dawkins: + + "...memes should be regarded as living structures, not just + metaphorically but technically. When you plant a fertile meme in + my mind, you literally parasitize by brain, turning it into a + vehicle for the meme's propagation in just the way that a virus + may parasitize the genetic mechanism of a host cell. And this isn't + just a way of talking -- the meme for, say, 'belief in life after + death' is actually realized physically, millions of times over, as + a structure in the nervous systems of individual (people) the world + over." + +It is important to note here that, in contrast to genes, memes are not +encoded in any universal code within our brains or in human culture. The +meme for vanishing point perspective in two-dimensional art, for example, +which first appeared in the sixteenth century, can be encoded and +transmitted in German, English or Chinese; it can be described in words, or +in algebraic equations, or in line drawings. Nonetheless, in any of these +forms, the meme can be transmitted, resulting in a certain recognizable +element of realism which appears only in art works executed by artists +infected with this meme. + +Jokes are an interesting group of memes. Because the recipient of a joke can +collect nearly as much reward each time he passes the joke on to yet another +recipient as he received when first hearing the joke, jokes are very fecund +memes, and very infective as well. + +Given that memes are encoded in many different ways, it is not surprising +that memes also occur in species other than Homo sapiens. Some species of +birds learn a neighborhood repertoire of songs, rather than inheriting +them. Such birds, raised from hatchlings with other species, will sing only +in the foreign throat. Humpback whales learn songs from one another, and +chimpanzees pass on the art of fishing termites from their nests with long +twigs or reeds from generation to generation. + +Of course, not all ideas are memes. A passing thought which you never +mention to anyone else, or an idea which no one else ever takes an +interest in, is not self-replicating. On the other hand, I first +encountered the meme about memes four or five years ago, and that meme +is tonight attempting to infect each of you as well. In a science article +in ANALOG magazine appearing in August 1987, space activist Keith Henson +wrote: + + "The important part of the "meme about memes" is that memes are + subject to adaptive evolutionary forces very similar to hose that + select for genes. That is, their variation is subject to selection + in the environment provided by human minds, communications channels, + and the vast collection of cooperating and competing memes that make + up human culture. The analogy is remarkably close. For example, + genes in cold viruses that cause sneezes by irritating noses spread + themselves by this route to new hosts and become more common in the + gene pool of a cold virus. Memes cause those they have successfully + infected to spread the meme by both direct methods (proselytizing) + and indirect methods (writing). Such memes become more common in the + meme pool." + +In the title of this essay, I referred to memetics as a science, albeit one +in a very early and poorly developed stage. What does it take for a field +of study to deserve the name "science?" Without getting too rigorous about +this question, two factors are of major importance here. First, does the +putative "science" explain a diversity of phenomena by a small number of +underlying principles or laws or theories? In other words, a science is not +merely a vast catalog of facts or case histories, although most sciences, +especially the natural sciences, have gone through a stage of amassing such +data before any patterns emerged with sufficient clarity to permit the +formulation of theories which would account for large portions of those data. +Second, are these laws or theories testable? To be testable, a theory must +make predictions about phenomena which have not previously been considered in +devising the theory. If observations match the predictions, then the theory +stands. If the observations differ from the predictions, then the theory +must be either modified until it fits both the old data and the new, or +discarded. + +The science of information theory, which has developed during the past half +century as an outgrowth of the needs of the telecommunications industries; +the cryptographic needs of military services; and the burgeoning field of +artificial intelligence research, basically says that, regardless of the +specific content of information a message may have, and regardless of the +particular method of encoding that message, certain universal laws apply to +the copying and transmission of the information. If memetics has any +substance, then, we should expect that phenomena observed among genes should +have analogs among memes. Let us consider briefly then a few of the things +we understand in the biosphere and see if there are analogs in the +ideosphere. Consider first epidemiology, the study of the transmission of +pathogens, disease-causing microorganisms. + +It is fairly easy to find phenomena in the propagation of memes in the +ideosphere analogous to the spread of pathogens. While some pathogens can +infect only by direct contact (such as most sexually transmitted diseases), +others are usually transmitted by intermediaries, usually called "vectors." +The Girl Scouts in my earlier example were infected with malaria transmitted +by mosquitos which had previously bitten the Vietnam veteran while he as in +the throes of a malarial relapse. + +Similarly, some religious memes are very difficult to transmit except by the +force of personal example at close quarters. Other memes, particularly those +of a commercial nature, like "Things go better with Coke," are very +effectively transmitted by the vectors of modern electronic media. + +Occasionally, a pathogen may be successfully suppressed in most places, but +survive in a few tiny pockets or reservoirs until the large environment is +once more susceptible to infection. Tuberculosis is one such disease; +reservoirs of the bacillus can survive among the fringes of society or even +in tiny calcified spots within a particular person, who will show no +symptoms of the disease until his or her immunological resistance is +weakened by malnutrition or another disease. Most of the intellectual and +esthetic memes of classical Greece were "lost" for a millennium, surviving +only in tiny reservoirs in the monastic communities of Ireland until the +Renaissance made it possible for these memes to again infect significant +numbers of people. + +A correct understanding of some of the mechanisms involved can be very +important to survival of human genes. Thus, for example, human cultures +had little or no success in combatting epidemics of the plague, smallpox, +or malaria, to name a few, while the dominant meme (which survived for over +five centuries in Western civilization) of the miasma theory of diseases +held sway. With the advent of the germ theory (a meme which corresponds +more closely to reality), quarantine measures, innoculation and immunization, +and suppression of vectors (like rates, mosquitos, or contaminated water +supplies) finally enabled human genes to compete more successfully against +the genes of the germs. + +A major problem in the United States today is drug abuse among teenagers +and young adults. The growth curves for numbers of drug abusers have the +same shape as the curves for influenza epidemics or for AIDS, and efforts +up to now in the war against drugs have been about as successful as were +public health measures based on the miasma theory. The drug-abuse meme, +since it is particularly prevalent among teenagers and young adults and +since it increases mortality among these individuals, reduces the survival +and reproduction of human genes. If we are to make headway in the war on +drugs, we must understand the characteristics of the drug-abuse meme; +clearly identify its vectors; and find ways to immunize those populations +at risk of infection. + +Later in this essay I will return to examining some of these +epidemiological analogies, including issues of susceptibility and resistance +to infection; possibilities of immunization against particularly nasty +memes; and some of the strategies used by memes to increase their infectivity. +Now, however, I would like to discuss the concept of competition among memes. + +If memes are only ideas in our heads, and our minds can hold unbelievably +large quantities of information, why would memes have to compete? Simply +because the amount of time and attention a human can spend on efforts to +propagate memes is limited. Most of the external channels used to spread +memes are also limited resources, whether they be air time on radio or +television, shelf space in a book store or library, or column inches in a +magazine or newspaper. Moreover, some memes by their very nature attempt +to discredit other memes; still other groups of memes are self-reinforcing. +Thus we should expect that most competitive strategies used by genes in the +biosphere will also be observed in use by memes as they compete in the +ideosphere. + +How does a new gene initially become sufficiently common, even if it is +still in the minority among genes competing for a particular niche in the +gene pool, to survive over many generations? If the gene is dominant +over its immediate alternatives, then the traits of the survival machine +which it encodes will promptly be subjected to selective pressures. If the +new gene has a competitive advantage, it will likely spread steadily through +its gene pool. If, on the other hand, it is a recessive gene, it can spread +easily in the early stages, free of selective pressures until enough bodies +carry the gene that some offspring will inherit the recessive gene from both +parents, and the new genetic trait is actually expressed in the body of the +offspring, becoming subject to selective pressures. If the new gene is +harmful, selection will keep a ceiling on the fraction of the living +population carrying that gene. + +But a seriously harmful gene can become prevalent under certain specialized +conditions, namely, if a small gene pool (that is, a small population of +survival machines carrying a group of genes) is isolated from most of the +competitive forces which would hinder that gene's propagation through the +gene pool. Then in a modest number of generations the new gene could become +endemic. If this population carrying the deleterious gene is now brought +back into contact with the larger population from which it originally +splintered, the results can be disastrous. + +Such as been the case several times in recent history with some extreme +religious cults. Jim Jones' People's Temple cult was such a case. A basic +meme for Christianity mixed together with the meme for Marxism ricocheted +around among a small group of people who deliberately isolated themselves +>from the general meme pool of American culture. Social and intellectual +contact with the outside was discouraged; other memes were attacked and +discredited by the leadership of the cult. Lacking competitive pressures +>from more standard religious and cultural memes, the People's Temple meme +evolved into ever more bizarre forms. Fleeing to Guyana, the cult became +still more ingrown and bizarre, until renewed contact from outside led to +the collapse both of the meme itself and of the genes carried by 911 +members of the cult and by four outsiders, including Congressman Ryan of +San Francisco. The Rajneesh cult is another more recent and somewhat less +extreme example of this pattern. + +Lest I give you the impression that all memes are dangerous to the +genetic survival of humans and other gentlebeings, let me give a few quick +examples of benign and beneficial memes. Many commercial products are +tangible embodiments of memes; most of these are benign, since the most +virulent are quickly eliminated by regulatory agencies or civil lawsuits. +Hula hoops, pet rocks, and frisbees were memes deliberately designed by +their inventors to propagate rapidly. Like many genetically engineered +microbes (such as those used today to produce insulin and other +pharmaceutical products), these memes are reasonably successful in a +tailored environment, but do not have great longevity in the "wild." Pet +rocks were highly successful as long as they were highly advertised and +promoted, and as long as a large population which had not read the Owner's +Instruction Manual could be found. After that, the meme lost its vigor. +Other benign to slightly harmful memes include rumors about media starts, +superstitions, and chain letters. + +Beneficial memes include the taming of fire; the ideas of cultivating food +plants and of herding animals; the notion of antisepis in medicine and +surgery; and writing and reading. One important meme in American culture +(to which we shall return a little later) is the idea of tolerance. During +the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the United States was a country of +immigration. Immigrants came from every country in Europe as well as from +parts of Africa, Asia, and South America, all speaking different languages; +observing different customs of dress, behavior, and diet; practicing different +religions; and using different styles of non-verbal communication. While +conflict was at times inevitable among these groups, in a surprisingly short +time, it became apparent that the notion of live and let live required less +energy and effort than did the competing meme of forced conversion. Not only +was this approach more beneficial in terms of personal effort, but it proved +to be economically productive as well, to accept and adopt individual memes +>from the meme-complexes of other immigrant groups and combine them with +elements of one's own ethnic meme-complex. By the end of the nineteenth +century, tolerance was publicly recognized as an important civic virtue in +America. + +To be sure, the meme of tolerance is still in competition with the memes of +racial supremacy and jingoism. But a number of memes active in the legal +system strongly support the meme of tolerance and inhibit its competitors. +(Note how paradoxical this is: the meme of tolerance accepts help from +certain intolerant memes!) + +Let me turn now to the category of memes or meme-complexes commonly known +as religious beliefs or creeds. No one knows how the meme of belief in +God originated; indeed, it probably arose independently many times. Why +should such a meme arise and flourish in human meme pools? To answer this +question by saying that God revealed Himself to us in various times and ways +does not really suffice. Even a believer can see that that is circular +reasoning: the only out is to recognize that a leap of faith is required to +accept that God exists. That leap transcends pure reason, but it is not +incompatible with reason. Just as it is possible and reasonable to accept +both the meme of biological evolution and the meme of an initial act of +creation by a Creator who built the laws of mathematics and physics in such +a way as to make the appearance of life inevitable, so is it possible to +accept the idea that human brains and minds have evolved structures or +programs for belief in things unseen and unprovable. + +In fact, some evidence that just such a structure exists in our brains comes +>from split-brain research. Michael Gazzaniga describes one such experiment +in his book The Social Brain. Because part of each eyeball's visual field +is connected to the brain hemisphere on the same side as the eyeball, and +part is connected to the opposite hemisphere, it is possible to direct +visual images exclusively to one or the other hemisphere of the brain. Some +brain lesions destroy the neurological connections between the two +hemispheres, so the two halves of the brain act essentially independently. +Since the speech center is located almost exclusively in the left hemisphere, +such a patient can report verbally on activities in the left hemisphere, but +not in the right side. Gazzaniga presented each side of the brain in some of +his patients with a simple conceptual problem. Special viewing equipment +projected a picture of a claw to the left side and a snow scene to the right +side. A variety of cards were then placed in front of the subject who was +asked verbally (via the ears, which feed each hemisphere directly) to point +with each hand at a card matching what he had seen. The correct response for +the claw was a picture of a chicken; for the snow scene, a shovel. Gazzaniga +writes: + + "After the two pictures are flashed to each half-brain, the subjects + are required to point to the answers. A typical response is that of + P.S., who pointed to the chicken with his right hand and the shovel + with his left. After his response, I asked him, 'Paul, why did + you do that?' Paul looked up and without a moment's hesitation said + from his left hemisphere, 'Oh, that's easy. The chicken claw goes + with the chicken and you need a shovel to clean out the chicken shed.'" + +Here was the left half-brain having to explain why the left hand was pointing +to the shovel when the only picture (the left half-brain) saw was a claw. +The left half-brain is not privy to what the right half-brain saw because of +the brain's disconnection. Yet the patient's body was doing something. Why +was the left hand pointing to the shovel? The left-brain's cognitive system +needed a theory and instantly supplied one that made sense given the +information it had on this particular task... + +This mechanism in the brain, which appears to overlap the speech center, may +be called an "inference engine:" given limited information, it leaps to some +sort of initially plausible explanation for phenomena the brain must handle. +Such a mechanism has obvious survival value if it can suggest that the +rustling in the bushes behind you might be a large predator. + +On the other hand, as Gazzaniga's example shows, the inference engine will +wring blood from a stone: you can count on it to manufacture causal +relations whether or not they exist. Nor does it seem to be able to tell +when it doesn't have enough data. Given an increasingly complex world, the +inference engine is more and more likely to generate stuff having the quality +of National Enquirer headlines. Memes originating in this way can be weeded +out by exercise of a fairly modern meme complex, the meme complex forming the +foundation of modern science, a healthy degree of skepticism. "What's the +evidence?" this meme complex asks. Actually, we should call this a metameme, +since it is a meme about memes. + +Thus the human mind has a need for explanations or theories about its +perceived reality. Given the complexity of mind which has extensive and +detailed memory and vivid imagination, the ability to conceive of times past +and future as well as present, and to foresee the death of the self, +explanations are called for. Given the existence of evil and death, the +inference engine seeks meaning. Religious meme complexes (frequently +including such memes as belief in God, belief in an after-life and an +immortal soul, belief in rewards or punishments in the here-after) satisfy +the need for explanations or theories about these cosmic issues, which may +be sufficient explanation for the prevalence and persistence of these memes +in human culture. + +Related meme complexes are those of political belief systems. To some +extent, these overlap some or all of the meme-space occupied by religious +meme complexes insofar as they, too, attempt to explain good and evil +within human affairs and give meaning and purpose to activities in the human +sphere. For people who have little power or influence, political theories +can explain why they are so unfortunate. + +Let me return now to some issues I mentioned in passing. Can we predict +what sorts of brains will be more or less susceptible to infection by a +particular meme" Can we immunize people against infection by more +pernicious memes? Can particular memes be modified to make them more +infective? A few observations suggest some lines of inquiry and +investigation. Although the gene itself was unknown until Gregor Mendel's +experiments on sweet peas near the end of the last century, farmers and +animal breeders had a practical, intuitive grasp of genetics and evolution +by selection thousands of years ago. Similarly, advertising agencies and +political propagandists have been putting analogous concepts into practice +for a long time, despite lack of the meme metameme. + +Infection by the memes of television advertising is more likely among +inexperienced, uneducated, or unsophisticated individuals. Children are more +likely to catch these infections than adults; highly educated individuals who +have previously been infected to some degree by the skepticism meme are much +more resistant. A strongly developed sense of humor also appears to confer a +high degree of resistance, perhaps because humor and skepticism are related +by way of irony. + +What about religious or political memes? Note first that most religious +meme complexes are mutually exclusive: one cannot simultaneously adhere to +Greek Orthodoxy and to polytheistic Hinduism, albeit hybridization between +several seemingly incompatible religions is possible. (On the other hand, +it is possible to subscribe to several of the Asian religions simultaneously: +it is possible to be a Buddhist, Taoist, and Confucianist at once, for +example.) Political meme complexes, as I mentioned before, seem to occupy +similar locations in our mental landscapes. Patty Hearst, who had been +exposed only superficially to either Christianity or to the American civic +religion, had a near-vacuum in that space. So we should not be surprised +that intense personal exposure to the far-fringe political belief system +of the Symbionese Liberation Army successfully infected her with a rather +bizarre meme complex, one which had very little genetic survivability, since +most of that group died in a firefight and conflagration in Los Angeles +about a year after she was initially kidnapped. + +During the Korean War, American prisoners of war in North Korean prison +camps were subjected to intense brainwashing procedures. Many prisoners +cracked; others did not. The only consistent difference between those +who did and those who did not succumb was the degree to which they had been +infected with the traditional religious beliefs and/or traditional American +values, i.e., belief in the American civic religion. An important exception +was POW's who were "True Believers" in Eric Hoffer's sense. Most of the +POW's who actually defected to North Korea had such a personality. It is +interesting to note, however, that the True Believer personality usually has +a poorly developed sense of humor. + +In the present century, two major meme complexes in the political sphere +are in active competition. Make no mistake: the conflict between the West +and the Sino-Soviet bloc is not over physical resources such as land +or petroleum; neither is it about weapons systems or trade items. It is a +battle between competing memes for survival and replication in the minds of +human beings. At the cores of the respective meme complexed lie Western +democracy and Marxist-Leninism, respectively, and it is these memes which I +wish to discuss now. + +The Marxist-Leninist meme complex has to date been highly successful when +viewed from the perspective of memetics rather than economics, I have already +referred to the role of Lenin and a handful of his companions who arrived at +the Finland Station in St. Petersburg in April 1917 and successfully captured +control of the government within eight months. It is worth looking at some +of the competitive strategies the Marxist-Leninist meme (MLM for short) has +used to achieve this success. + +Many of these techniques are directly analogous to techniques in the +biosphere. Like the common cold virus and the AIDS virus, the MLM frequently +changes its outer appearance to prevent immunological systems from immediately +recognizing it and combatting it. Fidel Castro and Daniel Ortega, for +example, pretended to be patriotic liberators; once in power, they shed their +sheep's clothing to pursue the original purposes of the MLM. Like the +penicillin bacterium, the MLM emits toxins that impede the replication of +competing memes: secret police or Red Guards harass, imprison, or kill +carriers of competing memes: secret police or Red Guards harass, imprison, +or kill carriers of competing memes. Like the AIDS virus, the MLM improves +its chances of success by weakening the immunological systems of its targets +by an extensive disinformation and propaganda machine. (In the Winter 1989 +issue of GLOBAL AFFAIRS, John Lenczowski, _The Soviet Union and the United +States: Myths, Realities, Maxims_ makes a strong case that the current era +of glasnost and perestroika is one more cycle of deliberate strategic +deception.) + +Like retroviruses which coopt the genes of their hosts to make copies of +the retroviruses themselves instead of whatever proteins those genes were +intended to manufacture, the MLM seizes control of the machinery for +transmission and replication of memes: radio, television, and the press are +totally coopted, and other channels (such as mimeograph machines and +telephones) are restricted or closely monitored. Lenin was so successful in +such a short time because the German Foreign Ministry secretly funded his +propaganda campaign to the tune of some 50 million gold marks or more, +equivalent to a few hundred million dollars today. (See Michael Pearson, +_The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight-Month Journey from Exile to Power_, +New York: G. P. Putnam & Sons, 1975.) + +In order to lodge itself more firmly in the mental space occupied by +religious meme complexes, not only does the MLM actively suppress standard +religions, but it takes on some of the trappings of such religions, endowing +the Party leaders with godlike attributes and offering a Marxist-Leninist +vision of the future colored by a Heaven-like mystical aura. + +Let me turn now to the meme complex of the West. Democratic institutions, +some variation of capitalism, and significant personal liberty are the +traditional values attributed to the West, but one other piece of the complex +is especially important in this discussion, namely, the meme of tolerance. + +The meme of tolerance evolved in America under conditions of partial +isolation: relatively small doses of outside memes kept coming in, and +could be absorbed and assimilated into a larger, fairly stable, meme pool. +But the American meme pool was not being tested overseas against other large +and fairly stable meme pools. Thus the tolerance meme was not exposed to +competitive pressures in the global ideosphere until the middle of this +century; it is not clear whether or not it is a "dominant" or a "recessive" +meme; and it is not clear what its effect on the competitive survivability of +the meme complex of American culture will be in this larger arena. + +Note that in its nineteenth century form, the meme of tolerance did not +assert that all meme complexes were created equal. To allow other memes to +compete freely in the American ideosphere was all the tolerance meme stood +for; it did not in any way inhibit the meme that the American political +system was preferable to any other. In recent decades, a mutated version of +the tolerance meme seems to have become more prevalent in the United States. +In this form, the meme asserts that cultural and political meme complexes are +of equal worth; in particular, the Soviet MLM complex and the Western +democracy meme complex are held to be "morally equivalent." Judged by the +values of the American cultural meme complex, however, a meme complex such +as the MLM in which intolerance is inextricably embedded is clearly NOT of +equal worth. + +It would seem at the very least that the mutated version of the American +tolerance meme weakens the immunological capacity of American culture to +resist the MLM. It is even possible that the political-cultural meme +complex of the Western democracies contains the seeds of its own destruction, +not in the sense in which Marx, Engels, and Lenin predicted, but in the sense +of memetics. + +Can anything be done to immunize our populations against infection by the +MLM? Simple anti-Communist hysteria is inadequate and, given the tolerance +meme (either in its conventional or mutated forms), is even counterproductive. +Greater education in the metameme of skepticism would certainly help. Renewed +emphasis in the schools on the benefits of traditional American values would +be expected to help, as would cultivation of adherence to traditional, +mainline religions. (How the latter can be achieved with the framework of +the American cultural system is difficult to see.) + +The outcome of this competition between the meme complexes of the East and +the West is of vital concern for the next few generations of the survival +machines in which human genes are carried. + +Is there any substance to memetics? Can it be placed on a sound scientific +footing, able to make predictions? If so, applied memetics raises important +ethical questions within the framework of the Western meme complex, as the +dangers of deliberate manipulation of the general meme pool for personal +power would be very real. Moreover, adherents of the Soviet MLM would +have no hesitation about using such a science to further the spread of the +MLM at the expense of the Western democratic meme. + +Memetics is still at a very primitive stage. Like biology in the eighteenth +century, the emphasis is necessarily on gathering reams of data and forming +very tentative hypotheses. The formulation of universal principles may yet +be years away. Indeed, it is possible that the entire concept may be +intellectually and scientifically bankrupt. But in the meanwhile, it +nonetheless provides an interesting framework for looking at social and +political movements. Join the fun! + +======================================================== + + +Brin, David, "The Dogma of Otherness," Analog Science +Fiction/Science Fact, April 1986. + +Dawkins, Richard, The Selfish Gene. New York: Oxford +University Press, 1976. + +Gazzaniga, Michael, The Social Brain. + +Hofstadter, Douglas R., Metamagical Themas: Questing +for the Essence of Mind and Pattern. New York: Basic +Books, 1985; New York: Bantam Books, 1986. Chapter 3, +"On Viral Sentences and Self-Replicating Structures." + +Henson, Keith, "Memetics: The Science of Information +Viruses," Analog Science Fiction/Science Fact, August +1987; reprinted in Whole Earth Review, Winter 1987. + +Minsky, Marvin, The Society of Mind. New York: Simon +and Schuster, 1985, 1986. + +Monod, Jacques, Chance and Necessity: An essay on the +natural philosophy of modern biology. Translated by +Austryn Wainhouse. New York: Vintage Books, i971. + +Pearson, Michael, The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month +Journey From Exile to Power. New York: G. P. Putnam's +Sons, 1975. + + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/merkle1.txt b/textfiles.com/science/merkle1.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4ed64da9 Binary files /dev/null and b/textfiles.com/science/merkle1.txt differ diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/merkle2.txt b/textfiles.com/science/merkle2.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d0876005 Binary files /dev/null and b/textfiles.com/science/merkle2.txt differ diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/metal.txt b/textfiles.com/science/metal.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..eefb680d --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/metal.txt @@ -0,0 +1,183 @@ +Information on Palladium which is one of the metals used in the recent +COLD FUSION experiments................ + +[ The information below on Palladium is quoted from ] +[ "Guide to Uncommon metals" Eric N. Simons ] + +Palladium, symbol Pd, is a metallic element in the eighth group of the +periodic system, deriving its name from the French Pallas, an asteroid. +It is associated with platinum in the group, and is found in the native +state and in association with gold and silver in certain gold-bearing sands. +Obtained as a by-product in the extraction of platinum, it is produced in a +spongy state by the thermal decomposition of palladium dichlorodiamine. +The metal should be melted in either a zircon or alumina-rich crucible +in a high frequency induction furnace, and cast into moulds made of graphite. +The principle difficulty in this is that palladium absorbs gas to a +considerable degree, so that the metal is always liable to become +brittle at high temperatures, and consequently will lack ductility. + +The alternative is to adopt one or other of the numerous processes for +isolating the metal from platinum ore. Bunsen eliminated most of the platinum +as ammonium platinochloride, precipitating the residual metals of the group +by iron. He then heated the resulting precipitate with ammonium chloride, +followed by evaporation with fuming nitric acid. After the residue had been + taken up by water, palladium was precipitated as potassium palladium chloride. +The metal was purified by dissolution in hot water and evaporation of the salt +with oxalic acid, the residue being taken up in potassium chloride, and the +potassium platinochloride present was removed by filtration. The filtrate +deposited potassium palladium chloride, which, heated in a stream of hydrogen +gas left the metal as a residue. + +The properties of palladium are as follows: atomic number 46, atomic weight +106.7, density at 20 deg. C. (68 deg. F.) 12.02 g./cu. cm., or 0.4343 +lb./cu. in., atomic volume 8.88 cu. cm./g.-atom, melting point 1552 deg. C. +(2826 deg. F.), boiling point 3980 deg. C. (7200 deg. F.), specific heat at +0 deg. C. (32 deg. F.) 0.0584 cal./g./deg. C., heat of fusion 34.2 cal./g. +or 61.6 BTU/lb., coefficient of linear thermal expansion near 20 deg. C. +(68 deg. F.) 11.76 micro-in./in./deg. C. or 6.53 micro-in./in./deg. F., +thermal conductivity at 18 deg. C. (64 deg. F.) 0.168 cal./sq. cm./cm./sec., +electrical resistivity 10.8 michohm-cm. at 20 deg. C. (68 deg. F.), at +0 deg. C. (32 deg. F.) 10.0 microhm-cm., modulus of elasticity in tension +16.3 million lb./sq. in. The crystal structure of palladium is face-centered +cubic. The lattice constant at a is 3.8902 Angstrom units at 20 deg. C. +(68 deg. F.), closest approach of atoms 2.750, vapour pressure at 1000 deg. C. +(1832 deg. F.) 1.15 X 10**-5 mm. Hg. at 1500 deg. C. (2732 deg. F.) +6.17 X 10**-2 mm. Hg. and at 1554 deg. C. (2829) deg. F.) 1.18 X 10**-1 mm. Hg, + electrical volume conductivity at 20 deg. C. (68 deg. F.) 16 per cent IACS, +temperature coefficient of electrical resistivity 0.00377/deg. C. between +0 and 100 deg. C. (32 and 212 deg. F.) When palladium is alloyed with other +metals, the resistivity is appreciably increased. Reflectivity in white light +62.8 per cent. This increases somewhat in passing from blue to red. Emissivity +with a mean wave length of 0.65 mu0 0.33 in the solid state, 0.37 in the liquid +state, magnetic susceptibility at 18 deg. C. (64 deg. F.) about 5.8 X 10**-6 +mass units. + +The hardness of palladium in the rolled and annealed state is about 37 to 39 +Vickers diamond, which is practically identical with that of platinum. As a +wire of 0.050 in. dia., and after annealing at high temperature, the metal may +indicate a tensile strength of as little as 9.5 tons/sq. in., with about 24 +per cent elongation. A wire of similar type will when annealed at 800 deg. C. +(1470 deg. F.) posses a tensile strength of about 11.25 tons/sq. in. The +mechanical properties are largely governed by the type and quantity of residual +deoxidizers in the composition, but the variations are not large. For example, +the metal containing deoxidizers of this type may show a tensile strength +ranging from 11.25 to 13 ton/sq. in. as annealed, and about 21 tons/sq. in. +after cold drawing. The best annealing temperature is about 800 deg. C. +(1470 deg. F.). + + When deposited by electrolysis, palladium is considerably harder than when in +the wrought state, and may be from 190 Vickers diamond for metal from the +chloride bath to about 400 for the metal deposited by complicated nitrite +baths. Whenever astronger palladium is desired, additional hardness is +commonly obtained by an addition of the metal ruthenium. The effect of high +temperatures on these properties is as follows: commercial palladium annealed +at 1100 deg. C. (2000 deg. F.) shows a short-time tensile strength of about +12.5 tons/sq. in. at 400 deg. C. (750 deg. F.), about 4.25 tons/sq. in. at +800 deg. C. (1470 deg. F.), and about 3.4 tons/sq. in. at 1000 deg. C. +(1830 deg. F.) + +Palladium is akin to platinum in general appearance, ductility and strength. +It has a silvery lustre, is extremely malleable and ductile, and is the most +readily fused of all the platinum metals. It readily distils when heated in +an electric furnace. Its principal sources are South Africa, Japan, Brazil, +Sudbury in Ontario, Canada, and the U.S.S.R. Much of it is extracted from such +ores as chalcopyrite during the production of nickel and copper. In the +electrolytic refining of these metals palladium is found in the deposits in +the electrolytic tanks. + +The metal does not oxidize at temperatures up to about 400 deg. C. +(752 deg. F.), and it is not affected by a considerable number of industrial + chemicals. It is, however, not so resistant to corrosion as the metals of the +platinum group in general, and will not withstand corrosion to the degree that +might be expected. On the other hand, it is the lightest and least expensive +of the platinum metals, and ranks second only to platinum itself in industrial +value. It is stable in air at room temperature, but at a low red heat takes +on a violet hue caused by a film of oxide, which decomposes at a higher +temperature so that the metal then regains its lustre. + +The main application of palladium is to contacts in electical relays, where +its freedom from tarnish makes it exceptionally trustworthy and gives a +transmission free from noise, highly desirable in voice circuits. It is +also widely used in chemical engineering as a catalyst. In a finely divided +state, dispersed on the surface of an active carrier, it is the most effective +in catalytic action of any in hydrogenating liquids and vapour phase reactions, +being particularly selective either group-wise or stage-wise. Typical processes +in which it forms an admirable catalyst are the production of ethylene from +acetylene, in which palladium on silica-gel causes the catalysis, and the +selective hydrogenation of mthyl butynol to dimethyvinycarbinol, a stage in the synthese of vitamins A and E. + +Palladium is also used for removing oxygen from heat treatment atmospheres, +the recombination of hydrongen and oxygen, the hydrogenation of terpines, and + the production of pure gas by the diffusion of hydrogen through a palladium +septum or partition. So applied, however, the gas must be entirely free from +sulphur from the start. + +One of the most remarkable properties of the metal is its ferocious absorption +of hydrogen, which it readily takes up, to the extent of about 800 times its +own volume at room temperature. This makes it highly valuable as a diffusion +barrier for the production of small volumes of extremely pure hydrogen. In the +same way septa or membranes of palladium are now embodied in electrolytic +cells for the separation of hydrogen isotopes by electrolytic migration. + +For electrical contacts it is not no costly as platinum, nor is it so dense. +It cannot be adapted to a particularly sensitive gear, but is excellent for +light work, and consequently much used in telephone type relays, expecially in +the United States. The alloys of palladium most valuable for contacts are 10 +per cent ruthenium palladium, 40 per cent silver palladium, and 40 per cent +copper palladium, the last being used for rubbing contact with nickel chromium +risistance windings in potentiometers where elimination of oxide deposit on the windings is essential, and where long service life in addition to wear +resistance is desired combined with minimum contact resistance. Silver-palladiumalloy gives extrememly low temperature coefficient with fairly high resistivity,and is therefore applied to the windings of those potentiometers requiring high precision. + +Gold palladium alloys have a restricted melting range of temperature, and +this, +combined with their non-oxidation at tempuratures up to the melting point, +renders them highly satisfactory for temperature-limiting fuses in the +prevention of damage from overheating in electric furnaces. The alloys can be +adapted to melt at suitable intervals, i.e. 50 per cent between 1100 and +1500 deg. C. (2012 and 2732 deg. F.). The gold palladium alloy yields a high +thermal electromotive force against 10 per cent iridium platinum, the +thermocouple embodying it being completely accurate at temperatures up to 1000 +deg. C. (1832 deg. F.). It is therefore much used in high frequency +milliammeters and instruments of similar character. + +When ruthenium is added to palladium, an `all precious metal' white jewellery +is obtained, and this has been employed to show off diamonds advantageously. +Palladium is also extensively used in dentistry, mainly to make hiat-treatable +casting alloys with up to 30 per cent palladium, the remainder being gold, +silver, and copper. Alloys of this type melt at 1030 deg. C. (1886 deg. F.), +so that there is a limit to the palladium content that can be used in these +alloys. The lustre of palladium, together with its resistance to corrosion and +its ability to accept a high degree of polish, are responsible for its use in +the jewellery trade. Since it is not much more than half the weight of platinum, and is much like it in appearance and durability, while is costs only about +one fifth as much piece for piece, it is a great competitor of that metal. +The most commonly used alloys of palladium for brooches, tiaras, etc., are +either a 3 percent molybdenum palladium or a 5 per cent ruthenium palladium. + +Palladium is also widely used in high temperature solders because it combines +low vapour pressures, satisfactory `wetting' properties and minimum +penetration into austenitic alloys. + +For soldering palladium, an oxidizing, oxyacetylene flame is best for those +platinum solders melting between 1100 and 1300 deg. C. (2012 and 2372 deg. F.). +A gas-air torch and lower melting-point white gold solders are used in +soldering palladium jewellery and dental materials. If larger amounts have to +be melted, it is best to employ an induction furnace, using an argon or lean +hydrogen nitrogen gas cover, taking care to prevent silicon contamination, +which produces brittleness at elevated temperatures. The melt is deoxidized +with 0.05 per cent aluminium or calcium boride just before it is poured. + +Palladim silver alloys can be used for brazing stainless steel, Inconel and +other heat-resisting alloys. The most popular alloy has 90 per cent silver, +10 per cent palladium, and flows at 1065 deg. C. (1950 deg. F.). This is much +less likely to dissolve or penetrate the base metal than nickel-base brazing +alloys. + +Palladium is obtainable in bar, cast, cold rolled, hot rolled, and drawn +conditions. It is also produced in sheets, rods, tubes and wire, and is usually +sold either as `sponge', or as refined metal, at prices quoted in troy ounces. +It is usually 99.5 per cent pure. The sponge is termed `black'. It is also +obtained in `compact' forms, which are the most resistant to corrosion, being +attacked only by nitric and boiling sulphuric acids. First isolated in 1803, it is only a little heavier than lead. In the form of `leaf' it is sometimes +used for decoration in bookbinding, etc. + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/mind1.asc b/textfiles.com/science/mind1.asc new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4bc79586 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/mind1.asc @@ -0,0 +1,528 @@ + + + (word processor parameters LM=1, RM=70, TM=2, BM=2) + KeelyNet filename : Mind1.ASC or Mind1.ZIP + Taken from KeelyNet BBS (214) 324-3501 + Sponsored by Vangard Sciences + PO BOX 1031 + Mesquite, TX 75150 + + this information courtesy of Jerry Gallimore + Radio Waves & Life + by Tom Jaski + Electronics - September 1960 + + In a recent editorial (August, 1959), Hugo Gernsback called + for a serious reappraisal of the effects of radio waves on human + and animal physiology. In view of the almost casual use of high- + power radar and industrial RF (radio frequency) heating equipment, + this is certainly a timely word of warning. + + It is not surprising then that the Air Force is already + keenly aware of these problems, and has a number of projects under + way to discover the exact effects of high-intensity radar pulses + and microwaves on human and animal tissue. These projects are + being carried out at our major universities, each specializing in + one particular frequency. For example, the project at the + University of California, under the direction of Prof. Charles + Susskind, is primarily investigating the effects of 3-CM radar + energy. Test subjects are mice, ants, and yeast cells. + + Thermal Effects + + Of great importance, and therefore under intensive + investigation, are the thermal effects of such waves, and these + have been measured rather precisely under a variety of conditions. + + Using mice as subjects, it was found that near-lethal doses + of radiation do not seem to cause any pathological changes in + them, and that the lethal effect is primarily an overtaxing of the + mice's temperature-balancing system. It was found that the major + heating effect took place immediately under the skin, but of + course heat generated there is rapidly distributed through the + body. The temperature of the mice was monitored continuously. + + The photograph shows zoologist Susan Prausnitz monitoraing + the temperature of a mouse suspended in the wire cage right in + front of the waveguide just visible on the left. The mouse is + slowly rotated to insure even radiation over the entire body. + Death occurred in 50% of the mice when a critical temperature of + 44.1 Centrigrade was reached. + + Other interesting findings include the fact that radar waves + appear to have no significant effect on the fertility of the male + mice. The effects of radar waves on the longevity of the mice are + currently being investigated. + + An intensive series of experiments was carried out on + cellular organisms, such as yeast cells, but, other than showing + thermal effects, the experiments with insects such as ants + delivered relatively minor data. + + + + Page 1 + + + + + But one interesting item which emerged was that the ants, + normally moving every which way, in a Petri dish, will all line up + in a 3-CM field, aligning their antennas parallel to the field, + apparently to minimize the effects. + + The project is continuing, and more research on mice, ants + and other animals is contemplated. Psychological effects will be + looked into. One promising item in the ant experiments was that + the ants which were exposed to 3-CM waves apparently lost the + ability, at least temporarily, to communicate the source of food + to their fellows, as ants usually do. + + It may be significant that the large ants used have antennas + which measure very nearly one-fourth the wavelength of the 3-CM + radiation. + + Incidentally, mice are so frequently used for this kind of + experiment because they are easily handled, easily obtained and + relatively inexpensive, while their physiology and metabolism bear + a useful resemblance to human counterparts in some ways. The life + span of a mouse is limited, permitting experimenters to evaluate + genetic effects over several generations. + + Meanwhile other service branches are carrying out research + programs concerned with the effects of radio waves on animal life, + not necessarily limited to radar frequencies. + + A public announcement by scientists at the National Institute + for Neurological Diseases concerning the LETHAL EFFECTS of 388-MC + radio waves on monkeys also shows there is great interest in other + frequencies and effects BESIDES THERMAL. + + Some Early Reports + + As long ago as 1930, Nrunori claims to have seen evidence + that the human organism "radiates" and "reacts to" radio waves of + 2.33 meters and its harmonics - in other words: 129, 258, 387 and + 596 MC (megacycles i.e. million cycles per second). + + This brings to mind the work of a man who started publishing + articles on this kind of subject more than 35 years ago. An + Italian university professor named Cazzamalli placed human + subjects in a shielded room, subjected them to high-frequency + radio waves, and claimed to be able to record a "beat" which, he + RECEIVED ON A SIMPLE UNTUNED RECEIVER consisting of a galena + crystal, a small capacitor, antenna and sensitive galvanometer. + Cazzamalli's equipment, as well as it can be determined from his + early articles, is shown in Fig. 1. + + The one item which he never mentions, perhaps because he + could not accurately determine it, is the POWER OF HIS + TRANSMITTER. + + He published oscillograms purportedly showing VARIATIONS of + the "beats" when his subjects were EMOTIONALLY AROUSED OR ENGAGED + IN CREATIVE EFFORTS. + + Later experiments delivered much more startling results: he + found that some of his subjects would HALLUCINATE under the + influence of the high-frequency radio waves, which ranged all the + way up to 300 MC. + Page 2 + + + + + The Cazzamalli experiments were carefully duplicated with + modern equipment, of much greater sensitivity than his. His + "oscillatori telegrafica" (presumably a transmitter as used for + wireless telegraphy) was replaced with a very modest low-power + oscillator. The reason for this was twofold. + + In the first place, university authorities take a very dim + view of experiments on human beings, even if these subjects are + the scientists themselves, volunteering for the part. + + Second, a previous experiment had indicated in a rather + startling way that POWER WAS NOT REQUIRED TO EVOKE EFFECTS IN THE + HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM. In fact, there seemed to be SOME SORT OF + RESONANT FREQUENCY APPLICABLE TO EACH INDIVIDUAL HUMAN. + + Effects on Humans + + That experiment was suggested by the behavior of the monkeys + we cited. These animals went through a sequence of behavior which + would indicate that something besides thermal effects was + operating. + + To discover if this "something" was subjectively noticeable + by an individual, a weak oscillator swept through the band of 300 + to 600 MC with the request that the subject indicate any points at + which he might notice anything unusual. The subjects were not + allowed to see the dial. + + AT A PARTICULAR FREQUENCY BETWEEN 380 TO 500 MC FOR DIFFERENT + SUBJECTS, they repeatedly indicated a point with ALMOST + UNBELIEVABLE ACCURACY (as many as 14 out of 15 times). + + Subsequent experiments with the same subjects showed that at + the "individual" frequency, STRANGE THINGS WERE FELT. Asked to + describe the experience, all subjects agreed there was a definite + "pulsing" in the brain, ringing in the ears and a DESIRE TO PUT + THEIR TEETH INTO THE NEAREST EXPERIMENTER. + + The oscillator in this case was putting out only MILLIWATTS + OF POWER, and WAS PLACED SEVERAL FEET FROM THE SUBJECT. + + Optical and Growth Effects + + It was not the first time that such phenomena had been + observed. Van Everdingen, a Dutch scientist, had discovered many + years ago that radiation would affect the heartbeat of chicken + embryos, when he was experimenting with the effects of high- + frequency radiation on growth (specifically working toward any + effect it might have on malignant growths). + + Van Everdingen used 1,875 MC and 3,000 MC and discovered that + this kind of radiation WOULD CHANGE THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF A + GLYCOGEN SOLUTION. + + Glycogen is a substance which provides our muscles with + energy! Van Everdingen found that this change of optical + polarization had some CONNECTION WITH TUMOR GROWTH. He proceeded + to RE-ROTATE THE POLARIZATION IN EXTRACTS OBTAINED FROM TUMOR- + PRODUCING MICE. + + + Page 3 + + + + + When this optically "pure" substance was injected into mice + with malignant tumors, and these mice were kept on a diet free of + animal fats, THE TUMORS WOULD CEASE TO GROW. Only radiation at + UHF (ultra-high) or SHF (super-high frequency) would produce these + effects in the substances he used. + + But Van Everdingen was not the only one who discovered + important facts about radiation on living tissues. Years before, + a Frenchman name Lakhovsky claimed to have removed tumors from + patients with high-frequency radiation treatments, and his book, + THE SECRET OF LIFE, has a number of attestations in it from + grateful patients who were cured. + + Lakhovsky stated that healthy plant growth is materially + aided BY PLACING A COPPER RING ABOUT 8 INCHES IN DIAMETER and + supported on an insulating wooden stick (Fig. 2) AROUND THE PLANT. + + So-called tumerous growths on plants disappeared withing such + a ring. Lakhovsky's experiment with plants has been duplicated + successfully. But then we should also note that the same kind of + thing has been done by a group of devout citizens using GROUP + PRAYER! + + But the people who have published the most data on the + subject of UHF radiation effects on animals and human subjects are + the Russians. In BIOFISICA, the Russian biophysics journal, a + scientist named Livshits published two survery articles on the + work that had been in this field by 1958 and 1959. They are too + extensive to repeat in great detail here, but some of the more + impressive highlights will be reported. + + Many experiments were carried out on animals with conditioned + reflexes, and one by Glezer showed that a WEAK UHF FIELD would + INHIBIT THE CONDITIONED REFLEX, indicating that some inhibition of + the cortex was taking place. + + As in Van Everdingen's experiment with chicken eggs, + Pardzhanidze showed that the EEG's of rabbits were DRASTICALLY + CHANGED WHEN THE ANIMALS WERE SUBJECTED TO A UHF FIELD. Bludova, + Kurilova and Tikhonova showed that the field produced AN INCREASE + OF SENSITIVITY IN THE RETINA, and simultaneously REDUCED THE AREA + OF COLOR SENSITIVITY. + + It is interesting to speculate how this would correlate with + the Land effects. (Land, of Polaroid camera fame, has shown + recently that our concepts of three-color vision seems to depend + primarily on the presence of two images STIMULATED BY TWO + DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES OF LIGHT!) + + Turlygin similarly showed that the sensitivity of the eyes of + dark-adapted subjects at marginal levels was INCREASED AS MUCH AS + 100% BY THE PRESENCE OF A UHF FIELD. + + Nerve Effects + + Of importance in the light of Lakhovsky's claims is the + experiment by Grigoreva, who showed that short exposures to UHF + would EXPEDITE THE REGROWTH OF SEVERED NERVE TISSUE, while + prolonged exposure would SUPPRESS THE REGROWTH. + + + Page 4 + + + + + A fact discovered many years ago is that a UHF field will + have an ANALGESIC (pain-reducing) effect on nerves, and radiation + therapy of patients with painful diseases such as arthritis is + fairly common practice here and abroad. + + If the field gets very intense, the situation reverses, and + the effects on the nerves can be extremely painful, as Lebedinskii + reports. + + Numerous experiments are cited which deal with the + simultaneous effects of various kinds of drugs, stimulants and + toxins, and UHF fields. Many of these deal with very specific + reactions and conditions, and any generalization would be rather + meaningless. One particularly was of interest because of its + relation to the experiments of the late Pavlov, the father of the + conditioned reflex. + + This experiment shows that the field INCREASES THE SECRETION + OF HISTAMINE IN THE STOMACH, and in related experiments that the + secretion of digestive juice which was artificially stimulated by + such drugs as atropine is MATERIALLY REDUCED BY THE FIELD. + + Closer to home, we find that Hugh Fleming at Oregon State + College carried out experiments on the effects of HIGH-FREQUENCY + EFFECTS ON MICROORGANISMS. Fleming used radiation at frequencies + varying from 10 meters to 90 CM (30 to 270 MC). + + One result was that the RATE OF GROWTH OF CELLS WILL INCREASE + to a certain power level, and then will SHARPLY DECREASE. + + TIME OF EXPOSURE and CONDUCTIVITY OF THE MEDIUM are IMPORTANT + VARIABLES (as was also discovered by Van Everdingen, who also + found the VISCOSITY OF THE MEDIUM to be MOST IMPORTANT). + + Summing it up + + Now what does all this mean in terms of Mr. Gernsback's + warning statement? + + If you consider the few items we have been able to quote + (more detail can be found in the articles cited in the + bibliographhy), it is obvious that WE ARE IN SOME WAY SUSCEPTIBLE + TO RADIO WAVES, and that our susceptibility IS NOT NECESSARY + LIMITED TO A PARTICULAR FREQUENCY. Nor are large amounts of power + required to produce some of the effects within us. + + But precisely what these effects are, we understand not at + all. Van Everdingen points out that the possibility of molecular + resonance, AFFECTING THE CHEMICAL BONDS in our very substance. + + The egg experiments certainly indicate some sort of + interference with the cortex (our "gray matter") which MAY AFFECT + OUR THINKING AND OUT CONTROL OVER THE "BASER" DRIVES (generally + considered to be generated in the lower sections of the brain, but + normally controlled or inhibited by the cortex). + + Our physiological functions, such as our digestion, our + ability to see and recover from damage when nerves are involved + may well be drastically affected if we are subjected to a high + enough power level. + + Page 5 + + + + + Tumors may be inhibited BY THE PROPER KIND OF RADIO WAVERS + yet, in other cases, particularly when coupled with the "wrong" + kind of DIET, radiation may also PROMOTE THE GROWTH OF TUMORS. + (This too was demonstrated by Van Everdingen in Holland). + + WE DO NOT KNOW IF OUR LONGEVITY WILL BE AFFECTED. Certainly + we should consider the possibility that there may be SOME + RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE INCREASE OF CANCER AND THE AMOUNT OF + RADIATION we indiscriminately spew into the atmosphere. + + Or even that there may be some connection between that + radiation and our SHARPLY INCREASING CRIME RATES. + + We simply do not know enough about the effects, but what + little we do know would tend to make Mr. Gernsback's warning all + the more urgent. + + For while there is nothing lethal about the doses of radio- + frequency energy we absorb daily, neither is there anything lethal + in the STEADY DRIP OF WATER ON A MAN'S FOREHEAD - but it was + effectively used by medieval torturers to drive him completely out + of his mind. + + Perhaps we have a responsibility to mankind, before we fill + in all the gaps in the radio spectrum, to discover once and for + all if we are affecting human life on this planet. And if so, in + what manner, as we finally had to do for another surprise out of + Pandora's box, man-made radioactivity. + + ------------------------------------------------------------------ + + We felt this would be of extreme interest to our users since it + provided such a wealth of detail as to frequencies and specific + effects. It is directly related to Mind Control techniques as + we have seen from other papers. These will be included if we + can get the authors permission to type it all in. + + If we can be of further service or you wish to share information + on this topic or others of interest, please upload to KeelyNet + or send to the Vangard Sciences address on the title page. + + One of our primary purposes is to network and share information. + We believe that is the optimum means of inducing change. + + We believe, encourage and practice the concept of Shareware. + + What is shared is returned at least 10 fold + as we have seen in our experience, + if not with us, with others who will pass it on. + This can take the form of + financial contributions, information or goods. + + Thank you for your support! + + + + + + + + + Page 6 + + + + + References + + F. Cazzamalli - "Electromagnetic Radiation Phenomena from Human + Cerebrum During Intense Activity of Creative + Artistic Nature", Neurologica, 1935. + + - "Experiments, Discussions and Problems of + Biophysics of Cerebrum", + Quaderni Di Psichiatria, 1929. + + - "Telepsychic Phenomena and Radiation from + Cerebrum", Neurologica, 1923. + + - "About a Phenomenon of Cerebropsychic Radiation + and Biophysical Methods of Exploring It," + Neuropsychiatrica, 1934. + + W.A.G. Van Everdingen + + - "Molecular Changes of Structure Resulting from + Irradiation with Hertzian Waves of Frequency of + 1875 MC," + Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde, Nov. 40' + + - "Molecular Changes and Modifications of Structure + Resulting from Radiation with Hertzian Waves of + Wavelength of 10 CM (frequency 3000 MC)," + Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde, Jul. 41' + + - "Changes in Physiochemical Nature of Organic Bonds + by Irradiation, Mostly in Connection with the + Cancer Problem," + Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde, Feb. 43' + K. F. Grishina + + - "Importance of Certain Points of Methods in Local + Response of Tissues to Centimeter Waves," + Biophyzika, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 358-362, 1958 + + B. S. Jacobson, S. B. Prausnitz and C. Susskind + + - "Investigation of Thermal Balance in Mammals by + Means of Microwave Radiation," + Transactions on Medical Electronics + Proceedings of the IRE, June, 1959 + + Frank, Leary + + - "Researching Microwave Health Hazards," + Electronics, February, 1959 + N. N. Livshits + + - "Role of Nervous System in Reactions to + Ultra-High-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields," + Biofizika, Vol. 2, No. 3, 1957 + (has a 96-item bibliography) + + - "Effects of Ultra-High-Frequency Field on + Functions of Nervous Systems," + Biofizika, Vol. 3, No. 4 pp. 426-436, 1958 + + Page 7 + + + + + A. S. Pressman + + - "Methods of Experimentally Irradiating Small + Animals with Centimeter Waves," + Biofizika, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 354-358, 1958 + + Hugh Fleming + + - "Effects of High-Frequency Fields on + Micro-Organisms," + Electrical Engineering, pp. 18-21, Jan. 1944 + + N. Nrunori and S. Torrisi + + - "Ultra-High-Frequency Electromagnetic Vibrations, + Their Effects on Living Organisms," + American Journal of Physical Therapy, Jun. 1930 + + P. Liebesy + + - "Athermic Short Wave Therapy," + Archives of Physical Therapy, December, 1938 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Page 8 + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/mind5.asc b/textfiles.com/science/mind5.asc new file mode 100644 index 00000000..cf536930 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/mind5.asc @@ -0,0 +1,124 @@ + + + (word processor parameters LM=8, RM=75, TM=2, BM=2) + Taken from KeelyNet BBS (214) 324-3501 + Sponsored by Vangard Sciences + PO BOX 1031 + Mesquite, TX 75150 + + There are ABSOLUTELY NO RESTRICTIONS + on duplicating, publishing or distributing the + files on KeelyNet! + + December 7, 1990 + + MIND5.ASC + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + this information courteously provided to KeelyNet by + Mark McCloud and Cheyenne Turner + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + taken from the article + + Geophysical Variables and Behaviour: XXXIX + Alterations in Imaginings and Suggestibility + During Brief Magnetic Field Exposures + + by Christine F. DeSano and M. A. Persinger + at Laurentian University + + originally in Perceptual Motor Skills, 1987 + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + + Male and female subjects were exposed to alternating magnetic fields + of 1 and 4 Hertz which were applied across their mid-superior + Temporal lobes. + + In addition, a green light was pulsed in phase with the magnetic + field while the participant was instructed to imagine an encounter + with an alien. + + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + + Rostral (at nose level) to the upper half of the ear, retractable + arms were placed, each containing a 25 CM (1 CM diameter) soft iron + nail wrapped (1050 turns) with insulated wire (20 gauge). + + A function generator was used to drive the solenoids with sine wave + current at either 1 HZ or 4 HZ. + + Magnetic field intensity was about 15 GAUSS at the skull surface. + + Field strength measured at the temporal cortex was 2 GAUSS. + + Maximum field strength as measured at the level of the frontal lobes + was 200 MGAUSS (a 10 factor decrease). + + At the level of the hippocampus, field strength was 500 MGAUSS. + + All subjects generated elaborate imaginings when exposed to a green + light flashing in sync with the driven solenoids. + + + Page 1 + + 4 HZ field imaginings included a sensation of rising or floating. + + The end result of the experiment was that hypnotic susceptibility + may be increased following magnetic-field exposure but that the most + effective frequency is different for each sex. + + The quantity of imagery generated (particular the floating + sensations) INCREASED if the person observed a light flashing in + sync with a 4 HZ applied magnetic field. + + Most interesting of all was that the magnetic field strengths were + MUCH LESS than those expected to occur in NATURAL SETTINGS. + + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + Vangard Notes.. + + OMNI writer Dennis Stacy did an article on Persinger's + research in December of 1988 (I think). It relates the UFO + encounter phenomenon and how it could quite possibly be + INDUCED by alternating magnetic fields of relatively low + intensity. + + As I remember the article, Persinger was using a football + helmet with multiple solenoids placed in a grid and + supported over the skull. + + When the helmet was driven by a computer as a peripheral + device (a printer), various patterns (characters) could be + projected onto the brain of the subject to induce various + effects. + + If any of our KeelyNet associates come across this article, we + would appreciate a copy or uploading of the text that we might + annotate and included it in a text file. + + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + + If you have comments or other information relating to such topics + as this paper covers, please upload to KeelyNet or send to the + Vangard Sciences address as listed on the first page. + Thank you for your consideration, interest and support. + + Jerry W. Decker.........Ron Barker...........Chuck Henderson + Vangard Sciences/KeelyNet + + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + If we can be of service, you may contact + Jerry at (214) 324-8741 or Ron at (214) 242-9346 + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + + + + + + + + + + + + Page 2 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/mind6.asc b/textfiles.com/science/mind6.asc new file mode 100644 index 00000000..5d50fa2a --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/mind6.asc @@ -0,0 +1,66 @@ + + + + + (word processor parameters LM=8, RM=75, TM=2, BM=2) + Taken from KeelyNet BBS (214) 324-3501 + Sponsored by Vangard Sciences + PO BOX 1031 + Mesquite, TX 75150 + + There are ABSOLUTELY NO RESTRICTIONS + on duplicating, publishing or distributing the + files on KeelyNet! + + December 14, 1990 + + MIND6.ASC + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + This file is a short description of a presentation given at the + 1990 American ElectroEncephalographic Society Annual Meeting + We wish to thank "Sgt." Paul Carlson for providing it to KeelyNet. + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + Computerized EEG Analysis of Subjects Undergoing + Synchro-Energization for Relaxation + + experiments and presentation prepared by + Sandra G. Loychik, Carroll P. Osgood, Bart C. Hayford, + James P. Burke and Dennis E. Hainsey + + Department of Neurology, Altoona Hospital + Altoona, PA 16601 + + Computerized EEG signals were used to evaluate the effects of + "Synchro-Energizer" stimulation. Synchro-Energizer (S-E) devices + are the newest craze in stress reduction. + + The S-E device includes dark goggles with tiny lights inside, + earphones and a control module that varies the light and sound + sequence. S-E salons are springing up around metropolitan areas and + are enjoying a lot of media attention. + + Power Spectra were obtained for the standard frequency bands (delta, + theta, alpha and beta); activity in microvolts for each band was + measured before, during and after a twenty minute session on the S-E + device. + + Although the S-E device is ALLEGED to induce a mental relaxation + response, we found no statistical evidence supporting existence of + LASTING relaxation-type changes, i.e. NO INCREASE in alpha or theta + range activity, in the EEG of thirty young, healthy volunteers + thirty minutes POST S-E use. + + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + If you have comments or other information relating to such topics + as this paper covers, please upload to KeelyNet or send to the + Vangard Sciences address as listed on the first page. + Thank you for your consideration, interest and support. + + Jerry W. Decker.........Ron Barker...........Chuck Henderson + Vangard Sciences/KeelyNet + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + If we can be of service, you may contact + Jerry at (214) 324-8741 or Ron at (214) 242-9346 + -------------------------------------------------------------------- + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/monitors.txt b/textfiles.com/science/monitors.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..42ff94b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/monitors.txt @@ -0,0 +1,581 @@ + + +Source: Paul Brodeur, "The Magnetic Field Menace," in "Macworld," July +1990, pp. 136-145. Via Toxbase. + +Various graphics appear in this magazine article. If you want a copy +of this article, please contact Melinda Lawrence, Greenpeace USA, 4649 +Sunnyside Ave. N., Seattle, Washington 98103, (206) 632-4326; or via +Environet (or via Greenlink, for Greenpeace staff). + +====================================================================== + +THE MAGNETIC-FIELD MENACE + +Computer monitors may pose a very real threat to users + + As the new decade begins, most Macintosh users and other inhabi- +tants of the vast computer community have become aware that serious +questions are being raised about the potentially harmful health ef- +fects of electromagnetic emissions from display monitors. However, +the issue has been so shrouded by denial on the part of manufacturers +and employers, and addressed with such incompetence by state and +federal regulatory agencies, that computer users scarcely know what to +think about it, who to turn to for reliable information, or how to +protect themselves. Meanwhile, industry, government, and the medical +and scientific community are mounting belated attempts to study the +problem and reach some consensus about how to deal with it. + Since disease does not develop by consensus but by immutable laws +of biology, it seems prudent to review what is known about the harmful +biological effects of low-level electromagnetic emissions from display +monitors, power lines, and other sources -- particularly magnetic- +field emissions, which have been linked for more than ten years to the +development of cancer -- and to understand how this knowledge has been +acquired and disseminated. It also seems sensible to determine the +strength of magnetic-field emissions from monitors -- something that +has not been done with accuracy to date -- and to relate these emis- +sions, insofar as possible, with what is known about their potential +for harm. + For this reason, "Macworld" has undertaken to conduct careful +measurements of the strength of the magnetic fields given off by +monitors that are commonly used with the Macintosh. The idea is to +provide accurate readings so that Macintosh users can determine for +themselves whether they wish to take protective measures in order to +reduce their exposure to magnetic fields (see "At Arm's Length"). + +FIRST SUSPICIONS + Radiation from computer terminals first became an issue in 1977, +when officials of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and +Health (NIOSH) measured emissions from several display monitors at the +"New York Times," where two young copy editors had developed incipient +cataracts after working on the machines for periods of a year or less. +The NIOSH officials reported that the electric-field and magnetic- +field strengths of the VLF (very-low-frequency) radio-frequency radia- +tion being emitted were too weak to be detected by their instruments +at a distance of 4 inches. As it turned out, they were trying to +measure the fields in terms of milliwatts per square meter, even +though VLF and ELF (extremely-low-frequency) fields can't be accurate- +ly measured in this manner. + Early in 1980, NIOSH officials measured VLF magnetic-field +strengths of almost 9 milligauss (a gauss is a unit of strength of the +magnetic field, and a milligauss is 1/1000 gauss) near the flyback +transformers of several display monitors at newspapers in San Francis- +co and Oakland, California. The NIOSH officials discounted the health +hazard of these fields, claiming that "there is no occupational stand- +ard for this frequency and these frequencies have not been shown to +cause biological injury." + During the next two years, seven unusual clusters of birth de- +fects and miscarriages involving women who operated video-display +terminals (VDTs) were reported in Canada and the United States. +Instead of taking their own measurements of the machines in question, +however, the health officials who investigated these cases relied on +the flawed NIOSH reports and characterized each of the clusters as a +chance occurrence. By this time, the regulatory officials and comput- +er manufacturers of both nations seemed to be falling over one another +in their haste to absolve computers of any blame. + In March of 1981, the director of Canada's Radiation Protection +Bureau declared that VDTs "carry no radiation hazard." Similar claims +were made before a congressional subcommittee by the U.S. Food and +Drug Administration's Bureau of Radiological Health and by the direc- +tor of standards for IBM. In October of that year, a senior scientist +at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey, de- +clared that computer terminals "do not represent a health hazard from +any radiation exposure caused by their use." (At the time, there were +well over 100,000 computer terminals in operation in the Bell +systems.) + +60HZ HAZARDS EXPOSED + Unaccountably, no one in industry or government said a word about +the pulsed 60Hz electric and magnetic fields that were being emitted +by display monitors (see "Cathode-Ray Tubes Explained"), even though +there were by then many studies in the medical literature to suggest +that the 60Hz alternating-current fields given off by power lines +might be hazardous to health. Chief among these studies was one that +had been published in March of 1979 in the highly respected "American +Journal of Epidemiology" by epidemiologist Nancy Wertheimer and physi- +cist Ed Leeper, who live in Boulder, Colorado. Wertheimer and Leeper +had conducted an investigation showing that children in the Denver +area who lived in homes near electric distribution wires carrying high +current had died of cancer at twice the expected rate. (Since magnet- +ic fields are produced by electric current, distribution wires carry- +ing high current produce relatively strong magnetic fields -- invisi- +ble lines of force that readily penetrate almost anything that happens +to stand in their way, including the human body.) + In their article, Wertheimer and Leeper pointed out that magnetic +fields in homes near high-current wires might reach levels of 2 milli- +gauss or more "for hours or days at a time," and that if magnetic- +field exposure were responsible for the increased incidence of child- +hood cancer they had observed, the duration of exposure might be an +important factor. They also suggested that the magnetic fields from +power lines might be promoting cancer in children by hindering the +ability of the body's immune system to fight the disease. + Instead of taking Wertheimer and Leeper's disturbing findings as +a sign that the magnetic-field problem should be thoroughly investi- +gated, the electric-utilities industry tried to discredit their work. +But in 1986 the association between magnetic fields from high-currency +wires and childhood cancer was confirmed by a major study conducted +under the auspices of the New York State Department of Health. This +investigation reported that "prolonged exposure to low-level magnetic +fields may increase the risk of developing cancer in children." +Earlier, a similar finding was announced by scientists studying child- +hood cancer in Sweden. What should have been of profound concern to +the manufacturers and users of display monitors was that the incidence +of cancer in all three childhood studies was associated with 60Hz +magnetic-field strengths of only 2 to 3 milligauss. + +COMPUTER MONITORS IMPLICATED + The fact that display monitors emit significant radiation in the +form of pulsed ELF electric and magnetic fields did not come to light +until October of 1982. At that time, Dr. Karol Marha, a biophysicist +at the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS) in +Hamilton, Ontario, revealed that Canadian researchers had measured +60Hz magnetic fields greater than 2 milligauss at distances of 12 +inches from two display monitors, and fields of approximately 1 milli- +gauss at a distance of 20 inches from several screens. In 1983, CCOHS +issued press releases carrying Marha's warning that there was scien- +tific evidence to suggest that pulsed electric and magnetic fields +could be more harmful than nonpulsed fields, as well as his recommen- +dation that workplaces be redesigned so that VDT operators do not sit +close to their display monitors or to neighboring monitors. + Marha's recommendations were ignored by government health offi- +cials in Canada and the United States, who failed to appreciate the +possible connection between the potential health hazard of alternat- +ing-current 60Hz power-line magnetic fields and that of the pulsed +60Hz magnetic fields given off by display monitors. Moreover, the +CCOHS press releases were not picked up by any major newspaper in the +United States or Canada. A year later, the medical director of the +"New York Times" told a congressional subcommittee that he was aware +of "no medical evidence of serious VDT-related health effects." By +then, of course, newspapers everywhere had become highly dependent +upon computer technology. + +SUPPORTING EVIDENCE + In July of 1982, shortly before Marha's announcement that +display monitors were emitting potentially hazardous electric and +magnetic fields, Dr. Samuel Milham, Jr., a physician and epidemi- +ologist for the Washington State Department of Social and Health +Services, published a letter in the "New England Journal of Medicine" +that furnished a new insight into the problem. Milham had examined +that data for 438,000 deaths occurring between 1950 and 1979 among +workers in Washington State and had found that leukemia deaths were +elevated in 10 out of 11 occupations involving exposure to electromag- +netic fields. His pioneering study provided the starting point for +some 20 subsequent investigations here and abroad, which showed that +persons whose occupations require them to work in electromagnetic +fields -- among them electricians, electrical engineers, and tele- +phone- and power-line workers -- die of leukemia and brain cancer at a +much higher rate than other workers. + For example, a 1984 study demonstrated that a significantly +higher than expected number of Maryland men who had died from brain +cancer had been employed in electrical occupations, and a 1988 study +of men who had died of brain cancer in East Texas revealed that the +risk for electric-utility workers was 13 times greater than that for +workers who were not exposed to electromagnetic fields. + Additional cause for concern came in November of 1989 with the +announcement that a study conducted by epidemiologists at the Johns +Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health, in Baltimore, +had found an elevated risk of all cancers among cable splicers working +for the New York Telephone Company. Indeed, the incidence of leukemia +among these men, who often work close to power lines, we 7 times that +of other workers in the company. Moreover, measurements of their on- +the-job exposure showed that the mean level of the 60Hz alternating- +current magnetic-field strengths to which they had been subjected was +only 4.3 milligauss. Considering the fact that a pulsed ELF magnetic +filed level of between 4 and 5 milligauss has been measured at a dis- +tance of 12 inches from the Apple 13-inch color monitor and from E- +Machine's Color-Page 15, this is a discomfiting finding, to say the +least. + +LABORATORY STUDIES CONCUR + While epidemiologists were investigating the incidence of cancer +among human beings exposed to low-level electromagnetic fields, other +scientists were studying the effect of weak ELF fields on test ani- +mals. Chief among them was Dr. W. Ross Adey, a clinical neurologist +and neuroscientist, who was formerly the director of the Brain Re- +search Institute at the University of California at Los Angeles and is +now associate chief of staff for research at the Jerry L. Pettis +Memorial Veterans' Hospital, in Loma Linda, California. During the +1970s, Adey and his colleagues discovered that weak ELF electromagnet- +ic fields altered brain chemistry in living cats. During the 1980s +they found that low-level electromagnetic fields can interfere with +the ability of T-lymphocyte cells -- the soldiers of the immune system +-- to kill cancer cells, which suggests that these fields may be +acting as cancer promoters by suppressing the immune system. + In 1988, Adey and his associates demonstrated that weak 60Hz +electric fields similar in strength to those that can be found i the +tissue of a human being standing beneath a typical over-head high- +voltage power line (or, for that matter, in the tissue of someone +standing very close to a display monitor) could increase the activity +of an enzyme called ornithine decarboxylase, which is associated with +cancer promotion. + Back in 1980 and 1981, even as government health officials in the +United States and Canada were denying any possible connection between +electromagnetic emissions from display monitors and adverse pregnancy +outcomes among women who worked with those machines, Spanish research- +ers were conducting experiments showing that when chicken eggs were +exposed to weak pulsed ELF magnetic fields, nearly 80 percent of them +developed abnormally, with malformations of the cephalic nervous +system being particularly prevalent. The adverse effect of pulsed +magnetic fields upon the development of chick embryos was confirmed in +1984 by scientists at the Swedish National Board of Occupational +Safety and Health. + Later that year, however, Professor Arthur W. Guy, director of +the Bioelectromagnetic Research Laboratory at the University of Wash- +ington, in Seattle, who had been hired by IBM to review the literature +on the biological effects of VDT emissions, pointed out that the weak +magnetic-field pulses used by the Spanish researchers did not match +the sawtooth shape of the pulses emitted by computer display monitors, +and concluded that there was no valid evidence that monitor emissions +posed any health hazard. + +FURTHER INDICATIONS + Early in 1986, Guy's criticism was addressed in a Swedish study +conducted by Dr. Bernhard Tribukait, a professor of radiobiology in +the Department of Radiobiology of the world-renowned Karolinska Insti- +tute, in Stockholm. Together with a colleague, Tribukait discovered +that the fetuses of mice exposed to weak pulsed fields with the same +sawtooth shape as those given off by display monitors experienced more +congenital malformations that did the fetuses of unexposed test ani- +mals. (This finding was reported by Tom Brokaw on "NBC Nightly News," +but went unmentioned by the "New York Times" and virtually every major +daily newspaper in the United States.) + In the spring of 1987, Dr. Hakon Frolen, of the Swedish Universi- +ty of Agricultural Sciences, in Uppsala, Sweden, reported that he and +a colleague had found a significant increase in fetal deaths and fetal +losses by resorption (a phenomenon similar to miscarriage in humans) +among pregnant mice exposed to weak pulsed magnetic fields, compared +with those occurring in nonexposed test animals. In June, other +Swedish scientists reported that radiation similar to that emitted by +display monitors could cause genetic effects in exposed tissue sam- +ples. An important aspect of all three Swedish studies was that the +radiation exposure in each of them had been designed to mimic as +closely as possible the sawtooth magnetic-field pulses emitted by +VDTs. + Further evidence that weak pulsed magnetic fields might be haz- +ardous to health came in the spring of 1988, when the combined results +of a six-laboratory experiment conducted in the United States, Canada, +Spain, and Sweden confirmed the earlier finding that such fields could +indeed adversely affect the development of chick embryos. Later that +year, Frolen found that the fetuses of pregnant mice were most sensi- +tive to pulsed magnetic fields in the early stages of pregnancy, which +was consistent with a similar observation by Canadian and Spanish +researchers. + At the second international VDT conference, which was held in +Montreal in September of 1989, Frolen described a series of experi- +ments in which he delayed exposing pregnant mice to pulsed magnetic +fields for up to nine days after conception. The results were strik- +ing. All of the mice that were exposed immediately after conception, +or on the first, second, or fifth day after conception, had statisti- +cally increased rates of resorption. + Louis Slesin, the editor and publisher of VDT NEWS -- a +newsletter that reports six times a year on the biological effects of +display monitors (see "Conspicuous Consumer," in this issue, for con- +tact information) -- has emphasized the importance of Frolen's find- +ings, pointing out that the lack of any effect after the ninth day +following conception "clearly indicates that the pulsed magnetic +fields -- not some as-yet-unrecognized factor -- are damaging the +embryos." + +INDUSTRY RESPONSES + Meanwhile, the Coalition for Workplace Technology -- a powerful +lobbying group set up by the Computer and Business Equipment Manufac- +turers Association (CBEMA) and strongly supported by IBM -- had been +lobbying since 1984 in various state legislatures against laws de- +signed to protect the health of VDT workers. Computer manufacturers +continued to scoff at the idea that their devices might emit hazardous +radiation. One industry spokesperson, Charlotte Le Gates, the direc- +tor of communication for CBEMA, declared that for pregnant operators +to ask to be transferred away from VDTs "is like asking to be trans- +ferred away from a light bulb." + By using this simile repeatedly, computer manufacturers and their +paid consultants in CBEMA and the Center for Office Technology have +been unquestionably successful in allaying growing concern among +computer users that the emissions from display monitors might be +hazardous. The comparison is specious and unscientific, however. A +light bulb emits no magnetic field whatsoever -- a fact that can +easily be ascertained by holding a gauss meter (a device that measures +the strength of a magnetic field) to an incandescent light bulb. As +the accompanying measurements taken by "Macworld" clearly show (see +"Macworld Tests"), however, many display monitors DO emit magnetic +fields that are as strong or even stronger than the magnetic-field +levels that have been associated with the development of cancer in +children and workers. + +RISK ACKNOWLEDGED + The accumulation of evidence suggesting that the electromagnetic +fields given off by display monitors may be hazardous, together with +the fact that there are now some 40 million computer terminals in the +workplace, raises the question of why so few epidemiological studies +have been conducted in the United States to determine whether monitor +emissions are affecting the health of American users. Astonishingly, +only one major epidemiological study has so far been conducted in this +country. It was performed by researchers at the Northern California +Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program, in Oakland, who conducted a +case-control study of 1583 pregnant women who had attended Kaiser +Permanente obstetrics and gynecology clinics during 1981 and 1982. + In an article entitled "The Risk of Miscarriage and Birth Defects +among Women Who Use Visual Display Terminals During Pregnancy" +("American Journal of Industrial Medicine," June 1988), Kaiser re- +searchers wrote that they had found that women who worked with VDTs +for more than 20 hours a week experienced a risk of both early and +late miscarriage that was 80 percent higher than the risk for women +who performed similar work without using VDTs. In their conclusion, +the researchers stated, "Our case-control study provides the first +epidemiological evidence based on substantial numbers of pregnant VDT +operators to suggest that high usage of VDTs may increase the risk of +miscarriage." + +APPLE RESPONDS + As might be expected, the results of the Kaiser Permanente study, +together with the Swedish experiments demonstrating that the emissions +from display monitors can adversely affect the fetuses of test ani- +mals, have prompted many computer users to write to computer manufac- +turers to ask whether their monitors are safe to use. One such letter +was sent on November 5, 1989, to John Sculley, chief executive officer +of Apple Computer, by Professor Harris Barron, who taught electronic +media in art-making at the Massachusetts College of Art in Boston for +25 years. In his letter, Barron told Sculley that he was writing on a +Macintosh SE; that his young daughter-in-law, "an avid law school +scholar, sits long hours at the terminal of her own SE"; and that "she +and her computer-user husband intend to raise a family in the near +future." (As the reader will note in "Macworld Tests," MACWORLD has +measured an ELF magnetic field of slightly more that 2 milligauss at a +distance of 12 inches from the screen of the SE display monitor.) +Barron then asked whether his daughter-in-law was at risk from the +electromagnetic fields emitted by her monitor and told Sculley that +"the results of any studies that Apple has made in this regard would +be helpful." + On December 6, 1989, Barron received an unsigned letter from +the Apple Customer Relations Department, thanking him for his +letter and informing him that some materials were enclosed for +his perusal. The enclosed material consisted of an article from the +February 1984 issue of "Health Physics," which said that X-ray emis- +sions from VDTs posed no health problem; some 1984 recommendations by +the European Computer Manufacturers Association on how to avoid ergo- +nomic problems from VDT use; a 1983 policy statement issued by the +American Academy of Ophthalmology, which said that VDTs presented no +hazard to vision; and some 1985 Apple safety data sheets about the +testing of toner materials. + On December 11, 1989, Barron wrote to Sculley to express disap- +pointment with Apple's response to his initial query. "With your pro +forma mailing, I am now armed with 1984 materials, data so antiquated +that I would be embarrassed to use it, as would Apple in any of its +public relations," Barron said. "Reprints of ergonomic factors, +ocular data, toner safety data, and the 'put-to-bed' X-ray issue +totally ignored my one basic question on permanent harm from ELF +magnetic-field VDT emissions." In conclusion, Barron told Sculley +that he intended to prepare a statement about his correspondence with +Apple for circulation to his contacts in higher education, including +the National Education Association. + +FURTHER EQUIVOCATIONS + On January 9, 1990, Barron received a reply to his second letter +from David C. McGraw, Apple's newly appointed manager for corporate +environmental health and safety. McGraw apologized for the delay and +confusion in getting back to Barron, and assured him that "the pro +forma response to your initial letter dated 11/5/89 is not the way +Apple wishes to respond to this important issue." He went on to tell +Barron that "Apple believes that no increased risk of adverse pregnan- +cy outcome due to VDT work has been demonstrated," and to point out +that Apple's position in this regard "is supported by the American +Medical Association, the American College of Obstetricians and Gyne- +cologists, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health +(NIOSH), and the World Health Organization (WHO)." + McGraw said that the Kaiser Permanente study "drew public atten- +tion because of what appeared to be an increase in miscarriages among +women who use VDTs more than 20 hours per week," but that the re- +searchers who conducted it "were unable to determine the specific +cause of the increased rate of miscarriages." He then noted that +"similar studies in Canada and Scandinavia have found no relationship +between VDT work and adverse pregnancy outcome." McGraw enclosed the +results of a recent animal study that had been conducted for IBM and +Ontario Hydro by researchers at the University of Toronto, who, unlike +Drs. Frolen and Tribukait, had found that pulsed magnetic fields did +not adversely affect the fetuses of test mice. He also recommended +that Barron read a compendium entitled LATEST STUDIES ON VDTs, pub- +lished in August 1989 by the Center for Office Technology. (This is +the new name of the Coalition for Workplace Technology of the Computer +and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association, which had previously +assured computer users that the emissions from a display terminal were +no different than those from a light bulb.) + In January of this year, McGraw sent Barron the names and resumes +of three people whom he described as "experts in the field of biologi- +cal effects of electromagnetic radiation." One was Edwin L. Carsten- +sen, a professor of electrical engineering at the University of Roch- +ester, who had been a paid consultant of the electric-utility industry +for nearly 15 years and has testified for power companies in court +cases on several occasions. Another was Kenneth R. Foster, a profes- +sor in the Department of Bioengineering at the University of Pennsyl- +vania, who has not only discounted the possibility that low-level +electromagnetic radiation can have adverse biological effects but has +even suggested that restrictions be placed on further investigation of +the problem. The third was Eleanor R. Adair, a physiologist at the +John Pierce Foundation, in New Haven, Connecticut, who, in spite of +dozens of scientific studies published in leading scientific journals +around the world demonstrating that weak pulsed electromagnetic fields +given off by display monitors and low-level fields emitted by radar +and other sources can cause adverse biological effects at field +strengths far below those necessary to produce heat, has recently been +quoted as saying that she has "never seen one bit of scientific evi- +dence -- and let me emphasize the word SCIENTIFIC -- that ELF or +microwave radiation has any nonthermal biological effects." + +ANSWERING CRITICS + Macintosh and other computer users must now decide for themselves +whether monitor manufacturers are dealing forthrightly with the issue +of display monitor emissions. It is clear that computer users are +being asked by manufacturers to extend the presumption of benignity to +the pulsed electric and magnetic fields given off by display monitors, +even as scientists continue to investigate the apparent health hazard +posed by these emissions. One of the chief rationales behind this +strategy is the belief that there is no "conclusive" proof that VDT +emissions have any harmful effects on computer users. Another is that +no biological mechanism has yet been postulated to show exactly how +pulsed magnetic fields might cause miscarriages and cancer. In other +words, if scientists can't explain how something is happening, it +can't be happening. Someone should remind the monitor manufacturers +that scientists don't know exactly how inhaled asbestos fibers act to +cause cancer; yet everyone knows that asbestos causes cancer, and only +fools would willingly expose themselves to asbestos. + As it happens, a model of how a 60Hz alternating-current magnetic +field may cause or promote cancer has been provided by Dr. Harris +Busch, an oncologist, who was chairman of the Department of Pharmacol- +ogy of the Baylor University College of Medicine in Houston for 25 +years and was also formerly an editor of the distinguished "American +Journal of Cancer Research." After explaining that a 6 60Hz alternat- +ing-current magnetic field vibrates to and fro 60 times a second, +Busch points out that there will be a similar to-and-fro movement on +the part of anything magnetic in such a field. According to Busch, +this means that "any kind of molecule that is in a person's brain, or +in a person's body, is being twisted 60 times a second up and back." + Recently, Dr. W. Ross Adey has made the point that in the case of +weak electromagnetic fields given off by display monitors, the tissue +responses can take account of the regularity of the repeating pulses +and assume the rhythm of those pulses in a phenomenon called ENTRAIN- +MENT, which, in turn, can alter the normal activation of enzymes and +cellular immune responses in ways consistent with the promotion of +cancer. + One does not need to be a medical doctor to appreciate that such +electromagnetic phenomena, which have no counterpart in man's evolu- +tionary history, may well prove hazardous to health. + +--------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Author: PAUL BRODEUR, a staff writer at the "New Yorker" since 1958, +specializes in medical and science writing. The winner of many na- +tional awards for his reporting on the dangers of asbestos, the haz- +ards of enzymes in household detergents, the destruction of the ozone +layer, and the effects of electromagnetic emissions, Brodeur's most +recent book is "Currents of Death" (Simon and Schuster, 1989). + +--------------------------------------------------------------------- + +[GRAPHIC ARTICLE INSERTS:] + + +CATHODE-RAY TUBES EXPLAINED + + Computer display monitors operate on much the same principle as +television sets. An evacuated glass tube containing an electron gun, +called the cathode-ray tube (CRT) (A), produces a narrow electron beam +(B); a step-up transformer known as the flyback transformer (C) then +accelerates and directs the beam toward the front of the tube. When +the beam strikes the inner surface of the CRT screen, it interacts +with a phosphor coating (D) on the face of the tube to generate a spot +of visible light. + To produce a screen image, the electron beam sweeps from left to +right and from top to bottom in a series of raster line (E). The +movement of the electron beam is controlled by deflection coils (F) +wound like a yoke around the neck of the CRT; electric current flowing +through the coils produces magnetic fields that control the electron +beam. Increasing current in the horizontal-deflection coil forces the +beam from left to right; a drop in current causes the beam to return +to the left. Meanwhile, an increase in the vertical-deflection coil's +current aims the beam down a line. This pulsing actions results in a +sawtooth waveform (G). + The horizontal-scan frequency for a typical computer monitor is +generally between 10kHz and 30kHz, which falls in the very-low-fre- +quency (VLF) range. Because most monitors operate at 60 to 75 frames +per second, their vertical-scan frequency is between 60Hz and 75Hz, +within the extremely-low-frequency (ELF) range. Both electric and +magnetic fields are generated in the ELF and VLF ranges. + In addition, 60Hz alternating-current (AC) fields originate in +the monitor's power transformer. (60Hz AC current flows back and +forth 60 times a second.) Since the AC fields decay rapidly over +distance, they can usually be measured only in the immediate vicinity +of the power transformer. -- P.B. + + +ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM + While all electromagnetic radiation, from the longest radio wave +to the shortest gamma ray, travels at 186,000 miles per second -- the +speed of light -- visible light makes up only a small portion of the +spectrum. AS the wavelength (shown in meters) increases, the frequen- +cy (shown in hertz, or cycles per second) decreases. Display monitors +give off several types of electromagnetic emissions; most of the +emissions consist of pulsed radio-frequency (VLF) electric and magnet- +ic fields of between 15 and 20kHz and pulsed ELF electric and magnetic +fields of 60Hz. The ELF magnetic fields is the dominant waveform +given off by VDTs. -- P.B. + + +MACWORLD TESTS + To determine the strength of the ELF magnetic fields emitted +by monitors regularly used with Macintosh computers, MACWORLD +tested ten monitors in our labs. Using the Holaday HI-3600-02 +ELF/Power Frequency EMF Survey Meter, we measured emissions at 4, +12, 28 (arm's length), and 36 inches from the center of the +front, back, left, right, top, and bottom of the monitors. (For +logistic reasons, we could not complete all the measurements from +the bottom.) While it is important to note that magnetic-field +strengths may vary somewhat from monitor to monitor, even within +a single product line, the overall test results do confirm that +ELF magnetic-field emissions from monitors used with the Macin- +tosh are worrisome. + The strongest emissions are at the sides and tops of the +monitors -- over 70 milligauss (mG) 4 inches from the right side +of the AppleColor High-Resolution RGB Monitor, for instance. At +the same distance from the front, emissions are over 22mG for the +Apple monitor and the E-Machines ColorPage 15. As detailed in +the main article, levels much lower than these have been corre- +lated with cell mutation and cancer in humans. At 28 inches +(arm's length), however, the emissions from the front fall to +below 1mG. + + +AT ARM'S LENGTH + While ELF magnetic-field emissions of roughly 5 to 23 milli- +gauss (mG) were found at 4 inches from the front of monitors commonly +used with the Macintosh, "Macworld" found that at 28 inches from the +screen, all the monitors tested at less than 1mG. (The ambient ELF +magnetic-field emissions measured in the MACWORLD offices ranged from +0.1 to 0.5 mG.) Macintosh users wishing to reduce exposure to pulsed +electromagnetic fields should position their display monitors at arm's +length (with fingers extended)(A). + Because magnetic fields emitted from the sides and backs of most +monitors are considerably stronger than those given off from the +front, users should consider maintaining a distance of at least 4 feet +from the sides or back of any other monitor in the workplace (B). +Keep in mind that magnetic-field emissions are not stopped by cubicle +partitions, walls, lead aprons, or even the human body. + Curiously, there are no standards for ELF magnetic-field emis- +sions, although several countries, Sweden and Canada among them, have +developed standards for VLF magnetic-field emissions. A number of +vendors -- IBM, DEC, and Phillips, for instance -- market monitors for +PCs that meet those standards. For the past two years, Sigma Designs +has supplied the European market with monitors for the Mac that meet +the VLF standards, and American users can now special order these +monochrome and gray-scale 15-, 19-, and 21-inch monitors. Also, any +monitor based on a technology other than a cathode-ray tube will have +the advantage of not emitting the types of pulsed radiation associated +with vertical-and horizontal-deflection coils. For a discussion of +various products that claim to mitigate monitor emissions, see "Con- +spicuous Consumer" in this issue. + The controversy surrounding low-frequency electromagnetic emis- +sions will continue until further research is completed. In the +meantime, prudent avoidance -- sitting at arm's length from the front +and 4 feet from the sides or back of a monitor -- is a sensible solu- +tion. "Macworld" is committed to documenting any new developments as +they relate to this issue. Stay tuned. --Suzanne Stefanac. + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/moon.txt b/textfiles.com/science/moon.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..9c1c7d2e --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/moon.txt @@ -0,0 +1,720 @@ + + The following material was downloaded from the NASA SpaceLink +BBS at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, George C. +Marshall Space Flight Center, Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama +35812 on 11/16/88. + + + +-------------------------------------------------------------------- + W H A T ' s N E W O N T H E M O O N + by Dr. Bevan M. French + + In 1969 over a billion people witnessed the "impossible" coming +true as the first men walked on the surface of the Moon. For the next +three years, people of many nationalities watched as one of the great +explorations of human history was displayed on their television +screens. + + Between 1969 and 1972, supported by thousands of scientists and +engineers back on Earth, 12 astronauts explored the surface of the +Moon. Protected against the airlessness and the killing heat of the +lunar environment, they stayed on the Moon for days and some of them +travelled for miles across its surface in Lunar Rovers. They made +scientific observations and set up instruments to probe the interior +of the Moon. They collected hundreds of pounds of lunar rock and +soil, thus beginning the first attempt to decipher the origin and +geological history of another world from actual samples of its crust. + + The initial excitement of new success and discovery has passed. +The TV sets no longer show astronauts moving across the sunlit lunar +landscape. But here on Earth, scientists are only now beginning to +understand the immense treasure of new knowledge returned by the +Apollo astronauts. + + The Apollo Program has left us with a large and priceless legacy +of lunar materials and data. We now have Moon rocks collected from +eight different places on the Moon. The six Apollo landings returned +a collection weighing 382 kilograms (843 pounds) and consisting of +more than 2,000 separate samples. Two automated Soviet spacecraft +named Luna-16 and Luna-20 returned small but important samples +totalling about 130 grams (five ounces). + + Instruments placed on the Moon by the Apollo astronauts as long +ago as 1969 are still detecting moonquakes and meteorite impacts, +measuring the Moon's motions, and recording the heat flowing out from +inside the Moon. The Apollo Program also carried out a major effort +of photographing and analyzing the surface of the Moon. Cameras on +the Apollo spacecraft obtained so many accurate photographs that we +now have better maps of parts of the Moon than we do for some areas +on Earth. Special detectors near the cameras measured the weak X-rays +and radioactivity given off by the lunar surface. From these +measurements, we have been able to determine the chemical composition +of about one-quarter of the Moon's surface, an area the size of the +United States and Mexico combined. By comparing the flight data with +analyses of returned Moon rocks, we can draw conclusions about the +chemical composition and nature of the entire Moon. + + Thus, in less than a decade, science and the Apollo Program have +changed our Moon from an unknown and unreachable object into a +familiar world. + + +WHAT HAS THE APOLLO PROGRAM TOLD US ABOUT THE MOON? + + What have we gained from all this exploration? Before the +landing of Apollo 11 on July 20, 1969, the nature and origin of the +Moon were still mysteries. Now, as a result of the the Apollo +Program, we can answer questions that remained unsolved during +centuries of speculation and scientific study: + +(1) Is There Life On The Moon? + + Despite careful searching, neither living organisms nor fossil +life have been found in any lunar samples. The lunar rocks were so +barren of life that the quarantine period for returned astronauts was +dropped after the third Apollo landing. + + The Moon has no water of any kind, either free or chemically +combined in the rocks. Water is a substance that is necessary for +life, and it is therefore unlikely that life could ever have +originated on the Moon. Furthermore, lunar rocks contain only tiny +amounts of the carbon and carbon compounds out of which life is +built, and most of this carbon is not native to the Moon but is +brought to the lunar surface in meteorites and as atoms out of the +Sun. + +(2) What Is The Moon Made Of? + + Before the first Moon rocks were collected, we could analyze +only two types of bodies in our solar system: our own planet Earth +and the meteorites that occasionally fall to Earth from outer space. +Now we have learned that the Moon is chemically different from both +of these, but it is most like the Earth. + + The Moon is made of rocks. The Moon rocks are so much like Earth +rocks in their appearance that we can use the same terms to describe +both. The rocks are all IGNEOUS, which means that they formed by the +cooling of molten lava. (No sedimentary rocks, like limestone or +shale, which are deposited in water, have ever been found on the +Moon.). + + The dark regions (called "maria") that form the features of "The +Man in the Moon" are low, level areas covered with layers of basalt +lava, a rock similar to the lavas that erupt from terrestrial +volcanoes in Hawaii, Iceland, and elsewhere. The light-colored parts +of the Moon (called "highlands") are higher, more rugged regions that +are older than the maria. These areas are made up of several +different kinds of rocks that cooled slowly deep within the Moon. +Again using terrestrial terms, we call these rocks gabbro, norite, +and anorthosite. + + Despite these similarities, Moon rocks are basically different +and it is easy to tell them apart by analyzing their chemistry or by +examining them under a microscope. The most obvious difference is +that Moon rocks have no water at all, while almost all terrestrial +rocks contain at least a percent or two of water. The Moon rocks are +therefore very well-preserved, because they never were able to react +with water to form clay minerals or rust. A 3 1/2-billion-year-old +Moon rock looks fresher than water-bearing lava just erupted from a +terrestrial volcano. + + Another important difference is that the Moon rocks formed where +there was almost no free oxygen. As a result, some of the iron in +lunar rocks was not oxidized when the lunar lavas formed and still +occurs as small crystals of metallic iron. + + Because Moon rocks have never been exposed to water or oxygen, +any contact with the Earth's atmosphere could "rust" them badly. For +this reason, the returned Apollo samples are carefully stored in an +atmosphere of dry nitrogen, and no more of the lunar material than +necessary is exposed to the laboratory atmosphere while the samples +are being analyzed. + + The Moon rocks are made of the same chemical elements that make +up Earth rocks, although the proportions are different. Moon rocks +contain more of the common elements calcium, aluminum, and titanium +than do most Earth rocks. Rarer elements like hafnium and zirconium, +which have high melting points, are also more plentiful in lunar +rocks. However, other elements like sodium and potassium, which have +low melting points, are scarce in lunar material. Because the Moon +rocks are richer in high-temperature elements, scientists believe +that the material that formed the Moon was once heated to much higher +temperatures than material that formed the Earth. + + The chemical composition of the Moon also is different in +different places. Soon after the Moon formed, various elements sorted +themselves out to form different kinds of rock. The light-colored +highlands are rich in calcium and aluminum, while the dark-colored +maria contain less of those elements and more titanium, iron, and +magnesium. + +(3) What Is The Inside Of The Moon Like? + + Sensitive instruments placed on the lunar surface by the Apollo +astronauts are still recording the tiny vibrations caused by +meteorite impacts on the surface of the Moon and by small moonquakes +deep within it. These vibrations provide the data from which +scientists determine what the inside of the Moon is like. + + About 3,000 moonquakes are detected each year. All of them are +very week by terrestrial standards. The average moonquake releases +about as much energy as a firecracker, and the whole Moon releases +less than one-ten-billionth of the earthquake energy of the Earth. +The moonquakes occur about 600 to 800 kilometers (370-500 miles) deep +inside the Moon, much deeper than almost all the quakes on our own +planet. Certain kinds of moonquakes occur at about the same time +every month, suggesting that they are triggered by repeated tidal +strains as the Moon moves in its orbits around the Earth. + + A picture of the inside of the Moon has slowly been put together +from the records of thousands of moonquakes, meteorite impacts, and +the deliberate impacts of discarded Apollo rocket stages onto the +Moon. The Moon is not uniform inside, but is divided into a series of +layers just as the Earth is, although the layers of the Earth and +Moon are different. The outermost part of the Moon is a crust about +60 kilometers (37 miles) thick, probably composed of calcium-and +aluminium-rich rocks like those found in the highlands. Beneath the +crust is a thick layer of denser rock (the mantle) which extends down +to more than 800 kilometers (500 miles). + + The deep interior of the Moon is still unknown. The Moon may +contain a small iron core at its center, and there is some evidence +that the Moon may be hot and even partly molten inside. + + The Moon does not now have a magnetic field like the Earth's, +and so the most baffling and unexpected result of the Apollo Program +was the discovery of preserved magnetism in the many of the old lunar +rocks. One explanations is that the Moon had an ancient magnetic +field that somehow disappeared after the old lunar rocks had formed. + + One reason we have been able to learn so much about the Moon's +interior is that the instruments placed on the Moon by the Apollo +astronauts have operated much longer than expected. Some of the +instruments originally designed for a one-year lifetime, have been +operating since 1969 and 1970. This long operation has provided +information that we could not have obtained from shorter records. + + The long lifetime of the heat flow experiments set up by the +Apollo 15 and 17 missions has made it possible to determine more +accurately the amount of heat coming out of the Moon . This heat flow +is a basic indicator of the temperature and composition of the inside +of the Moon. The new value, about two-thirds of the value calculated +from earlier data, is equal to about one-third the amount of heat now +coming out of the inside of the Earth. As a result, we can now +produce better models of what the inside of the Moon is like. + + As they probed the lunar interior, the Apollo instruments have +provided information about the space environment near the Moon. For +example, the sensitive devices used to detect moonquakes have also +recorded the vibrations caused by the impacts of small meteorites +onto the lunar surface. We now have long-term records of how often +meteorites strike the Moon, and we have learned that these impacts do +not always occur at random. Some small meteorites seem to travel in +groups. Several such swarms, composed of meteorites weighing a few +pounds each, struck the Moon in 1975. The detection of such events is +giving scientists new ideas about the distribution of meteorites and +cosmic dust in the solar system. + + The long lifetime of the Apollo instruments has also made +several cooperative projects possible. For example, our instruments +were still making magnetic measurements at several Apollo landing +sites when, elsewhere on the Moon, the Russians landed similar +instruments attached to their two automated lunar roving vehicles +(Lunokhods). By making simultaneous measurements and exchanging data, +American and Russian scientists have not only provided a small +example of international cooperation in space, but they have jointly +obtained a better picture of the magnetic properties of the Moon and +the space around it. + +(4) What Is The Moon's Surface Like? + + Long before the Apollo Program scientists could see that the +Moon's surface was complex. Earth-based telescopes could distinguish +the level maria and the rugged highlands. We could recognize +countless circular craters, rugged mountain ranges, and deep winding +canyons or rilles. + + Because of the Apollo explorations, we have now learned that all +these lunar landscapes are covered by a layer of fine broken-up +powder and rubble about 1 to 20 meters (3 to 60 feet) deep. This +layer is usually called the "lunar soil," although it contains no +water or organic material, and it is totally different from soils +formed on Earth by the action of wind, water, and life. + + The lunar soil is something entirely new to scientists, for it +could only have been formed on the surface of an airless body like +the Moon. The soil has been built up over billions of years by the +continuous bombardment of the unprotected Moon by large and small +meteorites, most of which would have burned up if they had entered +the Earth's atmosphere. + + These meteorites form craters when they hit the Moon. Tiny +particles of cosmic dust produce microscopic craters perhaps 1/1000 +of a millimeter (1/25,000 inch) across, while the rare impact of a +large body may blasts out a crater many kilometers, or miles, in +diameter. Each of these impacts shatters the solid rock, scatters +material around the crater, and stirs and mixes the soil. As a +result, the lunar soil is a well-mixed sample of a large area of the +Moon, and single samples of lunar soil have yielded rock fragments +whose source was hundreds of kilometers from the collection site. + + However, the lunar soil is more than ground-up and reworked +lunar rock. It is the boundary layer between the Moon and outer +space, and it absorbs the matter and energy that strikes the Moon fro +the Sun and the rest of the universe. Tiny bits of cosmic dust and +high-energy atomic particles that would be stopped high in the +Earth's protective atmosphere rain continually onto the surface of +the Moon. + +(5) How Old Is The Moon? + + Scientists now think that the solar system first came into being +as a huge, whirling, disk-shaped cloud of gas and dust. Gradually the +cloud collapsed inward. The central part became masssive and hot, +forming the Sun. Around the Sun, the dust formed small objects that +rapidly collected together to form the large planets and satellites +that we see today. + + By carefully measuring the radioactive elements found in rocks, +scientists can determine how old the rocks are. Measurements on +meteorites indicate that the formation of the solar system occurred +4.6 billion years ago. There is chemical evidence in both lunar and +terrestrial rocks that the Earth and Moon also formed at that time. +However, the oldest known rocks on Earth are only 3.8 billion years +old, and scientists think that the older rocks have been destroyed by +the Earth's continuing volcanism, mountain-building, and erosion. + + The Moon rocks fill in some of this gap in time between the +Earth's oldest preserved rocks and the formation of the solar system. +The lavas from the dark maria are the Moon's youngest rocks, but they +are as old as the oldest rocks found on Earth, with ages of 3.1 to +3.8 billion years. Rocks from the lunar highlands are even older. +Most highland samples have ages of 4.0 to 4.3 billion years. Some +Moon rocks preserve traces of even older lunar events. Studies of +these rocks indicate that widespread melting and chemical separation +were going on within the Moon about 4.4 billion years ago, or not +long after the Moon had formed. + + One of the techniques used to establish this early part of lunar +history is a new age-dating method (involving the elements neodymium +and samarium) that was not even possible when the first Apollo +samples were returned in 1969. The combination of new instruments and +careful protection of the lunar samples from contamination thus make +it possible to understand better the early history of the Moon. + + Even more exciting is the discovery that a few lunar rocks seem +to record the actual formation of the Moon. Some tiny green rock +fragments collected by the Apollo 17 astronauts have yielded an +apparent age of 4.6 billion years, the time at which scientists think +that the Moon and the solar system formed. Early in 1976, scientists +identified another Apollo 17 crystalline rock with the same ancient +age. These pieces may be some of the first material that solidified +from the once-molten Moon. + +(6) What Is The History Of The Moon? + + The first few hundred million years of the Moon's lifetime were +so violent that few traces of this time remain. Almost immediately +after the Moon formed, its outer part was completely melted to a +depth of several hundred kilometers. While this molten layer +gradually cooled and solidfied into different kinds of rocks, the +Moon was bombarded by huge asteroids and smaller bodies. Some of +these asteroids were the size of small states, like Rhode Island or +Delaware, and their collisions with the Moon created huge basins +hundreds of kilometers across. + + The catastrophic bombardment died away about 4 billion years +ago, leaving the lunar highlands covered with huge overlapping +craters and a deep layer of shattered and broken rock. As the +bombardment subsided, heat produced by the decay of radioactive +elements began to melt the inside of the Moon at depths of about 200 +kilometers (125 miles) below its surface. Then, for the next half +billion years, from about 3.8 to 3.1 billion years ago, great floods +of lava rose from the inside the Moon and poured out over its +surface, filling in the large impact basins to form the dark parts of +the Moon that we see today. + + As far as we know, the Moon has been quiet since the last lavas +erupted more than 3 billion years ago. Since then, the Moon's surface +has been altered only by rare large meteorite impacts and by atomic +particles from the Sun and the stars. The Moon has preserved featured +formed almost 4 billion year ago, and if men had landed on the Moon a +billion years ago, it would have looked very much as it does now. The +surface of the Moon now changes so slowly that the footprints left by +the Apollo astronauts will remain clear and sharp for millions of +years. + + This preserved ancient history of the Moon is in sharp contrast +to the changing Earth. The Earth still behaves like a young planet. +Its internal heat is active, and volcanic eruptions and +mountain-building have gone on continuously as far back as we can +decipher the rocks. According to new geological theories, even the +present ocean basins are less than about 200 million years old, +having formed by the slow separation of huge moving plates that make +up the Earth's crust. + +(7) Where Did The Moon Come From? + + Before we explored the Moon, there were three main suggestions +to explain its existence: that it had formed near the Earth as a +separate body; that it had separated from the Earth; and that is had +formed somewhere else and been captured by the Earth. + + Scientists still cannot decide among these three theories. +However, we have learned that the Moon formed as a part of our solar +system and that it has existed as an individual body for 4.6 billion +years. Separation from the Earth is now considered less likely +because there are many basic differences in chemical composition +between the two bodies, such as the absence of water on the Moon. But +the other two theories are still evenly matched in their strengths +and weaknesses. We will need more data and perhaps some new theories +before the origin of the Moon is settled. + +WHAT HAS THE MOON TOLD US ABOUT THE EARTH? + + It might seem that the active, inhabited Earth has nothing in +common with the quiet, lifeless Moon. Nevertheless, the scientific +discoveries of the Apollo Program have provided a new and unexpected +look into the early history of our own planet. Scientists think that +all the planets formed in the same way, by the rapid accumulation of +small bodies into large ones about 4.6 billion years ago. The Moon's +rocks contain the traces of this process of planetary creation. The +same catastrophic impacts and widespread melting that we recognize on +the Moon must also have dominated the Earth during its early years, +and about 4 billion years ago the Earth may have looked much the same +as the Moon does now. + + The two worlds then took different paths. The Moon became quiet +while the Earth continued to generate mountains, volcanoes, oceans, +an atmosphere, and life. The Moon preserved its ancient rocks, while +the Earth's older rocks were continually destroyed and recreated as +younger ones. + + The Earth's oldest preserved rocks, 3.3 to 3.8 billion years +old, occur as small remnants in Greenland, Minnesota, and Africa. +These rocks are not like the lunar lava flows of the same age. The +Earth's most ancient rocks are granites and sediments, and they tell +us that the Earth already had mountain-building, running water, +oceans, and life at a time when the last lava flows were pouring out +across the Moon. + + In the same way, all traces of any intense early bombardment of +the Earth have been destroyed. The record of later impacts remains, +however, in nearly 100 ancient impact structures that have been +recognized on the Earth in recent years. Some of these structures are +the deeply eroded remnants of craters as large as those of the Moon +and they give us a way to study on Earth the process that once +dominated both the Earth and Moon. + + Lunar science is also making other contributions to the study of +the Earth. The new techniques developed to analyze lunar samples are +now being applied to terrestrial rocks. Chemical analyses can now be +made on samples weighing only 0.001 gram (3/100,000 ounce) and the +ages of terrestrial rocks can now be measured far more accurately +than before Apollo. These new techniques are already helping us to +better understand the origin of terrestrial volcanic rocks, to +identify new occurrences of the Earth's oldest rocks, and to probe +further into the origin of terrestrial life more than 3 billion years +ago. + + +WHAT HAS THE MOON TOLD US ABOUT THE SUN? + + One of the most exciting results of the Apollo Program is that, +by going to the Moon, we have also been able to collect samples of +the Sun. + + The surface of the Moon is continually exposed to the solar +wind, a stream of atoms boiled into space from the Sun's atmosphere. +Since the Moon formed, the lunar soil has trapped billions of tons of +these atoms ejected from the Sun. The soil also contains traces of +cosmic rays produced outside our own solar system. These high-energy +atoms, probably produced inside distant stars, leave permanent tracks +when they strike particles in the lunar soil. + + By analyzing the soil samples returned from the Moon, we have +been able to determine the chemical composition of the matter ejected +by the Sun and thus learn more about how the Sun operates. A major +surprise was the discovery that the material in the solar wind is not +the same as that in the Sun itself. The ratio of hydrogen to helium +atoms in the solar wind that reaches the Moon is about 20 to 1. But +the ratio of these atoms in the Sun, as measured with Earth-based +instruments, is only 10 to 1. Some unexplained process in the Sun's +outer atmosphere apparently operates to eject the lighter hydrogen +atoms in preference to the heavier helium atoms. + + Even more important is the fact that the lunar soil still +preserves material ejected by the Sun in the past. We now have a +unique opportunity to study the past behavior of the Sun. Our very +existence depends on the Sun's activity, and by understanding the +Sun's past history, we can hope to predict better its future +behavior. + + These studies of the lunar soil are only beginning, but what we +have learned about the Sun so far is reassuring. Such chemical +features as the ratio of hydrogen to helium and the amount of iron in +solar material show no change for at least the past few hundred +thousand years. The lunar samples are telling us that the Sun, in the +recent past, has behaved very much as it does today, making us +optimistic that the Sun will remain the same for the foreseeable +future. + + As far as the ancient history of the Sun is concerned, the most +exciting lunar samples have not yet been fully examined. During the +Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions, three long cores of lunar soil were +obtained by drilling hollow tubes into the soil layer. These core +tubes penetrated as much as three meters (10 feet) deep. The layers +of soil in these cores contain a well-preserved history of the Moon +and the Sun that may extend as far back as one and a half billion +years. No single terrestrial sample contains such a long record, and +no one knows how much can be learned when all the cores are carefully +opened and studied. Certainly we will learn more about the ancient +history of the Sun and Moon. We may even find traces of the movement +of the Sun and the solar system through different regions of our +Milky Way Galaxy. + + +WHAT ELSE CAN THE MOON TELL US? + + Although the Apollo Program officially ended in 1972, the active +study of the Moon goes on. More than 125 teams of scientists are +studying the returned lunar samples and analyzing the information +that continues to come from the instruments on the Moon. Less than 10 +percent of the lunar sample material has yet been studied in detail, +and more results will emerge as new rocks and soil samples are +examined. + + The scientific results of the Apollo Program have spread far +beyond the Moon itself. By studying the Moon, we have learned how to +go about the business of exploring other planets. The Apollo Program +proved that we could apply to another world the methods that we have +used to learn about the Earth. Now the knowledge gained from the Moon +is being used with the photographs returned by Mariner 9 and 10 to +understand the histories of Mercury and Mars and to interpret the +data returned by the Viking mission to Mars. + + The Moon has thus become an important key to solving several +fundamental questions about the other planets. + +(1) What Is The Early History Of Other Planets? + + The first half-billion years of the Moon's lifetime were +dominated by intense and widespread melting, by catastrophic +meteorite impacts and by great eruptions of lava. Now close-up +pictures of the planets Mercury and Mars show heavily-cratered +regions and definite volcanic structures, indicating that these +planets also have been affected by the same processes that shaped the +Moon when it was young. Such episodes of early bombardment and +volcanic eruptions seem to be part of the life story of planets. Our +own Earth must have had a similar history, even though the traces of +these primordial events have been removed by later changes. + +(2) How Do Planets Develop Magnetic Fields? + + We have known for centuries that the Earth has a strong magnetic +field. However, we still do not know exactly how the Earth's field +formed, why its strength varies, or why it reverses itself every few +hundred thousand years or so. + + One way to learn about the Earth's magnetic field is to study +the magnetic field of other planets. In this respect, the Moon is +surprising. It has no magnetic field today, but its rocks suggest +that it had a strong magnetic field in the past. If the Moon did have +an ancient magnetic field that somehow "switched off" about 3 billion +years ago, then continued study of the Moon may help us learn how +magnetic fields are produced in other planets, including our own. + +(3) Even the lifeless lunar soil contains simple molecules formed by +reaction between the soil particles and atoms of carbon, oxygen, and +nitrogen that come from the Sun. In a more favorable environment, +these simple molecules might react further, forming the more complex +molecules ("building blocks") needed for the development of life. The +sterile Moon thus suggests that the basic ingredients for life are +common in the universe, and further study of the lunar soil will tell +us about the chemical reactions that occur in space before life +develops. + +WHAT MYSTERIES REMAIN ABOUT THE MOON? + + Despite the great scientific return from the Apollo Program, +there are still many unanswered questions about the Moon: + +(1) What Is The Chemical Composition of the Whole Moon? + + We have sampled only eight places on the Moon, with six Apollo +and two Luna landings. The chemical analyses made from orbit cover +only about a quarter of the Moon's surface. We still know little +about the far side of the Moon and nothing whatever about the Moon's +polar regions. + +(2) Why Is The Moon Uneven? + + Orbiting Apollo spacecraft used a laser device to measure +accurately the heights of peaks and valleys over much of the lunar +surface. From these careful measurements, scientists have learned +that the Moon is not a perfect sphere. It is slightly egg-shaped, +with the small end of the egg pointing toward the Earth and the +larger end facing away from it. + + There are other major differences between the two sides of the +Moon. The front (Earth-facing side), which is the small end of the +egg, is covered with large dark areas which were produced by great +eruptions of basalt lava between 3 and 4 billion years ago. However, +the far side of the Moon is almost entirely composed of +light-colored, rugged, and heavily cratered terrain identical to the +highland regions on the front side, and there are only a few patches +of dark lava-like material. Furthermore, the Moon's upper layer (the +crust), is also uneven. On the front side, where the maria are, the +lunar crust is about 60 kilometers (37 miles) thick. On the back +side, it is over 100 kilometers (62 miles) thick . + + We still do not know enough to explain these different +observations. Perhaps, the Moon points its small end toward the Earth +because of tidal forces that have kept it trapped in that position +for billions of years. Perhaps lava erupted only on the front side +because the crust was thinner there. These differences could tell us +much about the early years of the Moon, if we could understand them. + +(3) Is The Moon Now Molten Inside? + + We know that there were great volcanic eruptions on the Moon +billions of years ago, but we do not know how long they continued. To +understand the Moon's history completely, we need to find out if the +inside of the Moon is still hot and partly molten. More information +about the heat flow coming out of the Moon may help provide an +answer. + +(4) Does The Moon Have An Iron Core Like The Earth? + + This question is critical to solving the puzzle of ancient lunar +magnetism, At the moment, we have so little data that we can neither +rule out the possible existence of a small iron core nor prove that +one is present. If we can determine more accurately the nature of the +Moon's interior and make more measurements of the magnetism on the +lunar surface, we may find a definite answer to the baffling +question. + +(5) How Old Are The Youngest Lunar Rocks? + + The youngest rocks collected from the Moon were formed 3.1 +billion years ago. We cannot determine how the Moon heated up and +then cooled again until we know whether these eruptions were the last +or whether volcanic activity continued on the Moon for a much longer +time. + +(6) Is The Moon Now Really "Dead"? + + Unexplained occurrences of reddish clouds, and mists have been +reported on the Moon's surface for over 300 years. These "lunar +transient events," as they are called, are still not explained. It is +important to determine what they are, because they may indicate +regions where gases and other materials are still coming to the +surface from inside the Moon. + +WHAT DO WE DO NOW? + + For all we have learned about the Moon, the exploration of our +nearest neighbor world has only just begun. Much of the returned +lunar sample material remains to be studied, and we will continue to +analyze the data from the instruments on the Moon as long as they +operate. + + From what we have learned, we can now confidently plan ways to +use the Moon to help us understand better the behavior of our own +planet. One such project involves using several reflectors that were +placed on the Moon by Apollo astronauts. By bouncing a laser beam off +these reflectors and back to Earth, we can measure variations in the +Earth-Moon distance (about 400,000 kilometers or 250,000 miles) with +an accuracy of a few centimeters (a few inches, or one part in 10 +billion). Continued measurement of the Earth-Moon distance as the +Moon moves in its orbit around us will make it possible to recognize +tiny variations that exist in the Moon's motions. These variations +occur because the Moon is not quite a uniform sphere, and these minor +movements contain important clues about what the inside of the Moon +is like. + + The laser reflectors, which need no power, will last on the Moon +for more than a century before being covered with slow-moving lunar +dust. Long before that, continuous measurements should make it +possible to understand the internal structure of the Moon. It may +even be possible to use the Moon to measure the slow movements of +Earth's continents and oceans as they converge and separate. + + To further explore the Moon itself, we can send machines in +place of men. An unmanned spacecraft could circle the Moon from pole +to pole, measuring its chemical composition, radioactivity, gravity, +and magnetism. This mission would carry on the tasks begun by the +Apollo Program and would produce physical and chemical maps of the +whole Moon. Such an orbiter could also serve as a prototype for later +spacecraft and instruments to be put into orbit around Mars or +Mercury to map and study those planets as we have mapped and explored +the Moon. + + Other spacecraft, like the Russian Luna-16 and Luna-20 landers, +could return small samples from locations never before visited: the +far side, the poles, or the sites of the puzzling transient events. +Because of the Apollo Program, we now know how to analyze such small +samples and how to interpret correctly the data we obtain. Each +landing and sample return would have a double purpose: to teach us +more about the Moon, and help us design the machines that might +return samples from the surfaces of Mars, Mercury, or the moons of +Jupiter. + + Finally, we may see man return to the Moon, not as a passing +visitor but as a long-term resident, building bases from which to +explore the Moon and erecting astronomical instruments that use the +Moon as a platform from which to see deeper into the mysterious +universe that surrounds us. + + + NOTE FOR SCIENTISTS AND EDUCATORS + + The Lunar Science Institute in Houston, Texas can provide +further information about lunar science and about data resources that +are available for scientific and educational purposes. In particular, +the Institute maintains lists of available books, articles, +photographs, maps, and other materials dealing with the Moon and the +Apollo missions. For further information, contact: + + LUNAR SCIENCE INSTITUTE + Data Center, Code L + 3303 NASA Road #1 + Houston, TX 77058 + Phone (713) 488-5200 + + + ÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜÜ + Ý° The CORPORATE HQ of SHAWN-DA-LAY BOY PRODUCTIONS, inc. °Þ + Ý° Tfile Distribution Center / MASS Megs °Þ + Ý° 415/236/2371 RoR - Alucard 415/236/2371 °Þ + Ý° Dr. Murdock ~ Sir Death ~ Dark Nite ~ RatSnatcher ~ Pressed Rat°Þ + Ý°Shawn-Da-Lay Boy Production Inc. 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We are not Big Brother. + + "Raw Data for Raw Nerves" + +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/nasa.93 b/textfiles.com/science/nasa.93 new file mode 100644 index 00000000..11fa3903 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/nasa.93 @@ -0,0 +1,2994 @@ +Newsgroups: sci.space.news +From: yee@atlas.arc.nasa.gov (Peter Yee) +Subject: Media Guide 4/93 (Forwarded) +Message-ID: <1993May1.173049.18835@news.arc.nasa.gov> +Organization: NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA +Date: Sat, 1 May 1993 17:30:49 GMT +Lines: 2986 + +The following is the ASCII-converted Media Guide. All tabs have +been removed and replaced with 5 spaces (with perhaps 6 exceptions +where the line length was too long). A global search and replace of +"5 spaces" with a "tab" should allow for a reconstruction of the +document. All other formatting including boldface, italics, different +type sizes and forced pages have been removed. There are no graphics +in this version. Full text follows: + +----------------------------------------------------------------------- +NASA MEDIA GUIDE AND PUBLIC AFFAIRS CONTACTS +APRIL 1993 + +FOREWORD + + +To members of the news media: + + I am pleased to provide you with the 1993 edition of our Media +Guide and Public Affairs Contacts. The NASA Public Affairs team +listed in this directory is committed to providing you with timely +and accurate information about the agency's many programs. + + I invite you to visit the NASA facilities around the United +States. An overview of the various facilities, their major +responsibilities and the public affairs contacts are provided in this +directory. + + We look forward to working with you. + + + +Geoffrey H. Vincent +Acting Associate Administrator +for Public Affairs + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + +Headquarters (HQ) 1 +Ames Research Center (ARC) 12 +Hugh L. Dryden Flight Research Facility (DFRF) 15 +Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) 18 +Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) 22 +Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) 26 +John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC) 30 +Langley Research Center (LARC) 34 +Lewis Research Center (LERC) 38 +George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) 42 +Michoud Assembly Facility (MAF) 47 +John C. Stennis Space Center (SSC) 48 +Wallops Flight Facility (WFF) 50 +Public Affairs FAX Phone Listing 52 +Information Sources 54 +NASA Internal News Publications 56 +Alphabetical listing of Public Affairs Contacts 58 + + +NASA HEADQUARTERS +300 E Street, S.W. +Washington, D.C. 20546 + + + Headquarters has more than 2,000 employees and administers the +total NASA budget, which for FY 1993 is $14.3 billion. Daniel S. +Goldin is the NASA Administrator. + + NASA Headquarters exercises management over the space flight +centers, research centers and other installations that constitute the +National Aeronautics and Space Administration. + + Responsibilities of Headquarters cover the determination of +programs and projects; establishment of management policies, +procedures and performance criteria; evaluation of progress and the +review and analysis of all phases of the aerospace program. + + Planning, direction and management of NASA's research and +development programs are the responsibility of program offices which +report to and receive overall guidance and direction from an +associate administrator. + + The Office of Aeronautics directs the agency's aeronautics +research and development programs, including the High-Speed Research +Program which is creating and refining the technology and addressing +the environmental challenges supporting the development of a future +U.S. high-speed civil transport aircraft. + + The office also researches advanced technology for subsonic +aircraft, manages NASA's weather-related flight safety research, +works to improve inspection methods for aging aircraft, propulsion +research and development of advanced piloting and air traffic control +aids. In addition, it directs numerous flight research programs +using high-performance aircraft such as the SR-71, F/A-18 and F-16XL. +It also manages fundamental aeronautics research in aerodynamics, +fluid dynamics, structural mechanics and human factors issues such as +the interaction of pilots with highly-automated cockpits. + + The aeronautics office also manages NASA's portion of the multi- +agency High Performance Computing and Commu-nications program, and +NASA's part of the National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) program. NASP is +a national endeavor to develop and demonstrate technology for +advanced vehicles that would take off horizontally, fly into orbit, +then return for a runway landing. + + The Office of Aeronautics has institutional management +responsibility for Ames Research Center, Mountain View, Calif.; Ames- +Dryden Flight Research Facility, Edwards, Calif.; Langley Research +Center, Hampton, Va.; and Lewis Research Center, Cleveland. Dr. +Wesley L. Harris is Associate Administrator. + + The Office of Space Science is responsible for the NASA space +research and flight programs directed toward scientific +investigations of the solar system and astronomical objects using +ground-based, airborne and space technologies including sounding +rockets and deep space satellites. This office works closely with +the scientific community through the Space Studies board of the +National Academy of Sciences and other advisory groups. + + The Office of Space Science has institutional management +responsibility for the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. +Dr. Wesley T. Huntress, Jr., is the Associate Administrator. + + The Office of Mission to Planet Earth is responsible for NASA's +Earth science and environmental research. Mission To Planet Earth is +a comprehensive, coordinated research program that studies the Earth +as a global environmental system. Comprising ground-based, airborne +and space-based programs, this office includes participation from +other federal agencies as part of the U.S. Global Change Research +Program and the international science community. + + The office has institutional management for the Goddard Space +Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. Dr. Shelby G. Tilford is Acting +Associate Administrator. + + The Office of Life and Microgravity Sciences and Applications is +responsible for assuring the health and safety of humans in space and +to understand the biological effects of space flight on organisms. +It also uses the unique attributes of the space environment to +conduct research and gain new knowledge in fluid behavior, combustion +science, material science and biotechnology. Dr. Harry Holloway is +the Associate Administrator. + + The Office of Space Flight operates the Space Shuttle and develops +both manned and unmanned platforms which enable scientific research +and advanced technology development. + + + + The Space Shuttle is NASA's primary space transportation system +and the only space vehicle capable of carrying people and large +payloads into Earth orbit and returning them. OSF is responsible for +scheduling Space Shuttle flights, developing financial plans and +pricing structures and providing services to users. As part of its +duties, the Office of Space Flight conducts operations and +utilization of Spacelab, a laboratory dedicated to research in space +that flies in the Shuttle's cargo bay. + + The office is working with the Russian Space Agency to plan and +execute a series of joint missions that will involve flying a +cosmonaut aboard the Shuttle and an astronaut aboard the Mir space +station, leading up to a mission with a Shuttle docking to the +Russian space station. The office also is conducting early planning +activities for the operation of the U.S. space station. + + The Office of Space Flight also is responsible for institutional +management of the Kennedy Space Center, Fla.; Marshall Space Flight +Center, Huntsville, Ala.; Johnson Space Center, Houston; and the +Stennis Space Center near Bay St. Louis, Miss. Jeremiah W. Pearson +III is Associate Administrator. + + The Office of Space Systems Development is responsible for +defining and developing potential future space systems and +capabilities, as well as demonstrating enhancements to improve +existing systems capabilities. The office has responsibility for +space station development and operations; large propulsion systems +development including a new space transportation main engine and the +Advanced Solid Rocket Motor and advanced transportation systems +program planning. + A permanently manned space station is essential for advancing +human exploration of space. The space station will be a permanent +outpost in space where humans will live and work productively for +extended periods of time. It will provide an advanced research +laboratory to explore space and employ its resources, and will +provide the opportunity to learn to build, operate and maintain +systems in space. The station will be launched in segments aboard +the Space Shuttle and assembled in orbit, with first flight set for +1996. NASA centers responsible for developing major elements of the +space station are the Marshall Space Flight Center, Johnson Space +Center and Lewis Research Center. + + The advanced solid rocket motor is being developed to replace the +redesigned solid rocket motor. The ASRM will improve the safety, +reliability and the performance of the Space Shuttle system. Arnold +D. Aldrich is Associate Administrator. + + The Office of Advanced Concepts and Technology has a mission to +pioneer innovative, customer-focused concepts and technologies, +leveraged through industrial, academic and government alliances, to +ensure U.S. commercial competitiveness and preeminence in space. + + The office's four primary functions are to maintain a highly +professional systems engineering team capable of detailed feasibility +and cost analysis of advanced concepts, to be NASA's front door to +businesses which want the agency's help and expertise in developing +new ideas and technologies, to be the agency's lead in the transfer +of technology into the commercial sector and to further the +commercialization of space. + + The office also manages the agency's Small Business Innovative +Research, technology transfer, Defense Conversion Act and other +innovative technology development programs including a new experiment +in incubating technology start-up companies. Gregory M. Reck is +Associate Administrator. + + The Office of Space Communications is responsible for planning, +development and operation of worldwide communications, command, +navigation and control, data acquisition, telemetry and data +processing essential to the success of NASA programs and activities. + + Communications systems requirements for Space Shuttle flights; +Earth orbital, planetary and interplanetary space probes; expendable +launch vehicles; research aircraft; sounding rockets; balloons and +administrative support are provided by this office. The office +consists of five divisions. Charles T. Force is Associate +Administrator. + + The Office of Safety And Mission Quality plans, develops and +evaluates safety, quality and risk management policies and activities +in support of NASA programs. Responsibilities include providing +leadership in quality management for science and engineering programs +and working closely with NASA flight, ground operations and research +programs to develop safety, reliability, maintainability and quality +assurance policies and requirements. The office consists of seven +divisions and three safety panels. Frederick D. Gregory is Associate +Administrator. + + +Headquarters Public Affairs Contacts + + +NAME (TELEMAIL ADDRESS) & TITLE OFFICE PHONE HOME PHONE + +Jeff Vincent (GVINCENT) 202/358-1898 703/836-0015 +Acting Associate Administrator + +Diane Mangel (DMANGEL) 202/358-1898 301/884-5789 +Secretary + +vacant 202/358-1400 +Deputy Associate Administrator + +Linda A. Lynch (LLYNCH) 202/358-1754 301/384-2213 +Secretary + +FAX: 202/358-4345 + + +Internal Communications - P-2 + +Elizabeth V. Schmid (ESCHMID) 202/358-1760 703/548-8320 +Acting Head/Editor, NASA Magazine + +Sonja Maclin 202/358-1768 + +FAX: 202/358-4360 + + +Program Management Division - PS + +Jeff Vincent (GVINCENT) 202/358-1747 703/836-0015 +Director + +Diane M. Cheatham (DCHEATHAM) 202/358-1748 301/599-9340 +Administrative Officer + +Robin Timms (RTIMMS) 202/358-1749 301/884-0666 +Budget Analyst + +Theresa D. Houser (THOUSER) 202/358-1765 301/868-9069 +ADP Coordinator + +Patricia M. Riep (PN) (PRIEP) 202/358-1764 301/262-4260 +Freedom of Information Act Officer + +Jo Ann Schneider 202/358-1764 301/725-0025 +FOIA Assistant + +Thelma Johnson 202/358-1752 +Correspondence Processing Analyst + + +Public Affairs Officers + +Sarah Keegan (SKEEGAN) 202/358-1902 703/237-7513 +Public Affairs Officer + +FAX: 202/358-4336 + + +Office of Aeronautics + +Drucella Andersen (DAANDERSEN) 202/358-4733 703/893-3844 +Public Affairs Officer (R) + +Barbara Selby (BSELBY) 202/358-1983 301/552-1917 +Public Affairs Officer (R) + +Les Dorr, Jr. (LDORR) 202/488-4615 +Writer/Editor + +FAX: 202/358-4060 + + +Office of Space Communications +Office of Safety and Mission Quality + +Dwayne C. Brown (DBROWN) 202/358-0547 301/459-4822 +Public Affairs Officer (O) (Q) + +FAX: 202/358-2779 + + +Office of Space Flight +Office of Space Systems Development + +Mark Hess (MHESS) 202/358-1776 703/548-2994 +Public Affairs Officer (M-9) + +Jim Cast (JCAST) 202/358-1779 301/248-3734 +Public Affairs Officer (M-9) + +Edward S. Campion (ECAMPION) 202/358-1780 703/998-6342 +Public Affairs Officer (M-9) + +Carolyn W. Townsend 202/358-1781 410/263-8259 +Public Affairs Specialist (M-9) + +FAX: 202/358-2887 + + +Office of Space Science + +Paula Cleggett-Haleim (PCLEGGETT) 202/358-0883 301/203-9323 +Senior Public Affairs Officer (S) + +Grace Reardon 202/358-1547 +Secretary + +FAX: 202/358-3093 + + +Office of Life and Microgravity Sciences and Applications + +Michael Braukus (MBRAUKUS) 202/358-0872 410/740-7126 +Public Affairs Officer (U) + +FAX: 202/358-3093 + + +Office of Mission to Planet Earth + +Brian Dunbar (BDUNBAR) 202/358-0873 703/841-9110 +Public Information Officer (Y) + +FAX: 202/358-3093 + + +International Affairs Division + +Debra Rahn (DRAHN) 202/358-1639 703/273-7053 +Public Affairs Officer (IR) + +Jennifer McCarter 202/358-1639 +Public Information Assistant + +FAX: 202/358-3030 + 202/358-3031 + + +Office of Advanced Concepts and Technology + +Charles Redmond (CREDMOND) 202/358-1757 202/363-3184 +Public Affairs Officer (C) + +FAX: 202/358-3084 + + +Office of Human Resources and Education + +Terri Sindelar (TSINDELAR) 202/358-1977 301/670-9247 +Public Affairs Officer (FE) + +FAX: 202/358-4210 + + + +Media Services Division - PM + +James W. McCulla (JMCCULLA) 202/358-0002 703/821-2236 +Director + +Beverly C. Randolph 202/358-1724 +Secretary + +News and Information Branch - PM (HQNEWSROOM) + +Newsroom Phone 202/358-1600 + +David W. Garrett (DGARRETT) 202/358-1725 703/998-6910 +Chief + +Kenneth C. Atchison (KATCHISON) 202/358-1726 301/937-2198 +Assistant News Chief + +Donald L. Savage (DSAVAGE) 202/358-1727 703/644-9749 +Public Affairs Officer +Budget And Congressional Affairs + +Dave Steitz (DSTEITZ) 202/358-1730 202/483-6072 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Patrice Williams (PCWILLIAMS) 202/358-1729 +Secretary + +FAX: 202/358-4210 + 202/358-4335 + + +Broadcast and Imaging Branch - PMD + +Branch phone 202/358-1900 + +Joseph Headlee (JHEADLEE) 202/358-1734 703/451-3023 +Chief + +Deanna Corridon 202/358-1733 +Secretary + +H. Thomas Jaqua (HTJAQUA) 202/358-1737 410/586-3254 +Photo and Motion Pictures + +Bill Ingalls 202/358-1742 703/243-9243 +Still Photographer + +Althea Washington 202/358-1738 202/291-3113 +Visual Information Specialist + +Constance Moore 202/358-1740 301/899-3163 +Audio Visual Coordinator + +Tony L. Ellington 202/358-0020 703/670-0487 +Audio Visual Production Specialist + +Deborah Rivera 202/358-1743 703/750-0654 +Radio and Television Programs + +Christopher C. Allingham 202/484-0067 202/396-5069 +Television Producer + +John F. Walsh III (JWALSH) 202/358-0066 703/719-6882 +Television Producer + +FAX: 202/358-4333 + + +Public Services Division - PO + +James M. Funkhouser (JFUNKHOUSER) 202/358-1750 703/323-5404 +Director + +Joycelyn R. Harley 202/358-1750 +Secretary + +FAX: 202/358-4331 + +Special Events Branch - POE + +Branch Phone: 202/358-2379 + +Eugene A. Marianetti (EMARIANETTI) 202/358-1721 703/998-0989 +Chief + +Joanna Adamus 202/358-1716 703/960-2729 +Secretary + +Mary Weatherspoon 202/358-1720 301/856-3556 +Protocol Officer + +Evelyn Thames 202/358-1719 301/843-3529 +Astronaut Appearances + +Geneva B. Barnes 202/358-1639 301/622-2082 +International Astronaut Appearances (I) + +Tawana M. Clary 202/358-1718 202/832-0291 +Astronaut Appearances Assistant + +Dorothy C. Davis (GUEST) 202/358-1717 410/798-5811 +Program Support Assistant + +FAX: 202/358-4332 + +Special Services Branch - POS + +Robert Schulman 202/358-2381 410/757-8095 +Chief + +Mary F. Reeves 202/358-1708 301/505-4285 +Secretary + +Jack Schmid 202/358-2381 703/548-8320 +NASA Exhibits Manager + +Sharon R. Lord (SRLORD) 202/358-1711 301/855-8492 +Exhibits Coordinator + +Bertram R. Ulrich (BULRICH) 202/358-1713 202/986-0609 +Fine Arts/Graphics Coordinator + +Renee N. Juhans (RJUHANS) 202/358-2381 +Public Inquiries Coordinator + +Delores Dale 202/358-1714 +Secretary + +FAX: 202/358-4331 + + +Television Development Division - PT + +Robert J. Shafer (RSHAFER) 202/358-1767 703/569-6714 +Director + +Thomas J. Bentsen (TBENTSEN) 202/358-1704 410/740-0519 +Mgr., Advanced Video Systems Development + +Walter A. Maull (WMAULL) 202/358-1703 703/278-8324 +Mgr., Planning & Implementation + +Patricia A. Respess 202/358-1701 703/352-8220 +Program Support Assistant + +FAX: 202/358-4334 + + + + +AMES RESEARCH CENTER +Mountain View, Calif. 94035 + + + Ames Research Center was founded in 1939 as an aircraft research +laboratory by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) +and named for Dr. Joseph S. Ames, Chairman of NACA from 1927 to 1939. +In 1958, Ames became part of NASA, along with other NACA +installations and certain Department of Defense facilities. In +1981, NASA merged Ames with the Dryden Flight Research Center and the +two installations are now referred to as Ames-Moffett and Ames-Dryden +(see separate section on Ames-Dryden). + + Ames-Moffett is located in Mountain View, Calif., in the heart of +"Silicon Valley" at the southern end of San Francisco Bay on about +430 acres of land adjacent to the U.S. Naval Air Station, Moffett +Field. + + Ames specializes in scientific research, exploration and +applications aimed toward creating new technology for the nation. + + The center's major program responsibilities are concentrated in +computer science and applications, computational and experimental +aerodynamics, flight simulation, flight research, hypersonic +aircraft, rotorcraft and powered-lift technology, aeronautical and +space human factors, life sciences, space sciences, solar system +exploration, airborne science and applications, and infrared +astronomy. + + The center also supports military programs, the Space Shuttle and +various civil aviation projects. These projects and responsibilities +will continue to evolve as NASA's needs change and Ames' capabilities +develop. + + About 2,200 civil service employees and some 2,100 contractor +employees are employed at Ames' two locations. In addition, +approximately 400 graduate students, cooperative education students, +post-doctoral fellows and university faculty members work at the +center. + + The Ames staff uses advanced equipment in their search for new +technology. This equipment includes aircraft and spacecraft, wind +tunnels, large computer facilities, flight simulators and entry +heating simulators. + + The center's laboratories are equipped to study solar and +geophysical phenomena, life evolution and life environmental factors +and to detect life on other planets. Capital investment at the two +locations is more than $996 million, and today's estimated +replacement value is more than $2.9 billion. Dr. Dale L. Compton is +Center Director. + + + + + +Ames Public Affairs Contacts + +NAME (TELEMAIL ADDRESS) & TITLE OFFICE PHONE HOME PHONE + +External Affairs Office + +Michael Marlaire 415/604-4191 408/253-2456 +Acting Chief + +Vacant +Deputy Chief + +Astrid Terlip 415/604-3347 +Secretary + +David Morse +Staff Asistant 415/604-9000 + + +Media Services Office +(AMES.PIO) + +Wendell (Del) Harding 415/604-9000 408/244-2680 +Chief + +Janet Smith 415/604-9000 +Clerk + +Noemi Gardner 415/604-9000 +Clerk + +Michael Mewhinney 415/604-3937 415/386-2059 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Jane Hutchison 415/604-4968 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Donald G. James 415/604-3935 510/462-8778 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Diane Farrar 415/604-3934 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Peter W. Waller 415/604-3938 415/493-9406 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Elinor Brody 415/604-5090 +Astrogram Editor + +FAX: 415/604-3953 + + +Educational Programs Office + +Garth A. Hull (GAHULL) 415/604-5543 415/941-3250 +Chief + +Thomas B. Clausen (TCLAUSEN) 415/604-5544 408/996-3726 +Educational Programs Specialist + +Laura A. Shawnee (LASHAWNEE) 415/604-3936 415/493-6968 +Educational Programs Specialist + +Mary Valleau 415/604-3939 415/734-9155 +Secretary + +Ginny Zeitman 415/604-3574 408/296-0200 +Teacher Resource Ctr. Coordinator + + +Commercial and Community Relations Office + +Donald James 415/604-4044 +Acting Chief + +Danielle Goldwater 415/604-5554 +Commercial Programs Manager + +Geoffrey Lee 415/604-6406 +Technology Utilization Officer + +Anita Sarlin 415/604-4044 +Secretary + +C. J. Fenrick 415/604-1227 +Freedom of Information + + Ames Research Center was founded in 1939 as an aircraft research +laboratory by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) +and named for Dr. Joseph S. Ames, Chairman of NACA from 1927 to 1939. +In 1958, Ames became part of NASA, along with other NACA +installations and certain Department of Defense facilities. In +1981, NASA merged Ames with the Dryden Flight Research Center and the +two installations are now referred to as Ames-Moffett and Ames-Dryden +(see separate section on Ames-Dryden). + + Ames-Moffett is located in Mountain View, Calif., in the heart of +"Silicon Valley" at the southern end of San Francisco Bay on about +430 acres of land adjacent to the U.S. Naval Air Station, Moffett +Field. + + Ames specializes in scientific research, exploration and +applications aimed toward creating new technology for the nation. + + The center's major program responsibilities are concentrated in +computer science and applications, computational and experimental +aerodynamics, flight simulation, flight research, hypersonic +aircraft, rotorcraft and powered-lift technology, aeronautical and +space human factors, life sciences, space sciences, solar system +exploration, airborne science and applications, and infrared +astronomy. + + The center also supports military programs, the Space Shuttle and +various civil aviation projects. These projects and responsibilities +will continue to evolve as NASA's needs change and Ames' capabilities +develop. + + About 2,200 civil service employees and some 2,100 contractor +employees are employed at Ames' two locations. In addition, +approximately 400 graduate students, cooperative education students, +post-doctoral fellows and university faculty members work at the +center. + + The Ames staff uses advanced equipment in their search for new +technology. This equipment includes aircraft and spacecraft, wind +tunnels, large computer facilities, flight simulators and entry +heating simulators. + + The center's laboratories are equipped to study solar and +geophysical phenomena, life evolution and life environmental factors +and to detect life on other planets. Capital investment at the two +locations is more than $996 million, and today's estimated +replacement value is more than $2.9 billion. Dr. Dale L. Compton is +Center Director. + +Ames Public Affairs Contacts + +NAME (TELEMAIL ADDRESS) & TITLE OFFICE PHONE HOME PHONE + +External Affairs Office + +Michael Marlaire 415/604-4191 408/253-2456 +Acting Chief + +Vacant +Deputy Chief + +Astrid Terlip 415/604-3347 +Secretary + +David Morse +Staff Asistant 415/604-9000 + + +Media Services Office +(AMES.PIO) + +Wendell (Del) Harding 415/604-9000 408/244-2680 +Chief + +Janet Smith 415/604-9000 +Clerk + +Noemi Gardner 415/604-9000 +Clerk + +Michael Mewhinney 415/604-3937 415/386-2059 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Jane Hutchison 415/604-4968 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Donald G. James 415/604-3935 510/462-8778 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Diane Farrar 415/604-3934 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Peter W. Waller 415/604-3938 415/493-9406 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Elinor Brody 415/604-5090 +Astrogram Editor + +FAX: 415/604-3953 + +Educational Programs Office + +Garth A. Hull (GAHULL) 415/604-5543 415/941-3250 +Chief + +Thomas B. Clausen (TCLAUSEN) 415/604-5544 408/996-3726 +Educational Programs Specialist + +Laura A. Shawnee (LASHAWNEE) 415/604-3936 415/493-6968 +Educational Programs Specialist + +Mary Valleau 415/604-3939 415/734-9155 +Secretary + +Ginny Zeitman 415/604-3574 408/296-0200 +Teacher Resource Ctr. Coordinator + + +Commercial and Community Relations Office + +Donald James 415/604-4044 +Acting Chief + +Danielle Goldwater 415/604-5554 +Commercial Programs Manager + +Geoffrey Lee 415/604-6406 +Technology Utilization Officer + +Anita Sarlin 415/604-4044 +Secretary + +C. J. Fenrick 415/604-1227 +Freedom of Information + + +Ames Research Center +HUGH L. DRYDEN FLIGHT RESEARCH FACILITY +Post Office Box 273 +Edwards, Calif. 93523 + + The Dryden Flight Research Facility is located at Edwards, +Calif., in the Mojave Desert, approximately 80 miles north of Los +Angeles. The facility enjoys almost ideal weather for flight +testing and is located at the southern end of a 500-mile, high-speed +flight corridor. Situated adjacent to Rogers Dry Lake, a 44-square- +mile natural surface for landing, the facility is in an isolated area +free from problems of population disturbance or hazard. + + About 450 civil service and 510 contractor employees are employed +at Dryden. Capital investment at the facility totals about $135 +million and replacement value is $371 million. + + The facility's primary research tools are research aircraft. +Ground-based facilities include a high temperature loads calibration +laboratory that allows testing of complete aircraft and structural +components under the combined effects of loads and heat; a highly +developed aircraft flight instrumentation capability; a flight +systems laboratory with a diversified capability for avionics system +fabrication, development and operations; a flow visualization +facility that allows basic flow mechanics to be seen on models or +small components; a data analysis facility for processing of flight +research data; a remotely piloted research vehicles facility and a +test range communications and data transmission capability that links +NASA's Western Aeronautical Test Range facilities at Ames-Moffett, +Crows Landing and Dryden. + + Since 1946, Dryden has developed a unique and highly specialized +capability for conducting flight research programs. Its test +organization, consisting of pilots, engineers, technicians and +mechanics, is unmatched anywhere in the world. This versatile +organization has demonstrated its capability, not only with high- +speed research aircraft, but also with such unusual flight vehicles +as the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle and wingless lifting bodies. + + The facility participated in the Approach and Landing Tests of +the Space Shuttle orbiter Enterprise and continues to support Shuttle +orbiter landings from space as well as processing them for ferry +flights back to the launch site. + + Dryden is flying a specially instrumented F/A-18 to investigate +high angle of attack, or high alpha, flight. Today's high +performance jet aircraft can fly in the high alpha flight regime, but +not necessarily efficiently. The facility's research will create a +data base for aircraft designers to accurately predict high alpha +airflow. High alpha technology may result in airplanes capable of +"supermaneuvers" and will help eliminate operational limitations +imposed on aircraft designed without this techno-logy. + + Another high alpha program currently in progress at Dryden +features the X-31. An international test organization managed by the +Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is conducting +flight tests to obtain data for next-generation high performance +aircraft. In addition to NASA and DARPA, program participants +include the U.S. Navy and Air Force, Rockwell International, the +Federal Republic of Germany and Deutsche Aerospace. + + The facility's B-52 currently is serving as the carrier aircraft +for Pegasus, a winged, three-stage space launch booster. Pegasus +will be used to deliver small payloads into orbit. The B-52 has been +used previously to carry aloft and air-launch such vehicles as the +famed rocket-powered X-15 and the lifting bodies, forerunners of the +Space Shuttle. + + Dryden's F-15 is continuing flight research on Performance +Seeking Control (PSC). Using digital flight control, inlet control +and engine control systems together, PSC demonstrates improvements in +peak engine performance and maneuvering capabilities. The F-15 also +is equipped with a new computer-aided control system that will allow +a pilot to maintain control of a crippled aircraft using engine +propulsion to maneuver. The ultimate goal of the program is to land +the aircraft with only engine power. + + Extensive tests of Space Shuttle landing gear assemblies, from +normal conditions up to and including failure modes, will be +conducted using a CV-990 transport aircraft. Information from the +tests will help in developing crew procedures for various landing +conditions and situations. + + Facility researchers are making preparations for the flight test +program of an experimental vehicle of the National Aero-Space Plane +Program (NASP). One of three SR-71 aircraft based at Dryden +currently is flying in preparation for possible experiments for the +NASP. Kenneth J. Szalai is Director. + + +Ames-Dryden Public Affairs Contacts + +NAME (TELEMAIL ADDRESS) & TITLE OFFICE PHONE HOME PHONE + +Nancy Lovato (NDLOVATO) 805/258-3448 805/948-2957 +Public Affairs Officer + +Donald E. Haley (DEHALEY) 805/258-3456 805/943-5817 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Donald A. Nolan (DANOLAN) 805/258-3447 805/942-9804 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Michelle Berman (DRYDEN.NEWS) 805/258-3449 +Secretary + +Teacher Resource Center 805/258-3456 + +Tour Office 805/258-3460 + +Linda Faulhaber 805/258-3459 +The X-Press Editor + +FAX: 805/258-3566 + + +GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER +Greenbelt, Md. 20771 + + This NASA field center, 10 miles northeast of Washington, D.C., +has one of the world's leading groups of scientists, engineers and +administrative managers. It has the largest scientific staff of all +the NASA centers. + + With its approximately 13,000 civil service and contract +employees, including its facility at Wallops Island, Va., the center +is involved in, among other things, research in the Earth and space +sciences and the design, fabrication and testing of scientific +satellites that survey the Earth and the universe as well as tracking +satellites and suborbital space vehicles. + + Because of its versatility, Goddard scientists can develop and +support a mission, and Goddard engineers and technicians can design, +build and integrate the spacecraft. Goddard also is involved in +implementing suborbital programs using small and medium expendable +launch vehicles, aircraft, balloons and sounding rockets. + + Controllers in the Payload Operations Control Centers maintain a +24-hour vigil every day of the year for more than 20 orbiting +spacecraft. Spacecraft being watched include Tracking and Data Relay +Satellites which serve as vital communications links between orbiting +spacecraft and Earth through a Goddard-managed ground terminal in +White Sands, N.M. Two major telescopes, the International +Ultraviolet Explorer, launched in 1978 and the widely-recognized +Hubble Space Telescope (HST) launched in April 1990, also are under +the watchful eyes of Goddard controllers. + + So is the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), launched in November +1989. COBE has provided scientists a whole new view of the cosmos. +The spacecraft was designed to study the origin and dynamics of the +universe, including the theoretical cataclysmic explosion known as +the "Big Bang." + + From the Space Telescope Operations Control Center at Goddard, +managers and engineers control the orbiting HST observatory and +maintain an around-the-clock vigil from an array of consoles. HST +has accomplished a number of scientific achievements and, in spite of +a spherical aberration in its primary mirror, has provided scientists +with images of celestial objects in detail never seen before. + + One of the highlights of 1993 will be the first HST servicing +mission. The solar arrays will be replaced and several instruments +and gyros will be changed out. + + The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO), launched in April 1991, +also is managed by Goddard. Compton's mission is to study gamma ray +emitting objects in the Milky Way galaxy and beyond. Within its +first 3 months of operation, the Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment +Telescope, one of four instruments aboard Compton, detected one of +the most luminous gamma-ray sources ever seen. The source of this +radiation was identified with the variable Quasar 3C279 located in +the constellation Virgo, approximately 7 billion light years from +Earth. + + In spite of their size, Goddard's Small Explorer (SMEX) missions +will investigate some of the most important questions raised in +astrophysics and space physics. The program will conduct focused +investigations which probe conditions in unique parts of space, +complement major missions, prove new scientific concepts or make +significant contributions to space science in other ways. The first +SMEX mission, the Solar Anomalous Magnetospheric Particle Explorer +was launched in July 1992. + + Goddard also has developed an Explorer Project which provides +moderate-sized missions in quick response to new scientific +opportunities. The Explorer Project includes the Extreme Ultraviolet +Explorer, launched in 1992 to study a newly opened window of the +electromagnetic spectrum called the extreme ultraviolet. + + The Goddard-managed Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS), +designed to collect, for the first time, data sets of the chemistry, +dynamics and radiative inputs of the upper atmosphere, was launched +on Discovery in September 1991. UARS is the first spacecraft to be +launched as part of the Mission to Planet Earth Q the NASA element of +the U.S. Global Change Research Program. + + Future Mission to Planet Earth projects include Earth probes, +such as the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission and the most +ambitious science mission ever undertaken, the Earth Observing System +(EOS). The EOS mission, for which GSFC has the lead role in NASA, +addresses pressing global issues, such as the depletion of +atmospheric ozone and long-term global warming. + + Acting as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration +(NOAA)'s agent, Goddard procures the Geostationary Operational +Environmental Satellite and TIROS series spacecraft and instruments +required to meet NOAA's objectives. Goddard also provides for their +launch. + + Goddard manages the U.S. portion of many international projects +including two x-ray observatories: the German Roentgen Satellite +launched in June 1990 and the Japanese Astro-D launched in January +1993. Geotail, developed for Japan in support of Goddard's +International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Project, was launched in 1992 +to better understand the interaction of the sun, the Earth's magnetic +field and the Van Allen radiation belts. + + Much of the center's theoretical research is conducted at the +Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City. Operated in +close association with area universities, the institute provides +support research in geophysics, astrophysics, astronomy and +meteorology. + + The scientific data from these and other space flight experiments +are catalogued and archived at the National Space Science Data Center +at Goddard in the form of magnetic tapes, microfilm and photographic +prints to satisfy the thousands of requests each year from the +scientific community. Dr. John M. Klineberg is Center Director. + +Goddard Public Affairs Contacts + +NAME (TELEMAIL ADDRESS) & TITLE PHONE HOME PHONE + +Janet Ruff (JRUFF) 301/286-6255 703/521-2445 +Chief, Public Affairs + +Patricia Ratkewicz 301/286-8102 410/544-1432 +Secretary + +Elaine Pearl 301/286-8957 301/627-6308 +Admin. Assistant + +James Elliott 301/286-6256 703/385-1463 +Special Assistant/Chief Editor + +Randee Exler (PUBINFO) 301/286-0697 301/552-3247 +Chief, Public Information/News Chief + +Tammy Jones 301/286-5566 301/292-4860 +Public Information + Publications + +Allen Kenitzer 301/286-2806 410/987-8456 +Public Information + Earth Science + +Mike Finneran 301/286-5565 301/262-9645 +Public Information + +Fred Brown 301/286-7504 +Public Information + Editor, Goddard News + Still Photos + +Michelle Mangum 301/286-8956 301/794-4184 +Public Information Assistant + Dateline Goddard + Still Photos + +Carl Poleskey 301/286-8982 202/547-9064 +Chief, Public Services + +Tony May 301/286-8955 301/322-9160 +Public Services + Secretary + +Nina Desmond 301/286-8141 301/474-7128 +Public Services + Community Relations + +Darlene Ahalt 301/286-8101 301/552-2674 +Public Services + Protocol/Speakers Bureau + +Donna Drelick 301/286-7995 301/890-5392 +Public Services + Legislative Affairs + +Elva Bailey 301/286-7207 301/464-0599 +Chief, Educational Programs + +Richard Crone 301/286-7206 301/465-9031 +Educational Programs + +Rebecca Allen 301/286-7205 301/535-2061 +Educational Programs + Secretary + +FAX: Newsroom 301/286-8142 +FAX: Mission News Center 301/286-2184 + + +JET PROPULSION LABORATORY +4800 Oak Grove Drive +Pasadena, Calif. 91109-8099 + + + NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) is located at the foot of +the San Gabriel Mountains near Pasadena, Calif., approximately 20 +miles northeast of Los Angeles. JPL, occupying 177 acres of land, is +a government-owned facility employing about 6,000 people. JPL is +operated by the California Institute of Technology under a NASA +contract administered by the NASA Pasadena office. + + The laboratory is engaged in exploring the Earth and the solar +system with automated spacecraft. In addition to the Pasadena site, +JPL manages the Deep Space Communications Complex, a station of the +worldwide Deep Space Network (DSN) located at Goldstone, Calif., on +40,000 acres of land occupied under permit from the U.S. Army. The +DSN allows for spacecraft communications, data acquisition and +mission control, and for the study of space with radio science; and +in performing basic and applied scientific and engineering research +in support of the nation's interests + + JPL was formed in 1944. In 1958, it built and operated the first +U.S. satellite, Explorer 1. Its robotic spacecraft have explored all +planets in the solar system except Pluto. + + Current NASA flight projects under JPL management include Voyager, +Galileo, Magellan, Mars Observer, Ulysses and Topex/Poseidon. Major +space science instruments include the new wide field/planetary camera +for Hubble Space Telescope, the NASA scatterometer and the Shuttle +imaging radar. + + The laboratory designs and tests flight systems, including +complete spacecraft, and provides technical direction to contractor +organizations. + + In addition to the NASA contract, JPL also performs work for the +Departments of Defense and Energy, the Federal Aviation +Administration and the National Institutes of Health. Dr. Edward C. +Stone, Jr., is Director of JPL. + + +JPL Public Affairs Contacts + +NAME (TELEMAIL ADDRESS) & TITLE OFFICE PHONE HOME PHONE + +Public Affairs Office - MS 180-201 + +George F. Alexander (GALEXANDER) 818/354-7006 818/708-9963 +Manager + +Philipp D. Neuhauser 818/354-6278 818/353-2976 +Staff Specialist + +Yvonne M. Samuel 818/354-0349 818/790-0088 +Administrative Assistant + +Gweneth Jackson 818/354-7006 818/398-1701 +Secretary + +FAX: 818/393-0034 + + +Public Information Office - MS 180-200 +(JPLPIO/JPL) + +Robert J. MacMillin (RMACMILLIN) 818/354-5011 818/247-9345 +Manager + +Franklin O'Donnell 818/354-5011 213/255-7868 +Deputy Manager + +Alan S. Wood 818/354-5011 818/355-1814 +Public Information Specialist + +James J. Doyle 818/354-5011 818/246-6024 +Public Information Specialist + +Jurrie J. van der Woude 818/354-5011 818/963-5025 +Public Information Specialist + +James H. Wilson 818/354-5011 818/797-9874 +Public Information Specialist + +Mary Hardin 818/354-5011 213/827-5990 +Public Information Specialist + + +Diane Ainsworth 818/354-5011 213/398-7672 +Public Information Specialist + +Edward D. McNevin III 818/364-5011 818/398-7460 +Public Information Specialist + +Mark Whalen 818/354-5011 213/666-2115 +Editor, Universe + +Alison Galien 818/354-5011 818/793-0556 +Secretary + +FAX: 818/354-4537 + + +Audiovisual Services Office - 186-AUD + +Stephen L. Bridges (SLBRIDGES) 818/354-6170 818/793-4688 +Manager + +Gregory A. Hanchett 818/354-6170 818/798-1607 +Group Leader + +Cory S. Borst 818/354-6170 818/249-6629 +Audiovisual Technician + +Sheri L. Rowe-Lopez 818/354-6170 818/307-9846 +Secretary + +Lisa M. Rovarino 818/354-6170 818/447-4433 +Secretary + +FAX: 818/393-6441 + + +Public Education Office - CS-530 + +Richard F. Alvidrez 818/354-8592 213/221-8620 +Manager + +Michael A. Garcia 818/354-8593 213/258-1582 +Educational Services Specialist + +David M. Seidel 818/354-9313 213/653-3144 +Educational Services Representative + +Peter J. McCloskey 818/354-6916 818/364-0955 +Teacher Resource Center Coordinator + +Philip J. Schmidt 818/354-6916 818/793-5076 +Secretary + +FAX: 818/354-8080 + + +Public Services Office - 180-205 + +Kimberly L . Lievense 818/354-0112 818/249-8186 +Acting Manager + +Kimberly C. Johansen 818/354-2413 818/790-6468 +Public Services Representative + +Sharon L. Miller 818/354-9318 818/352-4968 +Secretary + +James P. Nations 818/354-9314 818/303-1007 +Public Services Representative + +Kay F. Van Lepp 818/354-9312 818/398-8167 +Public Services Representative + +FAX : 818/393-4641 + + + +LYNDON B. JOHNSON SPACE CENTER +Houston, Texas 77058 + + Johnson Space Center is located on NASA Road 1, adjacent to Clear +Lake, and about 20 miles southeast of downtown Houston via Interstate +45. Additional facilities are located at nearby Ellington Field, +approximately 7 miles north of the center. + + Johnson Space Center was established in September 1961 as NASA's +primary center for design, development and testing of spacecraft and +associated systems for manned flight; selection and training of +astronauts; planning and conducting manned missions; and extensive +participation in the medical, engineering and scientific experiments +carried aboard space flights. + + Johnson has program management responsibility for the Space +Shuttle program, the nation's current manned space flight program. +Johnson also has a major responsibility for the development of the +space station, a permanently manned, Earth-orbiting facility to be +constructed in space and operable within the decade. The center will +be responsible for the interfaces between the space station and the +Space Shuttle and flight operations of both. + + Johnson also is responsible for direction of operations at the +White Sands Test Facility (WSTF), located on the western edge of the +U.S. Army White Sands Missile Range at Las Cruces, N.M. WSTF +supports the Space Shuttle +propulsion system, power system and materials testing. + + Most of the 100 buildings situated on the 1,620 acre Johnson site +are office space and laboratories, with some dedicated to astronaut +training and mission operations. + + Among the specialized training facilities are the Shuttle +simulators (bldg. 5); Space Shuttle Orbiter Trainer, the Manipulator +Development Facility, Precision Air Bearing Facility and Space +Station mockups (Bldg. 9 North); and the Weightless Environment +Training Facility (Bldg. 29). The Mission Control Center (Bldg. 30), +where all human space flights are monitored, is located at the center +of the complex. The Space Station Control Center was completed in +November 1991 and will be ready to support integrated training in +mid-1995. + + Life sciences, planetary and Earth sciences, robotics, artificial +intelligence and lunar samples are a few of the research areas in the +16 facilities dedicated to space and life sciences. + Engineering facilities include vacuum chambers, an anechoic +chamber, antenna range, avionics testing and various structural and +environmental test areas housed in 22 buildings. Aaron Cohen is +Center Director. + + +Johnson Public Affairs Contacts + +NAME (TELEMAIL ADDRESS) & TITLE OFFICE PHONE HOME PHONE + +Office Of Director, Public Affairs - AP + +Harold S. Stall (HSTALL) 713/483-3671 713/333-2260 +Director + +Douglas K. Ward (DKWARD) 713/483-3671 713/326-1808 +Deputy Director + + (vacant) 713/483-0229 +Secretary + +Mara R. Pena 713/483-0228 713/488-1380 +Secretary + +Iris L. Gardner 713/483-7009 713/876-4194 +Administrative Assistant + +Elena L. Salsitz 713/483-5599 713/666-4022 +Chief of Protocol + +FAX: 713/483-3379 + + +Media Services Branch - AP3 +(PAOJSC) + +Jeffrey E. Carr 713/483-5111 713/474-3166 +Chief + +Pat Malpass 713/483-8658 713/488-4576 +Public Affairs Assistant + +Mengo Carr 713/483-5111 713/333-9163 +Secretary + +Kari L. Fluegel 713/483-8649 713/332-8694 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Kyle J. Herring 713/483-8653 713/474-3366 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Billie A. Deason 713/483-8646 713/326-4387 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Brian D. Welch 713/483-8650 713/480-5194 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Barbara L. Schwartz 713/483-8647 713/474-4769 +Public Affairs Specialist + +James A. Hartsfield 713/483-4934 713/724-4138 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Rob Navias 713/483-8651 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Kelly O. Humphries 713/244-5050 713/996-8410 +Space News Roundup Editor + +William W. Robbins (BILLROBBINS) 713/483-8638 713/474-3423 +Audio Visual Manager + +Andrew R. Patnesky 713/483-8636 713/251-7314 +Photo Documentation Specialist + +FAX: 713/483-2000 + + +Public Services Branch - AP4 + +Stephen A. Nesbitt (SNESBITT) 713/483-4241 713/286-5971 +Chief, Public Services + +Louis A. Parker (LAPARKER) 713/483-8622 713/481-4372 +Deputy Chief, Public Services Branch +Exhibits Manager + +Libby Salas 713/483-8608 713/481-5237 +Secretary + +Jeannie Carlin 713/483-8621 713/694-5769 +Secretary + +Linda M. Copley 713/483-8609 713/334-1728 +Public Affairs Specialist +Community Affairs + +Boyd E. Mounce 713/483-8623 713/334-7734 +Public Affairs Specialist +Lunar Samples/Exhibits + +James D. Poindexter 713/483-8624 713/475-9671 +Educational Specialist + +Juanie J. Campbell 713/483-8613 713/488-8421 +Public Affairs Specialist +Speakers Bureau + +Florestela Luna 713/483-8612 713/485-3533 +Public Affairs Specialist +Freedom of Information Act + +Tommie L. Walton 713/483-8610 713/524-7659 +Public Affairs Specialist +Education + +Bunda Dean (BDEAN) 713/483-8625 713/482-4879 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Norma Rhoads 713/483-0235 713/538-2011 +Public Affairs Specialist +Education + +Robert Fitzmaurice, Ed.D 713/483-1257 713/334-2424 +Center Education Programs Officer + +FAX: 713/483-4876 + + + +JOHN F. KENNEDY SPACE CENTER +Kennedy Space Center, Fla. 32899 + + Located on Florida's central Atlantic coast, the Kennedy Space +Center (KSC) is NASA's principal launch base. It occupies 140,000 +(56,568 hectares) acres of land and water on Merritt Island, the +adjacent coastal strand, and the Indian and Banana Rivers and +Mosquito Lagoon by which the center is surrounded. The NASA holdings +include 84,031 acres (34,007 hectares), the remainder is owned by the +State of Florida but controlled by NASA under deeds of dedication. +Robert L. Crippen is Director. + + KSC's eastern boundary fronts on the Atlantic Ocean and the +center's large area (about one-fifth the size of Rhode Island) is +surrounded by water, providing ample safety to the surrounding +communities during launches, landings and other hazardous operations. + + Only a small portion of KSC is used for space operations; the +balance is managed by the U.S. Department of the Interior as a +wildlife refuge and national seashore. + + The center was established in the early 1960s as the launch site +for the Apollo lunar landing missions. KSC pioneered the mobile +launch technique in which space vehicles are built up inside +protective structures and moved to their launch pads a short time +before launch, reducing their exposure to the corrosive sea shore +environment to the minimum. + + After the Apollo program was concluded in 1972, KSC's Complex 39 +was used for the launch of four Skylab missions and for the Apollo +spacecraft for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. + + The center's facilities were modified for the Space Shuttle +program in the mid to late 1970s. The Shuttle era began with the +launch of the STS-1 mission on April 12, 1981. As of the beginning +of 1993, more than 50 Shuttle missions had been launched and the +current forecast calls for the launch of approximately eight missions +per year from KSC's twin pads. + + KSC is NASA's prime center for the test, checkout and launch of +payloads and space vehicles. This includes launch of manned vehicles +at KSC and oversight of NASA missions launched on unmanned vehicles +from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Fla., and Vandenberg Air Force +Base (VAFB) in California. + + The center is responsible for the assembly, checkout and launch +of Space Shuttle vehicles and their payloads, landing operations and +turn-around of Shuttle orbiters between missions, as well as +preparation and launch of unmanned Scout vehicles from VAFB. KSC +also is responsible for the operation of the KSC Vandenberg Launch +Site Resident Office located at VAFB. + + +Kennedy Public Affairs Contacts +Hugh W. Harris (HHARRIS) 407/867-2201 407/783-4421 +Director, Public Affairs Office + +Lisa A. Fowler 407/867-2201 407/636-2396 +Secretary + +FAX: 407/867-8007 + +David S. Dickinson 407/867-7484 407/452-0743 +Deputy Director, Public Affairs + +Mary Jo Shallcross 407/867-2622 407/383-4612 +FOIA, Speakers Bureau + +Darleen Hunt 407/867-2622 407/452-9383 +Protcol Officer + +Jill Rock 407/867-2622 407/459-1149 +Public Relations Specialist + +Carol Cavanaugh 407/867-2622 407/459-1826 +Public Relations Specialist + +Maret Tennison 407/867-2622 407/636-6155 +Secretary + +FAX 407/867-3395 + +PUBLIC INFORMATION BRANCH - PA-PIB +(PAO.KSC) + +Dick Young 407/867-2468 904/423-1800 +Chief + +Leslie Williams 407/867-2468 +Secretary/Accreditation + +Christina Ross 407/867-2468 +Secretary + +Lisa Malone 407/867-2468 407/868-0252 +News Chief + +Diana Boles 407/867-2468 407/453-5925 +Public Information/Logistics + +Bruce Buckingham 407/867-2468 407/728-7545 +Public Information + +George H. Diller 407/867-2468 407/269-4040 +Public Information + +William Johnson 407/867-7819 407/631-0084 +Public Information/Television + +Tina Pechon 407/867-7819 +Public Affairs Assistant + +Garry (Mitch) Varnes 407/867-2468 407/773-9165 +Public Information + +Manny Virata 407/867-7819 407/452-7952 +Public Information + +Ken Thornsley 407/867-7819 407/269-1585 +Public Information/Photography + +FAX: 407/867-2692 + + + +EDUCATION AND AWARENESS BRANCH - PA-EAB +(PA.EAB) + +Steve Dutczak 407/867-4444 407/453-0612 +Chief + +Tracy Young 407/867-4444 407/868-0909 +Secretary + +Patti Phelps 407/867-4444 407/383-3396 +Public Affairs Specialist +Manned Flight Awareness + +June Buchanan 407/867-4444 407/254-7239 +Student Educational Program Coordinator + +Joseph Green 407/867-4444 407/452-8067 +Writer/Editor + +Jane Hodges, Ph.D. 407/867-4444 407/264-9316 +Educational Program Coordinator + +FAX: 407/867-7242 + + +VISITOR CENTER OFFICE - PA-VCO + +Edward K. Harrison 407/867-2363 407/453-5168 +Chief + +Jean Rhodes 407/867-2363 407/269-3585 +Secretary + +Larry Mauk 407/867-2363 407/636-5209 +Visual Information Specialist + +James E. Ball 407/867-2363 407/264-1514 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Jan Foster 407/867-2363 407/783-8643 +Program Management Specialist + +FAX: 407/867-2097 + + + +LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER +Hampton, Va. 23681-0001 + + + Langley Research Center occupies 787 acres of government-owned +land and shares aircraft runways, utilities and some facilities with +Langley Air Force Base. An additional 3,200-acre marshland is under +permit to NASA and is used as a drop zone for model aircraft tests. + + Langley's primary mission is basic research in aeronautics and +space technology. Major research fields include aerodynamics, +materials, structures, flight controls, information systems, +acoustics, aeroelasticity, atmospheric sciences and nondestructive +evaluation. + + Approximately 60 percent of Langley's work is in aeronautics, +working to improve today's aircraft and to develop concepts and +technology for future aircraft. Over 40 wind tunnels, other unique +research facilities and testing techniques as well as computer +modeling capabilities aid in the investigation of the full flight +range Q from general aviation and transport aircraft through +hypersonic vehicles. + + Langley's goal is to develop technologies to enable aircraft to +fly faster, farther, safer and to be more maneuverable, quieter, less +expensive to manufacture and more energy efficient. + + Researchers are studying improved flight control systems to aid +aircraft in + +operating more efficiently in all kinds of weather and in crowded +terminal airways. In cooperation with the FAA, Langley is examining +wind shear, the cause of nearly 40 percent of U.S. airline fatalities +in a recent several-year period. + + The National Aero-Space Plane is challenging Langley researchers +to expand the limits in hypersonic (Mach 5-25) engines, heat- +resistant materials and supercomputers for engine and airframe +design. Improvements in supersonic (Mach 1-5) engine performance, +fabrication of composite materials and laminar flow airfoil +technology are spawning a new era in long-distance air travel. +Passengers in the next century will +benefit from current research programs at Langley. + + The additional 40 percent of Langley's work supports the national +space programs. Researchers study atmospheric and Earth sciences, +develop technology for advanced space transportation systems, conduct +research in laser energy conversion techniques for space applications +and provide the focal point for design studies for large space +systems technology and space station activities. + + Langley researchers performed extensive work on the structure, +aerodynamics and thermal protection system for the Space Shuttle. + + Langley also manages an extensive program in atmospheric sciences, +seeking a more detailed understanding of the origins, chemistry and +transport mech-anisms that govern the Earth's atmospheric data using +aircraft, balloon and land- and space-based remote sensing +instruments designed, developed and fabricated at Langley. + + The center is contributing to the conceptual design phase of the +Earth Observing System, the first stage of the international Mission +To Planet Earth. The system envisions a network of up to five +equatorial and four polar orbiting research satellites. + + Langley has been named lead center for management of the +agency's technology development program for the future High Speed +Civil transport program. Langley will manage high-speed technology +in areas of aerodynamic performance, airframe materials and +structures, the flight deck and airframe systems integration. + The Langley Research Center, established in 1917 as the first +national civil aeronautical laboratory, has been instrumental in +shaping aerospace history for over 7 decades. Paul F. Holloway is +Center Director. + +Langley Public Affairs Contacts + +NAME (TELEMAIL ADDRESS) & TITLE OFFICE PHONE HOME PHONE + +A. Gary Price (AGPRICE) 804/864-6124 804/898-4198 +Head, Office of External Affairs MS-115 + +Dr. Karen R. Credeur (KRCREDEUR) 804/864-3307 804/868-7347 +Deputy Head, Office Of External Affairs + +Janice Johnson 804/864-6123 804/898-1879 +Secretary + +Margaret W. Hunt (MWHUNT) 804/864-6125 804/877-5271 +Information Specialist MS-115 + +FAX: 804/864-6333 + + +Office of Public Affairs - MS 115 + +J. Campbell Martin (JCMARTIN) 804/864-6121 804/868-6818 +Head, Office of Public Affairs + +Catharine G. Schauer 804/864-6122 804/898-8463 +Public Affairs Specialist + +H. Keith Henry (KHENRY) 804/864-6120 804/826-8916 +Public Affairs Specialist + +vacant (Bionetics Corp.) 804/864-6126 +Editor, Researcher News + +Carol Petrachenko (Bionetics Corp.) 804/864-6528 804/481-4993 +Photojournalist MS-146 + +Summer Intern 804/864-6529 + + +Office of Public Services - MS 154 + +Dr. Karen R. Credeur (KRCREDEUR) 804/864-3307 804/868-7347 +Head, Office of Public Services + +Alice E. Eley (AEELEY) 804/864-3308 804/245-2134 +Secretary +Jean Drummond Clough (JDCLOUGH) 804/864-6828 804/898-5113 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Ann H. Suit (ASUIT) 804/864-3305 804/229-9338 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Pamela J. Verniel 804/864-6362 804/898-4683 +Activities Coordinator MS-496 + +Roger A. Hathaway 804/864-3312 804/826-8388 +Education & Information Specialist MS-154 + +Marchelle D. Canright 804/864-3313 804/595-3751 +Education & Information Specialist MS-154 + +Marny Skora (MSKORA) 804/864-3315 804/868-6245 +Public Affairs Specialist MS-154 + +Craig E. Murden (Bionetics Corp.) 804/864-3296 804/898-4766 +Information Specialist MS-146 + +Susan Smigielski (Bionetics Corp.) 804/864-3293 804/591-2447 +Public Mail MS-146 + +Audrey S. Coppedge (Bionetics Corp.) 804/864-3297 804/380-8154 +Teacher Resource Center MS-146 + +Peter D. Thomas 804/864-3117 804/671-1772 +Education - IPA + + +LEWIS RESEARCH CENTER +21000 Brookpark Road +Cleveland, Ohio 44135 + + NASA's Lewis Research Center occupies 350 acres of land adjacent +to the Cleveland Hopkins International Airport, some 20 miles +southwest of Cleveland, Ohio. + + More than 140 buildings comprise the center which is staffed by +about 2,800 government employees and some 2,200 on-site contractors. +Additional facilities are located at Plum Brook Station, about 3 +miles south of Sandusky, Ohio. + + The center was established in 1941 by the National Advisory +Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). Named for George W. Lewis, NACA's +Director of Research from 1924 to 1947, the center developed an +international reputation for its research on jet propulsion systems. + + Lewis is NASA's lead center for research, technology, and +development in aircraft propulsion, space propulsion, space power, +and satellite communications. + + The center has been advancing propulsion technology to enable +aircraft to fly faster, farther and higher, and also focused its +research on fuel economy, noise abatement, reliability and reduced +pollution. + + The center pioneered efforts in the use of high energy fuels for +both air breathing and space propulsion. Projects demonstrated the +practicality of liquid hydrogen as a fuel leading to its use in the +Apollo and the Space Shuttle programs as prime examples. + + Lewis has responsibility for developing the power system to +provide the electrical power necessary to accommodate the life +support systems and research experiments to be conducted aboard the +space station. In addition, the center is supporting the station in +other major areas such as auxiliary propulsion systems and +communications. + + Lewis is the home of the Microgravity Materials Science +Laboratory, a unique facility to qualify potential space experiments. +Other facilities include a Space Experiments Lab, Zero-Gravity Drop +Tower, Powered Lift Facility, Icing Research Tunnel, wind tunnels, +space tanks, chemical rocket thrust stands, and chambers for testing +jet engine efficiency and noise. + A major computer complex supports both the center's scientific and +administrative activities. Individual computer work stations are +dispersed throughout the center with network connections between +them. Lawrence J. Ross is Center Director. + +Lewis Public Affairs Contacts + +NAME (TELEMAIL ADDRESS) & TITLE PHONE HOME PHONE + +External Programs Directorte - MS 3-16 + +John M. Hairston, Jr. (JHAIRSTON) 216/433-8686 216/681-0325 +Director of External Programs + +Nancy A. Horansky 216/433-2943 216/333-0716 +Secretary + +Ronald C. Alexander 216/433-2942 +Technical Assistant to the + Director of External Programs + +Syreeta J. Stewart 216/433-2889 +Secretary + +FAX: 216/433-5266 + + +Office of Community and Media Relations - MS 3-13 + +Linda Dukes-Campbell (LDUKES) 216/433-8920 216/591-1196 +Chief, Community and Media Relations + +Cynthia M. Watson 216/433-6776 216/661-0078 +Secretary + +FAX: 216/433-2888 + +Media Relations Office - MS 3-11 + +Marilyn S. Edwards (MSEDWARDS) 216/433-2899 216/356-0851 +Chief, Media Relations Office + +Linda S. Ellis 216/433-2900 216/779-1266 +Public Affairs Specialist + Aeronautics, Aerospace Technology, + Office of Interagency & Industry Programs + +Mary Ann Peto (MAPETO) 216/433-2902 216/722-5447 +Public Affairs Specialist + Space Flight Systems, Space Station + Engineering, Educational Programs + +Lori Rachul 216/433-8806 216/356-2843 +Public Affairs Specialist + Administration & Computer Services, + Technical Services, Community Relations, + Equal Opportunity, University Programs, + Mission Safety & Assurance, Health + Services, Comptroller + +Doreen B. Zudell 216/433-2888 +Lewis News Editor + +Sherrie L. Campbell 216/433-2901 +Secretary + +FAX: 216/433-2888 + + +Community Relations Office - MS 3-13 + +Thomas A. Cozzens 216/433-2513 216/851-8425 +Manager, Community Relations + +David M. DeFelice 216/433-6186 +Special Programs + +Eleanore M. Boughton 216/433-6631 +Secretary + +FAX: 216/433-2888 + +Visitor Center - MS 8-1 + +Gail T. Smith 216/433-6689 +Manager, Visitor Center + +Visitor Center Information 216/433-2001 + +Monica Boyd 216/433-2016 +Administrative Assistant + +Kimberly Dove 216/433-2003 +Speakers Bureau Coordinator + +Diane L. Borys 216/433-3156 +Tour Coordinator + +Marian J. Mroz 216/433-5573 +Public Inquiries/Publications + + +Office of University Programs - MS 3-7 + +Francis J. Montegani 216/433-2956 +Chief, Office of University Programs + + +Office of Educational Programs - MS 7-4 + +R. Lynn Bondurant (LBONDURANT) 216/433-5583 216/933-4529 +Chief, Office of Educational Programs + +JoAnn Charleston 216/433-2957 +Deputy Chief, Office of Educational Programs + + +Office of Interagency and Industry Programs - MS 3-7 + +Harvey J. Schwartz 216/433-2921 +Chief, Office of Interagency and + Industry Programs + +Anthony F. Ratajczak 216/433-2225 +Chief, Technology Utilization Office + + + +GEORGE C. MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER +Huntsville, Ala. 35812 + + The George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) is located on +1,800 acres inside the U. S. Army's Redstone Arsenal at Huntsville, +Ala. The center has about 3,650 civil service employees. Of this +number, more than 65 percent are scientists and engineers and more +than 15 percent are business professionals. The remainder consists +of technicians and administrative and clerical support personnel. + + Marshall was officially dedicated by President Dwight D. +Eisenhower on July 1, 1960, by the transfer to NASA of part of the +Army Ballistic Missile Agency. The center is named for former +Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense and Army World War II Chief +of Staff, General of the Army George C. Marshall. The center's first +director was Dr. Wernher von Braun, the noted German rocket +scientist. + + Marshall manages three government-owned, contractor-operated +facilities for NASA: the Michoud Assembly Facility near New Orleans +where the Space Shuttle external tanks are made; the Slidell Computer +Complex in Slidell, La., which provides computer services support to +Michoud; and the new Advanced Solid Rocket Motor development and +assembly facility at Yellow Creek, near Iuka, Miss. + + In the past, Marshall has been identified primarily as NASA's +launch vehicle development center. Today, this describes but one +facet of the center's multi-faceted operation. Marshall is a multi- +project management, scientific and engineering research and +development establishment, with emphasis on projects involving +investigation and application of space technologies to the solution +of problems on Earth as well as in space. Marshall also plays a key +role in many NASA mission operations. + + Marshall had a significant role in the development of the Space +Shuttle and continues to manage the Space Shuttle main engines, the +external tanks that carry liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen for those +engines, and the solid rocket boosters that, together with the +engines, lift the Shuttle into orbit. + + Additionally, Marshall is managing development of the Advanced +Solid Rocket Motor, planned to replace the current Shuttle Redesigned +Solid Rocket Motors in the late-1990s. + + The center has a key role in the development of scientific +payloads and experiments to be flown aboard the Shuttle. Many of +these multidisciplinary payloads are flown on Spacelab, a reusable, +modular research facility carried in the Shuttle's cargo bay. + + The center operates NASA's Spacelab Mission Operations Control +Center, a new, state-of-the-art facility from which all NASA-managed +Spacelab missions are controlled. + + To prepare crew members for Marshall-managed Spacelab missions, +the center also operates a Payload Crew Training Complex. Here, +science crews train in Shuttle and Spacelab simulators to conduct the +research they will perform in space. + + The center managed the development and initial orbital checkout of +the Hubble Space Telescope, now orbiting above the Earth and relaying +a wealth of new knowledge about the universe from distant galaxies to +neighboring planets. Marshall also is managing the Advanced X-ray +Astrophysics Facility, a project with two observatories that will +provide detailed, long-term study of x-ray emissions from the +universe and the phenomena that produce them. These include some of +the most violent processes in nature Q the birth and death of stars +and galaxies, spinning neutron stars, quasars and black holes. + + Marshall manages two space transfer vehicle systems, the Inertial +Upper Stage (IUS) and the Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS). The IUS, a +two-stage rocket, places spacecraft in high-Earth orbits or on escape +trajectories for planetary missions. The single-stage TOS is +intended to boost satellites such as the Advanced Communications +Technology Satellite into geosynchronous transfer orbit and in 1992, +was used in launching the Mars Observer spacecraft into an +interplanetary trajectory. + + The Marshall center manages one of the three work packages for the +space station, including developing and producing the U.S. laboratory +and habitation modules and the environmental control and life support +systems. + + The Marshall center is strongly committed to investigating the +processing of materials in space and working in a microgravity +environment. These endeavors promise to increase the understanding +of materials and improve Earth-based processes. Center Director is +Thomas J. "Jack" Lee. + + +Marshall Public Affairs Contacts + +NAME (TELEMAIL ADDRESS) & TITLE OFFICE PHONE HOME PHONE + +John B. Taylor (JBTAYLOR) 205/544-0031 205/881-7843 +Director + +Robert K. Ruhl 205/544-0031 205/650-0798 +Deputy Director + +Judi A. Hollingsworth 205/544-1837 205/830-9728 +Secretary + + +Media Services Office - CA10 +(PUBINFO.MSFC) + +Dom Amatore (DAMATORE) 205/544-0034 205/461-7833 +Director + +Vacant 205/544-0034 +Secretary + +David Crim 205/544-3655 205/539-5696 +Student Aide + +FAX: 205/544-5852 + + +Mission Operations Team + +David B. Drachlis (DDRACHLIS) 205/544-6538 205/881-9302 +Manager +Spacelab + +Jerry Berg 205/544-6540 205/534-4968 +Upper Stages, AXAF, SEDS + +Jim Sahli 205/544-6528 205/922-9495 +Science and Engineering Labs +Flight Experiments + +Vacant 205/544-0034 +Audio/Visual Services + + +Project Support + +Mike Simmons 205/544-6537 205/822-1882 +Manager +Space Station, Education + +June Malone 205/544-7061 205/881-3527 +Space Shuttle, ASRM + +Vacant 205/544-0034 +Speeches, HLLV + +Ernest Shannon 205/544-0030 205/882-3231 +Editor (MARSHALL.STAR) + + +Public Services and Education Branch - CA20 +(PUBSERVICE.MSFC) + +Edward D. Medal (EMEDAL) 205/544-0038 205/883-2394 +Director + +Sandra H. Turner 205/544-8704 205/233-0607 +Protocol Officer + +Jean Palmer 205/544-6518 205/773-5051 +Secretary + +Cherise Thornton 205/544-6530 205/650-5034 +Student Aide + + +Education Branch - CA 21 + +William Anderson (BILLANDERSON) 205/544-7391 205/723-2898 +Chief + +Jeff Ehmen (JEHMEN) 205/544-6531 205/828-0880 +Education + +Martha Howard 205/544-2716 205/971-5337 +Education Programs + +Ransom Ritter 205/544-9275 205/852-4448 +Education Programs + +Pat Armstrong 205/544-1726 205/539-3975 +Project LASER Discovery Lab + +Virginia Witherspoon 205/544-1798 205/536-6719 +Project LASER Discovery Lab + + +Public Services Branch - CA 22 + +Edward D. Medal (EMEDAL) 205/544-0038 205/883-2394 +Chief (Acting) + +John Dumoulin 205/544-6541 205/895-9348 +Exhibit Programs + +Linda Howard 205/544-4577 205/383-6904 +Exhibit Programs + +Nancy Robinson 205/544-6524 615/433-6705 +Protocol Assistant + +Steven Roy 205/544-6535 205/883-5886 +Public Visitor Programs + +Al Jordan (ALJORDAN) 205/544-6532 205/351-2900 +Publications, Inquiries, Speakers + + +MICHOUD ASSEMBLY FACILITY +P.O. Box 29300 +New Orleans, La. 70189 + + The Michoud Assembly Facility is located in Orleans Parish, La., +about 15 miles east of downtown New Orleans. The site is on the Gulf +Intra-Coastal Waterway and has deep water access via the Mississippi +Gulf outlet. + + The facility occupies approximately 833 acres of land. There are +33 buildings with an area of about 3.5-million square feet. The +largest building within the complex is the main manufacturing +building, originally built in 1942. + + The primary mission of Michoud is the systems engineering, +engineering design, manufacture, fabrication, assembly and related +work for the Space Shuttle external tank. + + + + Marshall Space Flight Center exercises overall management control +of the facility. A prime contractor, Martin Marietta, provides Space +Shuttle production capability. + + +NOTE: No NASA Public Affairs Office exists at Michoud Assembly +Facility. Public Affairs functions for Michoud are handled by the +Director of Public Affairs at Marshall Space Flight Center. Liaison +between Michoud and MSFC in public affairs matters is handled by: + +NAME & TITLE OFFICE PHONE HOME PHONE + +John Demarest 504/257-2601 504/887-4580 +Manager + +FAX: 504/255-2152 + + + +JOHN C. STENNIS SPACE CENTER +Stennis Space Center, Miss. 39529 + + NASA's John C. Stennis Space Center (SSC), located in Hancock +County near Bay St. Louis, Miss., has grown over the past 30 years +into NASA's premier center for testing large rocket propulsion +systems for the Space Shuttle and future generations of launch +vehicles. Additionally, the center has developed into a scientific +community actively engaged in research and development programs +involving space, oceans and Earth. + + Approximately 14,000 acres make up the operations complex, which +includes an industrial laboratory and specialized engineering +facilities to support engine testing. A significant advantage of the +facility is the availability of all forms of transportation, +including a direct water transportation route to the Gulf of Mexico +and through the Intracoastal Waterway to the Kennedy Space Center in +Florida. Surrounding the operations complex is an almost 125,000- +acre acoustical buffer zone held under restrictive easement by NASA +to muffle the loud, low-frequency noise produced during static tests. + + Since 1975, SSC's primary mission has been the research and +development and the flight acceptance testing of the Space Shuttle +main engines. The data accumulated from these ground tests, which +simulate flight profiles, are analyzed to ensure that engine +performance is acceptable and that the required thrust will be +delivered in the critical ascent phase of Shuttle flights. Static +testing is conducted on the same concrete and steel stands used from +1966 to 1970 to captive-fire all first and second stages of the +Saturn V rocket used in the Apollo manned lunar landing and Skylab +programs. + + SSC also is involved in several other emerging test programs and +activities, one of which is the Advanced Solid Rocket Motor (ASRM) +program. With the onset of ASRM testing planned for 1996, SSC will +be totally responsible for proving that the Space Shuttle's main +propulsion systems are flightworthy. + + The center also is gearing up for the Space Transportation Main +Engine (STME) program. SSC will test much of the STME propulsion +hardware beginning with the turbopumps at the center's Component Test +Facility. + The High Heat Flux Facility at SSC will test materials in support +of the National Aero-Space Plane. In the future, SSC's role in NASP +testing may be increased to include expansion of the facility for +testing the plane's thermal structure. + + SSC personnel also are involved in scientific research, remote +sensing technology and applications, and technology transfer. The +center has been designated as NASA's lead center for the +commercialization of remote sensing technology and as such, work with +the public and private sectors to expand the use of remote sensing +imagery and technology. + + SSC is somewhat unique in NASA in that the center also serves as +host to 18 other federal and state agencies and university elements +in residence involved in environmental and oceanographic programs. +Approximately 4,100 people are employed at SSC. Roy S. Estess is the +Director. + +SSC Public Affairs Contacts + +NAME (TELEMAIL ADDRESS) & TITLE OFFICE PHONE HOME PHONE + +Myron L. Webb (MLWEBB) 601/688-3341 601/864-3842 +Public Affairs Officer + +Nancy Sullivan 601/688-3341 601/452-3719 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Lanee J. Cobb 601/688-1957 601/868-7437 +News Chief + +Sherri J. Jacobi 601/688-3333 +Secretary + +Lagniappe 601/688-2313 + House organ + +FAX 601/688-1094 + + + +Goddard Space Flight Center +WALLOPS FLIGHT FACILITY +Wallops Island, Va. 23337 + + Wallops Flight Facility, a part of the Goddard Space Flight +Center, is one of the oldest launch sites in the world. Established +in 1945, the facility covers 6,166 acres, including about 1,100 acres +of marshland, in three separate areas of Virginia's Eastern Shore Q +the island, the main base and the mainland just west of the island. +Wallops Island is about 7 miles southeast of the main base and is 5 +miles long and l/2 mile wide at the widest point. Wallops is located +on Virginia's Atlantic Coast, Delmarva Peninsula, about 40 miles +southeast of Salisbury, Md., and 72 miles north of the Chesapeake Bay +Bridge Tunnel. + + Wallops manages and implements NASA's sounding rocket program +which uses solid-fueled rocket launch vehicles to accomplish +approximately 35 scientific, suborbital missions each year. Launches +are conducted at Wallops and many other ranges throughout the world. + + Wallops manages and coordinates NASA's Scientific Balloon Program +using thin-film, helium-filled balloons to provide approximately 35 +scientific missions each year. Launches are conducted at Palestine, +Texas, Ft. Sumner, N.M., and several other sites throughout the +world. + + The facility operates and maintains the Wallops launch range and +data acquisition facilities. In addition, mobile launch, tracking +and data acquisition systems are transported to and operated at +various world sites to accommodate sounding rocket, balloon and NASA +network mission requirements. + + Wallops supports NASA, DOD and other agencies in aeronautical +research. Approximately 150-200 test operations, concentrating on +aircraft/airport interface and aircraft operating problems research, +are conducted each year at the research airport. + + Wallops aircraft also are used to support applications and +scientific research missions that are developing new instruments, +providing ground truth data for satellite measurements and conducting +field experiments. + + Wallops provides support including launching, tracking, aircraft +flights and data reduction to various segments of DOD, other +agencies, commercial, international and educational ventures. + + Wallops plans and conducts Earth and ocean physics, ocean +biological and atmospheric science field experiments, satellite +correlative measurements and developmental projects for new remote +sensor systems. The main thrust of this effort is in support of the +Laboratory for Hydrospheric Processes. + + Wallops supports tenants (NOAA, Navy, Coast Guard) that use the +land and facilities available at the site. The support also includes +providing fire protection, utilities, coordination of operations, +repairs to buildings, guards and other related services. + + Wallops provides the facilities that are specifically designed for +the management and education programs of the NASA Office of +Professional Development and for other NASA courses and conferences. +Wallops Director is Joseph McGoogan, Director, Suborbital Projects +and Operations. + +Wallops Public Affairs Contacts + +NAME (TELEMAIL ADDRESS) & TITLE OFFICE PHONE HOME PHONE + +Keith Koehler 804/824-1579 410/896-2730 +Public Affairs Specialist + +Mary T. Gladding 804/824-1584 804/824-5117 +Public Affairs Clerk + +Visitor Center 804/824-1344 + +Teacher Resource Lab 804/824-2297 + +FAX: 804/824-1971 + + + + +PUBLIC AFFAIRS FACSIMILE TRANSMISSION NUMBERS + +Installation Phone + +NASA Headquarters + Associate Administrator's Office 202/358-4345 + Newsroom 202/358-4210 + Newsroom 202/358-4335 + Broadcast & Imaging 202/358-4333 + Public Services - Exhibits & Art program 202/358-4331 + Public Services - Astronaut & Guest Appearances 202/358-4332 + Television Development 202/358-4334 + Internal Communications 202/358-4360 + Aeronautics 202/358-4060 + Space Science/MTPE/LMSA 202/358-3093 + International Affairs 202/358-3029 + Advanced Concepts and Technology 202/358-3084 + Space Flight & Space Systems Development 202/358-2887 + Communications/Quality 202/358-2779 + +Ames Research Center + Public Information Office 415/604-3953 + +Dryden Flight Research Facility + PAO Trailer 805/258-3566 + +Goddard Space Flight Center + Newsroom 301/286-8142 + Mission News Center 301/286-2184 + Goddard Institute (New York) 212/678-5552 + +Jet Propulsion Laboratory + Newsroom 818/354-4537 + +Johnson Space Center + Newsroom 713/483-2000 + PAO Director 713/483-3379 + Public Services Branch 713/483-4876 + +Kennedy Space Center + Newsroom (Press Site Dome) 407/867-2692 + PAO Director 407/867-7787 + Vandenberg NASA/KSC (Mail Room) 805/865-3921 + +Langley Research Center + External Affairs Office 804/864-6333 + +Lewis Research Center + External Programs Director 216/433-5266 + Newsroom 216/433-8143 + +Marshall Space Flight Center + Public Affairs 205/544-5852 + +Michoud Assembly Facility + Communications Center 504/255-2152 + +John C. Stennis Space Center + Public Affairs Office 601/688-1094 + +Wallops Flight Facility + Newsroom 804/824-1971 + + + + +INFORMATION SOURCES + +Electronic Information Distribution + + NASA news releases, Space Shuttle status reports, Shuttle launch +manifest, current mission information and public affairs contacts are +available to the media electronically on CompuServe. For access to +NASA NEWS, contact CompuServe at 1-800/848-8199 and ask for +representative 176. + +NASA Select Television + + The television service of NASA is an agency-wide TV-audio system +offering a wide range of programming and coverage of NASA events via +satellite. During Space Shuttle missions, the system provides +realtime air-to-ground communications between the orbiter and mission +control, public affairs commentary from launch to landing and news +briefings. Unless noted, all programming carried on NASA Select may +be taped for re-broadcast and other uses. + + The system also is used for other NASA briefings and events. For +most press briefings, the system is interactive (one-way video, two- +way audio) between centers so that media covering an event from one +center may ask questions at a briefing originating from another. + + In addition to live mission coverage and press briefings, NASA +Select offers informational and educational programming on space and +related topics and updates on all of NASA's projects. Historical +documentaries focusing on great moments in America's space program +also are featured, as well as recurring science as received from +Galileo, Mars Observer, Ulysses, Hubble and other spacecraft. + + The programming starts at noon Eastern time, Monday through +Friday, and is shown in 4-hour blocks (repeated at 4 p.m., 8 p.m. and +midnight). Within these 4 hour blocks, at 2 p.m., 6 p.m., 10 p.m. +and 2 a.m. are programs containing material specifically suitable for +classroom use. Live programs such as press conferences and mission +coverage take precedence over regularly scheduled programming. + + NASA Select coverage is carried on a full satellite transponder as +follows: + Satcom F-2R, transponder 13, C-band + Orbital Position: 72 degrees W. long. + Frequency: 3960.0 MHz + Vertical polarization + Audio monaural: 6.8 MHz + + NASA Select video also is available at the AT&T Switching Center, +Television Operation Control (TVOC), Washington, D.C., and the +following NASA locations: + + NASA Headquarters + Ames Research Center + Dryden Flight Research Facility + Goddard Space Flight Center + Jet Propulsion Laboratory + Johnson Space Center + Kennedy Space Center + Langley Research Center + Marshall Space Flight Center + Stennis Space Center + + For Space Shuttle missions, updated NASA Select TV schedules may +be obtained by calling COMSTOR, 713/483-5817. COMSTOR is a computer +data base service requiring the use of a telephone modem. + For additional information concering NASA Select, contact Deborah +Rivera, NASA Headquarters, 202/358-1743. + +Television + + NASA Headquarters produces a 14 1/2-minute "magazine format" +videotape quarterly called "Aeronautics and Space Report." The +program is available to TV stations via satellite NASA Select and KU +Band. It also is uplinked to NASA field centers via the NASA Select +TV system. As an aid to broadcasters wishing to excerpt portions of +this videotape for news programming, both audio channels are used. +Channel 1 audio carries a completely mixed track with narration, +music, actualities and effects. Channel 2 audio has effects and +actualities only. + + To downlink this program, television stations should contact Joe +Headlee, NASA Headquarters, 202/358-1734. Stations are notified in +advance when to expect a satellite feed with information on the +current topics. + +Audio + + NASA produces a weekly 4 1/2-minute program called the "The Space +Story" and a 60-second spot called "Frontiers". These topical radio +programs feature astronauts, scientists and other people in NASA's +ongoing research efforts. These programs are distributed via +satellite and on broadcast-quality cassettes to thousands of stations +in the United States and abroad. + + Mission highlight audio tapes and other space-age sound effects +also are available from NASA's radio office by calling 202/358-1735. + +NASA Audio News Service + + Several NASA centers also provide up-to-date reports on +aeronautics and space activities through automated telephone systems. +The center codaphone services are: + + Dryden 805/258-4464 + Goddard 301/286-NEWS (6397) + Johnson 713/483-8600 + Kennedy 407/867-2525 + Marshall 205/544-NEWS (6397) + Headquarters 202/358-3014 + + Status reports during Space Shuttle missions are available by +calling the above numbers for Kennedy (prelaunch), Johnson (mission +operations) and Dryden (landing operations). + +Still Photography + + NASA field centers maintain photo files on current projects and +those of the recent past. Older files are periodically purged to +make way for newer material. The Broadcast and Imaging Branch, NASA +Headquarters, has files covering projects and missions extending back +to the agency's creation in 1958. Researchers seeking early or +general material may save time by starting their search at +Headquarters. + + + +Internal News Publications + + +HQ + +NASA Magazine +Editor: Beth Schmid +Phone: 202/358-1760 +Published quarterly. +Feature story articles or ideas are accepted from NASA employees and +contractors, subject to editing. Deadlines are last day of July, +October, January and April, respectively, for the following quarterly +publication. Call the editor with suggestions or to submit an +article. + +HQ Bulletin +Editor: Rebecca Trexler +Phone: 202/479-4630 +Fax: 202/479-7266 +Publishes twice monthly on first and third Monday of each month. +HQ Bulletin accepts contributions including articles and photos, +deemed to be of interest to headquarters employees and subject to +editing. Deadline is 2 weeks prior to publication date. + + +AMES +Astrogram +Editor: Elinor Brody +Associate Editor: Pamela Davoren +Phone: 415/604-5090 +Published every other Friday. Does not accept outside contributions. + + + + + + +DFRF +The X-Press +Editor: Linda Faulhaber +Phone: 805/258-3449 +Published biweekly. +X-Press does not accept unsolicited contributions. + + +GSFC +Goddard News +Editor: Fred Brown +Phone: 301/286-7504 +The Goddard News, an eight-page monthly publication is distributed +the last week of the month. News and feature articles are primarily +Goddard-related. Contains a monthly status of several orbiting +Goddard-managed spacecraft. Goddard News does not accept commercial +ads. + + +JPL +Universe +Editor: Mark Whalen +Phone: 818/354-6089 +Published every 2 weeks on Friday. +Does not usually accept contributions for publication. + + +JSC +Space News Roundup +Editor: Kelly O. Humphries +Phone: 713/244-5050 +Published every friday. +Space News Roundup accepts contributions subject to editor's +discretion. + + + +KSC +Spaceport News +Editor: Melinda Milsap +Managing Editor: Lisa Malone +Phone: 407/867-2468 +Published biweekly. +Outside contributions accepted, subject to editing. + + +LARC +Researcher News +Managing editor: Marny Skorna +Editor: Ann Laiacona +Phone: 804/864-6126 +Fax: 804/864-7732 +Published every other week on Friday. Published for center +employees, contractors and aerospace enthusiasts. Researcher News +accepts outside contributions subject to editing. Deadline is +Tuesday following publication of the previous issue. No advertising +accepted. + + +LERC +Lewis News +Editor: Doreen Zudell +Phone: 216/433-2888 +Publisher: Media Relations Office +Published bi-weekly. +Lewis News accepts contributions from HQ and other NASA installations +for News Notes section, if they are relevant to Lewis' employees. +Deadline is noon every other Friday (2 weeks prior to publication). + + +MSFC +The Marshall Star +Editor: Ernie J. Shannon +Phone: 205/544-0030 +Published every Wednesday, 50 weeks out of the year. +Outside contributions are accepted as long as they have at least a +NASA tie, prefer Marshall tie as well. No advertising allowed. + + +SSC +Lagniappe +Editor: Evelyn Watkins +Phone: 601/688-2313 +Lagniappe Office +Bldg. 1100, Rm. 1031. +Published monthly. Comments and suggestions welcomed. + + +WFF +Inside Wallops +Editor: Keith Koehler +Phone: 804/824-1579 +Published monthly +Accepts contributions only from other NASA centers and HQ. Deadline +is the 25th of the preceeding month. + + + +ALPHABETICAL LISTING OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS CONTACTS + +NAME (TELEMAIL ADDRESS) CENTER OFFICE PHONE + +Adamus, Joanna HQ 202/358-1716 +Ahalt, Darlene GSFC 301/286-8101 +Ainsworth, Diane JPL 818/354-5011 +Alexander, George F. (GALEXANDER) JPL 818/354-7006 +Alexander, Ronald C. LERC 216/433-2889 +Allen, Rebecca GSFC 301/286-7205 +Allingham, Christopher C. HQ 202/358-1900 +Alvidrez, Richard F. JPL 818/354-8592 +Amatore, Dom (DAMATORE) MSFC 205/544-0034 +Andersen, Drucella (DAANDERSEN) HQ 202/358-4733 +Anderson, William (BILLANDERSON) MSFC 205/544-7391 +Armstrong, Pat MSFC 205/544-1726 +Atchison, Kenneth C. (KATCHISON) HQ 202/358-1726 +Bailey, Elva GSFC 301/286-7207 +Ball, James E. KSC 407/867-2363 +Barnes, Geneva B. HQ 202/358-1639 +Bentsen, Thomas J. (TBENTSEN) HQ 202/358-1704 +Berg, Jerry MSFC 205/544-6540 +Berman, Michelle (DRYDEN.NEWS) DFRF 805/258-3449 +Boles, Diana KSC 407/867-2468 +Bondurant, Lynn (LBONDURANT) LERC 216/433-5583 +Borst, Cory JPL 818/354-6170 +Borys, Diane L. LERC 216/433-3156 +Boughton, Eleanore M. LERC 216/433-6631 +Boyd, Monica LERC 216/433-2016 +Braukus, Mike (MBRAUKUS) HQ 202/358-0872 +Bridges, Stephen L. (SLBRIDGES) JPL 818/354-6170 +Brody, Elinor ARC 415/604-5090 +Brown, Dwayne C. (DBROWN) HQ 202/358-0547 +Brown, Fred GSFC 301/286-7504 +Buchanan, June KSC 407/867-4444 +Buckingham, Bruce KSC 407/867-2468 +Campbell, Juanie J. JSC 713/483-8613 +Campbell, Sherri LERC 216/433-2901 +Campion, Edward S. (ECAMPION) HQ 202/358-1780 +Canright, Marchelle D. LARC 804/864-3313 +Carlin, Jeannie JSC 713/483-8621 +Carr, Jeffrey E. JSC 713/483-5111 +Carr, Mengo JSC 713/483-5111 +Cast, Jim (JCAST) HQ 202/358-1779 +Cavanaugh, Carol KSC 407/867-2622 +Charleston, JoAnn LERC 216/433-2957 +Cheatham, Diane M. (DCHEATHAM) HQ 202/358-1748 +Clary, Tawana M. HQ 202/358-1718 +Clausen, Thomas B. (TCLAUSEN) ARC 415/604-5544 +Cleggett-Haleim, Paula (PCLEGGETT) HQ 202/358-0883 +Clough, Jean Drummond (JDCLOUGH) LARC 804/864-6828 +Cobb, Lanee J. SSC 601/688-1957 +Copley, Linda M. JSC 713/483-8609 +Coppedge, Audrey S. LARC 804/864-3297 +Corridon, Deanna HQ 202/358-1733 +Cozzens, Thomas A. LERC 216/433-2513 +Credeur, Dr. Karen R. (KRCREDEUR) LARC 804/864-3307 +Crim, David MSFC 205/544-3655 +Crone, Richard GSFC 301/286-7206 +Dale, Delores HQ 202/358-1714 +Davis, Dorothy C. HQ 202/358-1717 +Dean, Bunda (BDEAN) JSC 713/483-8625 +Deason, Billie A. JSC 713/483-8646 +DeFelice, David M. LERC 216/433-6186 +Demarest, John MAF 504/257-2601 +Desmond, Tina GSFC 301/286-8141 +Dickinson, David S. KSC 407/867-7484 +Diller, George H. KSC 407/867-2468 +Dorr, Les, Jr. HQ 202/488-4615 +Dove, Kimberly LERC 216/433-2003 +Doyle, James JPL 818/354-5011 +Drachlis, David B. (DDRACHLIS) MSFC 205/544-6538 +Drelick, Donna GSFC 301/286-7995 +Dukes-Campbell, Linda LERC 216/433-8920 +Dumoulin, John MSFC 205/544-6541 +Dunbar, Brian (BDUNBAR) HQ 202/358-0873 +Dutczak, Steve (PA.EAB ) KSC 407/867-4444 +Edwards, Marilyn S. (MSEDWARDS) LERC 216/433-2899 +Ehmen, Jeff (JEHMEN) MSFC 205/544-6531 +Eley, Alice E. (AEELEY) LARC 804/864-3308 +Ellington, Tony L. HQ 202/358-0020 +Elliott, James GSFC 301/286-6256 +Ellis, Linda S. LERC 216/433-2900 +Exler, Randee GSFC 301/286-0697 +Farrar, Diane ARC 415/604-3934 +Faulhaber, Linda DFRF 805/258-3459 +Fenrick, C. J. ARC 415/604-1227 +Finneran, Mike GSFC 301/286-5565 +Fitzmaurice, Robert, Ed.D JSC 713/483-1257 +Fluegel, Kari L. JSC 713/483-8649 +Foster, Jan KSC 407/867-2363 +Fowler, Lisa KSC 407/867-2201 +Funkhouser, James M. (JFUNKHOUSER) HQ 202/358-1750 +Galien, Alison JPL 818/354-5011 +Garcia, Michael A. JPL 818/354-8593 +Gardner, Noemi ARC 415/604-9000 +Garner, Iris L. JSC 713/483-7009 +Garrett, David W. (DGARRETT) HQ 202/358-1725 +Gladding, Mary T. WFF 804/824-1584 +Goldwater, Danielle ARC 415/604-5554 +Green, Joseph KSC 407/867-4444 +Hairston, John M. , Jr. (JHAIRSTON) LERC 216/433-8686 +Haley, Donald E. (DEHALEY) DFRF 805/258-3456 +Hanchett, Gregory A. JPL 818/354-6170 +Hardin, Mary JPL 818/354-5011 +Harding, Wendell (Del) ARC 415/604-9000 +Harley, Joycelyn R. HQ 202/358-1750 +Harris , Hugh W. (HHARRIS) KSC 407/867-2201 +Harrison, Edward K. KSC 407/867-2363 +Hartsfield, James A. JSC 713/483-4934 +Hathaway, Roger A. LARC 804/864-3312 +Headlee, Joseph (JHEADLEE) HQ 202/358-1734 +Henry, H. Keith (KHENRY) LARC 804/864-6120 +Herring, Kyle J. JSC 713/483-8653 +Hess, Mark (MHESS) HQ 202/358-1776 +Hodges, Jane KSC 407/867-4444 +Hollingsworth, Judi A. MSFC 205/544-1837 +Horansky, Nancy LERC 216/433-2943 +Houser, Theresa D. (THOUSER) HQ 202/358-1765 +Howard, Linda MSFC 205/544-4577 +Howard, Martha MSFC 205/544-2716 +Hull, Garth A. (GAHULL) ARC 415/604-5543 +Humphries, Kelly O. JSC 713/483-5050 +Hunt, Darleen KSC 407/867-2622 +Hunt, Margaret W. (MWHUNT) LARC 804/864-6125 +Hutchison, Jane ARC 415/604-4968 +Ingalls, Bill HQ 202/358-1742 +Jackson, Gweneth JPL 818/354-7006 +Jacobi, Sherri J. SSC 601/688-3333 +James, Donald G. ARC 415/604-3935 +Jaqua, H. Thomas (HTJAQUA) HQ 202/358-1737 +Johansen, Kimberly C. JPL 818/354-2413 +Johnson, Janice LARC 804/864-6123 +Johnson, Thelma HQ 202/358-1752 +Johnson, William KSC 407/867-7819 +Jordan, Al (ALJORDAN) MSFC 205/544-6532 +Juhans, Renee N. HQ 202/358-2381 +Keegan, Sarah (SKEEGAN) HQ 202/358-1902 +Kenitzer, Allen GSFC 301/286-2808 +Koehler, Keith WFF 804/824-1579 +Lee, Geoffrey ARC 415/604-6406 +Lievense, Kimberly L . JPL 818/354-8699 +Lord, Sharon R. (SRLORD) HQ 202/358-1711 +Lovato, Nancy (NDLOVATO) DFRF 805/258-3448 +Luna, Florestela JSC 713/483-8612 +Lynch, Linda A. HQ 202/358-1754 +Maclin, Sonja HQ 202/358-1768 +MacMillin, Robert J. (RMACMILLIN) JPL 818/354-5011 +Magnum, Michelle GSFC 301/286-8956 +Malone, June MSFC 205/544-7061 +Malone, Lisa KSC 407/867-2468 +Malpass, Pat JSC 713/483-8658 +Mangel, Diane (DMANGEL) HQ 202/358-1898 +Marianetti, Eugene A. (EMARIANETTI) HQ 202/358-1721 +Mark Whalen JPL 818/354-5011 +Marlaire, Michael ARC 415/604-4191 +Martin, J. Campbell (JCMARTIN) LARC 804/864-6121 +Mauk, Larry KSC 407/867-2363 +Maull, Walter A. (WMAULL) HQ 202/358-1703 +May, Tony GSFC 301/286-8955 +McCarter, Jennifer HQ 202/358-1639 +McCloskey, Peter J. JPL 818/354-6916 +McCulla, James W. (JMCCULLA) HQ 202/358-0002 +McNevin III, Edward D. JPL 818/354-5011 +Medal, Edward D. (EMEDAL) MSFC 205/544-0038 +Mewhinney, Michael ARC 415/604-3937 +Miller, Sharon L. JPL 818/354-9318 +Montegani, Francis J. LERC 216/433-2956 +Moore, Constance HQ 202/358-1740 +Morse, David ARC 415/604-9000 +Mounce, Boyd E. JSC 713/483-8623 +Mroz, Marian J. LERC 216/433-5573 +Murden, Craig E. LARC 804/864-3296 +Nations, James P. JPL 818/354-9314 +Navias, Rob JSC 713/483-8651 +Nesbitt, Stephen A. (SNESBITT) JSC 713/483-4241 +Neuhauser, Philipp D. JPL 818/354-6278 +Nolan, Donald A. (DANOLAN) DFRF 805/258-3447 +O'Donnell, Franklin JPL 818/354-5011 +Palmer, Jean MSFC 205/544-6518 +Parker, Louis A. (LAPARKER) JSC 713/483-8622 +Patnesky, Andrew R. JSC 713/483-8636 +Pearl, Elaine GSFC 301/286-8957 +Pechon, Tina KSC 407/867-7819 +Pena, Mara R. JSC 713/483-0228 +Peto, Mary Ann (MAPETO) LERC 216/433-2902 +Petrachenko, Carol (Bionetics) LARC 804/864-6528 +Phelps, Patti KSC 407/867-4444 +Poindexter, James D. JSC 713/483-8624 +Poleskey, Carl GSFC 301/286-8982 +Price, A. Gary (AGPRICE) LARC 804/864-6124 +Rachul, Lori LERC 216/433-8806 +Rahn, Debra (DRAHN) HQ 202/358-1639 +Randolph, Beverly C. HQ 202/358-1724 +Ratajczak, Anthony F. LERC 216/433-2225 +Ratkewicz, Patricia GSFC 301/286-8102 +Reardon, Grace HQ 202/358-1547 +Redmond, Charles (CREDMOND) HQ 202/358-1757 +Reeves, Mary F. HQ 202/358-1708 +Respess, Patricia A. HQ 202/358-1701 +Rhoads, Norma JSC 713/483-0235 +Rhodes, Jean KSC 407/867-2363 +Rhodes, Jean KSC 407/867-2363 +Riep, Patricia M. (PRIEP) HQ 202/358-1764 +Ritter, Ransom MSFC 205/544-9275 +Rivera, Deborah (DRIVERA) HQ 202/358-1743 +Robbins , William W. (BILLROBBINS) JSC 713/483-8638 +Robinson, Nancy MSFC 205/544-6524 +Rock, Jill KSC 407/867-2622 +Ross, Christina KSC 407/867-2468 +Rovarino, Lisa M. JPL 818/354-6170 +Rowe-Lopez, Sheri L. JPL 818/354-6170 +Roy, Steven MSFC 205/544-6535 +Ruff, Janet GSFC 301/286-6255 +Ruhl, Robert K. MSFC 205/544-0031 +Sahli, Jim MSFC 205/544-6528 +Salas, Libby JSC 713/483-8608 +Salsitz, Elena L. JSC 713/483-5599 +Samuel, Yvonne JPL 818/354-0349 +Sarlin, E. Anita AMES 415/604-4044 +Savage, Don (DSAVAGE) HQ 202/358-1727 +Schauer, Catharine G. LARC 804/864-6122 +Schmid, Elizabeth V. HQ 202/358-1760 +Schmid, Jack HQ 202/358-2381 +Schmidt, Philip J. JPL 818/354-6916 +Schneider, Jo Ann HQ 202/358-1764 +Schulman, Robert HQ 202/358-2381 +Schwartz, Barbara L. JSC 713/483-8647 +Schwartz, Harvey J. LERC 216/433-2921 +Seidel, David M. JPL 818/354-9313 +Selby, Barbara (BSELBY) HQ 202/358-1983 +Shafer, Robert J. (RSHAFER) HQ 202/358-1767 +Shallcross, Mary Jo KSC 407/867-2622 +Shannon, Ernest MSFC 205/544-0030 +Shawnee, Laura A. (LASHAWNEE) ARC 415/604-3936 +Simmons, Mike MSFC 205/544-6537 +Sindelar, Terri (TSINDELAR) HQ 202/358-1977 +Skora, Marny LARC 804/864-3315 +Smigielski, Susan LARC 804/864-3293 +Smith, Gail T. LERC 216/433-6689 +Smith, Janet ARC 415/604-9000 +Stall , Harold S. (HSTALL) JSC 713/483-3671 +Steitz, David (DSTEITZ) HQ 202/358-1730 +Stewart, Syreeta LERC 216/433-5266 +Stone , Phillip L. LERC 216/433-2924 +Suit, Ann H. (ASUIT) LARC 804/864-3305 +Sullivan, Nancy SSC 601/688-3341 +Taylor, John B. (JBTAYLOR) MSFC 205/544-0031 +Tennison, Maret KSC 407/867-3395 +Terlep, Astrid ARC 415/604-3347 +Thames, Evelyn L. HQ 202/358-1719 +Thomas, Peter D. LARC 804/864-3117 +Thornsley, Ken KSC 407/867-7819 +Thornton, Cherise MSFC 205/544-6530 +Timms, Robin (PS) (RTIMMS) HQ 202/358-1749 +Townsend, Carolyn W. HQ 202/358-1781 +Turner, Sandra H. MSFC 205/544-8704 +Ulrich, Bertram R. HQ 202/358-1713 +Valleau, Mary ARC 415/604-3939 +Van der Woude, Jurrie JPL 818/354-5011 +Van Lepp, Kay F. JPL 818/354-9312 +Varnes, Gary (Mitch) KSC 407/867-2468 +Verniel, Pamela J. LARC 804/864-6362 +Vincent, Jeff (GVINCENT) HQ 202/358-1747 +Virata, Manny KSC 407/867-7819 +Waller, Peter W. ARC 415/604-3938 +Walsh, John F. III (JWALSH) HQ 202/358-1900 +Walton, Tommie L. JSC 713/483-8610 +Ward, Douglas K. (DKWARD) JSC 713/483-3671 +Washington, Althea HQ 202/358-1738 +Watson, Cynthia M. LERC 216/433-2888 +Weatherspoon, Mary HQ 202/358-1720 +Webb, Myron L. (MLWEBB) SSC 601/688-3341 +Welch, Brian D. JSC 713/483-8650 +Whalen, Mark JPL 818/354-5011 +Williams, Leslie KSC 407/867-2468 +Williams, Patrice C. (PCWILLIAMS) HQ 202/358-1729 +Wilson, James H. JPL 818/354-5011 +Witherspoon, Virginia MSFC 205/544-1798 +Wood, Alan S. JPL 818/354-5011 +Young, Dick (PAO.KSC) KSC 407/867-2468 +Young, Tracey KSC 407/867-4444 +Zeitman, Ginny ARC 415/604-3574 +Zudell, Doreen B. LERC 216/433-2901 diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/nasa1.txt b/textfiles.com/science/nasa1.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d386acf8 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/nasa1.txt @@ -0,0 +1,130 @@ + + + + + +NASA SPACELINK BACKGROUND + +NASA Spacelink runs on a Data General ECLIPSE MV-7800 minicomputer located at +the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. +NASA Spacelink software was developed and donated to NASA by the Data +General Corporation of Westboro, Massachusetts. The system has a main +memory of 14 megabytes (14 million characters), disk storage space for 708 +megabytes, and can communicate with eight callers simultaneously at 300, +1200, or 2400 baud. NASA Spacelink is a dynamic system that will change and +expand daily. It was made available to the public in February, 1988. + +Initial funding for NASA Spacelink was provided by the Educational Affairs +Division at NASA Headquarters.The NASA Spacelink data base is maintained +by the Public Services and Education Branch of the Marshall Space Flight +Center Public Affairs Office. Operational support is provided by the +Information Systems Office at the Marshall Center. Information on NASA +scientific projects and educational programs is provided to NASA Spacelink +by education specialists at NASA Headquarters and the NASA field centers. + +While NASA understands that people from a wide variety of backgrounds will +use NASA Spacelink, the system is specifically designed for teachers. The +More [Y,n]? +data base is arranged to provide easy access to current and historical +information on NASA aeronautics and space research. Also included are +suggested classroom activities that incorporate information on NASA +projects to teach a number of scientific principles. Unlike bulletin board +systems, NASA Spacelink does not provide for interaction between callers. +However it does allow teachers and other callers to leave questions and +comments for NASA which may be answered by regular mail. + + +HOW TO USE NASA SPACELINK + +The communications parameters for accessing NASA Spacelink are: +300, 1200, or 2400 baud +8 data bits +1 stop bit +No parity bits + +The telephone number for NASA Spacelink is 205-895-0028. + +To use NASA Spacelink, type the number of the menu item most likely to +contain information of interest, and hit your computer's return, carriage +return (CR), new line, or enter key. You will find one or more sub-menus +under each item in the main menu. Continue choosing menu items until the +More [Y,n]? +desired information appears. + +For example, if you are a sixth grade teacher and you want to plan a lesson +around food for astronauts, choose item 9 from the Main Menu (Materials for +Classroom Use). From the next menu choose item 2 (Living in Space +Activities, Grades 1-6). From the next menu choose item 2 (Food Lesson +Plans). Your final menu choice will be item 9 (Grade 6), which will +provide suggested activities for sixth grade students. + +Every Spacelink menu offers the options of returning to the previous menu +(item 0) or returning to the Main Menu (item 1). + +When you first logged on to NASA Spacelink, you indicated the number of +lines your computer monitor will display at one time. NASA Spacelink will +pause accordingly to allow time to read information that has appeared on +screen. You may press RETURN whenever you are ready for NASA Spacelink to +continue. + +If you wish to override the pause feature to allow continuous scrolling, +type the letter "C" (for Continuous) when text begins to appear. You must +type the letter "C" every time you want text to scroll continuously. This +feature will be helpful when you are not reading text, but are saving it to +disk. +More [Y,n]? + +If you wish to stop viewing text while it is scrolling, you may type the +letter "S" (for STOP) and the previous menu will reappear. + +If you want text to pause on demand, type the letter "S" while depressing +your computer's "Control" key. To resume scrolling, type the letter "Q" +while depressing your computer's "Control" key. + +If you want to erase a typing mistake, depress your computer's "Control" +key and type the letter "H" as many times as necessary to remove the error. +(The "DELETE" key or the left arrow key on many computers will generate +Ctrl/H.) Please note that your mistake will not disappear from the screen. +Instead, an underscore character (_) will appear for each character you +delete. Example: If you type "Appple," you should enter Ctrl/H three +times to erase the last three letters of the word and then you should type +"le" again. The corrected word will appear as "Appple___le" on your screen, +but it will appear as "Apple" in NASA Spacelink's memory. + +In brief, here are the keys you can use to control operation of NASA +Spacelink: + +---------------------------------------------------------- +Key Effect +More [Y,n]? q + +Use `Y' for YES or `N' for NO. +More [Y,n]? xDOYOYOY y +---------------------------------------------------------- + +RETURN Causes text that has paused to resume scrolling + +C Causes text to scroll continuously to end + +S Causes text to stop scrolling and returns + user to previous menu + +Ctrl/S Causes text to pause + +Ctrl/Q Causes text to resume scrolling after being + stopped by Ctrl/S + +Ctrl/H Deletes typing mistakes (Your computer's Delete + key or left arrow key may generate Ctrl/H.) + +---------------------------------------------------------- +====End of Document==== + +More [Y,n]? y +Download complete. Turn off Capture File. + +rowse, epeat, or uit?File area # 1 ... Text & Doc Files + +A)rea change L)ocate F)ile titles T)ype (show) G)oodbye U)pload +D)ownload S)tatistics M)ain menu C)ontents +Select: woYE+bNeG0YQY(+QER)m2]Sc"v1RkB, LOW, HIGH, -, SLIGHT, FIZZ. + Unless there is a single number + without a <, >, or - , assume the yield is unknown and very + approximate. + FIZZ=fizzle or failure with extremely low yield. F followed by + a number, eg F300, is a test which had a smaller yield than + expected. Apparently some fizzles were two-stage devices in + which the fusion stage produced little or no yield. + +COLUMNS 43-49: Latitude in degrees and decimals of a degree. Although it can't + be shown in this format, many US shots have coordinates + released to 0.1 or 0.01 seconds (0.00003 or 0.000003 degrees). + +COLUMNS 51-58: Longitude in degrees and decimals of a degree. See comments + about US shots under latitude. + +COLUMNS 60-61: +PU=Purpose: WR=weapons related, **=war, WE=weapons effects, SF=safety + PS=Plowshare (US PNE engineering shots) + VU=US Vela Uniform-directed toward seismic detection of + underground shots + +COLUMNS 62-63: +DT=Device Type: U=fission only with primarialy U235, or boosted or two + stage with primarialy U235 primary (trigger, pit) + P=fission only with primarialy Pu239, or boosted or two + stage with primarialy Pu239 primary (trigger, pit) + I=fission only, fission material mix unknown + B="boosted", some fusion yield, perhaps from tritium + 2=two stage, fusion second stage + +Zero yield omitted: USDOE "Announced Nuclear Tests" with zero yield are not + included in this nuclear EXPLOSION catalog. Some of these are described + as being safety or storage-transportation tests. + +COLUMNS 64-67: For underground tests: Rock type at device emplacement point. + GR= granite + QP= quartz porphyrite + SA= sandstone + AL= aleurolite (siltstone) + PO= porphryte + QS= quartz syneite + GS= gritstone + AR= argillite (mudstone) + CO= conglomerate + TS= tuffaceous sandstone + SL= salt + +COLUMN 68: += device emplaced above water table + -= device emplaced below water table + + +COLUMN 69-76: +NAME=Name of explosion. All US announced, and a few French, and all UK + underground tests have a name. In early US atmospheric testing some + names were reused. When the names are too long for the table, any space + is first dropped, and second, the name is truncated, not abbreviated. + A few words appear often enough as the component of a name that they + are abberviated by a lower case letter as follows: + g=GERBOISE, m=MIST, y=MISTY, p=PRIME, d=DIAMOND + A * in the first column of the name indicates a putative nuclear test + (ie. not announced or acknowledged by the PRESUMED testing party). + A second * in the name column indicates some doubt about wheither the + event was a nuclear explosion. A number of US tests listed only by + N (NRDC), which have ** in the name column, may be cavity collapses from + previous tests, or earthquakes, but they may include some unannounced + nuclear explosions. + +COLUMNS 77-80: Generalized References + E= United States Department of Energy + N= Natural Resources Defense Council + B= Bolt "The Parted Veil: Nuclear Explosions and Earthquakes" + A= Bocharv, V. S., S. A. Zelentsov, and V. N. Mikhailov. + Characteristics of 96 underground nuclear explosions at the + Semipalatinsk test site, Atomnaya Energiya, 67, (3), 1989. + D= Dominion of New Zeland, Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research + I= International Seismological Centre + C= United States Advanced Research Projects Agency/ Nuclear Monitoring + Research Office/ Center for Seismic Studies + S= Seismic Service of the Russian Federation Ministry of Defense + U= United Kingdom Atomic Weapons Research Establishment + F= Ronald Walters and Kenneth S. Zinn, The September 22, 1979 Mystery + Flash: Did South Africa Detonate a Nuclear Bomb? Report of the + Washington Office on Africa Educational Fund, May 21,1985. + n= ARPA/NMRO/NORwegianSeismicARray (NORSAR) + +DATE TIME TP TYPE MAG YIELD LAT LON PU ROCKw +yymmdd hhmmss. 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USENW SURF FIZZ WR QUINCE E +580812 USJON ROCH 3800 WE ORANGE E +580818 USENW SURF low WR FIG E +580822 180000.0 GBCHR BALN >100 B +580827 USSAT ROCH 1-2 WE ARGUS 1 E +580830 USSAT ROCH 1-2 WE ARGUS 2 E +580902 172400.0 GBCHR AIRD >1000 B +580906 USSAT ROCH 1-2 WE ARGUS 3 E +580911 174800.0 GBCHR AIRD >1000 B +580912 USNTS RC .038 SF OTERO E +580917 USNTS RC .015 SF BERNALILE +580919 USNTS BALN .083 WR EDDY E +580920 CPNZ ATMO 73.000N 055.000E N +580921 USNTS RC 1.5 SF LUNA E +580923 USNTS TUNN SF MERCURY E +580923 175800.0 GBCHR BALN >100 B +580926 USNTS RC .002 SF VALENCIAE +580928 USNTS TUNN .013 SF MARS E +580929 USNTS BALN 2 WR MORA E +580930 075000.0 CPNZ ATMO 50+ 73.000N 055.000E N +580930 095500.0 CPNZ ATMO 50+ 73.000N 055.000E N +581002 080000.0 CPNZ ATMO >20 73.000N 055.000E N +581002 090100.0 CPNZ ATMO 73.000N 055.000E N +581005 USNTS RC 5.5 SF COLFAX E +581005 USNTS BALN 77 SF HIDALGO E +581005 060000.0 CPNZ ATMO 73.000N 055.000E N +581008 USNTS TUNN 72 WR TAMALPA E +581010 USNTS TOWR 79 WR QUAY E +581010 075100.0 CPNZ ATMO HIGH 73.000N 055.000E N +581012 075300.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +581013 USNTS BALN 1.4 WR LEA E +581014 USNTS TUNN 115 SF NEPTUNE E +581015 USNTS TOWR 1.2 WR HAMILTONE +581015 075100.0 CPNZ ATM0 >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +581016 USNTS TUNN 5 WR LOGAN E +581016 USNTS BALN 37 WR DONA ANAE +581017 USNTS SURF 24 SF VESTA E +581018 USNTS TOWR 90 WR RIOARRIBE +581018 095100.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +581019 072700.0 CPNZ ATMO LOW 73.000N 055.000E N +581020 082000.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +581022 USNTS BALN 6 WR SOCORRO E +581022 USNTS BALN 115 WR WRANGELLE +581022 USNTS BALN 188 WR RUSHMOREE +581022 082100.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +591024 USNTS TOWR 21 SF CATRON E +581024 USNTS SURF 1.7 SF JUNO E +581024 080300.0 CPNZ ATMO HIGH 73.000N 055.000E N +581025 082000.0 CPNZ ATMO HIGH 73.000N 055.000E N +581026 USNTS TOWR 0.7 SF CERES E +581026 USNTS BALN 4.9 WR SANFORD E +581026 USNTS BALN 2.2 WR DE BACA E +581027 USNTS TOWR 0.6 SF CHAVEZ E +581029 USNTS TUNN 55 WR EVANS E +581029 USNTS TOWR 7.8 WR HUMBOLDTE +581030 USNTS BALN 1.3 WR SANTA FEE +581030 USNTS TUNN 22 WR BLANCA E +581030 USNTS TOWR 0.2 SF TITANIA E +581101 CP ATMO LOW N +581103 CP ATMO LOW N +600213 070400.0 FRREG TOWR 60-70 26.317N 000.067W WE P g BLEUE N +600401 061700.0 FRREG SURF <20 26.100N 000.150W WR P g BLANCHN +601227 073000.0 FRHAM TOWR >100 WE P g ROUGE N +610425 060000.0 FRREG TOWR <1 P N +610901 CPKTS ATMO 150 50.000N 078.000E N +610904 CPKTS ATMO 10-80 50.000N 078.000E N +610905 CPKTS ATMO LOW 50.000N 078.000E N +610906 CPKPY ATMO 25 48.450N 044.300E N +610910 090000.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +610910 CPNZ ATMO LOW 73.000N 055.000E N +610912 100800.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +610913 CPNZ ATMO LOW 73.000N 055.000E N +610913 CPKTS ATMO LOW 50.000N 078.000E N +610914 095616.7 CPNZ ATMO >1000 74.600N 051.100E N +610915 USNTS TUNN 2.6 WR ANTLER E +610916 USNTS SHFT LOW WR SHREW E +610916 090800.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +610917 CPKTS ATMO 20-150 50.000N 078.000E N +610918 075936.8 CPNZ ATMO >1000 74.000N 052.000E N +610920 081200.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +610922 080100.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +611002 103100.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +611004 073054.8 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.700N 053.800E N +611006 070000.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +611006 CPKPY ATMO ~200 N +611008 CPNZ ATMO LOW 73.000N 055.000E N +611001 USNTS SHFT LOW WR BOOMER E +611010 USNTS TUNN LOW WR CHENA E +611011 073959.9 CP UNDG <20 49.772N 077.995E A +611012 CPKTS ATMO LOW 50.000N 078.000E N +611020 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +611021 CPSYS ATMO <5 N +611023 083122.1 CPNZ ATMO 25000 73.900N 053.800E N +611023 103048.8 CPNZ UNDW LOW 70.700N 053.500E N +611025 083300.0 CPNZ ATMO <1000 73.000N 055.000E N +611027 083026.6 CPNZ ATMO 20-150 70.700N 053.500E N +611027 CPSYS ATMO <5 N +611029 USNTS SHFT LOW WR MINK E +611030 083300.0 CPNZ ATMO 58000 73.000N 055.000E N +611031 082900.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +611031 083800.0 CPNZ ATMO <1000 73.000N 055.000E N +611102 084100.0 CPNZ 20-150 73.000N 055.000E N +611104 072000.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +611107 112959.9 FRECK SH? <20 24.057N 005.052E WR AGATE N +611203 USNTS SHFT 13.4 WR FISHER E +611210 USCLS SHFT 3 PS GNOME E +611213 USNTS SHFT 0.50 WR MAD E +611217 USNTS SHFT LOW WR RINGTAILE +611222 USNTS TUNN LOW WR FEATHER E +620109 USNTS SHFT 5.1 WR STOAT E +620118 USNTS SHFT 6.4 WR AGOUTI E +620130 USNTS SHFT LOW WR DORMOUSEE +620202 080000.2 CPKTS UNDG <20 49.777N 078.001E A +620208 USNTS SHFT 3.07 WR STILLWATE +620209 USNTS SHFT 7.1 WR ARMADILOE +620215 USNTS SHFT 5.7 WE HARD HATE +620219 USNTS SHFT 1.9 WR CHINCHILE +620219 USNTS SHFT LOW WR CODSAW E +620223 USNTS SHFT 11.90 WR CIMARRONE +620224 USNTS SHFT LOW WR PLATYPUSE +620301 GBNTS SHFT LOW PAMPAS E +620305 USNTS CRAT 0.43 WE DANNYBOYE +620306 USNTS SHFT LOW WR ERMINE E +620308 USNTS SHFT 8.4 WR BRAZOS E +620315 USNTS SHFT LOW WR HOGNOSE E +620328 USNTS SHFT 3.40 WR HOOSIC E +620331 USNTS SHFT LOW WR CHINCHI2E +620405 USNTS SHFT 10.6 WR DORMOUSpE +620406 USNTS SHFT LOW WR PASSAIC E +620412 USNTS SHFT LOW WR HUDSON E +620414 USNTS TUNN 1.85 WR PLATTE E +620421 USNTS SHFT LOW WR DEAD E +620425 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR ADOBE E +620427 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR AZTEC E +620427 USNTS SHFT LOW WR BLACK E +620501 100000.5 FRECK SH? >20 24.063N 005.042E WR BERYL N +620502 USCHR AIRD LOW 1000 WR ARKANSASE +620504 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR QUESTA E +620506 USPAC ROCH 600 WR FRIGATEBEN +620507 USNTS SHFT LOW WR PACA E +620508 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR YUKON E +620509 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR MESILLA E +620510 USNTS SHFT LOW WR ARIKAREEE +620511 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR MUSKEGONE +620511 USPAC UNDW LOW WE SWORDFISE +620512 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR ENCINO E +620512 USNTS SHFT 40 WR AARDVARKE +620514 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR SWANEE E +620519 USNTS SHFT LOW WR EEL E +620519 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR CHETCO E +620525 USNTS SHFT LOW WR WHITE E +620525 USCHR AIRD LOW WR TANANA E +620527 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR NAMBE E +620601 USNTS SHFT LOW WR RACCOON E +620606 USNTS SHFT LOW WR PACKRAT E +620608 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR ALMA E +620609 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR TRUCKEE E +620610 USCHR AIRD >1000 WR 2 YESO EN +620612 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR HARLEM E +620613 USNTS TUNN LOW WR DESMOINEE +620615 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR RINCONADE +620617 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR DULCE E +620619 USCHR AIRD LOW WR PETIT E +620621 USNTS SHFT LOW WR DAMAN 1 E +620622 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR OTOWI E +620627 USCHR AIRD >1000 WR 2 BIGHORN EN +620627 USNTS SHFT 67 WR HAYMAKERE +620628 USNTS TUNN LOW WE MARSHMALE +620630 USCHR AIRD >1000 WR 2 BLUESTONEN +620630 USNTS SHFT LOW WR SACRAMENE +620706 USNTS CRAT 104 PS SEDAN E +620707 USNTS SURF LOW WE LFELLER1E +620709 USJON ROCH 1400 WE 2 STARFISHEN +620710 USCHR AIRD 20-1000 WR SUNSET +620711 USCHR AIRD >1000 WR 2 PAMLICO EN +620711 USNTS CRAT 0.5 WE JOHNNIEBE +620713 USNTS SHFT 20-1000 WR MERRIMACE +620714 USNTS TOWR LOW WE SMALLBOYE +620717 USNTS SURF LOW WE LFELLER2E +620727 USNTS SHFT LOW WR WICHITA E +620805 090900.0 CPNZ ATMO 30000 73.000N 055.000E N +620807 093000.0 CPKTS ATMO LOW 50.000N 078.000E N +620810 090000.0 CPNZ ATMO <1000 73.000N 055.000E N +620820 090214.1 CPNZ ATMO >1000 74.300N 051.500E N +620822 090000.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +620824 USNTS SHFT LOW WR YORK E +620824 USNTS SHFT LOW WR BOBAC E +620825 054000.0 CPKTS ATMO LOW 50.000N 078.000E N +620825 090000.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +620827 090000.0 CPNZ ATMO 1000+ 73.000N 055.000E N +620901 124000.0 CPNZ ATMO 73.000N 055.000E N +620902 CPNZ ATMO 20-150 73.000N 055.000E N +620906 USNTS SHFT LOW WR RARITAN E +620908 101800.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +620914 USNTS SHFT LOW WR HYRAX E +620915 080213.9 CPNZ ATMO >1000 74.400N 051.500E N +620916 105900.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +620918 082902.7 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.200N 054.700E N +620919 110056.4 CPNZ ATMO 20000 73.800N 053.800E N +620920 USNTS SHFT LOW WR PEBA E +620921 080100.0 CPNZ ATMO 25000 73.000N 055.000E N +620925 130300.0 CPNZ 25000 73.000N 055.000E N +620927 080316.4 CPNZ ATMO >1000 74.300N 052.400E N +620929 USNTS SHFT LOW WR ALLEGHENE +621002 USJON AIRD 20-1000 WR ANDROSCOE +621005 USNTS SHFT 115 WR MISSISSIE +621006 USJON AIRD LOW WR BUMPING E +621007 163200.0 CPNZ ATMO >20 73.000N 055.000E N +621012 USNTS SHFT LOW WR ROANOKE E +621012 USNTS SHFT LOW WR WOLVERINE +621014 CPKTS ATMO LOW 50.000N 078.000E N +621018 USJON AIRD >1000 WR 2 CHAMA E +621018 USNTS SHFT LOW WR TIOGA E +621019 USNTS SHFT LOW WR BANDICOOE +621020 USJON ROCH LOW WE CHECKMATE +621022 034100.0 CPKTS ATMO >100 50.000N 078.000E N +621022 090600.0 CPNZ ATMO >1000 73.000N 055.000E N +621026 USJON ROCH <1000 WE BLUEGIL E +621027 USNTS SHFT LOW WR SANTEE E +621027 USJON AIRD 20-1000 WR CALAMITYE +621027 073500.0 CPNZ ATMO 20-1000 73.000N 055.000E N +621028 044100.0 CPKTS ATMO LOW 50.000N 078.000E N +621029 073500.0 CPNZ ATMO 20-1000 73.000N 055.000E N +621030 USJON AIRD >1000 WR 2 HOUSATONEN +621030 CPNZ ATMO 20-1000 73.000N 055.000E N +621101 USJON ROCH <1000 WE KINGFISHE +621101 063000.0 CPNZ ATMO 20-1000 73.000N 055.000E N +621101 092000.0 CPKTS ATMO 20-1000 50.000N 078.000E N +621103 083100.0 CPNZ ATMO 20-1000 73.000N 055.000E N +621104 USJON ROCH LOW WE TIGHTROPE +621104 CPKTS ATMO 20-1000 50.000N 078.000E N +621109 USNTS SHFT LOW WR ST.LAWREE +621115 USNTS SHFT LOW WR GUNDI E +621117 CPKTS ATMO LOW 50.000N 078.000E N +621127 USNTS SHFT LOW PS ANACOSTIE +621204 USNTS SHFT LOW WR TAUNTON E +621207 GBNTS SHFT LOW TENDRAC E +621212 USNTS TUNN LOW WR MADISON E +621212 USNTS SHFT LOW WR NUMBAT E +621214 USNTS SHFT LOW WR MANATEE E +621218 CPNZ ATMO 20-1000 73.000N 055.000E N +621218 CPNZ ATMO 20-1000 73.000N 055.000E N +621220 CPNZ ATMO 20-1000 73.000N 055.000E N +621222 CPNZ ATMO 20-1000 73.000N 055.000E N +621223 111500.0 CPNZ ATMO 500-5000 73.000N 055.000E N +621224 104421.9 CPNZ ATMO 74.200N 052.300E N +621224 111142.0 CPNZ ATMO 20000 73.600N 057.500E N +621225 133557.2 CPNZ ATMO 500-5000 73.400N 056.500E N +630208 USNTS SHFT LOW WR CASSELMAE +630208 USNTS SHFT LOW WR ACUSHI E +630208 USNTS SHFT LOW WR FERRET E +630208 USNTS SHFT LOW WR HATCHIE E +630215 USNTS SHFT LOW WR CHIPMUNKE +630221 USNTS SHFT LOW PS KAWEAH E +630221 USNTS SHFT LOW WR CARMEL E +630301 USNTS SHFT LOW WR JERBOA E +630315 USNTS SHFT LOW WR TOYAH E +630318 100100.4 FRECK SH? 4.9 4.86 24.041N 005.072E WR EMERAUDEN +630329 USNTS SHFT LOW WR GERBIL E +630330 095900.3 FRECK SH? <20 24.043N 005.057E WR AMETHST N +630405 USNTS SHFT LOW WR FERRETPRE +630410 USNTS SHFT LOW WR COYPU E +630411 USNTS SHFT LOW WR CUMBERLAE +630424 USNTS SHFT LOW WR KOOTANAIE +630424 USNTS SHFT LOW WR PAISANO E +630509 USNTS SHFT LOW WR GUNDIPRIE +630517 USNTS SHFT LOW WR HARKEE E +630517 USNTS SHFT LOW WR TEJON E +630522 USNTS SHFT 20-1000 WR STONES E +630529 USNTS SHFT LOW WR PLEASANTE +630605 USNTS TUNN LOW WR YUBA E +630606 USNTS SHFT LOW WR HUTIA E +630606 USNTS SHFT LOW WR APSHAPAPE +630614 USNTS SHFT LOW WR MATACO E +630625 USNTS SHFT LOW WR KENNEBECE +630812 USNTS SHFT LOW WR PEKAN E +630815 USNTS SHFT LOW WR SATSOP E +630823 USNTS SHFT LOW WR KOHOCTONE +630913 USNTS SHFT LOW WR AHTANUM E +630913 USNTS SHFT 249 WR BILBY E +631011 USNTS SHFT LOW WR GRUNION E +631011 USNTS SHFT LOW PS TORNILLOE +631016 USNTS SHFT 20-1000 WR CLEARWATE +631020 130000.0 FRECK SH? 5.5 5.49 24.036N 005.039E WR RUBIS N +630927 1420 USNTSYSH? 3. ** E +631026 USFAL SHFT 12 VU SHOAL E +631114 USNTS SHFT LOW WR ANCHOVY E +631115 USNTS SHFT LOW WR MUSTANG E +631122 USNTS SHFT 20-1000 WR GREYS E +631204 USNTS SHFT LOW WR SARDINE E +631212 USNTS SHFT LOW WR EAGLE E +640116 USNTS SHFT 20-200 37.090N 116.090W WR FORE E +640123 160000.2 USNTS SHFT 4.2 <20 37.080N 116.050W WR OCONTO E +640130 160000.8 USNTSYSH? 4.1 37.117N 115.915W ** N +640213 153006.5 USNTSYSH? 4.0 37.20N 115.90W ** N +640218 153718.8 USNTSYSH? 4.4 37.06N 116.00W ** E +640220 153000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.1 24 37.20N 111.00W KLICKITAEN +640312 150007.0 USNTS SH? 3.3 37.30N 116.20W ** E +640313 160200.1 USNTS SHFT <20 36.901N 116.201W WR PIKE E +640315 075958.2 CPKTSDUNDG 5.6 20-150 49.815N 078.075E A +640414 144000.1 USNTS SHFT <20 37.150N 115.980W WR HOOK E +640415 143000.1 USNTS SHFT <20 37.102N 116.402W WR STURGEONE +640424 201000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.2 20-200 37.070N 116.110W WR TURF E +640429 204700.0 USNTS SHFT 4.1 <20 37.040N 116.040W WR PIPEFISHE +640514 144000.1 USNTS SHFT <20 36.405N 115.803W WR BACKSWINE +640515 161459.6 USNTS SHFT <20 37.100N 116.000W WR MINNOW E +640516 060057.8 CPKTSDUNDG 5.6 20-150 49.807N 078.101E GR A +640611 164501.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.160N 115.901W PS ACE E +640612 140104.0 USNTSYSH? 3.2 36.8N 116.2W ** N +640615 134000.4 FRECK SH? <20 24.067N 005.035E WR TOPAZE N +640618 133006.0 USNTSYSH? 3.2 37.3N 115.6W ** N +640624 150715 USNTS SH? 3.1 36.8N 116.7W ** N +640625 133000.3 USNTS SHFT <20 37.050N 116.070W WR FADE E +640630 133259.8 USNTS SHFT <20 37.130N 116.100W PS DUB E +640716 131459.9 USNTS SHFT 20-200 37.100N 116.070W WR BYE E +640717 GBNTS SHFT <20 CORMORANE +640719 055958.6 CPKTSDUNDG 5.4 <20 49.809N 078.092E GR A +640819 160001.8 USNTS SHFT <20 37.101N 116.001W WR ALVA E +640822 221701.2 USNTS SHFT <20 37.004N 116.001W WR CANVASBAE +640828 170601.9 USNTS SHFT <20 37.030N 116.030W WR HADDOCK E +640904 181501.8 USNTS SHFT <20 36.970N 116.050W WR GUANAY E +640918 075957.2 CPNZ UNDG 4.3 73.200N 054.400E N +641002 200300.6 USNTS SHFT 4.0 <20 37.070N 116.010W WR AUK E +641009 140002.6 USNTS SHFT 4.8 38 37.070N 116.130W PS PAR E +641016 155930.5 USNTS SHFT <20 37.030N 115.970W WR BARBEL E +641016 070000.0 PCLNR TOWR 20 08.500S 131.000E N +641022 155959.2 USHTB SHFT 4.6 5.3 31.280N 089.440W VU SALMON E +641025 075958.3 CPNZ UNDG 4.9 48 73.390N 053.900E N +641031 170458.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.080N 116.080W WR FOREST E +641105 150001.5 USNTS SHFT 4.8 12 37.110N 116.120W PS HANDCAR E +641116 055958.0 CPKTS UNDG 88 49.800N 078.170E N +641128 103000.0 FRECK SH? <20 24.042N 005.042E WR TURQUOI N +641205 211503.1 USNTS SHFT 4.8 20-200 37.080N 116.110W WR CREPE E +641205 USNTS SHFT 3.4 WR DRILL E +641216 200000.0 USNTS SHFT 1.3 37.020N 116.004W WR PARROT E +641216 201000.1 USNTS SHFT 2.7 37.001N 115.801W WE MUDPACK E +641218 193500.1 USNTS SHFT 0.092 37.045N 116.203W PS SULKY E +641223 1843 USNTSFSH? 2.8 ** N +650114 160000.7 USNTS SHFT <20 37.07N 116.04W WR WOOL E +650116 055958.4 CPKTSBUNDG 5.8 100-150 49.935N 079.009E SA A +650129 182159.7 USNTSYSH? 3.6 37.02N 116.03W ** N +650204 152959.7 USNTS SHFT <20 37.08N 116.10W WR CASHMEREE +650212 USNTS SHFT <20 WR ALPACA E +650216 173001.6 USNTS SHFT 10.1 36.99N 116.00W WR MERLIN E +650218 161847.3 USNTS SHFT <20 36.72N 115.94W WE WISHBONEE +650227 113000.0 FRECK SHFT 5.7 117 24.059N 005.031E WR SAPHIR N +650303 191303.2 USNTS SHFT 20-200 37.01N 116.08W WR WAGTAIL E +650303 061456.8 CPKTSDUNDG 5.5 <20 49.824N 078.052E GR A +650320 152350 USNTSYSH? 3.3 37.00N 116.3W ** N +650326 153410.6 USNTS SHFT 20-200 37.11N 116.09W WR CUP E +650405 210003.3 USNTS SHFT <20 36.95N 116.08W WR KESTREL E +650414 131402.6 USNTS CRAT 4.3 37.26N 116.54W PS PALANQUIE +650421 220003.4 USNTS TUNN 5.0 <20 36.97N 116.23W WE GUM DROPE +650422 133904.7 USNTSYSH? 3.9 37.13N 115.90W ** N +650423 214400.0 USNTSYSH? 3.7 37.017N 115.995 MUSCOVY IN +650507 154711.3 USNTS SHFT <20 37.14N 116.10W WE TEE E +650511 063957.3 CPKTSDUNDG 4.9 <20 49.770N 077.994E GR A +650512 18150.04 USNTS SHFT <20 37.2N 116.5W WR BUTEO E +650514 173238.3 USNTS SHFT <20 37.07N 116.05W WR SCAUP E +650514 145756.3 USNTS SHFT 0.75 36.84N 116.07W WR CAMBRIC E +650514 020000.0 PCLNR AIRD 20-40 N +650521 130854.8 USNTS SHFT <20 37.07N 116.04W WR TWEED E +650530 110000.0 FRECK SH? <20 24.055N 005.051E WR JADE N +650611 194500.4 USNTS SHFT 1.3 37.00N 116.05W WR PETREL E +650611 2027 USNTSYSH? ** N +650616 163000.0 USNTS SHFT <20 36.83N 116.06W WE DILUTEDWE +650617 USNTS TUNN <20 WE TINY TOTE +650617 034500.0 CPKTSDUNDG 5.2 <20 49.828N 078.066E GR A +650723 170002.0 USNTS SHFT 5.4 20-200 37.06N 116.03W WR BRONZE E +650729 030500.2 CPKTSDUNDG 4.5 <20 49.779N 077.998E GR A +650806 172330.8 USNTS SHFT <20 37.02N 116.11W WR MAUVE E +650821 134309 USNTSYSH? 3.4 ** N +650827 135113.1 USNTS SHFT <20 37.08N 116.04W WR CENTAUR E +650901 200759.4 USNTS SHFT 4.2 <20 36.99N 115.95W WE SCREAMERE +650910 171202.1 GBNTS SHFT 5.1 20-200 36.98N 115.99W CHARCOALE +650917 150823.1 USNTS SHFT <20 37.06N 116.02W WR ELKHART E +650917 040000.1 CPKTSDUNDG 5.2 <20 49.811N 078.146E QP A +651001 100000.0 FRECK SH? <20 24.065N 005.034E WR CORINDN N +651008 060000.4 CPKTSDUNDG 5.4 <20 49.825N 078.111E QP A +651029 210003.6 USAMC SHFT 5.8 80 51.61N 179.22E VU LONGSHOTE +651112 180000.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.03N 116.01W WR SEPIA E +651121 045758.2 CPKTSDUNDG 5.6 23 49.860N 078.040E GR A +651123 181733 USNTSYSH? 3.6 ** N +651201 103000.1 FRECK SH? 4.9 10 24.044N 005.047E WR TOURMALIN +651203 151304.5 USNTS SHFT 5.6 20-200 37.13N 116.02W WR CORDUROYE +651216 153918.1 USNTS SHFT <20 37.08N 116.03W WR EMERSON E +651216 191502.6 USNTS SHFT 5.3 20-200 37.02N 116.05W WR BUFF E +651224 045958.2 CPKTSDUNDG 5.0 5.7 49.871N 078.135E QP A +651225 185955 USNTSYSH? 3.6 37.0N 116.3W ** N +660113 153743.1 USNTS SHFT <20 37.17N 116.02W WR MAXWELL E +660118 183503.3 USNTS SHFT 5.2 20-200 37.10N 116.05W WR LAMPBLACE +660121 182759.3 USNTS SHFT <20 37.03N 115.97W WR DOVEKIE E +660122 151720 USNTSYSH? 3.2 ** N +660203 181737.1 USNTS SHFT <20 37.07N 116.10W WR PLAID 2 E +660213 045757.5 CPKTSDUNDG 6.1 81 49.840N 078.158E QP A +660216 110000.0 FRECK SHFT 4.9 13 24.044N 005.041E WR GRENAT N +660224 155510.5 USNTS SHFT 5.0 19 37.17N 116.42W WR REX E +660305 181500.7 USNTS TUNN <20 37.15N 116.11W WE RED HOT E +660307 184100.5 USNTS SHFT <20 36.94N 116.13W WR FINFOOT E +660312 180413.2 USNTS SHFT <20 37.08N 116.09W WR CLYMER E +660318 190002.7 USNTS SHFT <20 36.90N 116.15W WR PURPLE E +660320 054957.8 CPKTSDUNDG 6.0 61 49.720N 078.070E QP A +660324 145529.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.05N 116.16W PS TEMPLAR E +660401 184001.1 USNTS SHFT <20 37.05N 115.88W WR LIME E +660406 135717.1 USNTS SHFT 4.4 <20 37.08N 116.08W WR STUTZ E +660407 222730.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.01N 115.59W WR TOMATO E +660414 141346.4 USNTS SHFT 5.4 70 37.20N 116.45W WR DURYEA E +660421 035757.5 CPKTSDUNDG 5.3 11 49.808N 078.135E GR A +660422 025804.0 CP UNDG 4.7 1.1 47.930N 047.690E N +660423 USNTS SHFT <20 WR FENTON E +660425 183803.3 USNTS SHFT 4.5 <20 36.82N 115.96W WE PINSTRPEE +660504 133219.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.17N 115.96W WR TRAVELR E +660505 140003.1 USNTS SHFT 4.4 12 37.03N 116.02W WR CYCLAMENE +660506 150003.1 USNTS SHFT 5.4 73 37.20N 116.19W WR CHARTREUE +660507 035758.0 CPKTSDUNDG 4.8 3.6 49.774N 078.149E QP A +660509 080000.0 PCLNR AIRD 200 N +660512 193726.0 USNTS SHFT 4.3 <20 37.08N 116.04W WR TAPESTRYE +660513 133000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.6 20-200 37.05N 116.02W WR PIRANNA E +660519 135628.1 USNTS SHFT 5.9 20-200 37.06N 116.03W WR DUMONT E +660527 200003.0 USNTS SHFT 5.0 22 37.10N 116.05W WE DISCUSTHE +660602 153001.8 USNTS TUNN 5.6 62 37.21N 116.00W WE PILEDRIVE +660603 140002.2 USNTS SHFT 5.7 20-200 37.03N 116.01W WR TAN E +660610 143002.6 USNTS SHFT <20 36.98N 116.03W WR PUCE E +660615 USNTS TUNN <20 WE DOUBLEPLE +660615 USNTS SHFT 20-200 WR KANKAKEEE +660625 171259.6 USNTS SHFT 25 37.10N 116.10W PS VULCAN E +660629 065757.6 CPKTSDUNDG 5.6 23 49.847N 078.101E GR A +660630 221502.7 USNTS SHFT 6.1 365 37.32N 116.28W WR HALFBEAKE +660702 153400.0 FRMUR BARG 30 WR P ALDEBAR N +660719 150500.0 FRFAN AIRD 60 WR P TAMOURE N +660721 035757.5 CPKTSDUNDG 5.3 11 49.738N 078.140E QP A +660728 153332.5 USNTS SHFT <20 37.00N 115.89W PS SAXON E +660805 035757.9 CPKTSDUNDG 5.4 14 49.830N 078.050E GR A +660810 131603.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.3N 116.0W WR ROVENA E +660819 035301.4 CPKTSDUNDG 5.1 7.3 50.500N 077.860E QP A +660907 035158.1 CPKTSDUNDG 4.8 3.6 49.940N 077.920E GR A +660911 173000.0 FRMUR BALN 120 WR P BETELGEUN +660912 152959.8 USNTS SHFT 4.6 <20 36.84N 115.92W WE DERRINGEE +660923 175958.5 USNTS SHFT <20 37.13N 116.02W WR DAIQUIRIE +660924 170000.0 FRFAN BARG 150 WRPB RIGEL N +660929 144532.1 USNTS SHFT <20 37.12N 115.98W WR NEWARK E +660930 055952.8 CP UNDG 5.1 30 38.950N 064.540E N +661004 210000.0 FRMUR BARG 300 WRPB SIRIUS N +661019 035757.8 CPKTSDUNDG 5.6 23 49.770N 078.030E GR A +661027 011000.0 PCLNR ATMO 20+ N +661027 055757.9 CPNZ UNDG 6.3 422 73.400N 054.570E N +661105 144501.2 USNTS SHFT <20 37.17N 115.96W PS SIMMS E +661111 120000.7 USNTS SHFT <20 37.10N 116.00W WR AJAX E +661118 150201.7 USNTS SHFT <20 37.00N 116.07W WR CERISE E +661203 USHTB SHFT .380 VU STERLNG E +661203 050203.5 CPKTSDUNDG 4.8 3.6 49.720N 077.900E GR A +661213 1750 USNTSYSH? 3.9 ** N +661213 210002.7 USNTS SHFT 4.6 <20 36.82N 115.96W WE NEWPOINNE +661218 045757.4 CPKTSMUNDG 5.8 38 49.922N 077.766E PO A +661220 153001.9 USNTS SHFT 6.3 870 37.32N 116.36W WR GREELEY E +661228 040000.0 PCLNR TOWR 300+ N +670118 1455 USNTS SH? 3.1 ** N +670119 164502.5 USNTS SHFT 5.3 20-200 37.14N 116.18W WR NASH E +670120 174005.5 USNTS SHFT 5.3 20-200 37.08N 116.01W WR BOURBON E +670126 1630 USNTSYSH? 3.8 ** N +670130 040157.9 CPKTSDUNDG 4.8 3.6 49.900N 078.000E QS A +670208 151500.1 USNTS SHFT 4.6 <20 37.19N 116.02W WR WARD E +670226 035757.3 CPKTSDUNDG 6.0 61 49.750N 078.125E QP A +670302 150000.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.09N 116.02W WR RIVET 3 E +670303 1519 USNTSFSH? 3.7 ** N +670325 055758.9 CPKTSDUNDG 5.3 11 49.780N 078.060E GR A +670407 150000.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.054N 116.022W WR FAWN E +670420 040757.6 CPKTSDUNDG 5.5 18 49.731N 078.148E QP A +670421 150900.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.017N 116.038W WR CHOCOLATE +670427 144500.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.139N 116.064W WR EFFENDI E +670510 134000.0 USNTS SHFT 4.9 20-200 37.078N 116.995W WR MICKEY E +670520 150000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.8 250 37.130N 116.064W WR COMMODORE +670523 140000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.7 155 37.275N 116.370W WR SCOTCH E +670526 150000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.4 76 37.248N 116.480W WR KNICKERBE +670528 040757.7 CPKTSDUNDG 5.4 14 49.810N 078.110E QP A +670603 092059.0 CP UNDG 4.5 1.5 50.000N 077.000E N +670605 190000.0 FRMUR BALN <100 WR U ALTAIR N +670617 001907.9 PCLNR AIRD 3000 N +670622 131000.0 USNTS <20 37.126N 116.029W PS SWITCH E +670626 160000.0 USNTS TUNN 5.1 <20 37.202N 116.208W WE MIDI m E +670627 193000.0 FRMUR BALN <100 WR U ANTARES N +670629 112500.0 USNTS SHFT 4.6 <20 37.029N 116.023W WE UMBER E +670629 025657.8 CPKTSDUNDG 5.3 11 49.870N 078.100E GR A +670702 173000.0 FRMUR BALN <100 WR U ARCTURUSN +670715 032657.6 CPKTSDUNDG 5.4 14 49.880N 078.160E QP A +670727 130000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.0 20-200 37.149N 116.049W WR STANLEY E +670804 065758.0 CPKTSDUNDG 5.3 11 49.820N 078.050E GR A +670804 USNTS SH? ** N +670810 141000.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.157N 116.047W WR WASHER E +670818 201230.0 USNTS SHFT 4.6 <20 37.012N 116.036W WR BORDEAUXE +670824 1330 USNTSYSH? 3.8 ** N +670831 163000.0 USNTS TUNN 5.0 <20 37.178N 116.209W WE DOOR m E +670907 134500.0 USNTS SHFT 5.0 20-200 37.153N 116.053W WR YARD E +670916 040357.8 CPKTSMUNDG 5.3 11 49.953N 077.756E SA A +670921 204500.0 USNTS SHFT 2.2 37.166N 116.038W PS MARVEL E +670922 050357.4 CPKTSMUNDG 5.2 9.2 49.972N 077.726E AL A +670927 170000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.7 20-200 37.099N 116.053W WR ZAZA E +671006 070002.5 CP UNDG 4.7 5.2 57.710N 065.220E N +671017 050358.0 CPKTSDUNDG 5.6 23 49.800N 078.030E GR A +671018 143000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.7 20-200 37.116N 116.058W WR LANPHER E +671021 045958.4 CPNZ UNDG 5.9 93 73.400N 054.420E N +671025 143000.6 USNTS SHFT <20 37.032N 116.026W WR SAZERAC E +671030 060357.9 CPKTSDUNDG 5.3 11 49.810N 078.020E GR A +671108 150000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.1 <20 37.092N 116.036W WR COBBLER E +671206 013304.6 USNTSYSH? 3.7 37.110N 115.240W ** N +671122 040357.6 CPKTSMUNDG 4.8 3.6 49.980N 077.777E AL A +671208 060357.4 CPKTSDUNDG 5.4 14 49.880N 078.210E QP A +671210 193000.1 USFMT SHFT 4.8 29 36.678N 107.208W PS GASBUGGYE +671215 150000.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.367N 116.002W WR STILT E +671224 040000.0 PCLNR AIRD 15-25 N +680118 034657.6 CPKTSDUNDG 5.1 7.3 49.740N 078.020E GR A +680118 163000.0 USNTS SHFT 7.4 37.146N 116.066W WE HUPMOBILE +680119 150000.0 USNTS SHFT 20-200 37.156N 116.054W WR STACCATOE +680119 181500.0 USCNV SHFT 6.3 200-1000 38.634N 116.215W WR FAULTLESE +680126 160000.0 USNTS CRAT 2.3 37.281N 116.514W PS CABRIOLEE +680131 1530 USNTS SH? ** N +680221 153000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.8 20-200 37.117N 116.054W WR KNOX E +680229 170830.0 USNTS TUNN 5.0 <20 37.018N 116.021W WE DORSLFINE +680312 170400.1 USNTS CRAT 37.008N 116.037W PS BUGGY E +680312 170400.1 USNTS CRAT 37.008N 116.037W PS BUGGY E +680312 170400.1 USNTS CRAT 37.008N 116.037W PS BUGGY E +680312 170400.1 USNTS CRAT 37.008N 116.037W PS BUGGY E +680312 170400.1 USNTS CRAT 37.008N 116.037W PS BUGGY E +680314 USNTS SHFT 1.5 WR POMMARD E +680322 150000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.6 20-200 37.333N 116.311W WR STINGER E +680325 184427.0 USNTS SHFT <20 36.872N 115.931W WE MILKSHKEE +680410 140000.0 USNTS SHFT 4.6 20-200 37.154N 116.079W WR NOOR E +680418 140500.0 USNTS SHFT 4.9 20-200 37.153N 116.037W WR SHUFFLE E +680423 170130.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.338N 116.376W VU SCROLL E +680424 103557.3 CPKTSDUNDG 5.0 5.7 49.840N 078.070E QP A +680426 150000.1 USNTS SHFT 6.2 1300 37.295N 116.456W WR 2 BOXCAR EN +680503 1600 USNTS SH? ** N +680508 1410 USNTSYSH? 3.9 ** N +680517 130000.0 USNTS SHFT 4.7 20-200 37.120N 116.059W WR CLRKSMOBE +680521 035910.0 CP UNDG 5.4 47 38.890N 065.100E N +680605 142130 USNTSFSH? 4.0 ** N +680606 213000.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.167N 116.045W WR TUB E +680611 030557.7 CPKTSDUNDG 5.2 9.2 49.800N 078.130E QP A +680615 140000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.9 20-200 37.265N 116.315W WR RICKEY E +680619 050557.3 CPKTSBUNDG 5.3 13 49.982N 079.003E SA A +680628 122200.0 USNTS SHFT 5.3 20-200 37.246N 116.483W WR CHATEAUGE +680701 040200.9 CP UNDG 5.5 25 47.850N 047.720E N +680707 220000.0 FRMUR BALN <100 WR U ? N +680712 120757.5 CPKTSDUNDG 5.3 11 49.766N 078.139E GR A +680715 190000.0 FRMUR BALN 450-500 WRUB ? N +680717 1400 USNTSFSH? 4.0 ** N +680730 130000.0 USNTS SHFT 20-200 37.162N 116.078W WR TANYA E +680803 210000.0 FRMUR BALN 500 WR B ? N +680809 1300 USNTSYSH? 3.5 ** N +680815 1700 USNTSYSH? 3.9 ** N +680820 040557.4 CPKTSDUNDG 4.8 3.6 49.820N 078.078E GR N +680824 183000.0 FRFAN BALN 2600 WRU2 CANOPUS N +680827 163000.0 USNTS SHFT <20 36.877N 115.931W WE DIANAMN E +680829 224500.0 USNTS SHFT 5.9 20-200 37.250N 116.347W WR SLED E +680905 040557.5 CPKTSKUNDG 5.4 14 49.750N 078.150E GR A +680906 140000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.8 20-200 37.032N 116.012W WR KNIFEA E +680906 140000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.5 20-200 37.136N 116.047W WR NOGGIN E +680908 190000.0 FRMUR BALN 1200 WR PROCYON N +680917 171400.0 USNTS SHFT 5.1 20-200 37.205N 116.206W PS STODDRD E +680924 170500.9 USNTS TUNN 5.0 <20 37.205N 116.206W WE HUDSONSEE +680929 034257.4 CPKTSDUNDG 5.8 38 49.813N 078.175E QP A +681003 142900.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.026N 115.993W WR KNIFE C E +681010 1430 USNTS SH? ** N +681029 1636 USNTSYSH? 3.4 ** N +681031 1830 USNTS SH? ** N +681104 151500.1 USNTS SHFT 5.0 20-200 37.131N 116.086W WR CREW E +681107 100205.4 CPNZ UNDG 6.0 119 73.390N 054.580E N +681109 025357.7 CPKTSDUNDG 4.9 4.5 49.760N 078.060E QP A +681115 1530 USNTS SH? ** N +681115 154500.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.026N 116.033W WR KNIFE B E +681120 180000.0 USNTS TUNN 4.9 <20 37.010N 116.206W WE MINGVASEE +681122 161900.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.140N 116.042W WR TINDERBOE +681208 160000.1 USNTS CRAT 4.8 30 37.343N 116.566W PS SCHOONERE +681212 151000.1 USNTS SHFT <20 37.119N 116.082W WR TYG E +681212 1520 USNTS SH? ** N +681218 050157.1 CPKTSDUNDG 5.0 5.7 49.720N 078.120E GR A +681219 163000.0 USNTS SHFT 6.3 1150 37.231N 116.474W WR 2 BENHAM EN +681227 073000.0 PCLNR AIRD 3000 N +690115 190000.1 USNTS SHFT 10.0 37.148N 166.066W WE PACKARD E +690115 193000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.3 20-200 37.209N 116.225W WR WINESKINE +690122 150002.0 USNTSYSH? 4.1 36.970N 115.980W ** N +690130 150000.0 USNTS SHFT 4.9 20-200 37.053N 116.029W WR VISE E +690204 150006.0 USNTSYSH? 3.7 37.400N 116.004W ** N +690212 161820.1 USNTS TUNN <20 37.169N 116.211W WE CYPRESS E +690307 082657.6 CPKTSDUNDG 5.6 23 49.840N 078.150E GR A +690318 144002.7 USNTSYSH? 3.8 37.200N 116.000W ** N +690320 181200.0 USNTS SHFT 4.4 <20 37.022N 116.030W WR BARSAC E +690321 143000.0 USNTS SHFT 4.9 <100 37.080N 116.087W WR COFFER E +690424 130400.2 USNTSYSH? 3.8 37.002N 116.000W ** N +690430 170000.0 USNTS SHFT 20-200 36.081N 116.013W WR THISTLE E +690430 170000.0 USNTS SHFT 20-200 36.081N 116.013W WR BLENTON E +690507 134500.0 USNTS SHFT 5.5 20-200 37.238N 116.500W WR PURSE E +690515 175959.3 USNTSFSH? 4.1 37.000N 115.009W ** N +690516 040257.3 CPKTSDUNDG 5.2 9.2 49.780N 078.160E GR A +690527 141500.0 USNTS SHFT 5.0 20-200 37.076N 115.995W WR TORRIDO E +690531 050156.8 CPKTSMUNDG 5.3 11 49.967N 077.728E AL A +690612 140000.0 USNTS SHFT 4.5 <20 37.053N 116.030W WR TAPPER E +690626 1400 USNTS SH? 4.0 ** N +690704 024657.3 CPKTSDUNDG 5.2 9.2 49.760N 078.200E QP A +690716 130230.0 USNTS SHFT 4.6 20-200 37.119N 116.055W WR ILDRIM E +690716 145500.0 USNTS SHFT 5.5 20-200 37.139N 116.088W WR HUTCH E +690723 024657.6 CPKTSDUNDG 5.4 14 49.817N 078.170E QP A +690814 USNTS SHFT <20 WR SPIDER E +690827 134500.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.021N 116.038W WR PLIERS E +690902 050000.0 CP UNDG 4.9 8 57.500N 054.700E N +690908 045955.0 CP UNDG 4.9 8 57.300N 056.000E N +690910 USGRV SHFT 40 PS RULISON E +690911 040157.5 CPKTSDUNDG 5.0 5.7 49.770N 078.030E GR A +690912 180223.4 USNTS SHFT <20 36.877N 115.929W WE MINUTESTE +690916 143000.4 USNTS SHFT 6.1 <1000 37.314N 116.461W WR JORUM E +690920 143003.3 USNTSYSH? 3.8 37.000N 116.000W ** N +690922 161458.8 PCLNR 5.1 25 88.300S 041.383E +690926 070000.0 CP UNDG 5.0 5.7 46.000N 042.400E N +690929 084026.0 PCLNR AIRD 3000 N +691001 040257.7 CPKTSDUNDG 5.2 9.2 49.810N 078.180E GR A +691002 USAMC SHFT 1000 WR 2 MILROW EN +691008 143000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.6 200-1000 37.257N 116.441W WR PIPKIN E +691014 070006.4 CPNZ UNDG 6.0 140 73.390N 054.500E N +691020 090902.0 CP UNDG 3.7 .09 48.100N 047.800E N +691028 143458.1 USNTSPSH? 2.9 37.003N 116.004W ** N +691029 193000.0 USNTS SHFT 11 37.121N 116.128W WR CRUET E +691029 200000.0 USNTS SHFT 20-200 37.141N 116.142W WR POD E +691029 220151.4 USNTS SHFT 5.6 110 37.143N 116.063W WR CALABASHE +691113 151520.2 USNTS SHFT 3.5 <20 37.17N 116.09W WR SCUTTLE E +691121 145200.0 USNTS SHFT 5.0 20-200 37.031N 116.002W WR PICCALILE +691130 033257.1 CPKTSBUNDG 5.9 54 49.913N 078.961E CO A +691205 170000.0 USNTS TUNN 4.9 <20 37.180N 116.211W WE DIESLTRAE +691206 070257.5 CP UNDG 5.8 70 43.790N 054.750E N +691210 153003.7 USNTSSYSH? 4.2 37.09N 116.01W ** N +691217 150000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.4 20-200 37.084N 116.002W WR GRAPE A E +691217 USNTS SHFT <20 WR LOVAGE E +691218 190000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.2 20-200 37.121N 116.035W WR TERRINE E +691228 034657.6 CPKTSMUNDG 5.7 30 49.954N 077.748E AL A +691229 040158.1 CPKTSDUNDG 5.5 7.3 49.790N 078.000E QP A +700123 163000.2 USNTS SHFT <20 37.137N 116.037W WR FOB E +700129 070257.5 CPKTSDUNDG 5.5 18 49.813N 078.185E PO A +700130 USNTS SHFT <20 WR AJO E +700204 170000.4 USNTS SHFT 5.6 20-200 37.098N 116.027W WR GRAPE B E +700205 150000.4 USNTS SHFT 4.6 25 37.164N 116.039W WR LABIS E +700211 191500.4 USNTS TUNN 4.7 <20 37.201N 116.205W WE DIANA m E +700225 142838.4 USNTS SHFT 5.2 20-200 37.037N 116.000W WR CUMARIN E +700226 153000.4 USNTS SHFT 5.3 20-200 37.116N 116.061W WR YANNIGANE +700306 142400.3 USNTS SHFT 4.3 8.7 37.023N 116.092W WR CYATHUS E +700306 150000.2 USNTS SHFT <20 37.140N 116.037W WR ARABIS E +700319 140330.4 USNTS SHFT <20 37.001N 116.023W WR JAL E +700323 230500.4 USNTS SHFT 5.5 20-200 37.086N 116.021W WR SHAPER E +700326 190002.0 USNTS SHFT 6.4 1900 37.300N 116.534W WR 2 HANDLEY EN +700327 050257.0 CPKTSDUNDG 5.0 5.7 49.770N 078.110E GR A +700421 143000.4 USNTS SHFT 4.4 <20 37.055N 115.988W WE SNUBBER E +700421 150000.4 USNTS SHFT 4.6 20-200 37.099N 116.080W WR CAN E +700501 141300.4 USNTS SHFT <20 37.059N 116.028W WR BEEBALM E +700501 144000.2 USNTS SHFT 4.3 20-200 37.133N 116.034W WR HOD E +700505 153000.2 USNTS TUNN 5.0 <20 37.211N 116.184W WE MINTLEAFE +700512 140000.4 USNTS TUNN <20 37.010N 116.202W VU d DUST E +700515 133000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.1 20-200 37.162N 116.039W WR CORNICE E +700515 180000.0 FRMUR BALN 20-200 WR ANDROME N +700521 140000.4 USNTS SHFT <20 37.029N 115.992W WR MANZANASE +700521 141500.4 USNTS SHFT 5.1 20-200 37.071N 116.013W WR MORRONESE +700522 183000.0 FRMUR BALN 20-200 WR CASSIOPEN +700523 053259.0 CP UNDG 3.5 1 48.100N 047.800E N +700524 124147.0 CP UNDG 3.6 2 48.100N 047.800E N +700526 141600.2 USNTS TUNN <20 37.183N 116.213W WE HUDSONMOE +700526 150000.5 USNTS SHFT 5.5 105 37.113N 116.062W PS FLASK E +700527 040257.0 CPKTSDUNDG 3.8 2 48.300N 078.200E QP A +700528 120000.3 USNTS 37.2N 116.0W ** N +700529 031735.0 CP UNDG 3.6 1 48.100N 047.800E N +700530 175958.5 FR BALN 4.7 >1000 22.200S 138.800W WR DRAGON N +700624 183000.0 FRMUR BALN LOW WR ERIDAN N +700625 045952.4 CP UNDG 4.9 8.4 52.200N 055.700E N +700626 130000.4 USNTS SHFT 20-200 37.114N 116.086W WR ARNICA E +700628 015757.7 CPKTSDUNDG 5.7 30 49.830N 078.220E GR A +700703 182959.1 FR BALN 4.0 1000 21.800S 139.200W WR LICORNE N +700721 030257.2 CPKTSMUNDG 5.4 14 49.953N 077.701E SA A +700724 035657.6 CPKTSDUNDG 5.3 11 49.820N 078.180E QP A +700727 190000.0 FRMUR BALN LOW WR PEGASE N +700802 190000.0 FRFAN BALN 20-200 WR ORION N +700806 190000.0 FRMUR BALN 20-200 WR TOUCAN N +700906 040257.5 CPKTSDUNDG 5.4 14 49.780N 078.046E GR A +701013 150000.2 USNTSYSH? 3.9 37.18N 115.95W ** N +701014 143000.4 USNTS SHFT 5.5 20-200 37.071N 116.005W WR TIJERAS E +701014 072958.9 PCLNR 3000 N +701014 055957.3 CPNZ UNDG 6.6 1001 73.310N 054.890E N +701028 1430 USNTS ** N +701104 060257.2 CPKTSMUNDG 5.4 14 50.007N 077.798E PO A +701105 150000.0 USNTS SHFT 4.9 20-200 37.029N 116.012W WR ABEYTAS E +701119 152353.0 USNTS SH? 3.5 37.0N 116.0W ** N +701203 1507 USNTSFSH? 3.1 ** N +701212 070057.4 CP UNDG 6.0 113 43.870N 054.780E N +701216 160000.9 USNTS SHFT 5.2 20-200 37.100N 116.008W WR ARTESIA E +701216 160000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.1 <20 37.143N 116.034W WR CREAM E +701217 160500.2 USNTS SHFT 5.8 220 37.129N 116.083W WR CARPETBAE +701217 070057.7 CPKTSDUNDG 5.4 14 49.730N 078.170E GR A +701218 153000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.1 10 37.173N 116.099W WR BANEBERRE +701223 070057.3 CP UNDG 6.0 113 43.810N 054.820E N +710322 043257.8 CPKTSDUNDG 5.7 30 49.791N 078.142E GR A +710323 065956.4 CP UNDG 5.5 45 61.390N 056.220E A +710425 033257.5 CPKTSDUNDG 5.9 53 49.774N 078.074E GR A +710429 190000.0 USNTS SHFT 20-200 37.12N 116.33W WR CHEM? MINETHROE +710525 040258.0 CPKTSDUNDG 5.0 6.0 49.815N 078.197E GR A +710605 191500.0 FRMUR ATMO 15 WR DIONE N +710606 040257.2 CPKTSMUNDG 5.4 17 49.988N 077.720E AL A +710612 191500.0 FRMUR ATMO 450-500 WR ENCELADEN +710616 145000.0 USNTS SHFT 4.1 <20 37.03N 116.02W WR EMBUDO E +710619 040357.7 CPKTSMUNDG 5.4 15 49.992N 077.705E PO A +710623 153000.0 USNTS SHFT 20-200 37.02N 116.02W WR LAGUNA E +710624 140000.0 USNTS SHFT 4.9 20-200 37.15N 116.07W WR HAREBELLE +710629 182957.3 USNTS TUNN 4.9 <20 36.6N 115.8W WE CAMPHOR E +710630 035657.3 CPKTSBUNDG 5.2 11 49.949N 078.986E CO A +710701 140000.0 USNTS TUNN <20 37.01N 116.20W VU d MINE E +710702 170001.9 CP UNDG 4.7 5.2 67.660N 062.000E N +710704 213000.0 FRMUR ATMO <100 WR JAPET N +710708 140000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.5 83 37.11N 116.05W PS MINIATA E +710709 140050.0 USNTSYSH? 3.4 36.3N 115.75W ** N +710710 165959.6 CP UNDG 5.2 17 64.200N 054.770E N +710721 1333 USNTSFSH? 3.4 ** N +710808 183000.0 FRMUR ATMO <100 WR PHOEBE N +710814 185959.2 FR BALN 4.7 1000 21.900S 139.000W WR RHEA N +710818 140000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.4 20-200 37.1N 116.0W WR ALGODONEE +710922 1400 USNTS SH? 3.6 ** N +710929 140000.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.01N 116.01W WR PEDERNALE +710919 110006.8 CP UNDG 4.5 3.3 57.760N 041.440E N +710927 060257.4 CPNZ UNDG 6.4 586 73.390N 054.910E N +711004 100002.0 CP UNDG 4.6 4.1 61.610N 047.220E N +711008 143000.2 USNTS SHFT <20 37.12N 116.03W WR CATHAY E +711009 060257.4 CPKTSMUNDG 5.3 12 49.996N 077.653E AL N +711014 143003.1 USNTS SH? 4.4 37.2N 116.1W ** E +711021 060257.4 CPKTSMUNDG 5.5 19 50.001N 077.629E SA A +711022 050000.6 CP UNDG 5.2 17 51.610N 054.450E N +711106 USAMC SHFT <5000 WR 2 CANNIKN EN +711118 060000.0 PCLNR ATMO 20 N +711124 201500.2 USNTS SHFT <20 36.7N 116.9W WE DIAGONALE +711129 060257.5 CPKTSDUNDG 5.4 16 49.758N 078.132E GR A +711130 154503.2 USNTS SH? 37.1N 116.1W ** N +711214 210957.7 USNTS SHFT 20-200 37.01N 116.06W WR CHAENACTE +711215 075258.9 CPKTSDUNDG 4.9 4.5 50.031N 077.972E GR A +711222 065956.5 CP UNDG 6.0 57 47.900N 048.070E N +711230 062057.8 CPKTSDUNDG 5.7 36 49.772N 078.093E GR A +720101 070000.0 PCLNR ATMO <20 N +720203 2145 USNTS SH? ** N +720210 050257.5 CPKTSBUNDG 5.3 13 50.014N 078.878E AL A +720217 190203.6 USNTSYSH? 4.3 37.1N 116.1W ** N +720318 060000.0 PCLNR ATMO 20-200 N +720310 045657.4 CPKTSDUNDG 5.4 15 49.752N 078.142E QP A +720328 042157.6 CPKTSDUNDG 5.1 8.0 49.740N 078.130E QP A +720330 210001.2 USNTS SH? 4.6 37.0N 116.0W N +720411 060002.9 CP UNDG 4.9 8.4 37.360N 062.070E N +720419 163200.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.12N 116.08W WR LONGCHAME +720502 191501.8 USNTS TUNN 5.0 <20 37.2N 116.2W WE y NORTH E +720510 120000.0 USNTS SH? 37.01N 116.20W MINEDUSTI +720511 1400 USNTS SH? ** N +720517 141000.2 USNTS SHFT <20 37.12N 116.09W WR ZINNIA E +720519 170000.0 USNTS SHFT <20 37.06N 116.00W WR MONERO E +720522 232856 USNTS SH? 37.12N 116.33W THROW 1 I +720523 221538 USNTS SH? 37.12N 116.33W THROW 2 I +720524 212119 USNTS SH? 37.12N 116.33W THROW 3 I +720525 203059 USNTS SH? 37.12N 116.33W THROW 4 I +720526 191542 USNTS SH? 37.12N 116.33W THROW 5 I +720607 012757.4 CPKTSDUNDG 5.4 14 49.808N 078.093E QP A +720607 1520 USNTS? 3.8 N +720625 FRMUR ATMO LOW WR N +720628 163004.1 37.1N 116.1W IN +720630 FRMUR ATMO LOW WR N +720706 010259.9 CPKTSDUNDG 4.4 1.5 49.781N 078.093E QP A +720709 065957.9 CP UNDG 4.8 6.6 49.780N 035.450E N +720714 145949.0 CP UNDG 3.6 .10 49.990N 046.440E N +720720 171600.2 USNTS TUNN 4.9 <20 37.22N 116.18W WE d SKULLSE +720725 153003.1 USNTS SH? 4.0 36.9N 116.0W ** N +720729 FRMUR ATMO LOW WR N +720816 031657.5 CPKTSDUNDG 5.1 7.8 49.770N 078.113E GR A +720820 025957.8 CP UNDG 5.7 55 49.400N 048.060E N +720826 034657.2 CPKTSMUNDG 5.3 13 49.993N 077.773E AL A +720828 055956.7 CPNZ UNDG 6.3 329 73.390N 054.650E N +720902 085657.5 CPKTSMUNDG 4.8 4.3 49.950N 077.660E SA A +720904 070004.4 CP UNDG 4.6 4.1 67.730N 033.090E N +720921 153000.2 USNTS SHFT 4.3 20-200 37.08N 116.04W WR OSCURO E +720921 090001.4 CP UNDG 5.0 10 52.190N 051.940E N +720926 143000.2 USNTS SHFT 4.4 15 37.12N 116.09W WR DELPHINIE +721003 085957.8 CP UNDG 5.6 44 46.660N 044.870E N +721102 012657.6 CPKTSBUNDG 6.1 126 49.923N 078.815E AL A +721109 1515 USNTS SH? 3.7 ** N +721109 1815 USNTSYSH? 3.7 ** N +721124 090002.8 CP UNDG 4.5 3.3 52.140N 051.830E N +721124 095958.0 CP UNDG 5.2 17 51.850N 064.180E N +721210 042657.6 CPKTSDUNDG 5.6 23 49.837N 078.102E GR A +721210 042707.3 CPKTSBUNDG 5.9 59 50.001N 078.973E TS A +721212 1630 USNTSFSH? 3.3 ** N +721221 USNTS SHFT 20-200 WR FLAX E +721228 042700.0 CPKTSDUNDG 4.9 .39 51.700N 077.200E QP A +730216 050257.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.4 17 49.822N 078.158E N +730308 161000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.4 20-200 37.10N 116.03W WR MIERA E +730323 2015 USNTS SH? 3.4 ** N +730419 043257.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.3 12 49.995N 077.647E N +730425 222500.0 USNTS SHFT 4.7 20-200 37.00N 116.03W WR ANGUS E +730426 171500.2 USNTS SHFT 5.6 90 37.12N 116.06W WR STARWORTE +730517 160000.0 USRFL SHFT 5.4 33 39.79N 108.37W WR RIOBLANCEN +730517 160000.0 USRFL SHFT 5.4 33 39.79N 108.37W WR RIOBLANCEN +730517 160000.0 USRFL SHFT 5.4 33 39.79N 108.37W WR RIOBLANCEN +730524 133000.7 USNTS SH? 4.8 37.2N 116.1W ** N +730605 170000.2 USNTS TUNN 5.1 <20 37.18N 116.21W WE DIDOQUEEE +730606 130000.0 USNTS SHFT 6.5 200-1000 37.25N 116.35W WR ALMENDROE +730621 144459.6 USNTS SH? 5.3 37.1N 116.0W IN +730627 035951.0 PCLNR ATMO 2000-3000 N +730628 191512.4 USNTS SHFT 5.3 20-200 37.1N 116.09W WR PORTULACE +730628 194500.5 USNTSYSH? <2.0 37.1N 116.0W ** N +730710 012657.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.3 11 49.798N 078.087E N +730721 180000.0 FRMUR ATMO 5 WR N +730723 012257.6 CPKTS UNDG 6.2 181 49.962N 078.812E N +730728 230300.0 FRMUR ATMO LOW WR N +730815 015957.7 CP UNDG 5.3 21 42.690N 067.410E N +730819 FRMUR ATMO 5-10 WR N +730825 FRMUR ATMO WR N +730828 FRMUR AIRD 6.6 WR N +730828 025957.9 CP UNDG 5.2 17 50.580N 068.400E N +730912 065954.5 CPNZ UNDG 6.7 2099 73.320N 054.970E N +730919 025957.6 CP UNDG 5.1 13 45.680N 067.800E N +730927 065958.4 CPNZ UNDG 5.9 100 70.800N 053.420E N +730930 045957.7 CP UNDG 5.2 17 51.660N 054.540E N +731002 151500.4 USNTSYSH? 3.9 37.2N 115.8W IN +731012 170000.8 USNTS TUNN 4.8 <20 37.20N 116.20W WE HUSKYACEE +731026 042657.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 10 49.759N 078.164E N +731026 055957.2 CP UNDG 4.8 6.6 53.630N 055.380E N +731027 065957.6 CPNZ UNDG 6.9 4055 70.800N 053.920E N +731128 153000.5 USNTS SHFT 4.4 <20 36.9N 116.0W WR BERNAL E +731212 190000.3 USNTS SH? 4.5 36.9N 116.0W ** N +731214 074657.1 CPKTS UNDG 5.8 38 50.044N 078.987E N +740130 045657.8 CPKTS UNDG 4.9 4.5 49.837N 078.049E N +740130 045702.2 CPKTS UNDG 5.4 14 49.853N 078.087E N +740227 170000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.8 20-200 37.10N 116.05W WR LATIR E +740416 055257.4 CPKTS UNDG 4.4 1.5 50.041N 078.943E N +740423 151300.5 USNTSYSH? 3.6 37.1N 116.1W ** N +740516 030257.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 10 49.752N 078.093E N +740518 023455.4 INRAJ UNDG 4.9 15 26.99 N 071.80 E P I +740522 141500.5 USNTS SH? 4.4 37.1N 116.1W ** N +740523 133830.2 GBNTS SHFT 4.8 20-200 37.1N 116.1W FALLON E +740531 032657.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.8 42 49.950N 078.852E N +740606 144000.0 USNTS SH? 4.4 37.0N 116.0W ** N +740616 FRMUR BALN 20 WR N +740617 055949.0 PCLNR ATMO 200-1000 N +740619 155959.0 USNTS TUNN 5.0 <20 37.2N 116.2W WE MINGBLAEE +740625 035657.7 CPKTS UNDG 4.5 1.8 49.840N 078.166E N +740707 FRMUR BALN 150 WR N +740708 055959.7 CP UNDG 4.6 4.1 53.680N 055.080E N +740710 160000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.7 20-200 37.07N 116.03W WR ESCABOSAE +740710 025657.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.1 8.4 49.783N 078.130E N +740717 FRMUR ATMO WR N +740718 140001.3 USNTS SH? 4.1 37.1N 116.1W ** N +740726 FRMUR AIRD WR N +740729 FRMUR ATMO HIGH WR N +740814 140000.1 USNTS SHFT 4.6 <20 37.0N 116.0W WR PUYE E +740814 145958.5 CP UNDG 5.4 27 68.940N 075.830E N +740815 FRMUR ATMO WR N +740825 FRMUR ATMO WR N +740829 095955.7 CPNZ UNDG 6.4 497 73.410N 054.930E N +740829 145958.9 CP UNDG 5.0 10 67.230N 062.140E N +740830 150000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.8 20-200 37.1N 116.1W WR PORTMANTE +740913 030257.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.1 8.6 49.778N 078.081E N +740915 FRMUR ATMO 1000 WR N +740925 140000.3 USNTS SH? 4.4 37.0N 116.0W ** N +740926 1430 USNTS SH? 3.3 ** N +740926 150500.2 USNTS SHFT 5.6 20-200 37.1N 116.1W WR STANYAN E +741016 063257.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.4 17 49.979N 078.898E N +741028 USNTS TUNN <20 WE HYBLAFAIE +741102 045956.8 CPNZ UNDG 6.7 2099 70.810N 053.910E N +741207 055957.6 CPKTS UNDG 4.5 1.8 49.933N 077.636E N +741216 062257.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.0 5.7 49.793N 078.133E N +741216 064057.9 CPKTS UNDG 4.8 3.6 49.867N 078.087E N +741216 173000.5 USNTS SH? 4.3 4. 36.9N 116.0W N +741227 054656.8 CPKTS UNDG 5.5 18 49.943N 079.011E N +750206 1530 USNTSYSH? 3.5 ** N +750206 161256.0 USNTS SH? 4.5 37.05N 116.00W ** N +750220 053257.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.6 26 49.789N 078.062E N +750228 151500.1 USNTS SHFT 5.7 20-200 37.11N 116.06W WR TOPGALLAE +750307 150000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.5 20-200 37.13N 116.08W WR CABRILLOE +750311 054257.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.3 14 49.747N 078.146E N +750405 194500.2 USNTS TUNN 4.8 <20 37.18N 116.21W WE DININGCAE +750424 141000.2 USNTS SHFT 4.6 20-200 37.11N 116.08W WR EDAM E +750425 050002.5 CP UNDG 4.7 2.6 48.080N 047.200E N +750427 053657.2 CPKTS UNDG 5.5 21 49.949N 078.926E N +750430 150000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.2 20-200 37.11N 116.03W WR OBAR E +750514 140000.4 USNTS SHFT 5.8 200-1000 37.22N 116.47W WR TYBO E +750603 142000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.9 20-200 37.33N 116.52W WR STILTON E +750603 144000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.7 20-200 37.09N 116.03W WR MIZZEN E +750605 181500.0 FRFAN SHFT 5.3 20 ACHILLE N +750608 032657.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.5 18 49.762N 078.050E N +750619 130000.1 USNTS SHFT 6.1 200-1000 37.35N 116.32W WR MAST E +750626 123000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.0 200-1000 37.27N 116.37W WR CAMEMBERE +750630 032657.5 CPKTS UNDG 4.6 2.4 50.004N 078.957E N +750807 035657.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.1 8.2 49.812N 078.161E N +750830 211159.5 USNTSPSH? 3.0 37.28N 116.21W ** N +750823 085957.9 CPNZ UNDG 6.4 477 73.340N 054.500E N +750906 170000.1 USNTS SHFT 4.6 <20 37.02N 116.03W WR MARSH E +750929 105958.3 CP UNDG 4.8 6.6 69.600N 090.460E N +751005 042743.9 CPKTS UNDG 4.6 .19 55.800N 075.100E N +751018 085956.5 CPNZ UNDG 6.6 1281 70.840N 053.530E N +751021 115957.7 CPNZ UNDG 6.4 497 73.320N 054.930E N +751024 171126.1 USNTS TUNN 4.7 <20 37.22N 116.18W WE HUSKYPUPE +751026 005959.0 PCLNR UNDG <20 N +751027 010003.5 PCLNR 5.0 <10 88.667S 041.400E +751028 143000.2 USNTS SHFT 6.2 200-1000 37.28N 116.41W WR KASSERI E +751029 044657.3 CPKTS UNDG 5.6 24 49.946N 078.878E N +751118 153000.3 USNTS SH? 4.4 37.0N 116.0W ** N +751120 150000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.8 200-1000 37.22N 116.37W WR INLET E +751126 153000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.0 <20 37.12N 116.02W WR LEYDEN E +751126 004800.0 FRFAN SHFT 5.2 15 HECTOR N +751213 045657.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.0 6.0 49.810N 078.157E N +751220 200000.2 USNTS SHFT 20-200 37.12N 116.06W WR CHIBERTAE +751225 051657.1 CPKTS UNDG 5.6 29 50.044N 078.814E N +760103 191500.2 USNTS SHFT 6.2 200-1000 37.30N 116.33W WR MUENSTERE +760115 044657.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 10 49.824N 078.201E N +760123 060000.0 PCLNR ATMO LOW N +760204 142000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.8 20-200 37.07N 116.03W WR KEELSON E +760204 144000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.7 20-200 37.11N 116.04W WR ESROM E +760212 144500.2 USNTS SHFT 5.5 200-1000 37.27N 116.49W WR FONTINA E +760214 113000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.7 200-500 37.24N 116.42W WR CHESHIREE +760226 1450 USNTSFSH? 4.1 ** N +760309 140000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.9 200-500 37.31N 116.36W WR ESTUARY E +760314 123000.2 USNTS SHFT 6.3 500-1000 37.31N 116.47W WR COLBY E +760317 141500.1 USNTS SHFT 5.8 200-500 37.26N 116.31W WR POOL E +760317 144500.1 USNTS SHFT 5.6 200-500 37.11N 116.05W WR STRAIT E +760403 004500.0 FRMUR SHFT WR PATROCL N +760421 045757.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.1 7.3 49.776N 078.146E N +760421 050257.1 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 11 49.890N 078.827E N +760512 195000.2 USNTS TUNN 4.9 <20 37.2N 116.2W WE MIGHTYEPE +760519 025657.8 CPKTS UNDG 4.8 3.7 49.796N 078.058E N +760520 173000.2 USNTSYSH? 3.7 37.1N 116.0W ** N +760609 030257.2 CPKTS UNDG 5.1 7.6 49.989N 079.022E N +760604 025657.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.8 40 49.909N 078.911E N +760711 002959.1 FRMUR SHFT 5.0 10 21.859S 138.768W WR N +760723 FRMUR SHFT WR N +760723 023257.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.0 6.3 49.779N 078.085E N +760727 203000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.2 20-150 37.1N 116.0W WR BILLET E +760729 045957.9 CP UNDG 5.9 45 47.810N 048.100E N +760804 025658.0 CPKTS UNDG 4.1 .06 49.900N 077.700E N +760826 143000.2 GBNTS SHFT 5.3 20-150 37.13N 116.08W BANON E +760828 025657.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.7 30 49.969N 078.930E N +760926 060000.0 PCLNR ATMO 20-200 N +760929 025957.6 CPNZ UNDG 5.8 70 73.410N 054.500E N +761006 1430 USNTSYSH? 3.7 ** N +761017 050003.7 PCLNR 4.9 10-20 88.667S 041.650E N +761020 075957.8 CPNZ UNDG 5.1 13 73.400N 054.470E N +761030 045702.5 CPKTS UNDG 4.9 4.5 49.821N 078.029E N +761105 035956.8 CP UNDG 5.3 21 61.520N 112.730E N +761117 060017.6 PCLNR ATMO 4000 N +761123 151500.2 USNTS SHFT <20 37.2N 116.1W WR CHEVRE E +761123 050257.2 CPKTS UNDG 5.7 34 50.008N 078.963E N +761207 045657.3 CPKTS UNDG 5.8 41 49.922N 078.846E N +761208 144930.1 USNTS SHFT 4.9 <20 37.08N 116.00W WR REDMUD E +761208 FRMUR SHFT WR N +761221 150900.2 USNTS SHFT <20 37.12N 116.07W WR ASIAGO E +761228 180000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.5 20-150 37.10N 116.04W WR RUDDER E +761230 035657.9 CPKTS UNDG 5.1 7.8 49.802N 078.069E N +770216 175300.2 USNTSYSH? 4.3 37.0N 116.0W ** N +770219 232958.9 FRMUR SHFT 5.0 5 21.834S 138.846W WR N +770319 230058.4 FRMUR SHFT 5.9 45 21.891S 138.913W WR N +770329 035657.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.4 14 49.970N 078.086E N +770405 150000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.6 20-150 37.12N 116.06W WR MARSILLYE +770425 040657.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.0 6.6 49.813N 078.150E N +770427 150000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.1 20-150 37.09N 116.03W WR BULKHEADE +770525 170000.3 USNTS SHFT 5.3 20-150 37.09N 116.04W WR CREWLINEE +770529 025657.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.7 32 49.937N 078.770E N +770629 030657.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 9.6 50.006N 078.869E N +770706 225958.5 FRMUR SHFT 4.9 25 21.780S 138.954W WR N +770726 165957.7 CP UNDG 5.0 10 69.540N 090.510E N +770728 140700.2 USNTSYSH? 3.7 37.1N 116.1W ** N +770730 015657.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.0 7.1 49.759N 078.097E N +770804 164000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.0 20-150 37.09N 116.01W WR STRAKE E +770810 220002.0 CP UNDG 5.0 10 50.950N 110.780E N +770816 144100.4 USNTSYSH? 3.7 37.2N 116.1W ** N +770816 154900.2 USNTSYSH? 4.0 37.2N 116.1W ** N +770817 042657.5 CPKTS UNDG 4.9 5.6 49.825N 078.170E N +770819 173200.1 USNTSYSH? 3.3 37.0N 116.0W ** N +770819 175500.1 USNTS SHFT 5.5 20-150 37.11N 116.05W WR SCANTLINE +770820 215958.3 CP UNDG 5.0 10 64.130N 099.620E N +770901 025957.7 CPNZ UNDG 5.7 55 73.370N 054.410E N +770905 030257.3 CPKTS UNDG 5.7 37 50.035N 078.921E N +770910 160003.3 CP UNDG 4.8 6.6 57.290N 106.230E N +770915 143630.1 USNTS SHFT 4.5 <20 37.0N 116.0W WR EBBTIDE E +770917 070000.0 PCLNR ATMO <20 N +770927 140000.2 USNTS SHFT 4.8 20-150 37.1N 116.1W WR COULOMMIE +770930 065955.9 CP UNDG 5.0 5.4 47.850N 048.130E N +771009 105958.8 CPNZ UNDG 4.6 4.1 73.470N 053.980E N +771026 141500.1 USNTS SHFT 4.5 <20 37.1N 116.0W WR BOBSTAY E +771029 030657.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.6 23 49.833N 078.131E N +771029 030702.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.5 20 50.069N 078.975E N +771101 180600.1 USNTS SHFT 4.7 <20 37.19N 116.21W WR HYBLAGOLE +771109 220000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.7 20-150 37.07N 116.05W WR SANDREEFE +771112 013000.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.2 15 WR N +771117 193000.1 USNTS SHFT 4.7 <20 37.02N 116.02W WR SEAMOUNTE +771124 165958.4 FRMUR SHFT 5.8 55 21.896S 138.884W WR NESTOR N +771130 040657.3 CPKTS UNDG 5.8 47 49.958N 078.885E N +771214 150000.0 USNTSYSH? 3.8 37.0N 116.0W ** N +771214 153000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.7 20-150 37.13N 116.09W WR FARALLONE +771217 220000.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.1 10 WR N +771226 040257.8 CPKTS UNDG 4.8 4.3 49.953N 078.115E N +780120 043257.6 CPKTS UNDG 4.6 2.6 49.858N 078.089E N +780213 215259.6 USNTS SHFT 3.8 <20 37.1N 116.0W WR CAMPOS E +780223 170000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.6 20-150 37.12N 116.06W WR REBLOCHOE +780227 230000.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.0 <1 WR N +780315 050000.0 PCLNR ATMO <20 N +780316 145959.6 USNTS SH? 3.9 37.1N 116.1W ** N +780319 034657.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 9.4 49.959N 077.746E N +780322 172958.9 FR SHFT 4.8 10 21.714S 138.926W WR N +780323 163000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.6 20-150 37.10N 116.05W WR ICEBERG E +780326 035657.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.6 24 49.768N 078.044E N +780411 153000.2 GBNTS SHFT 5.3 20-150 37.30N 116.33W WR FONDUTTAE +780411 174500.1 USNTS SHFT 5.5 20-150 37.23N 116.37W WR BACKBEACE +780422 035657.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 11 49.761N 078.186E N +780529 045657.4 CPKTS UNDG 4.6 2.6 49.772N 078.141E N +780601 170000.0 USNTS SH? 3.4 37.0N 116.0W ** N +780611 025657.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.8 41 49.898N 078.797E N +780705 024657.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.8 38 49.887N 078.871E N +780707 135959.3 USNTS SH? 4.0 37.1N 116.0W ** N +780712 170000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.5 20-150 37.08N 116.04W WR LOWBALL E +780719 180000.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.4 2 WR N +780726 230000.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.7 4 WR N +780728 024657.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.6 27 49.756N 078.140E N +780809 175958.1 CP UNDG 5.6 44 63.650N 125.340E N +780810 075957.7 CPNZ UNDG 5.9 89 73.310N 054.700E N +780824 180003.8 CP UNDG 5.1 13 65.870N 112.560E N +780829 023657.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 9.2 49.812N 078.142E N +780829 023706.2 CPKTS UNDG 5.9 56 50.000N 078.978E N +780831 140000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.6 20-150 37.27N 116.36W WR PANIR E +780913 131500.2 USNTS TUNN 4.6 <20 37.21N 116.21W WE DIABLOHAE +780915 023657.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.9 55 49.916N 078.879E N +780920 050256.8 CPKTS UNDG 4.3 1.1 49.835N 078.416E N +780921 145957.6 CP UNDG 5.2 17 66.530N 086.260E N +780927 1430 USNTS SH? 3.4 ** N +780927 170000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.0 20-150 37.08N 116.05W WR DRAUGHTSE +780927 172000.0 USNTS SHFT 5.7 20-150 37.07N 116.02W WR RUMMY E +780927 020458.4 CPNZ UNDG 5.6 44 73.380N 054.440E N +781007 235957.0 CP UNDG 5.2 17 61.530N 112.870E N +781014 010002.7 PCLNR UNDG 4.9 <20 88.633S 041.450W N +781015 053657.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.1 69 49.753N 078.165E N +781017 045956.6 CP UNDG 5.8 35 47.810N 048.090E N +781017 135958.0 CP UNDG 5.5 34 63.210N 063.260E N +781031 041657.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 9.6 49.806N 078.143E N +781102 152500.2 USNTS SHFT 4.2 <20 37.29N 116.30W WR EMMENTHAE +781102 180000.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.6 2 WR N +781104 050557.3 CPKTS UNDG 5.5 22 50.034N 078.943E N +781118 190000.0 GBNTS SHFT 5.1 20-150 37.13N 116.08W QUARGEL E +781129 043257.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.3 11 49.810N 078.042E N +781129 043302.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.9 60 49.949N 078.798E N +781130 173158.5 FR SHFT 5.8 65 21.866S 138.949W WR N +781201 1707298 USNTS SH? 3.8 37.0N 116.0W ** N +781214 PCLNR ATMO <20 N +781214 044257.6 CPKTS UNDG 4.7 2.9 49.813N 078.144E N +781216 153000.2 USNTS SHFT 5.5 20-150 37.27N 116.41W WR FARM E +781217 180400.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.2 15 WR N +781218 075956.3 CP UNDG 5.9 45 47.780N 048.140E N +781219 165659.9 FR SHFT 4.9 10 21.769S 138.945W WR N +790110 080000.0 CP UNDG 5.0 1.4 47.000N 048.000E N +790117 075955.7 CP UNDG 6.0 57 47.870N 048.060E N +790124 180000.1 USNTS SHFT 4.5 <20 37.10N 116.01W WR BACCARATE +790201 041257.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.3 14 50.090N 078.870E N +790208 200000.1 USNTS SHFT 5.5 20-150 37.1N 116.1W WR QUINELLAE +790215 180500.2 USNTS SHFT 4.8 20-150 37.2N 116.1W WR KLOSTER E +790216 040358.1 CPKTS UNDG 5.4 15 49.990N 077.712E N +790301 172400.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.0 7 WR N +790309 163700.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.2 15 WR N +790314 183000.1 USNTS SHFT 4.3 <20 37.0N 116.0W WR MEMORY E +790324 162758.8 FR SHFT 4.9 7 21.830S 138.909W WR N +790404 180659.1 FR SHFT 4.8 6 21.812S 138.741W WR N +790506 031657.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.1 9.0 49.774N 078.049E N +790511 155959.7 USNTS SH? ** N +790524 040700.0 CPKTS UNDG 4.9 0.39 50.000N 078.000E N +790531 055457.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 10 49.835N 078.127E N +790611 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR PEPATO E +790618 232658.0 FR SHFT 4.8 4 22.140S 138.456W WR N +790620 USNTS SHFT <20 WR CHESS E +790623 025657.5 CPKTS UNDG 6.2 152 49.903N 078.855E N +790628 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR FAJY E +790629 185558.8 FR SHFT 5.2 25 21.798S 138.927W WR N +790707 034657.3 CPKTS UNDG 5.8 41 50.026N 078.991E N +790714 045955.2 CP UNDG 5.6 22 47.810N 048.070E N +790718 031702.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 9.2 49.937N 077.850E N +790725 175658.5 FR SHFT 6.1 120 21.880S 138.940W WR N +790728 195558.7 FR SHFT 4.7 15 21.808S 138.808W WR N +790803 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR BURZET E +790804 035657.1 CPKTS UNDG 6.1 113 49.894N 078.904E N +790808 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR OFFSHOREE +790812 175957.4 CP UNDG 4.9 8.4 61.860N 122.220E N +790818 025157.1 CPKTS UNDG 6.1 119 49.943N 078.938E N +790829 GBNTS SHFT 20-150 NESSEL E +790906 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR HEARTS E +780906 175957.7 CP UNDG 4.9 8.4 64.060N 99.620E N +790908 USNTS SHFT <20 WR PERA E +790913 PCLN N +790914 073300.0 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 0.79 50.000N 078.000E N +790915 040700.0 CPKTS UNDG 4.6 0.19 50.000N 078.000E N +790916 085953 CP MINE 3.3 0.3? 48.22 N 038.3E n +790922 010000. IS?IN SUR? LOW? 47.000S 040.000E ?? * F +790924 032958.3 CPNZ UNDG 5.7 55 73.370N 054.580E N +790926 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR SHEEPSHEE +790927 041257.6 CPKTS UNDG 4.4 1.4 49.767N 078.120E N +791004 155958.0 CP UNDG 5.4 27 60.660N 071.440E N +791007 205957.1 CP UNDG 5.0 10 61.850N 113.120E N +791018 041657.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.1 9.0 49.837N 078.148E N +791018 070958.5 CPNZ UNDG 5.8 70 73.340N 054.730E N +791024 055956.6 CP UNDG 5.8 35 47.790N 048.110E N +791028 031656.9 CPKTS UNDG 5.9 59 49.973N 078.997E N +791122 191420.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.7 4 WR N +791129 USNTS SHFT <20 WR BACKGAMME +791130 045258.1 CPKTS UNDG 4.4 1.6 49.789N 078.144E N +791202 043657.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.9 60 49.891N 078.796E N +791214 USNTS SHFT <20 WR AZUL E +791221 044157.6 CPKTS UNDG 4.6 2.7 49.801N 078.173E N +791223 045657.4 CPKTS UNDG 6.1 119 49.916N 078.755E N +800223 180300.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.3 1 WR N +800228 USNTS SHFT <20 WR TARKO E +800303 175600.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.1 10 WR N +800308 USNTS SHFT <20 WR NORBO E +800323 193658.5 FR SHFT 5.6 80 21.864S 138.928W WR N +800401 193058.7 FR SHFT 5.1 20 21.854S 138.763W WR N +800403 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR LIPTAUERE +800404 183258.6 FR SHFT 4.5 2 21.906S 138.808W WR N +800404 053257.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.0 6.0 50.012N 077.856E N +800410 040657.8 CPKTS UNDG 4.9 5.5 49.805N 078.108E N +800416 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR PYRAMID E +800425 035657.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.5 18 49.973N 078.755E N +800426 GBNTS SHFT 20-150 COLWICK E +800502 USNTS SHFT <20 WR CANFIELDE +800522 USNTS SHFT <20 WR FLORA E +800522 035657.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.4 18 49.784N 078.082E N +800612 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR KASH E +800612 032657.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.5 23 49.980N 079.001E N +800616 182658.6 FR SHFT 5.3 25 21.864S 138.904W WR N +800621 170100.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.0 9 WR N +800624 USNTS SHFT <20 WE HURONKINE +800629 023257.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.7 30 49.939N 078.815E N +800706 172658.9 FR SHFT 4.7 5 21.845S 138.861W WR N +800713 081000.0 CPKTS UNDG 5.0 0.49 50.000N 078.000E N +800719 234658.5 FR SHFT 5.7 80 21.855S 138.959W WR N +800725 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR TAFI E +800731 USNTS SHFT <20 WR VERDELLOE +800731 033257.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.3 11 49.807N 078.148E N +800914 024239.1 CPKTS UNDG 6.2 150 49.921N 078.802E N +800920 104000.0 CPKTS UNDG 4.9 0.39 50.000N 078.000E N +800925 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR BONARDA E +800925 USNTS SHFT <20 WR RIOLA E +800925 062110.6 CPKTS UNDG 4.7 3.3 49.835N 078.118E N +800930 055700.0 CPKTS UNDG 4.6 0.19 50.000N 078.000E N +800930 055700.0 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 0.79 50.000N 078.000E N +801008 055957.3 CP UNDG 5.2 8.6 46.790N 048.290E N +801011 070957.1 CPNZ UNDG 5.7 55 73.360N 054.820E N +801012 033414.1 CPKTS UNDG 5.9 50 49.961N 079.028E N +801016 044028.9 PCLNR ATMO 200-1000 N +801024 GBNTS SHFT <20 DUTCHESSE +801031 USNTS TUNN <20 WE MINERSIRE +801101 125958.0 CP UNDG 5.2 17 60.790N 097.570E N +801114 USNTS SHFT <20 WR DAUPHIN E +801125 175300.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.5 2 WR N +801203 173258.5 FR SHFT 5.6 50 21.874S 138.945W WR N +801210 065957.6 CP UNDG 4.6 4.1 61.730N 066.760E N +801214 034706.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.9 54 49.899N 078.938E N +801217 GBNTS SHFT 20-150 SERPA E +801226 040707.2 CPKTS UNDG 4.2 0.97 49.941N 078.183E N +801227 040908.1 CPKTS UNDG 5.8 45 50.057N 078.981E N +810115 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR BASEBALLE +810205 USNTS SHFT <20 WR CLAIRETTE +810225 USNTS SHFT <20 WR SECO E +810227 232800.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.0 8 WR N +810306 172700.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.5 2 WR N +810328 172259.2 FR SHFT 4.8 5 21.780S 138.674W WR N +810329 040350.0 CPKTS UNDG 5.6 24 50.007N 078.982E N +810331 075156.0 CPKTS UNDG 3.6 .09 50.000N 079.000E N +810410 175659.0 FR SHFT 4.8 8 21.775S 138.969W WR N +810422 011711.3 CPKTS UNDG 5.9 54 49.885N 078.810E N +810430 USNTS SHFT <20 WR VIDE E +810525 045957.5 CP UNDG 5.5 34 68.210N 053.500E N +810527 03581234 CPKTS UNDG 5.4 17 49.985N 078.980E N +810529 USNTS SHFT <20 WR ALIGOTE E +810605 032200.0 CPKTS UNDG 4.7 0.24 50.000N 078.000E N +810606 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR HARZER E +810630 015712.9 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 10 49.768N 078.119E N +810705 035900.0 CPKTS UNDG 4.6 0.19 50.000N 078.000E N +810708 222258.8 FR SHFT 5.1 20 21.781S 139.049W WR N +810710 USNTS SHFT <20 WR NIZA E +810711 171700.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.0 8 WR N +810716 USNTS SHFT <20 WR PINEAU E +810717 023715.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.1 8.4 49.810N 078.160E N +810718 174300.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.5 2 WR N +810803 183258.6 FR SHFT 5.1 15 21.833S 138.900W WR N +810805 USNTS SHFT <20 WR HAVARTI E +810814 022712.8 CPKTS UNDG 4.9 5.6 49.791N 078.121E N +810827 USNTS SHFT <20 WR ISLAY E +810902 040003.9 CP UNDG 4.4 2.6 60.590N 055.700E N +810904 USNTS SHFT <20 WR TREBBIANE +810913 021718.2 CPKTS UNDG 6.0 71 49.910N 078.915E N +810924 USNTS SHFT <20 WR CERNADA E +810926 045957.4 CP UNDG 5.2 8.6 46.820N 048.280E N +810926 050357.0 CP UNDG 5.3 10 46.790N 048.270E N +810930 125500.0 CPKTS UNDG 4.6 0.19 50.000N 078.000E N +811001 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR PALIZA E +811001 121456.9 CPNZ UNDG 6.0 113 73.320N 054.550E N +811018 035702.6 CPKTS UNDG 6.0 66 49.923N 078.859E N +811022 135957.4 CP UNDG 5.1 13 63.790N 097.540E N +811111 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR TILCI E +811111 170658.7 FR SHFT 4.6 3 21.833S 138.991W WR N +811112 GBNTS SHFT 20-150 WR ROUSANNEE +811120 045702.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.1 8.2 49.740N 078.160E N +811129 033508.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.7 32 49.987N 078.860E N +811203 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR AKAVI E +811205 165759.0 FR SHFT 4.8 5 21.848S 138.774S WR N +811208 164658.7 FR SHFT 5.1 15 21.808S 138.896W WR N +811216 USNTS SHFT <20 WR CABOC E +811222 043102.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.0 6.6 49.831N 078.147E N +811227 034314.1 CPKTS UNDG 6.2 176 49.923N 078.795E N +820128 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR JORNADA E +820212 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR MOLBO E +820212 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR HOSTA E +820219 035611.1 CPKTS UNDG 5.4 14 49.824N 078.069E N +820220 172200.0 FRMUR SH? 4.6 3 WR N +820320 170257.8 FR SHFT 5.2 15 21.996S 138.941W WR N +820417 USNTS SHFT <20 WR TENAJA E +820425 GBNTS SHFT 20-150 GIBNE E +820425 032305.2 CPKTS UNDG 6.0 77 49.903N 078.913E N +820506 USNTS SHFT <20 WR KRYDDOSTE +820507 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR BOUSCHETE +820611 105900.0 CPKTS UNDG 4.7 0.24 50.000N 078.000E N +820616 USNTS SHFT <20 WR KESTI E +820624 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR NEBBIOLOE +820625 020304.7 CPKTS UNDG 4.8 3.6 49.810N 078.132E N +820627 170000.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.4 2 WR N +820701 170158.8 FR SHFT 5.3 20 21.766S 139.050W WR N +820704 011714.2 CPKTS UNDG 6.2 158 49.960N 078.807E N +820712 102900.0 CPKTS UNDG 4.6 0.19 50.000N 078.000E N +820721 171300.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.5 2 WR N +820725 180158.1 FR SHFT 5.7 55 21.864S 138.943W WR N +820729 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR MONTEREYE +820730 210002.9 CP UNDG 5.0 10 53.800N 104.140E N +820731 070800.0 CP UNDG 4.0 0.13 47.000N 048.000E N +820805 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR ATRISCO E +820811 USNTS SHFT <20 WR QUESO E +820823 024304.2 CPKTS UNDG 4.7 2.8 49.788N 078.092E N +820828 090900.0 CP UNDG 4.0 0.13 47.000N 048.000E N +820831 013100.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.3 11 49.924N 078.761E N +820831 084000.0 CP UNDG 4.6 0.53 47.000N 048.000E N +820902 USNTS SHFT <20 WR CERRO E +820904 054700.0 CPKTS UNDG 4.1 0.06 50.000N 078.000E N +820904 175958.5 CP UNDG 5.3 21 69.210N 081.640E N +820915 043300.0 CPKTS UNDG 5.1 0.62 50.000N 078.000E N +820921 025700.8 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 9.2 49.801N 078.151E N +820923 USNTS TUNN <20 WE HURONLANE +820923 USNTS TUNN <20 WE DIAMONDAE +820923 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR FRISCO E +820925 175957.3 CP UNDG 5.2 17 64.330N 081.800E N +820929 USNTS SHFT <150 WR BORREGO E +821001 131000.0 CP UNDG 4.0 0.13 47.000N 048.000E N +821005 PCLNR UNDG N +821010 045956.8 CP UNDG 5.3 21 61.530N 112.860E N +821011 071458.3 CPNZ UNDG 5.6 44 73.370N 054.340E N +821016 055957.3 CP UNDG 5.2 8.6 46.770N 048.220E N +821016 060457.4 CP UNDG 5.2 8.6 46.770N 048.240E N +821016 060957.3 CP UNDG 5.2 8.6 46.770N 048.220E N +821027 072800.0 CP UNDG 4.0 0.13 47.000N 048.000E N +821112 USNTS SHFT <20 WR SEYVAL E +821121 061000.0 CP UNDG 4.4 0.65 55.000N 050.000E N +821129 191900.0 CP UNDG 4.1 0.32 55.000N 050.000E N +821130 094900.0 CP UNDG 4.5 0.42 47.000N 048.000E N +821205 033712.5 CPKTS UNDG 6.1 97 49.919N 078.813E N +821210 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR MANTECA E +821225 042305.2 CPKTS UNDG 4.8 3.6 49.807N 078.068E N +821226 033514.2 CPKTS UNDG 5.7 30 50.071N 078.988E N +830201 135500.0 CP UNDG 4.3 0.26 47.000N 048.000E N +830211 USNTS SHFT <20 WR COALORA E +830217 USNTS SHFT <20 WR CHEEDAM E +830224 141100.0 CP UNDG 4.3 0.26 47.000N 048.000E N +830225 065300.0 CP UNDG 4.2 0.21 47.000N 048.000E N +830302 084530.0 CP UNDG 3.8 0.31 48.000N 049.000E N +830326 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR CABRA E +830330 041700.0 CPKTS UNDG 5.0 0.49 49.000N 079.000E N +830412 034105.2 CPKTS UNDG 4.9 0.39 49.810N 078.220E N +830413 USNTS SHFT <150 WR TURQUOISE +830419 185258.4 FR SHFT 5.5 40 21.847S 138.906W WR N +830422 GBNTS SHFT <20 ARMADA E +830425 170300.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.2 1 WR N +830504 050000.0 PCLNR UNDG 4.4 20-100 N +830505 USNTS SHFT <20 WR CROWDIE E +830525 173058.2 FR SHFT 5.6 40 21.895S 138.918W WR N +830526 USNTS TUNN <20 WE MINIJADEE +830526 USNTS SHFT <20 WR FAHADA E +830530 033344.8 CPKTS UNDG 5.5 18 49.740N 078.190E N +830609 USNTS SHFT <20 WR DANABLU E +830612 023643.7 CPKTS UNDG 6.1 81 49.910N 078.970E N +830618 173100.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.6 3 WR N +830624 025611.2 CPKTS UNDG 4.7 2.8 49.820N 078.120E N +830628 174558.6 FR SHFT 5.5 35 21.745S 138.917W WR N +830710 035957.3 CP UNDG 5.3 21 51.330N 053.290E N +830720 203000.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.0 10 WR N +830728 034100.0 CPKTS UNDG 5.0 0.49 49.000N 079.000E N +830803 USNTS SHFT <20 WR LABAN E +830804 171358.2 FR SHFT 5.0 8 21.835S 138.922W WR N +830811 USNTS SHFT <20 WR SABADO E +830818 160958.6 CPNZ UNDG 5.9 89 73.380N 054.870E N +830827 135959.9 USNTS SH? ** N +830901 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR CHANCELLE +830911 063310.5 CPKTS UNDG 4.9 4.5 49.890N 078.210E N +830921 USNTS TUNN <20 WE TOMIZEPHE +830921 162459.7 USNTS 37.113N 116.043W ** N +830922 USNTS SHFT <150 WR TECHADO E +830924 045957.1 CP UNDG 5.1 6.8 46.820N 048.290E N +830924 050457.2 CP UNDG 5.0 5.4 46.820N 048.280E N +830924 050957.5 CP UNDG 4.9 4.2 46.860N 048.270E N +830924 051457.1 CP UNDG 5.2 8.6 46.780N 048.300E N +830924 052457.4 CP UNDG 5.2 8.6 46.840N 048.230E N +830925 130957.9 CPNZ UNDG 5.8 70 73.350N 054.380E N +831006 100002.8 PCLNR UNDG 5.5 20-100 88.767S 041.550W N +831006 014706.8 CPKTS UNDG 6.0 67 49.930N 078.840E N +831026 015505.0 CPKTS UNDG 6.1 101 49.890N 078.900E N +831120 032704.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.5 18 50.060N 079.020E N +831129 021906.7 CPKTS UNDG 5.4 14 49.770N 079.020E N +831203 165800.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.7 4 WR N +831207 172800.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.2 15 WR N +831209 155959.2 USNTS 37.021N 115.975W * N +831216 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR ROMANO E +831226 042906.8 CPKTS UNDG 5.5 18 49.840N 078.220E N +840131 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR GORBEA E +840215 USNTS TUNN <20 WE MIDASMYTE +840219 035703.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.8 38 49.910N 078.810E N +840301 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR TORTUGASE +840307 022906.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.7 30 50.060N 079.000E N +840329 051908.2 CPKTS UNDG 5.9 48 49.940N 079.020E N +840331 USNTS SHFT <20 WR AGRINI E +840415 031709.1 CPKTS UNDG 5.7 30 49.740N 078.160E N +840425 010903.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.9 48 49.950N 078.940E N +840501 GBNTS SHFT 20-150 MUNDO E +840502 134959.6 USNTS 37.189N 116.016W ** N +840508 172600.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.3 20 WR N +840512 173058.3 FR SHFT 5.7 55 21.852S 138.961W WR N +840516 155959.3 USNTS 37.091N 115.994W ** N +840526 031312.4 CPKTS UNDG 6.0 61 49.980N 079.060E N +840531 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR CAPROCK E +840612 171600.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.5 2 WR N +840616 174357.9 FR SHFT 5.5 35 21.933S 138.992W WR N +840620 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR DUORO E +840623 025700.0 CPKTS UNDG 4.4 0.12 50.000N 079.000E N +840712 135959.9 USNTS 3.6 37.186N 116.012W ** N +840714 010910.5 CPKTS UNDG 6.2 140 49.890N 078.960E N +840721 025957.1 CP UNDG 5.4 27 51.356N 053.249E N +840721 030457.0 CP UNDG 5.3 5.5 51.374N 053.257E N +840721 030957.0 CP UNDG 5.3 21 51.353N 053.271E N +840721 074106.0 CP UNDG 3.8 0.62 48.000N 059.000E N +840725 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR KAPPELI E +840802 USNTS SHFT <20 WR CORREO E +840811 185957.4 CP UNDG 5.1 3.4 65.079N 055.287E N +840825 185958.6 CP UNDG 5.4 27 61.876N 072.092E N +840827 055957.0 CP UNDG 4.5 3.2 66.770N 033.680E N +840828 025955.5 CP UNDG 4.4 2.6 60.826N 057.472E N +840828 030459.0 CP UNDG 4.5 3.3 61.000N 058.000E N +840830 USNTS SHFT <20 WR DOLCETTOE +840909 025906.4 CPKTS UNDG 5.0 5.7 49.870N 078.180E N +840913 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR BRETON E +840915 061500.0 CPKTS UNDG 5.2 0.79 50.000N 079.000E N +840917 205957.4 CP UNDG 4.9 8.4 55.835N 087.408E N +841002 181359.3 USNTS 4.2 37.076N 115.989W * N +841003 055957.8 PCLNR UNDG 5.3 15.70 88.733s 041.600w N +841018 045705.7 CPKTS UNDG 4.5 1.8 49.800N 078.140E N +841025 062957.7 CPNZ UNDG 5.9 89 73.370N 054.960E N +841027 171600.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.7 3 WR N +841027 015010.6 CPKTS UNDG 6.2 140 49.950N 078.830E N +841027 055957.1 CP UNDG 5.0 5.4 46.860N 048.100E N +841027 060456.7 CP UNDG 5.0 5.4 46.840N 048.080E N +841102 204400.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.5 35 WR N +841110 USNTS SHFT <20 WR VILLITA E +841123 035504.8 CPKTS UNDG 4.7 2.8 49.900N 078.130E N +841201 165100.0 FR SHFT 4.2 1 22.000S 139.000W WR N +841202 031906.3 CPKTS UNDG 5.8 38 49.990N 079.070E N +841206 172858.3 FR SHFT 5.6 55 21.890S 138.954W WR N +841209 GBNTS SHFT 20-150 EGMONT E +841215 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR TIERRA E +841216 035502.7 CPKTS UNDG 6.1 81 49.960N 078.860E N +841219 060004.2 PCLNR UNDG 4.7 5-50 88.450S 041.683W N +841220 161959.7 USNTS 4.2 36.979N 116.006W * N +841228 035010.7 CPKTS UNDG 6.0 61 49.860N 078.750E N +850210 032707.6 CPKTS UNDG 5.9 48 49.880N 078.820E N +850315 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR VAUGHN E +850323 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR COTTAGE E +850402 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR HERMOSA E +850406 USNTS TUNN <20 WE y RAIN E +850419 135358.7 CP UNDG 4.7 5.2 44.440N 057.930E N +850425 005706.5 CPKTS UNDG 5.9 48 49.920N 078.970E N +850430 172900.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.1 15 WR N +850502 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR TOWANDA E +850508 202800.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.8 90 WR N +850603 173000.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.1 10 WR N +850607 174000.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.8 5 WR N +850612 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR SALUT E +850612 USNTS SHFT <20 WR VILLE E +850615 005700.7 CPKTS UNDG 6.0 61 49.890N 078.880E N +850626 USNTS SHFT <20 WR MARIBO E +850630 023902.7 CPKTS UNDG 6.0 61 49.860N 078.700E N +850711 022700.0 CPKTS UNDG 4.0 0.05 50.000N 078.000E N +850718 211457.5 CP UNDG 5.0 10 65.965N 040.754E N +850720 005300.0 CPKTS UNDG 6.7 27 50.000N 079.000E N +850725 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR SERENA E +850725 031100.0 CPKTS UNDG 5.3 1.00 50.000N 079.000E N +850814 USNTS SH? ** N +850817 USNTS SHFT <20 WR CHAMITA E +850927 USNTS SHFT <20 WR PONIL E +851009 USNTS TUNN <20 WE MILLYRRDE +851009 USNTS TUNN <20 WE d BEECH E +851012 USNTS? ** N +851016 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR ROQUEFORE +851024 175000.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.5 2 WR HERO N +851026 163500.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.3 20 WR N +851124 163000.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.8 5 WR N +851126 174200.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.6 55 WR N +851205 GBNTS SHFT 20-150 KINIBITOE +851228 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR GOLDSTONE +860322 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR GLENCOE E +860410 USNTS TUNN <20 WE MIGHTYOAE +860420 231229.9 USNTS SHFT <20 WR MOGOLLONN +860422 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR JEFFERSOE +860426 170156.6 FR SHFT 4.8 5 22.150S 139.120W WR N +860506 165800.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.7 5 WR N +860521 USNTS SHFT <20 WE PANAMINTE +860527 171500.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.7 4 WR N +860530 172458.2 FR SHFT 5.4 30 21.913S 139.100W WR N +860605 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR TAJO E +860625 GBNTS SHFT 20-150 DARWIN E +860717 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR CYBAR E +860904 160900.1 USNTS SHFT <20 WR GALVESTON +860724 USNTS SHFT <20 WR CORNUCOPE +860911 USNTS SHFT <20 WR ALEMAN E +860930 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR LABQUARKE +861016 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR BELMONT E +861110 165800.0 FRMUR SHFT 4.9 6 WR N +861112 170158.5 FR SHFT 5.3 25 21.894S 139.068W WR N +861114 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR GASCON E +861206 171000.0 FRMUR SHFT 5.0 9 WR N +861210 171458.6 FR SHFT 5.5 30 21.877S 138.986W WR N +861213 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR BODIE E +870203 USNTS SHFT <20 WR HAZEBROOE +870211 USNTS SHFT <20 WR TORNERO E +870226 045824.0 CPKTS UNDG 5.4 14 49.840N 078.120E N +870312 015718.0 CPKTS UNDG 5.5 18 49.940N 078.820E N +870318 USNTS TUNN <20 WE MIDDLENOE +870403 011709.0 CPKTS UNDG 6.2 140 49.900N 078.810E N 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<20 WR FLOYDADAE +910914 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR HOYA E +910919 USNTS TUNN <20 WE DISTANTZE +911018 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR LUBBOCK E +911126 GBNTS SHFT <20 BRISTOL E +920326 USNTS SHFT 20-150 WR JUNCTIONE +920430 USNTS TUNN <20 WE dFORTUNEE +920521 045957.4 PCLNR UNDG 6.6 700-1800 41.583N 088.880E N +920619 USNTS SHFT <20 WR VICTORIAE +920623 USNTS SHFT <20 WR GALENA E +920918 170000.0 USNTS TUNN 4.4 <20 37.207N 116.210W WE HUNTERSTE +920923 USNTS SHFT <20 WR DIVIDER E +920925 804000.0 PCLNR UNDG 5.4 1-2 N +931005 020000 PCLNR UNDG 5.8 41.7N 88.6E +940610 062600 PCLNR UNDG 5.7 41.64N 88.86E C + +NOTE: 920521 PRC test coordinates were grossly in error- near south pole. +They were corrected 931006. + +The only known nuclear explosion in 1993 was incorrectly dated 921005. +Correction made 1994 APR02. + +710429 NTS Mine Throw may have been a chemical explosion. + +Threshold Test Ban Treaty Verification to date: + + USSR/Russian Federation tests verified by the US: None + + UK tests at the NTS verified by the Russian Federation: None + + US tests verified by the USSR: HOYA On-site inspection at NTS + JUNCTION hydrodynamic method at NTS + JUNCTION seismic method at TUL, RSSD, NEW diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/obsearth.txt b/textfiles.com/science/obsearth.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..fd1eb7cb --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/obsearth.txt @@ -0,0 +1,185 @@ +"6_2_10.TXT" (8257 bytes) was created on 02-21-89 + + +SPACE SHUTTLE EARTH OBSERVATIONS PHOTOGRAPHY + + + + +BACKGROUND + +Astronauts have used hand-held cameras to photograph the Earth for +nearly 25 years, beginning with the Mercury missions in the early +1960s. Since 1981, Space Shuttle astronauts have taken more than +37,000 photographs with the Hasselblad Model 500 EL/M and the Aero +Linhof Technika 45 hand-held cameras. About 85 percent of these +photographs are Earth-looking views. The rest show satellite +deployments, extravehicular activities, and astronaut activities in +the cabin. + +Astronauts are trained in scientific observation of geological, +oceanographic, environmental and meteorological phenomena. They are +also instructed in the use of photographic techniques and equipment. +Training helps the astronauts make informed decisions on which areas +and phenomena to photograph. Specific areas of scientific interest are +selected before each flight by a group of scientists. The astronauts +receive intensive training and in-flight aids to help them locate +these sites. + +PHOTOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS + +Most of the photographs are in natural color, although a limited +amount of black-and-white film has been used with polarizing filters. +Beginning in 1963, a small about of color infrared film was tested on +some missions. + +Three lenses (50 mm, 100 mm, and 250 mm) on the Hasselblad cameras and +two lenses (90 mm and 250 mm) on the Aero Linhof camera offer a wide +variety of both areal coverage and spatial resolution. The Shuttle +flies at different altitudes; for example, on the first 24 missions, +the altitude range was between 204 and 555 km (110 and 300 nautical +miles), which adds to this variation. Table 1 offers a guideline to +the areal coverage provided by the photographs. + +====================================================================== + TABLE 1 - APPROXIMATE DISTANCE ACROSS A VERTICAL + PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN FROM AN ALTITUDE OF 296 KILOMETERS + (160 NAUTICAL MILES) + +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Camera Lens Distance + + Kilometers Nautical Miles + +Hasselblad 50 mm 325 175 + 100 mm 165 90 + 250 mm 65 35 + +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Aero Linhof 90 mm 310 x 395 170 x 215 + 250 mm 110 x 145 60 x 75 + +====================================================================== + +A rule of thumb is that 100-mm lens offers spatial resolution similar +to that of Landsat multispectral scanner (approximately 80 m) and the +25-mm lens has resolution similar to that of the Landsat thematic +mapper (approximately 30 m). + +For most Shuttle missions, the orbital tracks cover the tropical and +temperate regions of the Earth between 28 degrees N. and 28 degrees S. +latitude. Nine Space Transportation System (STS) missions have flown +at higher latitudes, with the orbits of STS Missions 9, 41-G, 51-B, +and 61-A extending to 57 degrees N. and 57 degrees S. latitude. Repeat +coverage of an area is obtained by acquiring photography on several +missions and/or by taking photographs from different viewing angles +during a single mission. + +As a result of the Earth's rotation and the Shuttle's orbit duration +(approximately 90 minutes), an area may be photographed at different +Sun angles during a single mission. + +Stereoscopic coverage is available for a number of areas. + +USES OF THE PHOTOGRAPHY + +The Shuttle hand-held photography fills a niche between the coverage +provided by aerial photography and that of unmanned satellite scanners +and complements these two familiar formats with additional +information. The ability of the trained astronaut to rapidly identify +and photograph important phenomena on the Earth makes the Shuttle +photographs unique. Near-real-time information exchange with the crew +facilitates the recording of current events of environmental, +geological, oceanographic, and meteorological importance. + +Photographing at various Sun angles highlights different geologic +features and takes advantage of sun glint to show intricate ocean +structures and land/water interfaces. Critical environmental +monitoring sites are photographed repeatedly over time; some have +photographic records dating back to the Gemini and Skylab missions. +Earth-limb pictures taken at sunrise and sunset document the changes +in the Earth's atmospheric layering.Volcanic activity is monitored in +cooperation with the Scientific Event Alert Network of the Smithsonian +Institution. Meteorological phenomena are monitored and photographed +during Space Shuttle missions. Documentation of hurricanes, +thunderstorms, squall lines, island cloud wakes, and jet stream, +complements meteorological satellite data by offering better +resolution and stereoscopic coverage of such phenomena. The +photographs can be used in geologic mapping and in updating existing +maps. + +OBTAINING INFORMATION ON SPACE SHUTTLE HAND-HELD PHOTOGRAPHY + +Each frame of the hand-held Shuttle photography has a set of +descriptors to help the user understand the photographic content. This +information is available in a set of catalogs or through an automated +data base search. + +o CATALOGS - Catalogs of the photography for each Space Shuttle + mission can be obtained by contacting the Earth + Resources Observations System (EROS) Data Center. + +o DATA BASE - A computerized data base containing more than 15 + descriptors for each frame of the Shuttle Earth- + looking photography has been compiled. A data base + query can be made through the EROS Data Center + +o VIEWING CENTERS - + The photographs can be viewed on microfilm at + National Cartographic Information Centers: the + Technology Application Center, University of New + Mexico; the Lunar Planetary Institute, Houston, TX, + and the Library of Congress, Washington DC. + +o VIDEO DISK - The Earth-viewing photography from the first 24 STS + missions is available on a video disk through the + Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC. + +====================================================================== + + O R D E R I N G P H O T O G R A P H S + +Prints, slides, and transparencies of STS Earth-looking photography +are distributed through three agencies. The primary source of the data +is: + + EROS DATA CENTER + User Services Section + Sioux Falls, South Dakota 57198 + Phone: (605) 594-6151 + FTS: 784-7151 + +Other sources are: + TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS CENTER + University of New Mexico + Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131 + Phone: (505) 277-3622 + +and + + MEDIA SERVICES BRANCH + Still Photography Library + NASA/Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center + P.O. Box 58425, Mail Code AP3 + Houston TX 77258-8425 + Phone: (713) 483-4231 + +A user may contact these agencies for ordering assistance, price +lists, and oder forms. To order a picture, submit the Shuttle mission +number, the film roll number, and the frame number. + +If the interest lies in a specific area, a listing of available +photographs can be obtained through the EROS Data Center. submit the +geographic name (i.e. country, island chain, ocean, or sea) and the +latitude and longitude coordinates for the area of interest. + +The Space Shuttle Earth Observation Project Office recommends that a +user visit one of the viewing centers to select the photograph best +satisfying his or her requirements before ordering a photograph. + +====================================================================== +NASA, SPACE SHUTTLE EARTH OBSERVATIONS PHOTOGRAPHY, JSC, Houston, TX, +January 1987 + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/ofil_001.txt b/textfiles.com/science/ofil_001.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ac5f5ea5 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/ofil_001.txt @@ -0,0 +1,626 @@ + + REVIEW AND OUTLOOK + + THE DEVELOPMENT OF POST-RELATIVISTIC CONCEPTS IN PHYSICS + AND ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY ABROAD + + Rolf Schaffranke, Dr. h. c. + Member A.I.A.A. + +"Far more is done to the progress of science by skepticism than by +gullibility". (Dr. Wood, Director R & D, McDonnel-Douglas Astronautics +Div., CA) NASA - Langley Research Center in Hampton, VA is named after +Samuel Pierpont Langley (1834-1906), an American astronomer, engineer and +architect. + +Langley worked out the aerodynamic principles for manned flight. In +principal, his calculations were correct; but the structural material he +used for wings and engines were insufficient. In DECEMBER of 1903, the New +York Times published an editorial complaining about his foolish dream and +the associated waste of government money. The editorial predicted that: +"man would not fly for a thousand years". Only 9 days after the editorial +was published, the Wright brothers made their first successful powered +flight at Kitty Hawk, Dec. 17, 1903. But, again, as late as 1905, the +Scientific American suggested the happening was a hoax - two years after +the event which changed history. Let's reflect for a moment on the fact +that only in a single lifetime, man has journeyed from Kitty Hawk to the +surface of the Moon! + +The analogy to the problem of alternative energies and their development +is, of course, obvious. We are to educate the preaching orthodoxies. But +orthodox solutions are no longer enough. Our system of education can only +give from the past. The present must operate on inspiration and intuition, +or the future will be lost. The past no longer has enough of the answers +for arising crisis for which there are no precedents. To keep pace with +the requirements of the future, we must begin to teach not only what to +learn, but how to learn, how to analyze, how to search for the truth. Only +then will we be able to recognize the discrepancies between experiment and +dogma and to cope with the problems which appear to be just beyond the +corner. History has shown again and again that no single individual can +rise above the species without being persecuted. The reasons for that are: + + Some of the most powerful forces in homo sapiens have + always been GREED, PRIDE, EGO, FEAR and, above all, + the DESIRE TO CONTROL OTHERS. + +A brand new German book titled "Energy in Abundance", which is evidently +creating a considerable impact in the European community, challenges the +contemporary high priests of science, the "Guardians of the Status Quo" and +uncovers an almost incredible narrowmindedness and ignorance in science, +politics and economics, "approaching the criminal" as the author puts it. +The contemporary waste of genuine intellectual creativity is castigated as +a cultural scandal approaching barbarism. The book stresses that a truly +promising approach to the so-called energy crisis requires a fundamental +and thorough re-evaluation of the theories, dogmas and axioms which form +the basis of present day science and the foundation of out technology. As +in the past, the formidable inertia of the establishment is not only based +on inaccurate, incomplete and outdated information, but also requires that +we first demythologize generally accepted claims so-called experts of the +past. An excellent introduction to this problem is the article "Resistance +by Scientists to Scientific Discovery" by Bernard Barber in Science, Vol. +134, pp. 596-602, Sept. 1961, or the paper by Stephan C. Brush in Science +of March, 1974, titled "Should the History of Science be rated 'X'"?, +culminating with a statement of Huxley: + + "Authorities", "disciples", and "schools" are the + curse of science and do more to interfere with the + work of the scientific spirit than all its enemies". + +The former astronaut, Capt. Edgar D. Mitchell, one of our famous +contemporaries, also stressed the need for an open mind! + + "History has shown time and again that important + scientific discoveries generally happen only when + someone steps outside the limits of his traditional + disciplines and looks at something from a fresh + point of view. Then what should have been obvious + all along comes into focus". + +Those of us who are familiar with the pioneering efforts of Dr. Hans Nieper +of Hanover will Appreciate this statement by an ex-astronaut. + +One of the most important cornerstones of today's scientific dogmas dates +back to 1905, more than 3/4 of a century ago. Lest we forget, television +and radar, jet aircraft and cyclotrons, moonrockets and close-up photos of +the planets of out solar system were nothing but wild fantasies of science +fiction then. + +The speed of light was assumed to be constant and the maximum possible +speed in the universe; vacuum was to be a total void. In reality, the +speed of light as measured in the Michaelson-Morley experiments was not at +all the same in all directions. The "ether drift" still amounted to the +respectable velocity of about five miles per second, and similar results +were obtained by D.C. Miller in a series of experiments extending over 25 +years, from 1902 to 1926. + + "Even worse, the measurements showed such marked + discrepancies with previous results as to occasion + a distress call to the US Coast & Geodetic Survey, + whose surveyors repeatedly remeasured the length + of the tube and found no error there," reported + the Popular Science Monthly March 1934 issue. + And it continued: "More recently, speed of light + observations only emphasized the apparent erratic + behavior of the light beam that the scientists were + attempting to plot. On some days it seems to travel + faster than others by as much as 12 miles a second. + Its speed seems to vary with the season, also in a + mysterious shorter cycle lasting about 2 weeks. + Finally, the scientists ended by taking an AVERAGE + of all the readings which has been announced as + 186,271 miles per second". + +In his paper "A Critical Look At The Theory of Relativity", Library of +Congress Cat. No. 77-670044, F.K. Preikschat compiled all known light +velocity measurements during the past 300 years or so, from Olaf Roemer in +1676 to the Laser measurements conducted by the National Bureau of +Standards (USA) in 1972. + +Of the 27 experiments undertaken in this field, 18 of them after the turn +of this century, it must be concluded that the velocity of light as +measured within the reference system of our Earth has changed as much as +plus/minus 50 km/sec during the past century. Preikschat plotted a curve +of these deviations and suggests a possible relationship between sunspot +activities and changes of the Earths magnetic field during the time period +in question. + +The "universal constancy of light" appears, therefore, as somewhat shaky +"empirical evidence" for our cornerstone in physics, especially since +Einstein himself has gone on record as saying: + + "If a single one of the conclusions drawn from it + (relativity) proves to be wrong, it must be given + up; to modify it without destroying the whole + structure seems to be impossible". + +Another modification concerns the definition for the term "vacuum" in +physics, as documented by a paper in the American Scientist, March-April +1980, titled "Is The Vacuum Really Empty?" by Prof. Walter Greiner, Univ. +of Frankfurt, BRD, and Prof. Joseph H. Hamiliton, Vanderbilt Univ., +Nashville, TN. + +The authors conclude that a neutral vacuum is by no means as "empty" as the +previously claimed in our textbooks, and suggests a new definition as +follows: + + "The vacuum is the lowest stable state that a region of + space can have WHILE BEING PENETRATED BY CERTAIN FIELDS". + +Because of the tremendous time lag in our educational system, many +research projects and their ensuing experimental data have been withheld +from public scrutiny. The scientific community tends to have a vested +interest in preserving the system it created and of which it is a part. It +responds to new situations through the coloration of this attachment. A +case in point are the carefully conducted experiments of T.T. Brown with +charged bodies in a high vacuum, as described in mt booklet Ether Fields +(1977). These experiments suggest the actual presence of certain fields in +vacuum, whether we call them gravitaional field, tachion-field, ether +field, neutrino or Fermi-sea, etc. is of secondary importance at this +moment. Although Brown spent, reportedly, more than $200,000 of his own +funds over several decades on such experiments, he was nevertheless unable +to have the results published in the scientific media of America. + +Things are even worse when it comes to experiments conducted abroad, which +often tend to confirm disregarded experimental results on this continent, +as we shall see shortly. To highlight the wide discrepancies between +orthodox (and obsolete) dogmas and actual, physical realities pertaining to +the true subatomic structures as we know them to be today, let us briefly +review the structures of the matter: + +A molecule is the smallest division of a substance. Further division would +cause it to cease being a substance. The smallest true molecules can be +illustrated when we use the globe of the Earth for our standard. If a +single drop of water were magnified until it was as big as the Earth, each +molecule would be about the size of a tennis ball. + +On the next step down, an atom is the unit which makes up the nature of the +molecule, consisting of the nucleus and the surrounding electrons to render +the atom "stable". An atom of hydrogen contains one proton and one +electron to balance or neutralize the proton. Matter then is divisible +into electrons and protons. But - and here comes the rub: Between +electrons and protons are spaces so vast, in comparison with the masses of +each, that, if the proton in the carbon atom were the size of a golf ball +hanging from a ceiling of the great hall at Pennsylvania Station in New +York, its electrons would be represented by six small wasps winging in a +little knot against the four walls of the gigantic structure of the +building! In effect, one could claim there is a little final solidity of +substance to anything: The Universe consists of "emptiness"' charged with +electrical energy! If we translate the above to the measurements and +terminology of the physicist and "magnify" the atom mathematically, with +all its distances and dimensions kept in proportion so that the orbit of +the electron would have a diameter equal to that of the Earth about the +Sun, approximately 184 million miles, the diameter of the electron itself +would only be 2000 miles, and the diameter of the nucleus, where mass and +weight of the atom are truly concentrated, can be taken as 2 miles only. +We thus obtain a picture of a central mass with a diameter of 2 miles +(nucleus), another object with a diameter of 2000 miles (the electron in +the case of the hydrogen atom) at a distance of 92 million miles away from +it, orbiting the nucleus. Evidently, there is plenty of room inside this +system. And "room" is not a vacuum, it is not nothingness, but space +itself, spatial energy, a field which can be identified with the ether of +the past - and the future. Nobel prize winner, Max Planck, during a +lecture in Florence, Italy, once made a truly remarkable statement which +describes the problem facing the physicist today: + + "As a man who has devoted his whole life to the most clear- + headed science, to the study of matter, I can tell you as + the result of my research about the atoms this much: + 'THERE IS NO MATTER AS SUCH!" + All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which + brings the particles of an atom to vibration and holds this + most minute solar system of the atom together. We must + assume behind this force the existence of a conscious and intelligent + mind. This mind is the matrix of all matter". + +This cosmic matrix is needed if we want to explain "action at a +difference"' lines of force, stresses, a magnetic field and so on. When +the concept of the ether was abandoned, it had to be replaced by the +concept of "space" instead. In reality, we merely switched terminology. +We used to say that "ether fills all space". But "filling" is no exactly +the descriptive word to use. Perhaps we should rather define it: "Ether is +a condition of space in which electrical manifestations for the atomic +construction of material is possible". This primordial energy is "free" or +in an uncondensed state. It exists in interstellar space but remains +unrecognizable until it begins to coagulate or gets into a vortex pattern. + +The claim of our textbooks that the Michelson-Morley experiment "disproved" +the existence of the ether is incorrect. It merely disproved the existence +of a noticeable ether "drift" or "drag". As an analogy, if someone would +postulate that the absence of wind disproves the existence of the +atmosphere around our planet, the fallacy of this postulate would be +immediatly apparent to all. + +"Michelson and Morley centered their attention on the Earth's orbital +velocity (30 km per second). They had no knowledge of the existence of +galaxies; of motions of galaxies in relation to each other; of the motion +of our solar system in our galaxy.... Their negative results are +explainable on the basis of pre-1900 classical mechanics, so provide no +proof of the absence of ether or Louis de Broglie's 'subquantic medium'. +Thus, the limited information to Michelson and Einstein is emphasized by +recent findings, particularly in astrophysic", writes Dr. H.C. Dudley in +the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Jan, 1975, under the title +"Michelson's Hunch Was Right". And Dr. Dudley continues: "In fact, 1929 +saw Michelson still attempting to experimentally demonstrate the ether, +which his intuition and reasoning told him ought to be present". + +"Today most persons are largely unaware that the ether concept began to be +seriously reexamined by two of physics most notable laureates. The ether +is now being called the "neutrino sea" by astrophysicists, and has been +characterized as an energy-rich particulate, subquantic medium. A rather +voluminous literature on the subject is accumulating as indicated by a +recent review, The Cosmic Neutrino, with 655 references covering only the +period 1965-1972..... It appears that an open-minded reexamination of this +area of physics is long overdue in order to open up new avenues of +approaching to this pressing problem. + +Michelson, Dirac, de Broglie were not the only Nobel prize winners in favor +of a reexamination of the ether question. Others were Stark, Arrhenius, +A.H. Compton, Lenard, H. Yukawa, and Fredrick Soddy, the British scientist +who, during the convention of Nobel laureates in Lindau, 1954, described +the current dogmas in physics as "an orgy of amateur physics" and "arrogant +swindle" - with particular emphasis on the theory of relativity. + +It remained largely unknown, even to physicists, that Einstien himself had +serious doubts. In 1949, he wrote to his old friend, Maurice Solovine, who +congratulated him on his 70th birthday: + + "Now you think that I am looking back at my life's work with calm + satisfaction. But, on closer look, it is quite different. There is + not a single concept of which I am convinced that it will stand firm + and I am not sure if I was on the right track after all". + +And one of my Canadian friends I believe is present here today stated quite +correctly in a letter to me: + + "The myths around Einstien are really not of his making as he + himself often questioned his own conclusions and I felt he was + quite aware of his own limitations which others were covering up. + The Physicists protect their members much the same way + that the medical profession protects its own". + +The purpose of these remarks is not to spark another controversy about the +merits of the theories of relativity. Rather, they want to show that so- +called "scientific evidence" is a rather elastic term and that +"verification" is always a relative affair. Or as K.R. Popper so aptly +put it: "Only in our subjective experience of conviction, in our +subjective faith, can we be `absolutely certain`". + +This symposium presents an excellent overview of research and experiments +reported from English speaking countries, or experiments published in the +English language, as for instance Japan. However, as Dr. Tenhaeff from +Holland has formulated the problem: + + "It is important to pay attention to publications of colleagues + in other countries. In the Netherlands and Germany, every + academically educated man or woman know at least three foreign + languages. English and American authors only pay attention to + material in English. In my opinion, this leads to an `impoverishment' + which puts a drag in science. Some seem very chauvinistic and seem to + believe that only the researches done in their country are important. + I regret this. Science is international, and international + cooperation is of the greatest importance in science". + + +In presenting some brief reports from abroad, I shall attempt to bring +corroborative evidence in support of alternative technology developments +discussed during our meeting here in Toronto. Let me start with the most +sensitive and secretive society, with Russia. + +In his German original of the paper "Some Remarks on the Shielding Theory +of Gravity", which was published in the Hanover Proceedings in more detail +than the English abstract, Dr. Hans Nieper mentioned the Berlin engineer +Levetzow, who was one of the first to postulate a combination pressure and +shielding theory for the phenomena of gravity. Levetzow was soon +overshadowed by the rising star of Albert Einstein, but one of his +followers, Horst Pinkell, went to Russia in 1928 as an exchange student - +and never returned. Together with Russian scientists, he was asked to +prove the actual existence of the cosmic radiations postulated by Levetzow, +now designated as neutrino sea or "tachion field". The work was done in +Sterlitamak, south of the Ural mountains, and in 1938, sporadic reports +reached the West about the discovery of extremely short corpuscler waves by +Pinkell and Gorjew. These were the long sought "Hemmstrahlen" or drag +waves associated gravity. Rumors have it that a metal alloy was soon +developed which acted as a drag wave polarisor and, in 1947, agents +reported experimental Russian aircraft using this discovery. In 1951, a +former German Junkers aircraft engineer reported about his activity +pertaining to a super-secret project code named COW-7 in Siberia, a disk- +shaped craft which could rise vertically and which belonged to the secret +weapons then developed by the Soviets. Whether it was related to the +Canadian AVRO project or something entirely different remained unknown, +only the Levetzow gravity theory was assumed in connection with the +activity in question. + +JAPAN: My esteemed friend, Prof. Seike, who kept me informed about the +research conducted by him and his co-workers, surprised me once with a +significant statement, which I feel is important to repeat for the benefit +of frustrated researcher's on this side of the Pacific: "In the early stage +of my studies, physicists could not understand what I was doing, while +actors and actresses did so by intuition". it was the private support of +about 800 individual artists, etc., in Japan which allowed the support of +the Japanese equivalent of a National Science Foundation or a similar +bureaucratic institution in that country. Again and again, I was surprised +how quickly and eagerly American experiments, as for instance the almost +forgotten "Ionocraft" of the late Major De Seversky, were duplicated and +explored even in Japanese secondary schools. Admiral Rickover has more +than once complained about our intellectual complacency: "As a nation, we +seem addicted to 'spectatoritis'. We sit in the bleachers and let the game +of life unfold before us". + +The results are known: The Japanese have achieved top positions in science +and technology, and not only with tachion beams melting stones, producing +"biased" water with a freezing point of minus 4 degrees Celsius, and a G- +power generator obtaining 400 VDC output from a 10 V input driving source. +I wish to take this opportunity to thank Prof. Seike for sharing his work +with us in this country, and wish him the best of success for the future. + +FRANCE: The work of SEPED was explained by M. Rene Louis Valee and some +French publications in the area of gravity research have been translated by +the NASA translation services, as for instance the theory of the +electromagnetic Magnus Effect (of Marcel Pages). + +Specific mention must be made of the Raymond Kromrey G-Field generator, a +French-Ferman-Swiss development which appears very closely related to the +American "N" machine principle, the "Sunburst" machine and the "Permanent +Magnet-Motor" Patent of Howard Johnson. Utilizing either permanent or +electromagnetic modules, the generator output exceeds the input by far. +One prototype delivers approximately 700 watts at speeds varying between +600 and 1200 RPM. Models with an output of 100 to 160 KW are presently in +the planning stage. Several European patents have been granted against +heavy opposition, especially from French industrial circles. The +development was about 40 years in the making and the inventor stresses the +need for a reinvestigation of electromagnetics and gravitic forces, as well +as a reexamination of many cemented dogmas in present day physics. + +GERMANY: A system of rotating electromagnets and magnetic "stator rings" +of the German "Kunel" Generator complement the general trend of the +American and French generators mentioned before. The first prototype was +reported to have been tested in April, 1980. Here again, very heavy +opposition from the German orthodox science establishment. Of special +interest is a comment by Nobel laureate Werner Heisenberg, reported to have +been made vis-a-vis the inventor: + + "I think it is possible to utilize magnetism as an energy + source. But we science idiots cannot do that; this has to + come from the outside". + +More details about French and German developments have been published in +the new book already mentioned, Energy in Abundance by Hilscher and, +hopefully, an English version of this important work will be available by +next year. Generators which do interact with surrounding energy fields +have been designated as "open systems", in contrast to our present "closed +system" technology of gasoline and diesel engines, steam turbines, nuclear +power plants and so forth. The theoretical basis for all "open systems" is +the realization that there simply is no such thing as "empty space". In +reality, space is filled with an extremely energy rich, subatomic and +subquantic continuum. In short, a pre-physical state of matter, which can +be tapped, as for instance by the spinning of magnetic systems which +extract momentum via a vortex-formation of the universal "tachion field". + +AUSTRIA: This small heartland of Central Europe is proud of her native +pioneers in science, among them Dr. Wilhelm Reich, Viktor Schauberger and +Karl Schappeller. But after Dr. Reiche died in an American prison in 1957 +and victor Schauberger died only five days after his return from the USA in +1958, where he received an incredibly unfair treatment from certain +industrialists, there is little enthusiasm among Austrians to touch base +with correspondents on this continent. Viktor Schauberger's son, Walter, +refuses, as a matter of principle, to communicate with Americans, no matter +in what language. To illustrate the type of "contract" Viktor Schauberger +was forced to sign, it stated: + + that all of his patents would become the property of the "consortium"' + that any future inventions or developments would also become + the property of the consortium., + that he would refrain from discussing any of it with third parties, + that he would refrain from publishing, + that all plans and models would remain with the consortium after + his departure from America> + +There is a favorite saying in that small country which is to the point: +"After the Greek philosopher Pythagoras had discovered his famous theorem, +he sacrificed a whole hectatomb of oxen as a thanksgiving to the Gods. +Ever since, all the oxen in the world are running scared whenever a new +truth has been discovered". + +Knowledge of the ideas of Schauberger and Schauppeller appears to be +essential for an understanding of our changing picture of the physical +world. As an example, the former forest ranger Viktor Schauberger had +watched numerous times some trout standing, apparently motionless, in the +strong currents of Alpine mountain streams. This and many similar +observations of nature brought him to the gradual development of his +"Implosion-theory" and associated hardware (see Jensen Paper). His son is +continuing the work in the "Pythagoras-Kepler" school in Bad Ischl. +Another prolific researcher is the Viennese engineer Franz Seidl, known for +his studies of the use of magnetic field effects as "trigger energy" for +voltage and power multipliers. + +HOLLAND: A small country with a strongly developed intellectual +independence appears to be Holland, where Prof. J.M.J. Kooy developed his +space dynamics. His hypothesis of gravitaional action is based on the +realization that all celestial bodies can be conceived as practically +transparent in relation to the size of the elementary particles and their +mutual distances in the structure of matter. Gravitons or tachions, coming +from all directions of deep space, can pass through a celestial body like +water passes through a fishnet, and only a minute fraction of the cosmic +gravitons or tachions will be intercepted. Study of the effects of the +tachion fields or space continuum of the fabric of material substances, +magnets and crystal lattices can lead to development of converters and +novel production facilities for readily usable, conventional E/M energy. +When the American inventor Edwin V. Gray was blocked in his efforts to +develop his "pulsed capacitor discharge electric engine" for which he had +received U.S. Patent #3,890,548, he found open ears and open minds in +Holland. + +The fact that Gray was named "Inventor of the Year" from the department of +Patent Rights in Los Angeles, California, where Dr. Chalfin of Cal-Tech +confirmed that: + + There does not exist an even distantly similar engine to this one + in the world. Conventional electric engines use up power. In + this system energy is used up for only a minute part of a + millisecond. It operates without heat loss and there is no + energy loss whatsoever with this system", + +had more meaning to the PHILLIPS and others in Holland than to energy +establishments in his native America. + +ENGLAND: There is perhaps no more controversial inventor at this time than +John R. R. Searl and his Levity Disc, powered by the Searl Effect +Generator. It is claimed that model craft have been demonstrated with +flight characteristics showing anti-gravitational and inertia-free +properties. Demonstrations have been photographed and videotaped. Searl +calls his generator a "Gyro-Flywheel High Energy Density Mechanical Device" +and claims that the magnets used are not the common type, ordinary magnets. +The Australian engineer Athol Park of Melbourne, who visited Searl a few +years ago described it this way: + + "From a briefcase, Mr. Searl takes a bar magnet and two steel + rollers. He places the rollers at either end of the magnet. + They appear to be attracted to the poles - but, when they are + pushed gently around the corners of the magnet, they chase each + other round and round...." + +The engineer quotes Searl: + + "The crystal in the magnet are changed by putting it in a + magnetic flux oven and by frequency control. The result is + motion of a magnetic field - a completely new source of power. + Unis (modules) based on this principle are what power my + levity unit - the motor and generator built as one, fuelless + unit". + +In one of his numerous newsletters he states further: + + "The power plant is a self-contained, onboard closed system of + conversion elements with energy input from a latent storage source". + +Because Searl has never divulged all details and his explanations are +generally of a non-technical, "unscientific" nature, many investigators +have chosen to dismiss him as a swindler and imposter. In sharp contrast +to this is the opinion of a well-experienced American engineer who reported +after a visit with Searl: + + "I found it resfreshing to note the keen sense of moral respon- + sibility which he feels for the use to which his discovery is + put... The Searls live in modest circumstances. Luxuries are few. + They do not own a car. Mr. Searl bicycles several miles + daily to his place of work in Maidenhead. There he is an electrical + technician and training supervisor in a bearing factory". + +But perhaps most significant was the following observation of the American +visitor about Searl: + + "We were also interested to hear him say that many of his ideas + came to him while he slept. He would go to sleep with question, and + wake with answers... and refreshed. He seemed to have the + ability to restore vital powers more quickly than most people". + +And the American concluded his report with the statement: + + "The impression we gained of Mr. Searl was one of a very sincere + and generous person, a dedicated and tireless worker with perfect + confidence in the outcome of his efforts, a man of high principle + with a keen sense of loyalty to those who are helping him, and of + responsibility for the future welfare of our planet and its + people". + +In view of the very contradictory nature of comments and impressions by +those who have met Searl, it might be wise to reverse final judgement on +the Searl-Levity-Disc and its inventor at this time. + +NEW ZEALAND: Some of Searl's keenest supporters and observers of his work +are in New Zealand and Australia. And one of the sharpest young physicists +in that country (New Zealand), unhampered by calcified ideology, developed +the mathematical foundation for a theoretical anti-gravity effect, using +the hydrodynamic analogy of the ether. He uses the equivalent of the +hydrodynamic Reynolds number, above a certain value of which the laminar +flow past a solid surface breaks down and becomes turbulent due to shear +rupture of the viscous cohesion of a fluid, together with his deduction +that anti-gravity could be obtained by creating a "vacuum: in the ether in +such a way as to correspond to the production of turbulence in a magnetic +field. Turbulence in a fluid occurs when Reynolds number RE = 1, when the +inertial shearing force equals the viscous cohesion force in the fluid in +the vicinity of an approximately spherical body immersed in the fluid, +resulting in separation of the boundary layer and formation of a wake i.e. +vacuum or free surface around the body. He calculated the for turbulence +in the ether, = a vacuum = and anti-gravity effect, using the refined value +of ether kinematic viscosity which he obtained. + +His theory would confirm the observations of very high voltage produced in +the case of the Searl Disc, and the very high voltage needed in the vacuum +experiments with flying disc-shaped bodies of T.T. Brown, the ionocraft +observations of Major de Seversky, the Electro-Field Rockets of Prof. +Dudley, the observations of Northrup Corp. with Electro-Aerodynamics in +Supersonic Flow and similar American documentaion and patents. + +Since the New Zealander is now in the process of attempting to publish his +theory in a reputable British magazine, I am not at liberty to divulge his +address prematurely. Interest in New Zealand and Australia is running +high, and possible breakthroughs in energy technology should not come +totally unexpected in these two countries with strong intellectual tiers to +England. + +CONCLUSION: There is now overwhelming evidence for the actual existence of +a very high density, energy rich space continuum formerly called "ether". +This space energy can be concentrated, gathered, focused, magnified and +compacted by magnets of magnetic materials, which appear as the new core +material for converters of all kinds, utilizing the cosmic energy for new +technology applications. + +Crystals are energy-sensing and channeling devices; they can serve as +transducers, as for instance in the Moray-Device, or the "rock electricity" +of T.T. Brown. + +Combinations of crystals and magnetic material appear to be the mainstay +for the development of "hyper-space" - converters and generators of power - + utilizing free, cosmic energy in our future. + +Unbiased, totally honest and impartial reexamination and reevaluation of +ALL scientific theorems and dogmas, as well as unhampered opportunities for +the pioneers of the new technology on the American and European continent +appear to be the prerequisite of success. + +Those who accept that anything of the nature of ideas or ideology is +permanent, use all their strength to hold on to it, and condemn all who do +not agree. The next stage of this spiritual illness of the mind is to +build a monument to what they perceive is Truth, and then to build a +monument to their own permanence in the world. This, they do by seeking +fame or fortune, and authority over others. This is the contemporary, +planetary psychology situation, and thus are we losing the gift of +perspective and horizon and are no longer able to discern what is +important. Skeptics are on record as saying: + + "We are not running out of natural resources or intellectual + talent, we are running out of the freedom of innovation that made + the countries on the North American continent the most advanced + nations on Earth". + +The future will show whether this freedom, which includes the freedom and +the duty of taking risks, can be restored to the degree our founding +fathers have been striving for. Only then will we know whether the late +Wernher von Braun was not too overly optimistic when he stated: + + "The cosmic age will bring a dawn of knowledge not yet envisioned. + IT WILL DWARF ALL OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE AND IDEAS and, through its + vastness, may even bring men closer together on their own planet". + + ============================================================================= + + --------------------------- + C U F O N + --------------------------- + Computer UFO Network + + Seattle Washington, USA + + (206) 776-0382 8 Data Bits, No Parity, 1 Stop Bit 300/1200/2400 bps. + + SYSOP - Jim Klotz Information Director - Dale Goudie + + UFO Reporting and Information Service + Voice Line - (206) 721-5035 + P.O.Box 832, Mercer Island, WA 98040, USA + + - Please credit CUFON as the source of this material - + + ============================================================================ + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/ofil_004.txt b/textfiles.com/science/ofil_004.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0adce19e --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/ofil_004.txt @@ -0,0 +1,251 @@ + + UFO INFORMATION SERVICE SEATTLE, WASHINGTON + ACUTE EXPOSURE AND LEVELS OF RADIATION SICKNESSES +____________________________________________________________________________ + +EXPOSURE RANGE TYPE OF INJURY PROBABLE MORTALITY RATE + (ROENTGENS) WITHIN 6 MONTHS OF EXPOSURE +---------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 000-050 NONE SEEN NONE + + 050-200 LEVEL I SICKNESS 5 PERCENT OR LESS + + 200-450 LEVEL II SICKNESS 50 PERCENT OR LESS + + 450-600 LEVEL III SICKNESS 50 PERCENT OR MORE + + 600-PLUS LEVEL IV AND V 100 PERCENT + +------------------------------------------------------------------------------ + + + EXPLANATIONS OF SICKNESS LEVELS FOR SINGLE DOSE + ___________________________________________________________________________ + + LEVEL I - Less than half the persons exposed will vomit within 24 hours. + There are either no subsequent symptoms or, at most, only + increased fatigue. Less than 5 percent will require medical + care for radiation injury. Others can perform their customary + tasks. Deaths that occur are caused by complications such as + blast and thermal injuries or infections and disease. + + LEVEL II - More that half the persons exposed will vomit soon after + exposure and will be ill for several days. This will be + followed by a period of one to three weeks when there are + few or no symptoms. At the end of this latent period loss + of hair will be seen in more than half followed by a moderately + severe illness due primarily to the damage to the blood + forming organs. More than half will survive with the chances + of survival being better for those who received the smaller + doses. + + LEVEL III - This is a more serious version of Level II sickness. The + initial period of illness is longer, the latent period shorter, + and the ensuing illness is characterized by extensive + hemorrhages and complicating infections. Less than half + will survive. + + LEVEL IV - This is an accelerated version of Level III sickness. All in + the group will begin to vomit soon after exposure and this + will continue for several days or until death, which occurs + before the end of the second week, and usually before the + appearance of hemorrhages or loss of hair. + + LEVEL V - This is an extremely severe illness in which damage to the + brain and nervous system predominates. Symptoms, signs and + rapid prostration come on almost as soon as the dose has been + received. Death occurs in a few hours or a few days. Illness + of this type would involve exposure to gamma radiation in + excess of several thousand roentgens. + _______________________________________________________________________________ + + PERSONAL DECONTAMINATION - AFTER THE EXPOSURE + ___________________________________________________________________________ + + PERSONAL DECONTAMINATION SHOULD NOT BE NEEDED IF THE RADIATION SOURCE IS A + SAMPLE OF SOIL, OR ANY OTHER OBJECT. MONITOR THE EXPOSURE RATE AND DO NOT + EXCEED 5 R/hr. IF THE RADIATION LEVEL IS IN THIS RANGE, LEAVE THE AREA AS + IT WILL BE HAZARDOUS TO YOUR HEALTH TO REMAIN IN THE VICINITY. IF YOU + HAPPEN TO GET CONTAMINATED, WASH OR WIPE CONTAMINATION OFF YOUR PERSON + AS SOON AS YOU CAN. RADIATION IS NOT...CONTAGIOUS! IT CAN HOWEVER BE + TRANSMITTED BETWEEN PARTIES THAT DO NOT OBSERVE CAUTION IN HOW THEY ARE + HANDLING A RADIOACTIVE SAMPLE. + ____________________________________________________________________________ + + + + UFO INFORMATION SERVICE + MYTHS ABOUT RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL + ____________________________________ + + 1. IF YOU ENCOUNTER A PERSON WHO + HAS BEEN EXPOSED TO RADIATION, + YOU WILL NOT GET RADIATION + SICKNESS FROM THAT INDIVIDUAL + UNLESS HE/SHE STILL HAS THE + CONTAMINATION ON HIM/HER. + ___________________________________ + + TYPES OF RADIATION HAZARDS + ____________________________________ + + ALPHA - IT CAN PENETRATE ONLY THE + EPIDERMAL LAYER OF SKIN. IT + IS PRIMARILY ONLY AN + INTERNAL RADIATION HAZARD. + BETA - IT CAN PENETRATE THE SKIN + AND MAY CAUSE SEVERE SKIN + AND TISSUE DAMAGE. IT IS + AN INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL + HAZARD. + GAMMA - IT IS IDENTICAL WITH AN + X-RAY OF HIGH ENERGY. IT + CAN PENETRATE DENSE MATERIAL + AND IS A SERIOUS HAZARD... + _____________________________________ + + + DETERMINING RADIATION LEVELS AT A LANDING SITE + + The following equation is used for determining the level of radiation at + a source with an estimated distance and a Geiger Counter reading at your + location. + + --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + DR(s) = D(squared) X DR(x) where DR(s) is the dose rate at the source, + where D(squared) is the distance from the + source squared, + where DR(x) is the Geiger Counter reading at + your location. Or in simple terms... + + Distance (Squared) times Dose Rate (at your location) = Dose Rate at + the Source divided by 1000. + + --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + Example: You take a reading with your Geiger Counter (CDV-700 Model) and + you get 20 mr/hr. + + You then estimate the distance to the Source of the radiation as + being about 30 feet. This distance squared is 900. + + 20 mr/hr times 900 and get 18000, divide this by 1000 and get + a dose rate at the source of 18 R/hr. + + NOTE! If you get a reading of over 5 R/hr or more, do not enter + the area as it will...be hazardous to your health! + + ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + UNDERSTANDING THE READINGS ON THE GEIGER COUNTER + ___________________________________________________________________________ + + For the purpose of explaining the readings you may get on a Geiger Counter, + we have chosen to explain the meter on a standard Civil Defense Model + CDV-700 which will measure radiation in the 0-50 milliroentgen range. + --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + The meter on the CDV-700 has incremented readings of: + + .1 + .2 + .3 + .4 + .5 + + The meter also has a select knob for either (X1), (X10), or (X100). + If you had the knob turned to (X10) and received a reading of say, .2 on + the meter, you would be getting 2 milliroentgens per hour. If the same + reading were received and the knob was set to (X100), then the reading + would actually be 20 milliroentgens per hour. + --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Note: 1 Roentgen = 1000 milliroentgens. + --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Other types of Standard Geiger Counters... + + CDV-700 Reads 0-050 milliroentgens per hour. + CDV-715 Reads 0-500 roentgens per hour. + CDV-742 Reads 0-200 roentgens per hour, this is a dosimeter that will + fit into your pocket. + CDV-750 This is the charging unit for the CDV-742 and other models of + dosimeters. + --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + CALCULATING PERSONAL RADIATION EXPOSURE LEVELS + ___________________________________________________________________________ + + There are two easy ways to determine your total exposure to radiation. + + They are #1 - Dosimeter Readings, or + #2 - Geiger Counter Readings + --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Notes: First visible injuries will occur after you have received a dose of + approximately 280 R/hr. + + The maximum allowable dose that may be received, and still allow + you to live, is 200 R/hr in a two week period. + --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Total Exposure - Personal Calculations: + Method #1 - Dosimeter reading: + + If your Dosimeter reads 10 mr/hr after 2 hours of investigating + the landing sight, then your personal exposure is...10 mr/hr. + + Method #2 - Geiger Counter Readings: + + Taken after 1 Hour: 05 R/hr + Taken after 2 Hours: 30 R/hr + Taken after 3 Hours: 31 R/hr + + Your Total Exposure would be 66 R/hr. You will at this point + have entered the first danger zone and may experience Level I + Sickness. See (S2) for explanations of sickness levels. + ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + *************************************************************************** + * THE COMPUFON NETWORK - DETERMINING DECAY RATE FOR RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS * + *************************************************************************** + + There are many complicated methods for determining the decay rate for + Radioactive materials. We have used only one here as it is about as safe + and simple as we can get without getting too complicated and technical. + If you desire to have some of the other methods explained, please send me + your name / address and your interests, and I'll help you out. Thanks! + Mike Hart - State of Washington - Radiological Defense Officer + + --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + Method #1 - The 7-10 Rule: + + Time: Decay: R/hr: + --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + First Hour (H1) Not applicable 1000 + + Seventh Hour (H7) 1 tenth of H1 100 + + Fourty-ninth Hour 1 tenth of H7 10 + --------------------------------------------------------------------------- + Note: Remember that if the R/hr reading is near or over 5 R/hr, Do Not + enter the area due to the hazards of possible injury. + + ============================================================================= + + --------------------------- + C U F O N + --------------------------- + Computer UFO Network + + Seattle Washington, USA + + (206) 776-0382 8 Data Bits, No Parity, 1 Stop Bit 300/1200/2400 bps. + + SYSOP - Jim Klotz Information Director - Dale Goudie + + UFO Reporting and Information Service + Voice Line - (206) 721-5035 + P.O.Box 832, Mercer Island, WA 98040, USA + + - Please credit CUFON as the source of this material - + + ============================================================================ + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/orbiter.txt b/textfiles.com/science/orbiter.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..04d96304 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/orbiter.txt @@ -0,0 +1,528 @@ +"6_2_9_2.TXT" (11989 bytes) was created on 02-21-89 + +SPACE SHUTTLE STATISTICS + + +N A S A +EDUCATIONAL BRIEFS For The Classroom + + +The Space Shuttle is NASA's first true aerospace vehicle. It takes off +like a rocket, operate in orbit as a spacecraft, and land on the Earth +as an airplane. The Shuttle is a four part vehicle consisting of the +Orbiter, an expendable External Tank (ET), and two Solid Rocket +Boosters (SRB's). + +Launched in a conventional manner, the Space Shuttle's Main Engines +(SSME's) and the SRB's produce approximately 30,800,000 newtons of +thrust. At 45 kilometers above the Earth the boosters separate and +return to the Earth by parachute for sea recovery. Eight minutes into +the flight, at an approximate altitude of 110 kilometers, the ET +propellants are exhausted. The tank will separate from the Orbiter and +disintegrate upon reentry into the Earth's atmosphere. Any surviving +pieces fall into remote ocean areas. To complete orbital insertion to +altitudes between 160 and 1110 kilometers, and later to make orbital +adjustments, two Orbiter Manuvering System (OMS) engines fire. + +Once in space, the Space Shuttle Orbiter serves as a base to deploy +payloads such as satellites or space probes. Satellites needing repair +or servicing can be brought on board and later released or returned to +Earth. The Orbiter can also be used as a platform for scientific +research. + +At the completion of the orbital phase of the mission, the Orbiter is +rotated in space by firing combinations of small rockets called the +Reaction Control System (RCS). When the OMS engines are aimed in the +direction of motion, they fire and the resulting thrust slows the +Orbiter, initiating reentry. Before making atmospheric contact, the +Orbiter is again rotated so that the underside will experience the +major share of atmospheric friction. To protect the Orbiter, three +types of reusable surface insulation are used. In areas of greatest +heating, the nose area, and leading edges of the wings, reinforced +carbon is used (carbon cloth impregnated with additional carbon, heat +treated, and then coated with silicon carbide). Other areas are +covered with thermal tiles made of silica fibers or a Nomex felt +blanket material (nylon felt coated with silicon). To aid in heat +rejection, the tiles are given a glassy ceramic coating. + +As the altitude and speed of the orbiter decreases, the Orbiter begins +to function as a glider. The glide angle to the runway is about six +times steeper than a commercial jet liner on landing approach. Landing +speeds are approximately 340 kilometers per hour. + +Following landing, the Orbiter undergoes refurbishment, new payloads +are inserted, a new External Tank installed, the booster refueled and +the entire vehicle assembly is made ready for a new launch a few +months later. To reduce costs, the Orbiter is designed to be used +again for up to 80 missions and the SRB's are designed for about 6 +flights each. + + + S O L I D R O C K E T B O O S T E R S + +The SRB's provide the major portion of the thrust at the time of +liftoff. They are the largest solid rocket boosters ever built, the +first to be used to launch humans into space, and the first designed +for reuse. The SRB's are assembled out of four tubular segments of +1.25 centimeter steel. The fore end is capped with a nose cone +containing a parachute assembly. The aft end has a steerable nozzle. +Eight small rocket motors, four in the nose and four in the aft, are +used, at burn out, to separate the SRB's from the external tank. + +Each booster contains a solid propellant that looks and feels like the +hard rubber of a typewriter eraser. A hollow core runs the entire +length of the propellant load. To ignite the propellants, a small +rocket motor, fixed at the fore end of the core, is fired first. +Flames from the small rocket spread across the entire face of the core +and the SRB's come to full thrust in less than one-half second. + + + S T A T I S T I C S + + +Length .................................... 45.46 meters +Diameter ................................... 3.70 meters +Mass empty ................................. 82,879 kilograms each +Propellant Mass ............................ 503,627 kilograms each +Thrust.................................... 12,899,200 newtons each at + sea level +Nozzles...................................Covergent-divergent. All- + axis gimbaling of 8 degrees. + +Propellant Composition....................Aluminum perchlorate powder + (oxidizer) + ....................Aluminum powder (fuel) + ....................Iron oxide (catalyst) + ....................Polymer (binder and fuel) + ....................Epoxy curing agent + +SRB Surface Insulation....................Ablative + + + E X T E R N A L T A N K + +The external tank contains the propellants used for liftoff and ascent +by the Shuttle Orbiter's three main engines. The ET has an external +shell which encloses three inner tanks. The forward inner tank +contains liquid oxygen under pressure. An unpressurized intertank +holds most of the electrical components. The aft inner tank contains +liquid hydrogen under pressure. Tank walls are manufactured of +aluminum alloys and are up to 5.23 centimeters thick. Antivortex and +antislosh baffles are built inside the fore and aft tank walls to +dampen any motions of the liquid propellants that might throw the +Shuttle off course. + +Propellants are fed to the Orbiters SSME's by gas pressure derived +from the controlled boiling of the propellants. Following the +depletion of the liquid propellants. Following the depletion of liquid +propellants, the ET is destroyed on atmospheric reentry. + + + S T A T I S T I C S + + +Length ..................................... 47 meters +Diameter.................................... 8.38 meters +Mass empty.................................. 37,452 kilograms + +Propellants................................. Liquid oxygen (LO2) + ................................. Liquid hydrogen (LH2) + +Propellant mass ............................. LO2--609,195 kilograms + ............................. LH2--101,606 kilograms +Propellant feed lines ...................... (2) 43 centimeters in + diameter +Propellant feed rate.................LO2--242,000 liters per minute + .................LH2--184,420 liters per minute + +Surface insulation ................ 1.27 centimeters thick core/epoxy + layer covered with a 2.54 centi- + meter thick Spray-on foam. + + + + O R B I T E R + + +The Space Shuttle Orbiter is a wide-body, delta-winged airplane and +space vehicle. It is constructed primarily out of aluminum and covered +with reusable surface insulation. The Orbiter is propelled by 49 +rocket engines employed in various combinations for liftoff, attitude +control in space, and in initiating reentry. Electrical power for +Orbiter systems is provided by fuel cells which produce, as a +byproduct, water for drinking. + +The heart of the Orbiter is the cargo bay which can carry up to four +satellites for launching at one time. The cargo bay permits the +science laboratory Spacelab, to be carried into space and returned to +the Earth at the completion of a mission. A highly articulated +mechanical arm called the Remote Manipulator System (RMS), can be +operated by Shuttle astronauts while inside the Orbiter cabin. The arm +will be used to extract payloads from the cargo bay and deploy them +outside of the Orbiter. + +The forward section of the Orbiter contains the flight deck and crew +quarters for the astronauts. During launch up to four astronauts may +sit on the flight deck and up to three more may sit on the crew +quarters deck. The forward portion of the flight deck resembles the +cockpit of a jet liner but features separate controls for flying in +space and flying in the atmosphere. The aft portion of the flight deck +contains four stand-up duty stations including the controls for the +RMS. The crew quarters deck is entered through an open hatch through +the flight deck floor. The crew quarters contain eating, sleeping, and +sanitary facilities. When extravehicular activities are necessary, an +airlock is installed in the orbiter cargo bay and entry is gained +through a hatch in the crew quarters. + + + S T A T I S T I C S + +EXTERIOR DIMENSIONS + +Length.................................... 37.24 meters +Body width................................ 6.9 meters +Wingspan.................................. 23.79 meters +Height with gear extended................. 17.27 meters +Mass empty................................ 68,040 (Orbiter 102. + Other orbiters have lower + masses.) +Cargo Bay length.......................... 18.28 meters +Cargo Bay diameter........................ 4.57 meters +Payload mass for launch................... 29,484 kilograms + to low Earth orbit. +Payload mass on return.................... 14,515 kilograms + +ENGINES + +SSME: 3 (Total) +Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen propellants. Gambaling +/- 10.5 +degrees on pitch axis and +/- 8.5 degrees on yaw axis. + +Thrust................................... 1,668,000 newtons each at + sea level + +OMS 2 (Total) +Nitrogen tetroxide (N2 O4) and monomethyl hydrazine (MMH) propellants + +Thrust.................................... 26,688 newtons in a + vacuum + + +RCS +Primary Thrusters..........................38 (14 fore and 24 aft) + N2 04 and MMH propellants +Thrust.................................... 3,870 newtons each in a + vacuum +Vernier Thrusters..........................6 (2 fore and 4 aft) + N2 04 and MMH propellants +Thrust.....................................106 newtons each in a + vacuum + + +CREW QUARTERS..............................2 decks +Cabin volume...............................71.5 meters (cubed) +Atmosphere.................................normal +Pressure...................................normal + + +THERMAL PROTECTION SYSTEM..................Reusable + RCC, coated silica tiles, + and coated Nomex felt + + + +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +ACTIVITIES AND QUESTIONS FOR THE CLASSROOM + +1. What are the four main parts of the Space Shuttle? + +2. What is the major cost saving feature of the Space Shuttle over + previous launch vehicles? + +3. Describe the sequence of events for the Space Shuttle from launch + to landing. + +4. Compare the mass of the Space Shuttle empty to the mass of all + propellants used to thrust it into space. Why is there such a + difference between the two masses? + +5. What is a newton of thrust in English system measurement? + +6 Illustrate the size of the Orbiter by measuring and marking its + outline on a large open area such as an athletic field or play- + ground. + +7. Why is the thrust for some rocket engines listed as "sea level" + and for others as "vacuum"? + +8. What is the volume of the cargo bay of the Orbiter? + +9. Research previous launch vehicles and compare their sizes and + payload capacities to the Space Shuttle. + +10. What is the orbiter altitude range of the Space Shuttle? + +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +NASA EDUCATIONAL BRIEFS For The Classroom, EB-81-1 + +"6_2_9_3.TXT" (9813 bytes) was created on 10-29-92 + + NASA'S ORBITER FLEET +COLUMBIA + Columbia (OV 102), the first of NASA's orbiter fleet, was +elivered to Kennedy Space Center in March l979. + + Columbia initiated the Space Shuttle flight program when +t lifted off from Launch Complex 39's Pad A on April 12, +981. It proved the operational concept of a winged, +eusable spaceship by successfully completing the Orbital +light Test Program -- missions STS-1 through 4. + + Other achievements for Columbia include the first launch +of satellites from a Space Shuttle (STS-5) and the first +flight of the European-built scientific workshop -- Spacelab +-- on mission STS-9. + + Columbia is named after a small sailing vessel that +operated out of Boston in l792 and explored the mouth of the +Columbia River. One of the first U.S. Navy ships to circum- +navigate the globe was named Columbia. The command module +for the Apollo 11 lunar mission was also named Columbia. + +DISCOVERY + + Discovery (OV 103), the third of NASA's fleet of +reusable, winged spaceships, arrived at Kennedy Space Center +in November 1983. (Challenger was the second orbiter to ar- +rive at KSC. See "Challenger" for its history.) It was +launched on its first mission, flight 41-D, on August 30, +1984, from Pad A. It carried aloft three communications +satellites for deployment by its astronaut crew. Other Dis- +covery milestones include the first dedicated Department of +Defense mission, the first flight to retrieve and return +disabled satellites to Earth for repair and the first Space +Shuttle mission of the post-Challenger era. + + Discovery is named for two famous sailing ships; one +sailed by Henry Hudson in 1610-11 to search for a northwest +passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and the +other by James Cook on a voyage during which he discovered +the Hawaiian Islands. + +ATLANTIS + + Atlantis (OV 104) was delivered to Kennedy Space Center +in April 1985, as the fourth spaceship of NASA's orbiter +fleet. + + Atlantis lifted off from Pad A on its maiden voyage on +Oct. 3, 1985, on mission 51-J, the second dedicated Depart- +ment of Defense flight. On its second mission, 61-B, Nov. +26, 1985, its astronaut crew conducted the first experiments +for assembling erectable structures in space. + + Atlantis is named after a two-masted sailing ship that +was operated for the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute from +1930 to 1966. + + +ENDEAVOUR + + + Endeavour was the first ship commanded by James Cook, the 18th century +British explorer, navigator and astronomer. In August 1768, on Endeavour's +maiden voyage, Cook sailed to the South Pacific, around Tahiti, on a mission to +observe and record the important and seldom occurring event when the planet +Venus passes between Earth and the sun. Determining the transit of Venus +allowed early astronomers to determine the distance of the sun from Earth. This +distance then could be used as a unit of measurement essential in calculating +the parameters of the universe. On June 3, 1769, Cook completed this mission +and continued his voyage to explore the southern hemisphere. He discovered and +charted New Zealand and surveyed the eastern coast of Australia and navigated +the Great Barrier Reef. + + In addition, Cook's voyage on the Endeavour set a precedent of +establishing the usefulness of sending scientists on voyages of exploration. +Joseph Banks and Carl Solander, who sailed with Cook, became the first +naturalists to examine plants and animals in an organized manner. The wealth +of scientifically collected material was unique. They collected specimens from +more than 100 new plant families with 800 to 1,000 new species. They also +encountered hundreds of new species of animals. Cook also had astronomers and +artists onboard. + + Endeavour and her crew made the first long-distance voyage on which no +crewmen died from scurvy, the dietary disease caused by the lack of ascorbic +acids. Cook is credited with being the first to use diet as a cure for scurvy, +making his crew follow a strict diet that included cress, sauerkraut and an +orange extract. He also ensured cleanliness and ventilation in the crew's +quarters. + + The Endeavour was small, 368 tons, about 100-feet long and 20-feet wide. +She had a round bluff bow and a flat bottom that provided uncommon spaciousness +and helped prevent her from being torn apart by coral. However, in 1795, +Endeavour ended her career on a reef along Rhode Island. + + + Atlantis (OV 105) was delivered to Kennedy Space Center +in May, 1991, as the fifth spaceship of NASA's orbiter +fleet. + + Endeavour lifted off from Kennedy Space Center for the first time on +May 7, 1992, on mission STS-49. + + + +MISSION + + The delta-winged orbiter resembles an airplane and is +about the size of a DC-9 jetliner. It is launched into +space like a conventional rocket while bolted to an external +propellant tank and two solid rocket boosters. + + After liftoff, the boosters burn for a little over two +minutes before being jettisoned and carried by parachutes +to a watery landing. After splashdown, they are retrieved +and returned to Kennedy Space Center for refurbishment. + + The orbiter's main engines continue to burn until about +8 1/2 minutes into the flight. After shutdown, the exter- +nal tank is jettisoned, breaks up in the atmosphere, and +falls into the Indian Ocean. It is the only piece of +Shuttle flight hardware that is not reused. The orbiter +then carries out its mission in space and returns to Earth +like a glider. + +LAUNCH PROCESSING + + After completing a space mission, the orbiter is returned +to Kennedy Space Center to undergo preparations for its +next flight in a sophisticated aircraft-like hanger called +the Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF). Here, the vehicle is +safed, residual propellants are drained and any returning +payloads are removed. + + Any problems that may have occurred with orbiter sys- +tems and equipment on the previous mission are checked +out and corrected. Equipment is repaired or replaced and +extensively tested. Any modifications to the orbiter that +are required for the next mission are also made in the OPF. + + Orbiter refurbishment operations and processing for the +next mission also begin in the OPF. Large horizontal +payloads, such as Spacelab, are installed in the orbiter +cargo bay. Vertical payloads are installed at the launch +pad. + + Following extensive testing and verification of all +electrical and mechanical interfaces, the orbiter is trans- +ferred to the nearby Vehicle Assembly Building where it is +mated to the external tank and solid rocket boosters. Then, +the assembled Space Shuttle vehicle is carried to the launch +pad by a large tracked vehicle called the crawler- +transporter. + + At the launch pad, final preflight and interface checks +of the orbiter, its cargo and associated ground support +equipment are conducted. After a positive Flight Readiness +Review, the decision to launch is given and the final +countdown begins. + +ORBITER MODIFICATIONS + + More than 200 significant modifications are being made +to the orbiter fleet. These modifications involve orbiter +main engines, brakes and landing gear, thermal protection +system and propellant supply systems, as well as a new crew +escape system. + + Main engine modifications include changes to the high- +pressure turbomachinery, hydraulic actuators, and main +combustion chamber. + + The orbiter braking system will be upgraded to increase +braking capacity, improve steering, and reduce the effects +of tire damage and failure. Additions to the system also in- +clude tire pressure monitoring. + + Some of the tiles that make up the orbiter thermal +protection system have been replaced with thermal blankets +to make the system lighter, stronger and more durable. Also, +a reinforced carbon-carbon panel will be added to the or- +biter chin between the nose cap and the nose wheel door to +provide improved insulation against the searing heat of +reentry. + + Improvements to the orbiter propellant supply system in- +clude a redesigned 17-inch quick disconnect valve between +the orbiter and the external tank. Additional modifications +will be made to the propellant systems of the orbiter reac- +tion control system, orbital maneuvering system, and the +auxiliary power units. + + A new crew escape system has been added that allows +the Space Shuttle crew to bail out if the orbiter has to +make an emergency return descent and a safe runway cannot +be reached. This system consists of an escape pole that +would be extended from the opened crew hatch. The crew would +then fasten a lanyard hook assembly that is a part of the +pole to their parachute harnesses. Once attached to this +hook, the crew would slide down the deployed pole, away from +the orbiter. Once free of the pole, they would parachute to +safety. + + + +SPACE SHUTTLE + +Height: 184.2 feet + +Gross liftoff weight: 4,500,000 pounds + +Total liftoff thrust: 7,700,000 pounds + +ORBITER + + Length: 122.17 feet + + Wingspan: 78.06 feet + +Dry Weight: + + Columbia (OV 102) 178,000 pounds + + Discovery (OV-103) 171,000 pounds + + Atlantis (OV-104) 171,000 pounds + +Main Engines: (3) 375,000 pounds of + thrust each (sea level) + +Cargo Bay: length - 60 feet + + diameter - 15 feet + +SOLID ROCKET BOOSTERS (2) + + Length: 149.16 feet + Diameter: 12.17 feet + Liftoff Weight: (each) 1,300,000 pounds + Recovery weight: (each) 192,000 pounds + Thrust: (each) 3,300,000 pounds (sea level) + +EXTERNAL TANK + + Length: 153.8 feet + Diameter: 27.6 feet + Weight: + Liftoff: 1,655,600 pounds (535,000 gallons) + Empty : 66,000 pounds + Propellants + Liquid Oxygen: + Capacity: 143,351 gallons + Volume: 19,600 cubic feet + Liquid Hydrogen: + Capacity: 385,265 gallons + Volume: 53,500 cubic feet + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/orbname.txt b/textfiles.com/science/orbname.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7c7399e3 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/orbname.txt @@ -0,0 +1,155 @@ +"6_2_11.TXT" (8607 bytes) was created on 02-21-89 + +ORIGIN OF THE NAME "SPACE SHUTTLE" + + + + +The name "Space Shuttle" evolved from descriptive references in the +press, aerospace industry, and government and gradually came into use +as concepts of reusable space transportation developed. As early NASA +advanced studies grew into a full program, the name came into official +use. +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + In January 1975, NASA's Project Designation Committee was +considering suggestions for a new name for the Space Shuttle, +submitted by Headquarters and Center personnel and others at the +request of Dr. George M. Low, NASA Deputy Administrator. Rockwell +International Corporation, Shuttle prime contractor, was reported as +referring to it as "Spaceplane." (Bernice M. Taylor, Administrative +Assistant to Administrator for Public Affairs, NASA, telephone +interview, 12 Feb 1975; and AVIATION WEEK & SPACE TECHNOLOGY, 102 [20 +Jan 1975], 10) +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +From its establishment in 1958, NASA studied aspects of reusable +launch vehicles and spacecraft that could return to the Earth. The +predecessor National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) and +then NASA cooperated with the Air Force in the X-15 rocket research +aircraft program in the 1950s and 1960s and in the 1958-1963 Dyna-Soar +("Dynamic-Soaring") hypersonic boost-glide vehicle program. Beginning +in 1963, NASA joined the USAF in research toward the Aerospaceplane, a +manned vehicle to go into orbit and return, taking off and landing +horizontally. Joint flight tests in the 1950s and 1960s of wingless +lifting bodies--the M2 series, HL-10, and eventually the X-24--tested +principles for future spacecraft reentering the atmosphere. + +Marshall Space Flight Center sponsored studies of recovery and reuse +of the Saturn V launch vehicle. MSFC Director of Future Projects Heinz +H. Koelle in 1962 projected a "commercial space line to Earth orbit +and the Moon," for cargo transportation by 1980 or 1990. Leonard M. +Tinnan of MSFC published a 1963 description of a winged, flyback +Saturn V. Other studies of "logistics spacecraft systems," "orbital +carrier vehicles," and "reusable orbital transports" followed +throughout the 1960s in NASA, the Department of Defense, and industry. + +As the Apollo program neared its goal, NASA's space program objectives +widened and the need for a fully reusable, economical space +transportation system for both manned and unmanned missions became +more urgent. In 1966 the NASA budget briefing outlined an FY 1967 +program including advanced studies of "ferry and logistics vehicles." +The President's Science Advisory Committee in February 1967 +recommended studies of more economical ferry systems with total +recovery and rescue possibilities. Industry studies under NASA +contracts 1969-1971 led to definition of a reusable Space Shuttle +system and to a 1972 decision to develop the Shuttle. + +The term "shuttle" crept into forecasts of space transportation at +least as early as 1952. In a COLLIER'S article, Dr. Wernher von Braun, +then Director of the U.S. Army Ordnance Guided Missiles Development +Group, Huntsville AL, envisioned space stations supplied by rockets +ships that would enter orbit and return to Earth to land "like a +normal airplane," with small, rocket-powered "shuttle-craft," or +"space taxis," to ferry men and materials between rocket ship and +space station. + +In October 1959 Lockheed Aircraft Corporation and Hughes Aircraft +Company reported plans for space ferry or "commuter express," for +"shuttling" men and materials between Earth and outer space. In +December, CHRISTIAN SCIENCE MONITOR Correspondent Courtney Shelton +wrote of the future possibility of a "man-carrying space shuttle to +the nearest planets." + +The term reappeared occasionally in studies through the early 1960s. A +1963 NASA contract to Douglas Aircraft Company was to produce a +conceptual design for Philip Bono's "Reusable Orbital Module Booster +and Utility Shuttle (ROMBUS)," to orbit and return to touch down with +legs like the lunar landing module's. Jettison of eight strap-on +hydrogen tanks for recovery and reuse was part of the concept. The +press--in accounts of European discussions of Space Transporter +proposals and in articles on the Aerospaceplane, NASA contract +studies, USAF START reentry studies, and the joint lifting-body +flights--referred to "shuttle" service, "reusable orbital shuttle +transport." and "space shuttle" forerunners. +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + The DEFENSE/SPACE BUSINESS DAILY newsletter was persistent in +referring to USAF and NASA reentry and lifting-body tests as "Space +Shuttle" tests. Editor-in-Chief Norman L. Baker said the newsletter +had first tried to reduce the name "Aerospaceplane" to "Spaceplane" +for that project and had moved from that to "Space Shuttle" for +reusable, back-and-forth space transport concepts as early as 1963. +The name was suggested to him by the Washington DC to New York airline +shuttle flights. (Telephone interview, 22 April 1975.) + Application of the word "shuttle" to anything that moved quickly +back and forth (from shuttlecock to shuttle train and the verb "to +shuttle") had arisen in the English language from the name of the +weaving instruments that passed or "shot" the thread of the woof from +one edge of the cloth to the other. The English word came from the +Anglo-Saxon "scytel" for missile, related to the Danish "skyttel" for +shuttle, the Old Norwegian "skutill" for harpoon, and the English +"shoot." (WEBSTER'S INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY, ed 2, unabridged.) +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +In 1965 Dr. Walter R. Dorberger, Vice President for Research of +Textron Corporation's Bell Aerosystems Company, published "Space +Shuttle of the Future: The Aerospaceplane" in Bell's periodical +RENDEZVOUS. In July Dr. Dornberger gave the main address in a +University of Tennessee Space Institute short course: "The +Recoverable, Reusable Space Shuttle." + +NASA used the term "shuttle" for its reusable transportation concept +officially in 1968. Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight +George E. Mueller briefed the British Interplanetary Society in London +in August with charts and drawings of "space shuttle" operations and +concepts. In November, addressing the National Space Club in +Washington DC, Dr. Mueller declared the next major thrust in space +should be the space shuttle. + +By 1969 "Space Shuttle" was the standard NASA designation, although +some efforts were made to find another name as studies were pursued. +The "Space Shuttle" was given an agency-wide code number; the Space +Shuttle Steering Group and Space Shuttle Task Group appointed by +President Nixon to help define post-Apollo space objectives +recommended the U.S. develop a reusable, economic space transportation +system including a shuttle. And in October feasibility study results +were presented at a Space Shuttle Conference in Washington. Intensive +design, technology, and cost studies followed in 1970 and 1971. + +On 5 January 1972 President Nixon announced that the United States +would develop the Space Shuttle. + +The Space Shuttle would be a delta-winged aircraftlike orbiter about +the size of a DC-9 aircraft, mounted at launch on a large, expendable +liquid-propellant tank and two recoverable and reusable +solid-propellant rocket boosters (SRBs) that would drop away in +flight. The Shuttle's cargo bay eventually would carry most of the +Nation's civilian and military payloads. Each Shuttle was to have a +lifetime of 100 space missions, carrying up to 29,500 kilograms at a +time. Sixty or seventy flights a year were expected in the 1980s. + +Flown by a three-man crew, the Shuttle would carry satellites to +orbit, repair them in orbit, and later return them to Earth for +refurbishment and reuse. It would also carry up to four scientists and +engineers to work in a pressurized laboratory or technicians to +service satellites. After a 7- to 30-day mission, the orbiter would +return to Earth and land like an aircraft, for preparation for the +next flight. + +At the end of 1974, parts were being fabricated, assembled, and tested +for flight vehicles. Horizontal tests were to begin in 1977 and +orbital tests in 1979. The first manned orbital flight was scheduled +for March 1979 and the complete vehicle was to be operational in 1980. + +--- +ORIGINS OF NASA NAMES, Helen T. Wells, Susan H. Whiteley, and Carrie +E. Karegeannes, The NASA History Series, SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL +INFORMATION OFFICE, 1976, Washington DC, NASA SP-4402. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/paper.byu b/textfiles.com/science/paper.byu new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a04f81c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/paper.byu @@ -0,0 +1,506 @@ + OBSERVATION OF + COLD NUCLEAR FUSION IN CONDENSED MATTER + + S. E. Jones, E. P. Palmer, J. B. Czirr, D. L. Decker, G. L. Jensen, + J. M. Thorne, and S. F. Taylor + + Department of Physics and Chemistry + Brigham Young University + Provo, Utah 84602 + + and + + J. Rafelski + Department of Physics + University of Arizona + Tucson, Arizona 85721 + March 23, 1989 + +Fusion of istopic hydrogen nuclei is the principal means of producing +energy in the high-temperature interior of stars. In relatively cold +terrestrial conditions, the nuclei are clothed with electrons and +approach one another no closer than allowed by the molecular Coulomb +barrier. The rate of nuclear fusion in molecular hydrogen is then +governed by the quantum-mechanical tunneling through that barrier, or +equivalently, the probability of finding the two nuclei at zero +separation. In a deuterium molecule, where the equilibrium separation +between deuterons (d) is 0.74 A, the d-d fusion rate is exceedingly +slow, about 10E-70 per D molecule per second. [1] + 2 + +By replacing the electron in a hydrogen molecular ion with a more +massive charged particle, the fusion rate is greatly increased. In +muon-catalyzed fusion, the internuclear separation is reduced by a +factor of approximately 200 (the muon to electron mass ratio), and the +nuclear fusion rate correspondingly increases by roughly eighty orders +of magnitude [1]. Muon-catalyzed fusion has been demonstrated to be +an effective means of rapidly inducing fusion reactions in low- +temperature hydrogen isotopic mixtures [2]. + +A hypothetical quasi-particle a few times as massive as the electron +would increase the cold fusion rate to readily measureable levels, +about 10E-20 fusions per d-d molecule per second [1]. Our results +imply that an equivalent distortion on the internuclear hydrogen +wavefunction can be realized under certain conditions when hydrogen +isotopic nuclei are loaded into metallic crystalline lattices and +other forms of condensed matter. + +We have discovered a means of inducing nuclear fusion without the use +of either high temperatures or radioactive muons. We will present +direct experimental results as well as indirect geological evidence +for the occurrence of cold nuclear fusion. + +DETECTION OF COLD FUSION NEUTRONS + +We have observed deuteron-deuteron fusion at room temperature during +low-voltage electrolytic infusion of deuterons into metallic titanium +or palladium electrodes. The fusion reaction + + 3 + d + d -> He (0.82 MeV) + n (2.45 MeV) (1a) + + + +is evidently catalyzed as d and metal ions from the electrolyte are +depostited at (and into) the negative electrode. Neutrons having +approximately 2.5 MeV energy are clearly detected with a sensitive +neutron spectrometer. The experimental layout is portrayed in Figure +1. We have not yet obtained results regarding the parallel reaction + + d + d -> p (3.02 MeV) + t (1.01 MeV) (1b) + +as this requires different measuring procedures. However, it can be +presumed that the reaction (1b) occurs at a nearly equal rate as the +reaction (1a), which is usually the case. + +The neutron spectrometer, developed at Brigham Young University over +the past few years [3], has been crucial to the identification of this +cold fusion process. The detector consists of a liquid organic +scintillator (BC-505) contained in a glass cylinder 12.5 cm in +diameter, in which three lithium-6-doped glass scintillator plates are +embedded. Neutrons deposit energy in the liquid scintillator via +collisions and the resulting light output yields energy information. +These, now low-energy neutrons are then scavenged by lithium-6 nuclei + 6 4 +in the glass plates where the reaction n + Li --> t + He results in +scintillations in the glass. Pulse shapes from the two media differ +so that distinct signals are registered by the two photomultiplier +tubes (whose signals are summed). A coincidence of signals from the +two media with 20 microseconds identifies the neutrons. + +An energy calibration of the spectrometer was obtained using 2.9 and +3.2 MeV neutrons, generated via deuteron-deuteron interactions at 90 +degrees and 0 degrees, respectively, with respect to the deuteron beam +from a Van de Graaf accelerator. The observed energy spectra show a +broad structure which implies that 2.45 MeV neutrons should appear in +the multi-channel analyzer spectrum in channels 45-150. Stability of +the detector system was checked between data runs by measuring the +counting rate for fission neutrons from a broad-spectrum californium- +252 source. We have performed other extensive tess proving that our +neutron counter does not respond in this pulse height range to other +sources of radiation such as thermal neutrons. + +Background rates in the neutron counter are approximately 10E-3 1/s in +the energy region where 2.5 MeV neutrons are anticipated. By +comparing energy spectra from gamma and neutron sources we have +determined that nearly all of the background stems from accidental +coincidences of gamma-ray events. Improvements in the shielding and +gamma-ray rejection were pursued throughout the experiments, resulting +in significant reduction in background levels. + +During the search for suitable catalytic materials, we developed the +following (unoptimized) prescription for the electrolytic cells. The +electrolyte is a mixture of 160 g deutermium oxide (D O) plus various + 2 + +metal salts in 0.2 g amounts each: FeSO . 7H O, NiCl . 6H O, + 4 2 2 2 + +PdCl , CaCO , Li SO . H O, NaSO . 10H O, CaH (PO ) . H O, + 2 3 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 2 2 + +TiOSO . H SO . 8H O, and a very small amount of AuCN. + 4 2 4 2 + +(Our evidence indicates the importance of co-deposition of deuterons +and metal ions at the negative electrode.) The pH is adjusted to +pH < 3 with HNO . Titanium and palladium, intially selected because + 3 +of their large capacities for holding hydrogen and forming hydrides, +were found to be effective negative electrodes. + +Other metals receiving preliminary tests include lanthanum, nickel, +iron, copper, zirconium, tantalum, and lithium-aluminum hydride. +Individual electrodes consisted of approximately 3 g purified "fused" +titanium in pellet form, or 0.5 g of 0.25 mm thick palladium foils, or +5 g of mossy palladium. Typically 4-8 cells were used simultaneously. +The palladium pieces were sometimes re-used after cleaning and +roughening the surfaces with dilute acid or abrasives. Hydrogen +bubbles were observed to form on the Pd foils only after several +minutes of electrolysis, suggesting the rapid absorption of deuterons +into the foil; oxygen bubbles formed at the anode immediately. Gold +foil was used for the positive electrodes. DC power supplies provided +3-25 volts across each cell at currents of 10-500 mA. Correlations +between fusion yield and voltage, current density, or surface +characteristics of the metallic cathode have not yet been established. + +Small jars, approximately 4 cm high x 4 cm diameter, held 20 ml of +electroylte solution each. The electrolytic cells were placed on or +alongside the neutron counter, as shown in Figure 1. The cells are +simple and doubtless far from optimum at present. Nevertheless, the +present combination of our cells with the state-of-the-art neutron +spectrometer is sufficient to establish the phenomenon of cold nuclear +fusion during the electrolytic infusion of isotopic hydrogen into +metals. + +Figure 2 displays the energy spectrum obtained under conditions +described above, juxtaposed with the background spectrum. Assuming +conservatively that all deviations from background are statistical +fluctuations, we scale the background counts by a factor of 0.46 to +match the foreground counts over the entire energy range (Figure 2). A +feature in channels 45-150 still rises above background by nearly +four standard deviations. This implies that our assumption is too +conservative and that this structure represents a real physical effect. +By re-scaling the background by a factor of 0.44 to match the +foreground level in regions outside this feature, the difference plot +(Figure 3) is obtained. It shows a robust signal centered at channel +100 of over five standard-deviation statistical significance. A +Guassian fit to this peak yields a centroid at channel 101 and a +sigma of 28 channels. This is precisely where 2.5 MeV fusion +neutrons should appear in the spectrum according to our calibration. +The fact that a significant signal appears above background with the +correct energy for d-d fusion neutrons ( 2.5 MeV) provides strong +evidence that room temperature nuclear fusion is indeed occurring in +our electrolytic catalysis cells. + +FUSION RATE DETERMINATION + +It is instructive to scrutinize the fourteen individual runs which +enter into the combined data discussed above. Figure 4 displays, for +each run, the ratio of foreground count rate in the 2.5 MeV-energy +region with background rates obtained for each run. Background rates +were improved upon during the experiments, so we plot the data in +terms of foreground-to-background ratios rather than absolute rates. + +Run 6 is particular noteworthy, having a statistical significance of +approximately 5 standard deviations above background. Fused titanium +pellets were used as negative electrodes with a total mass of about 3 +g. The neutron production rate increased after about one hour of +electrolysis. After about eight hours, the rate dropped dramatically +as shown in the follow-on run 7. At this time, surfaces of the Ti +electrodes showed a dark gray coating. An analysis using electron +microscopy with a microprobe showed that the surface coating was +mostly iron, deposited with deuterons at the cathode. The same +phenomenon of having the neutron signal drop after about eight hours +of operation appears in run 13 follwed by run 14. Runs 13 and 14 used +the same eight electrochemical cells, and again the negative +electrodes developed coatings after a few hours of electrolysis. +These observations suggest the importance of surface conditions on the +cold fusion process. Indeed, wide variations in surface +conditions are anticipated in the operating electrochemical cells with +numerous ionic species, and these variations may account for the +fluctuations in the signal level which are evident in Figure 4. In +particular, the observed "turning off" of the signal after 8 hours +may account for a low signal-to-background ratio in runs 1 and 3, in +that a few-hour signal may have been overwhelmed after a long (20 +hour) running time. + +When run 10 started with rates substantially above background, we +stopped the run and removed half of the electrochemical cells as a +test. The neutron production rate dropped off as expected (run 11). +In determining the statistical significance of the data, we included +runs 1, 3, 7, 11 and 13, even though we see a systematic reason for +their low foreground-to-background ratios as explained above. Run 8, +shown in Figure 4, was inadvertently lost from the magnetic storage +device and could not be included in Figures 2 and 3. This does not +change our conclusions. + +Extensive efforts were made to generate fake neutron signals by using +various gamma and neutron sources. We also turned auxiliary equipment +on and off; the Van de Graaf accelerators were kept off. The signals +persisted as shielding was moved and as electronics modules were +tuned and even replaced. Background runs taken using operating +electrochemical cells similar to those described above but with +H O replacing the D O were featureless. No net counts above + 2 2 +background when standard cells were used with no current flowing. + +The cold nuclear fusion rate during electrolytic fusion is estimated +specifically for run 6 (Figure 4) as follows: + + [ R ] / [ d ] + Fusions per deuteron pair = [ --- ] / [ M x --- ] (2) + [ e ] / [ 2M ] + +where the observed fusion rate R = (4.1 +- 0.8) x 10E-3 fusions/s; the +neutron detection efficiency, including geometrical acceptance, is +calculated using a monte carlo neutron-photon transport code [4] to +be e = (1.0 +- 0.3)%; M = 4x10E22 titanium atoms for 3 g of +titanium; and the deuteron-pair per metal ion ration d/(2M) = 1 is +based on the assumption that nearly all tetrahedral sites in the +titanium lattice are occupied, forming the gamma-TiD hydride. Then + 2 +the estimated cold nuclear fusion rate by equation (2) is + + lambda 10E-23 fusions/deuteron pair/second (3) + f + +If most fusions take place near the surface or if the titanium lattice +is far from saturated with deuterons, or if conditions favoring fusion +occur intermittently, then the inferred fusion rate must be much +larger, perhaps 10E-20 fusions/d-d/second. + +We note that such a fusion rate could be achieved by "squeezing" the +deuterons to half their normal (0.74 A) separation in molecules. That +such rates are now observed in condensed matter suggests +"piezonuclear" fusion as the explanation [1]. A possible cause is +that quasi-electrons form in the deuterated metal lattic having an +effective mass a few times that of a free electron. Isotopic hydrogen +is known to accumulate at imperfections in metal lattices [5] and +local high concentrations of hydrogen ions might be conducive to +piezonuclear fusion. Since we have not seen any evidence for fusion +in equilibrated, deuterated metals or compounds such and +methylamine-d dueteriochloride or ammonium-d chloride, we conclude + 2 4 +that non-equilibrium conditions are essential. Electrolysis is one +way to produce conditions which are far from equilibrium. + +It seems remarkable that one can influence the effective rate of +fusion by varying external parameters such as pressure, heat and +electromagnetic fields, but just such effects are confirmed in another +form of cold nuclear fusion; muon-catalyzed fusion [6]. Such +variations are naturally encountered in the geological environment +where heat, pressure, and contact potentials will generate serverly +non-equilibrium conditions. + +GEOPHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS + +The observation of evidence for cold d-d fusion in the laboratory has +profound geophysical implications. Thermal effects in the earth and + 3 +the distribution of He and tritium can be explained in part by the +fusion reactions (1) and + + 3 + p + d -> He + gamma (5.4 MeV) (4) + +Deuterium was incorporated in the earth during its formation. The +current abundance in sea water is about 1.5x10E-4 deuterons per +proton. Water is carried down into the earth's upper mantle at +converging plate margins, and seawater is transported as deep as the +Moho at spreading regions [7]. Estimates of water subduction suggest +that a water mass equal to the ocean mass is cycled through the mantle +in about 1-billion years [7]. Thus, 1.4x10E43 deuterons are cycled +through the mantle in 3x10E16 s. Since each p-d fusion releases 5.4 +MeV (8.6x10-13 J), we calculate that a heat flux of 750 mW/(m*m), +averaged over the earth, would result if all deuterium fused at the +rate at which it is supplied by subduction. This is more than ten +times the estimate of the actual flux of 60 mW/(m*m) [8]. Thus, +geological p-d fusion could possibly contribute to the observed heat +flux, the high temperatures of the earth's core and provide an energy +source for plate tectonics. + +The foregoing data allow a geological fusion rate lambda to be + f +calculated. We assume a first-order rate equation for p-d +fusion: dN = lambda N dt, or lambda = (dN/N)dt. The fraction (dN/N) + f f +is the ratio of the number of fusions which take place to the number +of atoms available. It is also the rate of fusion divided by the rate +of supply of deuterons; thus, dN/N is equal to the actual heat flux +from the earth divided by the possible heat flux so that + + -1 + lambda = (60/750)/3x10E16 s = 3x10E-18 s (5) + f + +Consider next the possibility that the localized heat of volcanism at +subduction zones is supplied by fusion. As much as 10E6 J/kg is +required to turn rock into magma, and this must be supplied from a +local source of energy. Subducting rock contains about 3 percent +water [7], or 3x10E30 deuterons/kg. If the time available for melting +is equal to the time required for a plate to travel down a slant +distance of 700 km at a speed of 2.5 cm/year, about 10E15 s, the +inferred fusion rate is: + + lambda = (10E6 J/kg)/(3x10E20 d/kg x 8.6E10-13 J/fusion x 10E15 s) + f + lambda = 4x10E-18 fusions/d/s (6) + f + +This requires only about 0.3 percent of the available nuclear fuel. +The limit on the available heat is therefore the fusion rate constant, +rather than the scarcity of fuel. + +While some of the earth's heat must certainly derive from several +sources, "cold" geological nuclear fusion could account for steady- + 3 +state production of considerable heat and He in the earth's interior. + 3 4 +High values of the He/ He ratio are found in the rocks, liquids, and +gases from volcanoes and other active tectonic regions [9]. + 3 +Primordial He will be present from the formation of the earth [9], +but some may be generated by terrestrial nuclear fusion. The +discovery of cold nuclear fusion in the laboratory, with a rate +constant comparable to that derived from geologic thermal data, +supports our hypothesis. + +Based on this new concept, we predict that some tritium should be +produced by d-d fusion in the earth (see equation 1). Since tritium + 3 +decays according to t -> He + beta with a 12-year half-life, +detection of tritium in volcanic emissions would imply cold-fusion +production of tritium. This is supported by the following +observations. A tritium monitoring station was operated at Mauna Loa +on Hawaii Island from August 1971 to the end of 1977. We have found +strong correlations between tritium detected at Mauna Loa and nearby +volcanic activity in this period of time. Figure 4 displays data +compiled by Ostlund for HT gas measured at the Mauna Loa station in +1972 [10]. Similar data taken at Miami, Florida, are provided for +comparison. A striking spike in the tritium level is clearly seen in +the February-March 1972 Mauna Loa data. Ostlund notes that these +significant tritium readings over a several-week period have not been +previously understood; in particular, the timing and shape of the peak +is inconsistent with hydrogen bomb tests in Russia five months earlier +[10]. However, this signal is coincident with a major eruption of the +Mauna Ulu volcano [11] 40 km to the southeast. Furthermore, winds in +March 1972 carried volcanic gases northwest, towards the Mauna Loa +station and on towards Honolulu 200 km away: "Trade winds [from the +northeast] were infrequent and the southerly flow that replaced them +occasionally blanketed the state with volcanic haze from an eruption +on Hawaii Island ... High particulate matter measurements in Honolulu +confirmed the northward spread of haze from the Mauna Ulu Volcano +eruption on Hawaii Island." [12] + +This remarkable set of cirumstances permits us to estimate the amount +of tritium released during the February-March 1972 eruption of Mauna +Ulu. Based on the distance to the Mauna Loa station and average 8 mph +winds [12], we estimate that on average 100 curies of tritium were +released per day for 30 days. An accidental release of this magnitude +of man-made tritium sustained for several weeks on a nearly +uninhabited island is highly unlikely. We conclude that this volcanic +eruption freed tritium produced by geological nuclear reactions. + +Other HT data from the Mauna Loa station, such as the high reading in +the latter half of 1972, are also coincident with volcanic activity, +although a tritium-releasing bomb test also occurred in Russia in late +August. A major spike in the atmospheric HT observed near Hawaii in Dec +1974 - June 1975 [10] coincides with another large volcanic eruption +on Hawaii Island, but the significance is again obscured by H-bomb +tests. Finally, no significant deviations in HT reading are noted in +1976 or 1977 [10] when no volcanic activity is noted, except for +"gentle" activity at Kileau on September 17, 1977 [13]. + +OTHER EVIDENCES FOR COLD FUSION + +Further evidence for cold nuclear fusion in condensed matter comes + 3 4 +from studies of He and He in diamonds and metals. Using laser- +slicing of diamonds, H. Craig (private communication) has measured the + 4 3 4 +absolute concentrations of both He and He. He was found to be +smoothly distributed through the crystal as if it were derived from + 3 +the environment. On the other hand, He was found to be concentrated +in spots implying in-situ formation. Cold piezonuclear p-d or d-d +fusion provides a plausible explanation for these data. + + 3 +Concentration anomalies of He have also been reported in metal foils + 3 +[14]. The spotty concentrations of He suggest cold piezonuclear + 3 +fusion as the origin of the observed He. Note that electrolytic +refining of the metals in deuterium-bearing water could have provided +conditions for cold nuclear fusion. Among several possible +explanations, the authors [14] suggest an "analog" of muon catalysis. +We think they were close to the mark! + +Cold nuclear fusion may be important in other celestial bodies besides +earth. Jupiter, for example, radiates about twice as much heat as it +receives from the sun [1]. It is interesting to consider whether cold +nuclear fusion in the core of Jupiter, which is probably metallic +hydrogen plus iron silicate, could account for its excess heat. Heat +is radiated at an approximate rate of 10E18 W, which could be produced +by p-d fusions occurring at a rate of 10E20(1/s) [1]. Assuming a +predominately hydrogen core of radius 4.6x10E9 cm, having a density += 10 g/(cm*cm*cm) and a deuteron/proton ratio of roughly 10E-4, we +deduce a required p-d fusion rate of lambda = 10E-19 + f +fusions/deuteron/second--in remarkable agreement with cold fusion +rates found in terrestrial conditions. + +CONCLUSIONS + +A new form of cold nuclear fusion has been observed during +electrolytic infusion of deuterons into metals. While the need for +off-equilibrium conditions is clearly implied by our data, techniques +other than electrochemical may also be successful. We have begun to +explore the use of ion implantation, and of elevated pressures and +temperatures mimicking geological conditions. + +If deuteron-deuteron fusion can be catalyzed, then the d-t fusion +reaction is probably favored due to its much larger nuclear cross +section. Thus, while the fusion rates observed so far are small, +the discovery of cold nuclear fusion in condensed matter opens the +possibility at least of a new path to fusion energy. + +We acknowlege valuable contributions of Douglas Bennion, David Mince, +Lawrence Rees, Howard Vanfleet and J. C. Wang of Brigham Young +University, and of Mike Danos, Fraser Goff, Berndt Muller, Albert +Nier, Gote Ostlund, and Clinton Van Siclen. We especially thank Alan +Anderson for advice on the data analysis and Harmon Craig for +continuing encouragement and for use of his data on diamonds before +their publication. + +The research is supported by the Advanced Energy Projects Division of +the U.S. Department of Energy. + +REFERENCES + + 1. Van Siclen, C. D. & Jones, S. E. "Journal of Physics G. Nucl. Phys." + 12, 213-221 (1986). + + 2. Jones, S. E. "Nature" 321, 127-133 (1986); Rafelski, J. & Jones, + S. E. "Scientific American" 257, 84-89 (July 1987). + + 3. Jensen, G. L., Dixon, D. R., Bruening, K. & Czirr, J. B. "Nucl. + Inst. and Methods" 200, 406 (1984); and paper in preparation. + + 4. MCNP: Monte Carlo Neutron and Photon Transport Code, CCC-200. + Available from Radiation Shielding Information Center, Oak Ridge + National Laboratory (Version 3). + + 5. Bowman, R. C. Jr. in "Metal Hydrides" (ed. G. Bambakides) 109-144 + (New York, Plenum, 1981). + + 6. Jones, S. E., et al. "Physical Review Letters" 51, 1757-1760 + (1983). + + 7. Fyfe, W. S., Price, N. J., & Thompson, A. B. "Fluids in the Earth's + Crust" (Elsevier, New York, 1978). + + 8. Chapman, D. S. & Pollack, H. N. "Earth and Planet Sci. Lett" 28, 23 + (1975) + + 9. Craig, H., Lupton, J. E., Welhan, J. A., & Proveda, R. "Geophys. + Res. Lett." 5, 897 (1978); Lupton, J. E., & Craig, H. "Science" + 214, 13 (1981); Mamyrin, B. A. & Tolstikhin, L. N., "Helium + Isotopes in Nature (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1984). + +10. Ostlund, H. G. & Mason, A. S. Atmospheric Tritium 1968-1984, + Tritium Laboratory Report No. 14, University of Miami, Miami, + Florida; Ostlund, H. G., private communication. + +11. Bullard, F. M. "Volcanoes of the Earth", 2nd ed., (Univ. Texas + Press, Austin, 1984). + +12. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, "Climatological Data, Hawaii" 68, 29 + (1972). + +13. Smithsonian Institution, "Volcanoes of the World", (Stroudsburg, + P. A., Hutchinson Ross Publishing Co., 1981). + +14. Mamyrin, B. A., Khabarin L. V. & Yudenich, V. S. "Sov. Phys. + Dokl." 23, 581 (1978). + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/parts.lst b/textfiles.com/science/parts.lst new file mode 100644 index 00000000..790bc2cd --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/parts.lst @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ + Tesla Coil Parts List + + APPROX +STUFF TO GET AT THE ELECTRONICS STORE (or Order) COST + +LM567 Tone Decoder 3.25 +7808 Voltage Regulator 4.25 +1 1/3 pounds of #26 magnet wire 15.00 +AMIDON EA-77-250 ferrite core and bobbin 5.75 + + +STUFF TO GET AT RADIO SHACK + +IRF511 hexFET 3.75 +LED (2 each) 1.99 +1000-ohm 5% resistor 1/4 watt 1.99 +100 ohm 1 watt 10% resistor 1.99 +25 K ohm trimpot ( 10 turn is best ) used to adjust frequency 2.25 +0.1 MDF @ 100 WVDC ceramic disc capacitors ( 4 each ) 1.99 +680 PF @ 100 WVDC ceramic disc capacitor 1.99 +470 MDF @ 50 WVDC electrolytic capacitor 1.99 +2" X 3" perfboard 1.99 +1 SPST toggle switch 1.99 + + + +STUFF TO GET AR THE HARDWARE STORE + +3' X 4" PVC or Plastic Sewer Pipe 7.50 +2 cans of clear-acylic spay paint 7.00 diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/payload.txt b/textfiles.com/science/payload.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d08d6eb5 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/payload.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3337 @@ +NASA MIXED FLEET MANIFEST 8/91 (UNEDITED) + +Spacelink Note: The individual sections of this manifest (menu options 2-8) +have been edited for the convenience of Spacelink callers to fit on an +80-column screen. This version of the manifest appears exactly as it was +released by NASA Headquarters on 8/20/91. + + +PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS NASA MIXED FLEET MANIFEST AUGUST 1991 + + +i + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + + + SECTION PAGES + + 1 MIXED FLEET MANIFEST NOTES AND SUMMARY 1.1 + + 2 SHUTTLE PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS 2.1-2.11 + + 3 ELV PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS 3.1-3.4 + + 4 PREVIOUS FLIGHTS 4.1-4.14 + + 5 PAYLOAD REQUESTS 5.1-5.12 + + 6 PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST 6.1-6.41 + + +SECTION 1 + +1 +MIXED FLEET MANIFEST NOTES AND SUMMARY + +MIXED FLEET MANIFEST NOTES + + +O THIS MANIFEST INCLUDES PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS FOR THE SPACE SHUTTLE AND NASA +EXPENDABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE (ELV) MISSIONS THROUGH FISCAL YEAR 1997. + +O THE MANIFEST SERVES AS A BASELINE FOR PLANNING PURPOSES. PRIMARY AND COMPLEX SECOND- +ARY SPACE SHUTTLE PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENT CONFIRMATION IS MADE APPROXIMATELY 19 +MONTHS PRIOR TO LAUNCH. NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOAD ASSIGNMENTS ARE MADE 12 TO 8 +MONTHS PRIOR TO LAUNCH. + +O FOR SPACE SHUTTLE FLIGHTS, PRIMARY AND COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOAD ASSIGNMENTS ARE SHOWN +THROUGH FISCAL YEAR 1997. NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOADS ARE SHOWN ONLY ON FLIGHTS +WHICH ARE 12 MONTHS OR LESS FROM LAUNCH. + +O THROUGHOUT THIS DOCUMENT, PENDING REQUIREMENTS ARE NOTED "FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES +(NOT CURRENTLY BUDGETED)" + +O SPACE SHUTTLE LAUNCH DATES ARE BEING SHOWN BY MONTH AND YEAR FROM NOW THROUGH FISCAL +YEAR 1994 (SEPTEMBER 1994). THE MONTH SHOWN REPRESENTS A REASONABLE EXPECTATION AS TO +WHEN THE LAUNCH WILL OCCUR; HOWEVER, IN MOST CASES, NASA'S PLANNING WILL BE AGAINST +EARLIER LAUNCH DATE TARGETS. FROM FISCAL YEAR 1995 THROUGH FISCAL YEAR 1997 LAUNCHES +ARE SHOWN BY QUARTER. AS ABOVE, NASA'S PLANNING MAY BE AGAINST LAUNCH DATE TARGETS IN +THE QUARTER PRIOR TO THE ONES SHOWN. + +O FOR FURTHER INFORMATION PLEASE CONTACT: + + TRANSPORTATION SERVICES DIVISION + MAIL CODE MC + NASA HEADQUARTERS + WASHINGTON, DC 20546 -- USA + TELEPHONE: (202) 453-2347 FAX:(202)426-628 + + +1.1 + +SECTION 2 + + +SHUTTLE PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS + + +2 + + + + **** SHUTTLE PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS **** + AUGUST 1991 + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 48 SEP 91 57.0 5 UARS UNIQUE AMOS-11 CDR:JOHN O. CREIGHTON + DISCOVERY 292 5 APM-03 UNIQUE PCG-II-02 PLT:KENNETH S. REIGHTLER, JR. + RME III-05 MS:MARK N. BROWN + PARE-01 MS:JAMES F. BUCHLI + MODE-B MS:CHARLES D. "SAM" GEMAR + CREAM-A + IPMP-04 + SAM-02 + + + 44 DEC 91 28.5 6 DSP IUS DOD M88-01 CDR:FREDERICK D. GREGORY + ATLANTIS 195 10 IOCM UNIQUE CREAM-B1 PLT:TERENCE T. HENRICKS + SAM-01 MS:F. STORY MUSGRAVE + RME III-06 MS:MARIO RUNCO, JR. + VFT-1-01 MS:JAMES S. VOSS + TERRA SCOUT PS:THOMAS J. HENNEN + AMOS-12 + UVPI-04 + + 42 FEB 92 57.0 7 IML-01 LM GOSAMR-01 CDR:RONALD J. GRABE + DISCOVERY 163 7 IMAX-05 N/A SE-83-02 PLT:STEPHEN S. OSWALD + GAS BRIDGE SE-81-09 MS (PLC):NORMAN E. THAGARD + IPMP-05 MS:DAVID C. HILMER + RME III-07 MS:WILLIAM F. READDY + PS:ROBERTA L. BONDAR + PS:ULF D. MERBOLD + + NOTE: IN THE MISSION INTEGRATION PROCESS, EFFICIENCY AND INTEGRITY ARE ENHANCED IF FLIGHT NUMBERS ARE + MAINTAINED AFTER ASSIGNMENT AT 19 MONTHS BEFORE LAUNCH. WITH MANIFEST CHANGES, THE NUMERICAL + SEQUENCE OF EARLY FLIGHTS IS NOT MAINTAINED. + + + +2.1 + + + **** SHUTTLE PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS **** + AUGUST 1991 + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 45 MAY 92 57.0 7 ATLAS-01 IG+2 PALLETS STL-01 CDR:CHARLES F. BOLDEN + ATLANTIS 160 8 SSBUV-A-01 UNIQUE RME III-08 PLT:BRIAN DUFFY + VFT-1-02 MS (PLC):KATHRYN D. SULLIVAN + CLOUDS-1A-2 MS:C. MICHAEL FOALE + MS:DAVID C. LEESTMA + PS:MICHAEL L. LAMPTON + PS:BYRON K. LICHTENBERG + + 49 MAY 92 28.5 7 INTELSAT-VI-R UNIQUE CVTE-01 CDR:DANIEL C. BRANDENSTEIN + ENDEAVOUR 183 7 ASEM MPESS+UNIQUE PCG-III-06 PLT:KEVIN P. CHILTON + AMOS-13 MS:THOMAS D. AKERS + MS:RICHARD J. HIEB + MS:BRUCE E. MELNICK + MS:KATHRYN C. THORNTON + MS:PIERRE J. THUOT + + 50 JUN 92 28.5 7 USML-01 LM+EDO CDR:RICHARD N. RICHARDS + COLUMBIA 160 13* PLT:JOHN H. CASPER + MS (PLC):BONNIE J. DUNBAR + MS:KENNETH D. BOWERSOX + MS:CARL J. MEADE + PS:LAWRENCE J. DELUCAS + PS:EUGENE H. TRINH + + NOTE: IN THE MISSION INTEGRATION PROCESS, EFFICIENCY AND INTEGRITY ARE ENHANCED IF FLIGHT NUMBERS ARE + MAINTAINED AFTER ASSIGNMENT AT 19 MONTHS BEFORE LAUNCH. WITH MANIFEST CHANGES, THE NUMERICAL + SEQUENCE OF EARLY FLIGHTS IS NOT MAINTAINED. + + *DEPENDENT ON PRIOR LONG DURATION FLIGHT EXPERIENCE + + + + +2.2 + + + **** SHUTTLE PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS **** + AUGUST 1991 + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 46 SEP 92 28.5 7 TSS-01 SL-MPESS+PALL CDR:LOREN J. SHRIVER + ATLANTIS 230 7 EURECA-1L EURECA-A PLT:JAMES D. WETHERBEE + IMAX-06 ICBC MS (PLC):JEFFREY A. HOFFMAN + EOIM-III/TEMP2A-03SL-MPESS MS:ANDREW M. ALLEN + CONCAP2-01 GAS CAN MS:FRANKLIN R. CHANG-DIAZ + CONCAP3-01 GAS CAN MS:CLAUDE NICOLLIER + LDCE-01 GAS CAN PS:TBD (ITALY) + + 47 SEP 92 57.0 7 SL-J LM CDR:TBD + ENDEAVOUR 160 7 GAS BRIDGE PLT:TBD + MS (PLC):MARK C. LEE + MS:N. JAN DAVIS + MS:MAE C. JEMISON + MS:TBD + PS:MAMORU MOHRI + + 52 NOV 92 28.5 6 LAGEOS II IRIS + COLUMBIA 160 9 USMP-01 MSL+SL-MPESS + CANEX-02 UNIQUE + ASP HH-G + + 53 DEC 92 57.0 5 DOD UNIQUE + DISCOVERY 200 4 + + 54 JAN 93 28.5 5 TDRS-06 IUS + ENDEAVOUR 160 6 DXS HH-G + + 55 MAR 93 28.5 7 SL-D2 LM+USS+2 GAS MS (PLC):JERRY L. ROSS + COLUMBIA 160 9 + + NOTE: IN THE MISSION INTEGRATION PROCESS, EFFICIENCY AND INTEGRITY ARE ENHANCED IF FLIGHT NUMBERS ARE + MAINTAINED AFTER ASSIGNMENT AT 19 MONTHS BEFORE LAUNCH. WITH MANIFEST CHANGES, THE NUMERICAL + SEQUENCE OF EARLY FLIGHTS IS NOT MAINTAINED. +2.3 + + + **** SHUTTLE PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS **** + AUGUST 1991 + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 51 APR 93 28.5 5 ACTS TOS + DISCOVERY 160 8 ORFEUS-SPAS ASTRO-SPAS + + 56 MAY 93 57.0 5 ATLAS-02 IG+1 PALLET + ENDEAVOUR 160 9 SPTN-201-01 MPESS + SSBUV-A-02 UNIQUE + + 57 JUL 93 28.5 6 EURECA-1R EURECA-A + ATLANTIS 160 8 SPACEHAB-01 SPACEHAB + GAS BRIDGE + SHOOT MPESS + + 58 JUL 93 28.5 7 SLS-02 LM+EDO + COLUMBIA 160 13* + + 59 AUG 93 TBD TBD FLT OPPTY + DISCOVERY TBD TBD + + 60 OCT 93 57.0 6 SRL-01 SL-MPESS+PALL + ENDEAVOUR 130 9 + + 61 DEC 93 28.5 6 WSF-01 UNIQUE + ATLANTIS 160 7 SPACEHAB-02 SPACEHAB + GAS BRIDGE + CAPL-01 HH-G + OAET-01 MPESS + + NOTE: IN THE MISSION INTEGRATION PROCESS, EFFICIENCY AND INTEGRITY ARE ENHANCED IF FLIGHT NUMBERS ARE + MAINTAINED AFTER ASSIGNMENT AT 19 MONTHS BEFORE LAUNCH. WITH MANIFEST CHANGES, THE NUMERICAL + SEQUENCE OF EARLY FLIGHTS IS NOT MAINTAINED. + + *DEPENDENT ON PRIOR LONG DURATION FLIGHT EXPERIENCE + +2.4 + + + **** SHUTTLE PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS **** + AUGUST 1991 + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 62 JAN 94 28.5 5 USMP-02 MSL+SL-MPESS + COLUMBIA 160 9 SPTN-204 MPESS + FTS-DTF-01 MPESS + CMSE-01 HH-G+UNIQUE + + 63 FEB 94 28.5 7 HST REV-01 FSS+UNIQUE + DISCOVERY 330 8 + + 64 APR 94 57.0 7 CRISTA-SPAS ASTRO-SPAS + ENDEAVOUR 160 9 ATLAS-03 IG+1 PALLET + SSBUV-A-03 UNIQUE + + 65 MAY 94 28.5 5 LITE I PALLET + ATLANTIS 160 7 SPAS-III SPAS + DEE GAS BEAM + + 66 MAY 94 28.5 7 IML-02 LM+EDO + COLUMBIA 160 13* + + 67 JUN 94 28.5 6 SPACEHAB-03 SPACEHAB + DISCOVERY 160 7 IEH-01 MPESS + SPTN-201-02 MPESS + DSCT SL-MPESS + ROMPS-01 HH-G + + 68 AUG 94 TBD TBD FLT OPPTY + ATLANTIS TBD TBD + + *DEPENDENT ON PRIOR LONG DURATION FLIGHT EXPERIENCE + + + + +2.5 + + + **** SHUTTLE PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS **** + AUGUST 1991 + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 69 SEP 94 28.5 7 ASTRO-02 IG+2 PALLETS + COLUMBIA 190 9 OAET-FLYER MPESS + + +2.6 + + + **** SHUTTLE PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS **** + AUGUST 1991 + + YEAR CARGO BAY PAYLOADS CARRIER MIDDECK + + FY95 1QTR SFU-RETR N/A + TPITS PALLET + CAPL-02 HH-G + + SRL-02 SL-MPESS+PALL + + FY95 2QTR SPACEHAB-04 SPACEHAB + WSF-02 UNIQUE + ISEM-01 MPESS + CMSE-02 HH-G+UNIQUE + PL OPPTY + + FLT OPPTY + + FY95 3QTR USMP-03 MSL+SL-MPESS + EP HH-G + PL OPPTY + + SPACEHAB-05 SPACEHAB + EURECA-2L EURECA-A + SPTN-201-03 MPESS + FLOATZONE-01 SL-MPESS + IEH-02 MPESS + + USML-02 LM+EDO + + +2.7 + + + **** SHUTTLE PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS **** + AUGUST 1991 + + YEAR CARGO BAY PAYLOADS CARRIER MIDDECK + + FY95 4QTR SL-D3 LM + USS + + LITE II-01 PALLET + SSBUV-A-04 UNIQUE + ISEM-02 MPESS + CMSE-03 HH-G+UNIQUE + + SPACEHAB-06 SPACEHAB + WSF-03 UNIQUE + EURECA-2R EURECA-A + CXM-04 SL-MPESS + + FY96 1QTR ATLAS-04 IG+1 PALLET + WISP MPESS+PALL + SSBUV-A-05 UNIQUE + + FY96 2QTR SSF/MB-01(FEL) UNIQUE + + SLS-03 LM+EDO + + SSF/MB-02 UNIQUE + + + +2.8 + + + **** SHUTTLE PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS **** + AUGUST 1991 + + YEAR CARGO BAY PAYLOADS CARRIER MIDDECK + + FY96 3QTR XTE FSS + EUVE RETR FSS + FROZEPIPE MPESS + MICROWAVE-01 MPESS + + SSF/MB-03 UNIQUE + + SPACEHAB-07 SPACEHAB + WSF-04 UNIQUE + CXM-03 SL-MPESS + IEH-03 MPESS + + FY96 4QTR SRL-03 SL-MPESS+PALL + + SSF/MB-04 UNIQUE + + USMP-04 MSL+SL-MPESS + OAET-02 MPESS + PL OPPTY + + FY97 1QTR AAFE UNIQUE + DCWS PALLET + CONE HH-M + PL OPPTY + + + +2.9 + + + **** SHUTTLE PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS **** + AUGUST 1991 + + YEAR CARGO BAY PAYLOADS CARRIER MIDDECK + + FY97 2QTR SSF/MB-05 UNIQUE + + HST REV-02 FSS+UNIQUE + + FY97 3QTR SSF/MB-06(MTC) UNIQUE + + SPACEHAB-08 SPACEHAB + USMP-05 MSL+SL-MPESS + IEH-04 MPESS + + SSF/MB-07 UNIQUE + + ATLAS-05 IG+1 PALLET + + FY97 4QTR SSF/UF-01 UNIQUE + + SL-E2 LM + + SSF/MB-08 UNIQUE + + + +2.10 + +SECTION 3 + + +ELV PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS + +3 + + + **** ELV PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS **** + AUGUST 1991 + + DATE CLASS L A U N C H V E H I C L E PAYLOAD LAUNCH PAYLOAD + MO YR TYPE INCL ORBIT SITE + + DEC 91 MEDIUM ATLAS E 98.7 SS WSMC NOAA-I + + DEC 91 MEDIUM DELTA II 28.5 LEO ESMC EUVE + + JUN 92 SMALL SCOUT TBD TBD WSMC SAMPEX + + JUL 92 MEDIUM DELTA II 28.7 HE ESMC GEOTAIL + + SEP 92 INTERMEDIATE TITAN III 28.5 EO ESMC MARS OBSERVER + + DEC 92 INTERMEDIATE ATLAS I 28.5 GSO ESMC GOES-I + + DEC 92 MEDIUM DELTA II 28.7 HE ESMC WIND + + JUN 93 MEDIUM DELTA II 90.0 HE WSMC POLAR + + AUG 93 INTERMEDIATE ATLAS I 28.5 GSO ESMC GOES-J + + SEP 93 SMALL PEGASUS TBD LEO WFF TOMS-01 + + DEC 93 MEDIUM ATLAS E 98.7 SS WSMC NOAA-J + + DEC 93 UNDER REVIEW TBD** TBD HEEO ESMC EQUATOR-S** + + MAY 94 MEDIUM DELTA II** TBD LEO WSMC LAGEOS III** + + JUL 94 SMALL PEGASUS** TBD LEO WFF SAC-B/HETE** + + JUL 94 MEDIUM TITAN II 98.7 SS WSMC NOAA-K + + ** FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES + + +3.1 + + + **** ELV PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS **** + AUGUST 1991 + + DATE CLASS L A U N C H V E H I C L E PAYLOAD LAUNCH PAYLOAD + MO YR TYPE INCL ORBIT SITE + + SEP 94 SMALL PEGASUS TBD LEO WFF FAST + + DEC 94 MEDIUM DELTA II 98.6 LEO WSMC RADARSAT + + APR 95 INTERMEDIATE TBD 28.5 GSO ESMC TDRS-07 + + JUN 95 SMALL PEGASUS TBD LEO WFF SWAS + + JUL 95 INTERMEDIATE ATLAS I 28.5 GSO ESMC GOES-K + + JUL 95 INTERMEDIATE ATLAS IIAS 28.5 HE ESMC SOHO + + DEC 95 LARGE TITAN IV /CENTAUR TBD PLAN ESMC CASSINI + + JAN 96 SMALL PEGASUS TBD TBD WFF SMEX-04 + + FEB 96 LARGE UNDER REVIEW TBD PLAN ESMC CRAF + + JUN 96 MEDIUM DELTA II TBD TBD WSMC LIFESAT-01 + + JUL 96 MEDIUM TITAN II 98.7 SS WSMC NOAA-L + + FEB 97 MEDIUM TITAN II 98.7 SS WSMC NOAA-M + + FEB 97 INTERMEDIATE ATLAS I TBD GSO ESMC GOES-L + + APR 97 INTERMEDIATE TBD TBD GSO ESMC ATDRS-01 + + JUN 97 SMALL PEGASUS TBD TBD WFF SMEX-05 + + + + +3.2 + + + **** ELV PAYLOAD FLIGHT ASSIGNMENTS **** + AUGUST 1991 + + DATE CLASS L A U N C H V E H I C L E PAYLOAD LAUNCH PAYLOAD + MO YR TYPE INCL ORBIT SITE + + JUN 97 MEDIUM DELTA II TBD TBD WSMC LIFESAT-02 + + JUN 97 SMALL PEGASUS** TBD LEO WFF TOMS-02** + + AUG 97 MEDIUM DELTA II TBD HE ESMC ACE + + ** FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES + + +3.3 + +SECTION 4 + + +PREVIOUS FLIGHTS + + +4 + + + **** PREVIOUS SHUTTLE FLIGHTS **** + + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 1 12-APR-81 40.3 2 DFI DFI PAL OEX CDR:JOHN W. YOUNG + COLUMBIA 145 2 PLT:ROBERT L. CRIPPEN + + 2 12-NOV-81 38.0 2 OSTA-1 PALLET OEX CDR:JOE H. ENGLE + COLUMBIA 137 2 DFI DFI PAL PLT:RICHARD H. TRULY + IECM UNIQUE + + 3 22-MAR-82 38.0 2 OSS-1 PALLET OEX CDR:JACK R. LOUSMA + COLUMBIA 128 8 DFI DFI PAL MLR PLT:C. GORDON FULLERTON + IECM UNIQUE EEVT + GAS TEST GAS CAN SE-81-08 + + 4 27-JUN-82 28.5 2 DOD 82-1 OEX CDR:THOMAS K. MATTINGLY + COLUMBIA 130 7 DFI DFI PAL MLR PLT:HENRY W. HARTSFIELD + IECM UNIQUE CFES + GAS(1) GAS CAN NOSL + SE-81-04 + SE-81-06 + + 5 11-NOV-82 28.5 4 SBS-C PAM-D GLOW CDR:VANCE D. BRAND + COLUMBIA 160 5 TELESAT-E PAM-D SE-81-02 PLT:ROBERT F. OVERMYER + GAS(1) GAS CAN SE-81-05 MS:JOSEPH P. ALLEN + SE-81-09 MS:WILLIAM B. LENOIR + + 6 4-APR-83 28.5 4 TDRS-A IUS CFES CDR:PAUL J. WEITZ + CHALLENGER155 5 GAS(3) GAS CAN MLR PLT:KAROL J. BOBKO + NOSL MS:F. STORY MUSGRAVE + MS:DONALD H. PETERSON + + +4.1 + + + **** PREVIOUS SHUTTLE FLIGHTS **** + + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 7 18-JUN-83 28.5 5 SPAS-01 CFES CDR:ROBERT L. CRIPPEN + CHALLENGER160 6 OSTA-2 MPESS MLR PLT:FREDERICK H. HAUCK + TELESAT-F PAM-D MS:JOHN M. FABIAN + PALAPA-B1 PAM-D MS:SALLY K. RIDE + GAS(7) GAS CAN MS:NORMAN E. THAGARD + + 8 30-AUG-83 28.5 5 PDRS/PFTA CFES CDR:RICHARD H. TRULY + CHALLENGER161 6 OIM RME PLT:DANIEL C. BRANDENSTEIN + INSAT 1-B PAM-D SE-81-01 MS:GUION S. BLUFORD, JR. + GAS(4) GAS CAN MS:DALE A. GARDNER + MS:WILLIAM E. THORNTON + + 9 28-NOV-83 57.0 6 SPACELAB 1 LM+1P CDR:JOHN W. YOUNG + COLUMBIA 135 1 0 PLT:BREWSTER H. SHAW, JR. + MS:OWEN K. GARRIOTT + MS:ROBERT A. R. PARKER + PS:BYRON K. LICHTENBERG + PS:ULF MERBOLD + + 10 3-FEB-84 28.5 5 SPAS-01A ACES CDR:VANCE D. BRAND + 41-BCHALLENGER165 8 PALAPA B-2 PAM-D C-360c PLT:ROBERT L. GIBSON + WESTAR-6 PAM-D RME MS:BRUCE MCCANDLESS II + C-360b GAS CAN IEF MS:RONALD E. MCNAIR + GAS(5) GAS CAN MLR MS:ROBERT L. STEWART + IRT UNIQUE SE-81-10 + + + +4.2 + + + **** PREVIOUS SHUTTLE FLIGHTS **** + + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 11 6-APR-84 28.5 5 LDEF-1 RME CDR:ROBERT L. CRIPPEN + 41-CCHALLENGER252 7 SMM REPAIR FSS SE-82-17 PLT:FRANCIS R. SCOBEE + C-360b GAS CAN IMAX MS:TERRY J. HART + MS:JAMES D. VAN HOFTEN + MS:GEORGE D. NELSON + + 12 30-AUG-84 28.5 6 OAST-1 MPESS CFES CDR:HENRY W. HARTSFIELD + 41-DDISCOVERY 161 6 SBS-D PAM-D IMAX PLT:MICHAEL L. COATS + TELSTAR 3-C PAM-D RME MS:STEVEN A. HAWLEY + SYNCOM IV-2 CLOUDS MS:RICHARD M. MULLANE + SE-82-14 MS:JUDITH A. RESNIK + PS:CHARLES WALKER + + 13 5-OCT-84 57.0 7 OSTA-3 PALLET IMAX CDR:ROBERT L. CRIPPEN + 41-GCHALLENGER190 8 ERBS RME PLT:JON A. MCBRIDE + LFC/ORS MPESS TLD MS:DAVID C. LEESTMA + GAS(8) GAS CAN APE MS:SALLY K. RIDE + CANEX MS:KATHRYN D. SULLIVAN + PS:MARC GARNEAU + PS:PAUL D. SCULLY-POWER + + 14 8-NOV-84 28.5 5 HS-376 RETV(2) 2 PALLET DMOS CDR:FREDERICK H. HAUCK + 51-ADISCOVERY 160 8 TELESAT-H PAM-D RME PLT:DAVID M. WALKER + SYNCOM IV-1 MS:JOSEPH P. ALLEN + MS:ANNA L. FISHER + MS:DALE A. GARDNER + + +4.3 + + + **** PREVIOUS SHUTTLE FLIGHTS **** + + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 15 24-JAN-85 XX 5 DOD CDR:THOMAS K. MATTINGLY + 51-CDISCOVERY X 3 PLT:LOREN J. SHRIVER + MS:JAMES F. BUCHLI + MS:ELLISON S. ONIZUKA + PS:GARY E. PAYTON + + 16 12-APR-85 28.5 7 TELESAT-I PAM-D CFES CDR:KAROL J. BOBKO + 51-DDISCOVERY 249 7 SYNCOM IV-3 AFE PLT:DONALD E. WILLIAMS + GAS(2) GAS CAN PPE/SAS MS:S. DAVID GRIGGS + SE-82-03 MS:JEFFREY A. HOFFMAN + SE-83-03 MS:M. RHEA SEDDON + PS:E. JAKE GARN + PS:CHARLES WALKER + + 17 29-APR-85 57.0 7 SPACELAB 3 LM+MPESS CDR:ROBERT F. OVERMYER + 51-BCHALLENGER191 7 GAS(2) GAS CAN PLT:FREDERICK D. GREGORY + MS:DON L. LIND + MS:NORMAN E. THAGARD + MS:WILLIAM E. THORNTON + PS:LODWIJK VAN DEN BERG + PS:TAYLOR G. WANG + + 18 17-JUN-85 28.5 7 SPTN-1 MPESS FEE CDR:DANIEL C. BRANDENSTEIN + 51-GDISCOVERY 192 7 MORELOS-A PAM-D FPE PLT:JOHN O. CREIGHTON + ARABSAT-1B PAM-D ADSF MS:JOHN M. FABIAN + TELSTAR 3-D PAM-D HPTE MS:SHANNON W. LUCID + GAS(6) GAS CAN MS:STEVEN R. NAGEL + PS:SULTAN S. AL-SAUD + PS:PATRICK BAUDRY + + + + +4.4 + + + **** PREVIOUS SHUTTLE FLIGHTS **** + + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 19 29-JUL-85 50.0 7 SPACELAB 2 IG+3P SAREX CDR:C. GORDON FULLERTON + 51-FCHALLENGER173 8 STTP PLT:ROY D. BRIDGES + CBDE MS:ANTHONY W. ENGLAND + MS:KARL G. HENIZE + MS:F. STORY MUSGRAVE + PS:LOREN W. ACTON + PS:JOHN-DAVID F. BARTOE + + 20 27-AUG-85 28.5 5 AUSSAT-1 PAM-D PVTOS CDR:JOE H. ENGLE + 51-IDISCOVERY 242 7 ASC-1 PAM-D PLT:RICHARD O. COVEY + SYNCOM IV-4 MS:WILLIAM F. FISHER + SYNCOM-SALVAGE MS:JOHN M. LOUNGE + MS:JAMES D. VAN HOFTEN + + 21 3-OCT-85 XX 5 DOD CDR:KAROL J. BOBKO + 51-JATLANTIS X 4 PLT:RONALD J. GRABE + MS:DAVID C. HILMERS + MS:ROBERT L. STEWART + PS:WILLIAM A. PAILES + + 22 30-OCT-85 57.0 8 SPACELAB D-1 LM CDR:HENRY W. HARTSFIELD + 61-ACHALLENGER178 7 GLOMR GAS CAN PLT:STEVEN R. NAGEL + MS:GUION S. BLUFORD, JR. + MS:JAMES F. BUCHLI + MS:BONNIE J. DUNBAR + PS:REINHARD FURRER + PS:ERNST W. MESSERSCHMID + PS:WUBBO J. OCKELS + + + + + +4.5 + + + **** PREVIOUS SHUTTLE FLIGHTS **** + + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 23 26-NOV-85 28.5 7 EASE/ACCESS MPESS CFES CDR:BREWSTER H. SHAW, JR. + 61-BATLANTIS 191 7 MORELOS-B PAM-D DMOS PLT:BRYAN D. O'CONNOR + SATCOM KU-2 PAM-D2 MPSE MS:MARY L. CLEAVE + AUSSAT-2 PAM-D MS:JERRY L. ROSS + IMAX ICBC MS:SHERWOOD C. SPRING + GAS(1) GAS CAN PS:RUDOLFO NERI VELA + PS:CHARLES WALKER + + 24 12-JAN-86 28.5 7 MSL-2 MPESS IR-IE CDR:ROBERT L. GIBSON + 61-CCOLUMBIA 177 6 SATCOM KU-1 PAM-D2 HPCG PLT:CHARLES F. BOLDEN + GAS BRIDGE IBSE MS:FRANKLIN R. CHANG-DIAZ + HH-G1 HH-G CHAMP MS:STEVEN A. HAWLEY + GAS(13) GAS CAN SE-82-19 MS:GEORGE D. NELSON + SE-83-04 PS:ROBERT CENKER + SE-83-06 PS:BILL NELSON + + 25 28-JAN-86 - 7 SPTN-HALLEY MPESS TIS-01 CDR:FRANCIS R. SCOBEE + 51-LCHALLENGER - - TDRS-B IUS FDE PLT:MICHAEL J. SMITH + CHAMP MS:RONALD E. MCNAIR + RME MS:ELLISON S. ONIZUKA + SE-82-14 MS:JUDITH A. RESNIK + SE-82-17 PS:GREGORY JARVIS + SE-82-19 SFP:CHRISTA MCAULIFFE + + +4.6 + + + **** PREVIOUS SHUTTLE FLIGHTS **** + + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 26 29-SEP-88 28.5 5 TDRS-C IUS ADSF-02 CDR:FREDERICK H. HAUCK + DISCOVERY 178 4 PVTOS-02 PLT:RICHARD O. COVEY + IRCFE MS:DAVID C. HILMERS + SE-82-04 MS:JOHN M. LOUNGE + PCG-II-01 MS:GEORGE D. NELSON + IEF-02 + HME-01 + ARC-02 + MLE-01 + ELRAD + SE-82-05 + + 27 2-DEC-88 XX 5 DOD UNIQUE CDR:ROBERT L. GIBSON + ATLANTIS X 4 PLT:GUY S. GARDNER + MS:RICHARD M. MULLANE + MS:JERRY L. ROSS + MS:WILLIAM M. SHEPHERD + + 29 13-MAR-89 28.5 5 TDRS-D IUS IMAX-01 CDR:MICHAEL L. COATS + DISCOVERY 163 5 SHARE UNIQUE SE-83-09 PLT:JOHN E. BLAHA + PCG-III-01 MS:JAMES P. BAGIAN + CHROMEX MS:JAMES F. BUCHLI + SE-82-08 MS:ROBERT C. SPRINGER + AMOS-01 + + + + + + + + + +4.7 + + + **** PREVIOUS SHUTTLE FLIGHTS **** + + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 30 4-MAY-89 28.9 5 MAGELLAN IUS FEA-01 CDR:DAVID M. WALKER + ATLANTIS 161 4 MLE-02 PLT:RONALD J. GRABE + AMOS-02 MS:MARY L. CLEAVE + MS:MARK C. LEE + MS:NORMAN E. THAGARD + + 28 8-AUG-89 XX 5 DOD UNIQUE CDR:BREWSTER H. SHAW, JR. + COLUMBIA X 5 PLT:RICHARD N. RICHARDS + MS:JAMES C. ADAMSON + MS:MARK N. BROWN + MS:DAVID C. LEESTMA + + 34 18-OCT-89 34.3 5 GALILEO IUS IMAX-02 CDR:DONALD E. WILLIAMS + ATLANTIS 168 5 SSBUV-01 UNIQUE SE-82-15 PLT:MICHAEL J. MCCULLEY + GHCD MS:ELLEN S. BAKER + PM-01 MS:FRANKLIN R. CHANG-DIAZ + MLE-03 MS:SHANNON W. LUCID + STEX + AMOS-03 + + 33 22-NOV-89 XX 5 DOD UNIQUE CDR:FREDERICK D. GREGORY + DISCOVERY X 5 PLT:JOHN E. BLAHA + MS:MANLEY L. CARTER, JR. + MS:F. STORY MUSGRAVE + MS:KATHRYN C. THORNTON + + + + + + + + +4.8 + + + **** PREVIOUS SHUTTLE FLIGHTS **** + + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 32 9-JAN-90 28.5 5 SYNCOM IV-05 UNIQUE IMAX-03 CDR:DANIEL C. BRANDENSTEIN + COLUMBIA 178 11 LDEF-RETR N/A CNCR PLT:JAMES D. WETHERBEE + PCG-III-02 MS:BONNIE J. DUNBAR + FEA-02 MS:MARSHA S. IVINS + AFE-02 MS:G. DAVID LOW + MLE-04 + L3 + AMOS-04 + + 36 28-FEB-90 XX 5 DOD UNIQUE CDR:JOHN O. CREIGHTON + ATLANTIS X 5 PLT:JOHN H. CASPER + MS:DAVID C. HILMERS + MS:RICHARD M. MULLANE + MS:PIERRE J. THUOT + + 31 24-APR-90 28.5 5 HST N/A SE-82-16 CDR:LOREN J. SHRIVER + DISCOVERY 330 5 IMAX-04 ICBC+MD RME III-01 PLT:CHARLES F. BOLDEN + APM-01 UNIQUE AMOS-05 MS:STEVEN A. HAWLEY + IPMP-01 MS:BRUCE MCCANDLESS II + PCG-III-03 MS:KATHRYN D. SULLIVAN + + 41 6-OCT-90 28.5 5 ULYSSES IUS/PAM SSCE-01 CDR:RICHARD N. RICHARDS + DISCOVERY 160 4 SSBUV-02 UNIQUE CHROMEX-02 PLT:ROBERT D. CABANA + ISAC UNIQUE VCS MS:THOMAS D. AKERS + IPMP-02 MS:BRUCE E. MELNICK + PSE-01 MS:WILLIAM M. SHEPHERD + RME III-02 + AMOS-06 + + + + + +4.9 + + + **** PREVIOUS SHUTTLE FLIGHTS **** + + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 38 15-NOV-90 XX 5 DOD UNIQUE CDR:RICHARD O. COVEY + ATLANTIS X 5 PLT:FRANK L. CULBERTSON + MS:CHARLES D. GEMAR + MS:CARL J. MEADE + MS:ROBERT C. SPRINGER + + 35 2-DEC-90 28.5 7 ASTRO-01 IG+2 PALLETS SAREX II-01 CDR:VANCE D. BRAND + COLUMBIA 190 9 BBXRT-01 TAPS AMOS-07 PLT:GUY S. GARDNER + UVPI-01 MS:JEFFREY A. HOFFMAN + MS:JOHN M. LOUNGE + MS:ROBERT A. R. PARKER + PS:SAMUEL T. DURRANCE + PS:RONALD A. PARISE + + 37 5-APR-91 28.5 5 GRO N/A AMOS-09 CDR:STEVEN R. NAGEL + ATLANTIS 243 6 CETA UNIQUE BIMDA-01 PLT:KENNETH D. CAMERON + APM-02 UNIQUE PCG-III-04 MS:JAY APT + RME III-03 MS:LINDA M. GODWIN + SAREX II-02 MS:JERRY L. ROSS + + 39 28-APR-91 57.0 7 AFP-675 PALLET CLOUDS-1A-1 CDR:MICHAEL L. COATS + DISCOVERY 140 8 IBSS SPAS RME III-04 PLT:L. BLAINE HAMMOND, JR. + STP-01 HH-M UVPI-02 MS:GUION S. BLUFORD, JR. + MPEC HH-G MS:GREGORY J. HARBAUGH + MS:RICHARD J. HIEB + MS:DONALD R. MCMONAGLE + MS:CHARLES LACY VEACH + + + + + + +4.10 + + + **** PREVIOUS SHUTTLE FLIGHTS **** + + + FLT DATE INCL CRW CARGO BAY CARRIER MIDDECK CREW ASSIGNMENT + ORBITER ALT DUR PAYLOADS PAYLOADS + + 40 5-JUN-91 39.0 7 SLS-01 LM MODE-A CDR:BRYAN D. O'CONNOR + COLUMBIA 160 9 GAS BRIDGE PLT:SIDNEY M. GUTIERREZ + MS:JAMES P. BAGIAN + MS:TAMARA E. JERNIGAN + MS:M. RHEA SEDDON + PS:F. DREW GAFFNEY + PS:MILLIE HUGHES-FULFORD + + 43 2-AUG-91 28.5 5 TDRS-05 IUS SSCE-02 CDR:JOHN E. BLAHA + ATLANTIS 160 9 SSBUV-03 UNIQUE BIMDA-02 PLT:MICHAEL A. BAKER + SHARE II UNIQUE SAMS-01 MS:JAMES C. ADAMSON + OCTW-01 UNIQUE PCG-III-05 MS:G. DAVID LOW + TPCE GAS CAN IPMP-03 MS:SHANNON W. LUCID + AMOS-10 + APE-B-02 + UVPI-03 + + + +4.11 + + + **** PREVIOUS SCOUT VEHICLE FLIGHTS **** + + PROGRAM INITIATION DATE: 1959 LAUNCHES TO DATE: 95 + FIRST FLIGHT: 1960 LAUNCH VEHICLE SUCCESSES: 83 + + LAST 20 FLIGHTS + + + FINAL PAYLOAD + LAUNCH DATE LAUNCH VEHICLE SPACECRAFT ORBIT ACHIEVED NOTES + + 18-JUN-76 S-193 GP-A PROBE SUCCESS + 1-SEP-76 S-197 NAVY LEO SUCCESS + 27-OCT-77 S-200 NAVY LEO SUCCESS + 26-APR-78 S-201 HCMM LEO SUCCESS + 18-FEB-79 S-202 SAGE LEO SUCCESS + + 2-JUN-79 S-198 UK-6 LEO SUCCESS + 30-OCT-79 S-203 MAGSAT LEO SUCCESS + 14-MAY-81 S-192 NOVA I LEO SUCCESS + 27-JUN-83 S-205 HILAT LEO SUCCESS + 11-OCT-84 S-208 NOVA-III LEO SUCCESS + + 2-AUG-85 S-209 SOOS-I LEO SUCCESS + 12-DEC-85 S-207 AFITV LEO SUCCESS + 13-NOV-86 S-199 AF POLAR BEAR LEO SUCCESS + 16-SEP-87 S-204 SOOS-2 LEO SUCCESS + 25-MAR-88 S-206 SAN MARCO-DL LEO SUCCESS + + 25-APR-88 S-211 SOOS-III LEO SUCCESS + 15-JUN-88 S-213 NOVA-II LEO SUCCESS + 25-AUG-88 S-214 SOOS-IV LEO SUCCESS + 9-MAY-90 S-212 MACSAT LEO SUCCESS + 29-JUN-91 S-216 REX LEO SUCCESS + + + + + +4.12 + + + **** PREVIOUS DELTA VEHICLE FLIGHTS **** + + PROGRAM INITIATION DATE: 1959 LAUNCHES TO DATE: 205 + FIRST FLIGHT: 1960 LAUNCH VEHICLE SUCCESSES: 193 + + LAST 20 FLIGHTS + + + FINAL PAYLOAD + LAUNCH DATE LAUNCH VEHICLE SPACECRAFT ORBIT ACHIEVED NOTES + + 18-AUG-89 186 NAVSTAR-3 GSO SUCCESS + 27-AUG-89 187 BSB-R1 GSO SUCCESS + 21-OCT-89 188 NAVSTAR-4 GSO SUCCESS + 18-NOV-89 189 COBE LEO SUCCESS + 12-DEC-89 190 NAVSTAR-5 GSO SUCCESS + + 24-JAN-90 191 NAVSTAR-6 GSO SUCCESS + 14-FEB-90 192 LACE/RME LEO SUCCESS + 25-MAR-90 193 NAVSTAR-7 GSO SUCCESS + 13-APR-90 194 PALAPA B2-R GSO SUCCESS + 1-JUN-90 195 ROSAT LEO SUCCESS + + 12-JUN-90 196 INSAT 1-D GSO SUCCESS + 2-AUG-90 197 NAVSTAR-8 GSO SUCCESS + 17-AUG-90 198 BSB-R2 GSO SUCCESS + 1-OCT-90 199 NAVSTAR-9 GSO SUCCESS + 30-OCT-90 200 INMARSAT-2 GSO SUCCESS + + 26-NOV-90 201 NAVSTAR-10 GSO SUCCESS + 7-JAN-91 202 NATO-IVA GSO SUCCESS + 8-MAR-91 203 INMARSAT-2/F2 GSO SUCCESS + 12-APR-91 204 ASC-2/CONTEL GSO SUCCESS + 29-MAY-91 205 AURORA II GSO SUCCESS + + + + + +4.13 + + + **** PREVIOUS ATLAS CENTAUR VEHICLE FLIGHTS **** + + PROGRAM INITIATION DATE: 1958 LAUNCHES TO DATE: 69 + FIRST FLIGHT: 1962 LAUNCH VEHICLE SUCCESSES: 58 + + LAST 20 FLIGHTS + + + FINAL PAYLOAD + LAUNCH DATE LAUNCH VEHICLE SPACECRAFT ORBIT ACHIEVED NOTES + + 20-SEP-79 AC-53 HEAO 3 LEO SUCCESS + 17-JAN-80 AC-49 FLTSATCOM-3 GSO SUCCESS + 30-OCT-80 AC-57 FLTSATCOM-4 GSO SUCCESS + 6-DEC-80 AC-54 INTELSAT V GSO SUCCESS + 21-FEB-81 AC-42 COMSTAR D-4 GSO SUCCESS + + 23-MAY-81 AC-56 INTELSAT V GSO SUCCESS + 6-AUG-81 AC-59 FLTSATCOM-5 GSO SUCCESS + 15-DEC-81 AC-55 INTELSAT V GSO SUCCESS + 4-MAR-82 AC-58 INTELSAT V GSO SUCCESS + 28-SEP-82 AC-60 INTELSAT V GSO SUCCESS + + 19-MAY-83 AC-61 INTELSAT V GSO SUCCESS + 9-JUN-84 AC-62 INTELSAT V FAILURE + 22-MAR-85 AC-63 INTELSAT VA GSO SUCCESS + 29-JUN-85 AC-64 INTELSAT VA GSO SUCCESS + 28-SEP-85 AC-65 INTELSAT VA GSO SUCCESS + + 4-DEC-86 AC-66 FLTSATCOM-7 GSO SUCCESS + 26-MAR-87 AC-67 FLTSATCOM-6 FAILURE + 25-SEP-89 AC-68 FLTSATCOM-8 GSO SUCCESS + 25-JUL-90 AC-69 CRRES GTO SUCCESS + 18-APR-91 AC-70 BS-3H GSO FAILURE + + + + + +4.14 + +SECTION 5 + + +PAYLOAD REQUESTS + + + + +NOTES: + +1. INCLUDES PRIMARY, COMPLEX SECONDARY, AND MANIFESTED NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOADS. + +2. REQUEST DATE: LAUNCH DATE REQUESTED BY THE PAYLOAD ORGANIZATION + +3. FLIGHT DATE: LAUNCH DATE SHOWN IN THE MANIFEST. + IF NOT MANIFESTED, NO DATE IS GIVEN. + +5 + + + **** PAYLOAD REQUESTS **** + + PAYLOAD CARRIER REQ DATEFLIGHT DATE FLIGHT/VEHICLE TYPE SPONSOR + + 2 PHASE FLOW HH-G FEB 95 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OAET + AAFE UNIQUE AUG 94 FY97 1Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OAET + ACE TBD AUG 97 DELTA II PRIMARY OSSA + ACTS TOS MAY 92 APR 93 STS-51 PRIMARY OSSA + AMOS-11 N/A JUN 90 SEP 91 STS-48 SECONDARY* DOD + + AMOS-12 N/A JUL 91 DEC 91 STS-44 SECONDARY* DOD + AMOS-13 N/A DEC 90 MAY 92 STS-49 SECONDARY* DOD + APM-03 UNIQUE JUL 89 SEP 91 STS-48 SECONDARY* DOD + ASEM MPESS+UNIQUE MAR 92 MAY 92 STS-49 SECONDARY OSF + ASP HH-G OCT 92 NOV 92 STS-52 SECONDARY ESA + + ASTRO-02 IG+2 PALLETS OCT 93 SEP 94 STS-69 PRIMARY OSSA + ATDRS-01 TBD APR 97 INTERMEDIATE PRIMARY OSO + ATDRS-02 TBD APR 98 INTERMEDIATE PRIMARY OSO + ATDRS-03 TBD OCT 99 INTERMEDIATE PRIMARY OSO + ATDRS-04** TBD APR 02 INTERMEDIATE PRIMARY OSO + + ATDRS-05** TBD DEC 03 INTERMEDIATE PRIMARY OSO + ATDRS-06** TBD JUN 05 INTERMEDIATE PRIMARY OSO + ATDRS-07** TBD JUN 07 INTERMEDIATE PRIMARY OSO + ATDRS-08** TBD JUN 09 INTERMEDIATE PRIMARY OSO + ATDRS-09** TBD JUN 11 INTERMEDIATE PRIMARY OSO + + ATLAS-01 IG+2 PALLETS APR 92 MAY 92 STS-45 PRIMARY OSSA + ATLAS-02 IG+1 PALLET APR 93 MAY 93 STS-56 PRIMARY OSSA + ATLAS-03 IG+1 PALLET JAN 94 APR 94 STS-64 PRIMARY OSSA + ATLAS-04 IG+1 PALLET JAN 95 FY96 1Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + ATLAS-05** IG+1 PALLET JAN 96 FY97 3Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + +* NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOAD +** FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES + + + +5.1 + + + **** PAYLOAD REQUESTS **** + + PAYLOAD CARRIER REQ DATEFLIGHT DATE FLIGHT/VEHICLE TYPE SPONSOR + + ATLAS-06** IG+1 PALLET JAN 97 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + AXAF N/A MAR 98 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + AXAF-R1 FSS APR 02 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + AXAF-R2 FSS APR 07 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + AXAF-R3 FSS APR 12 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + + BATTERY HH-M OCT 95 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OAET + CANEX-02 UNIQUE AUG 92 NOV 92 STS-52 SECONDARY CANADA + CAPL-01 HH-G JAN 93 DEC 93 STS-61 SECONDARY OSSA + CAPL-02 HH-G JAN 94 FY95 1Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OSSA + CASSINI CENTAUR DEC 95 TITAN IV PRIMARY OSSA + + CLOUDS-1A-02 MIDDECK LOCKER APR 89 MAY 92 STS-45 SECONDARY* DOD + CMSE-01 HH-G+UNIQUE JUL 93 JAN 94 STS-62 SECONDARY OCP + CMSE-02 HH-G+UNIQUE JUL 94 FY95 2Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + CMSE-03 HH-G+UNIQUE JUL 95 FY95 4Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + CONCAP2-01 GAS CAN APR 92 SEP 92 STS-46 SECONDARY* OCP + + CONCAP3-01 GAS CAN APR 92 SEP 92 STS-46 SECONDARY* OCP + CONE HH-M JUL 96 FY97 1Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OAET + CRAF *** FEB 96 LARGE*** PRIMARY OSSA + CREAM-A N/A FEB 89 SEP 91 STS-48 SECONDARY* DOD + CREAM-B1 MIDDECK LOCKER JUL 91 DEC 91 STS-44 SECONDARY* DOD + + CRISTA-SPAS ASTRO-SPAS JAN 94 APR 94 STS-64 PRIMARY OSSA + CVTE-01 MAR APR 92 MAY 92 STS-49 SECONDARY OCP + CXM-03** SL-MPESS JAN 96 FY96 3Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + CXM-04** SL-MPESS APR 95 FY95 4Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + CXM-05** SL-MPESS OCT 94 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + +* NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOAD +** FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES +*** UNDER REVIEW + + +5.2 + + + **** PAYLOAD REQUESTS **** + + PAYLOAD CARRIER REQ DATEFLIGHT DATE FLIGHT/VEHICLE TYPE SPONSOR + + CXM-06** SL-MPESS APR 95 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + CXM-07** SL-MPESS OCT 95 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + CXM-08** SL-MPESS APR 96 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + CXM-09** SL-MPESS OCT 96 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + CXM-10** SL-MPESS APR 97 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + + CXM-11** SL-MPESS OCT 97 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + CXM-12** SL-MPESS APR 98 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + DCWS** PALLET OCT 96 FY97 1Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OAET + DEE GAS BEAM NOV 92 MAY 94 STS-65 SECONDARY OSF + DOD M88-01 N/A JUL 91 DEC 91 STS-44 SECONDARY* DOD + + DOD UNIQUE OCT 92 DEC 92 STS-53 PRIMARY DOD + DSCT SL-MPESS APR 94 JUN 94 STS-67 SECONDARY OCP + DSP IUS JUL 91 DEC 91 STS-44 PRIMARY DOD + DXS HH-G DEC 91 JAN 93 STS-54 SECONDARY OSSA + EOIM-III/TEMP2A-03 SL-MPESS MAY 91 SEP 92 STS-46 SECONDARY OSF + + EOS-A1 N/A DEC 98 TITAN IV PRIMARY OSSA + EOS-A2** N/A DEC 03 TITAN IV** PRIMARY OSSA + EOS-A3** N/A DEC 08 TITAN IV** PRIMARY OSSA + EOS-B1 N/A JUN 01 TITAN IV PRIMARY OSSA + EOS-B2** N/A JUN 06 TITAN IV** PRIMARY OSSA + + EOS-B3** N/A JUN 11 TITAN IV** PRIMARY OSSA + EP HH-G APR 94 FY95 3Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY* OCP + EQUATOR-S** N/A DEC 93 TBD** PRIMARY OSSA + ESA-01 HH-G MAR 93 SHUTTLE SECONDARY ESA + ESA-02 HH-G FEB 94 SHUTTLE SECONDARY ESA + +* NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOAD +** FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES + + + +5.3 + + + **** PAYLOAD REQUESTS **** + + PAYLOAD CARRIER REQ DATEFLIGHT DATE FLIGHT/VEHICLE TYPE SPONSOR + + EURECA-1L EURECA-A SEP 90 SEP 92 STS-46 PRIMARY ESA + EURECA-1R EURECA-A MAR 91 JUL 93 STS-57 PRIMARY ESA + EURECA-2L EURECA-A DEC 94 FY95 3Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA/OAET + EURECA-2R EURECA-A JUL 95 FY95 4Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA/OAET + EURECA-3L EURECA-A JUL 97 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA/OAET + + EURECA-3R EURECA-A FEB 98 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA/OAET + EUVE N/A DEC 91 DELTA II PRIMARY OSSA + EUVE RETR FSS FEB 95 FY96 3Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + FAST N/A SEP 94 PEGASUS PRIMARY OSSA + FLOATZONE-01 SL-MPESS JAN 95 FY95 3Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + + FROZEPIPE MPESS JUL 95 FY96 3Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + FTS-DTF-01 MPESS OCT 93 JAN 94 STS-62 SECONDARY OAET + FUSE FSS JAN 98 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + GEOTAIL N/A JUL 92 DELTA II PRIMARY OSSA + GOES-I N/A DEC 92 ATLAS I PRIMARY OSSA + + GOES-J N/A AUG 93 ATLAS I PRIMARY OSSA + GOES-K N/A JUL 95 ATLAS I PRIMARY OSSA + GOES-L N/A FEB 97 ATLAS I PRIMARY OSSA + GOES-M N/A JUL 00 ATLAS I PRIMARY OSSA + GOSAMR-01 MIDDECK LOCKER JAN 92 FEB 92 STS-42 SECONDARY* OCP + + GP-B** N/A JUN 00 DELTA II** PRIMARY OSSA + HETE** N/A JUL 94 PEGASUS** PRIMARY OSSA + HST REV-01 FSS+UNIQUE NOV 93 FEB 94 STS-63 PRIMARY OSSA + HST REV-02 FSS+UNIQUE NOV 96 FY97 2Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + HST REV-03 FSS+UNIQUE NOV 99 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + +* NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOAD +** FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES + + + +5.4 + + + **** PAYLOAD REQUESTS **** + + PAYLOAD CARRIER REQ DATEFLIGHT DATE FLIGHT/VEHICLE TYPE SPONSOR + + HST REV-04 FSS+UNIQUE NOV 02 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + HST REV-05 FSS+UNIQUE NOV 05 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + HST REV-06 FSS+UNIQUE NOV 08 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + IEH-01 MPESS JAN 93 JUN 94 STS-67 SECONDARY OSSA + IEH-02 MPESS FEB 94 FY95 3Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OSSA + + IEH-03 MPESS MAR 95 FY96 3Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OSSA + IEH-04 MPESS APR 96 FY97 3Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OSSA + IEH-05 MPESS MAY 97 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OSSA + IMAX-05 N/A *** FEB 92 STS-42 *** OPA + IMAX-06 ICBC *** SEP 92 STS-46 *** OPA + + IMAX-ATLAS-02** MD *** SHUTTLE *** OPA + IMAX-EURECA-R** ICBC *** SHUTTLE *** OPA + IMAX-FTS** ICBC *** SHUTTLE *** OPA + IMAX-HST REV** ICBC+MD *** SHUTTLE *** OPA + IMAX-SFU** ICBC *** SHUTTLE *** OPA + + IMAX-XTE** ICBC+MD *** SHUTTLE *** OPA + IML-01 LM DEC 90 FEB 92 STS-42 PRIMARY OSSA + IML-02 LM+EDO JAN 93 MAY 94 STS-66 PRIMARY OSSA + INTELSAT-VI-R UNIQUE FEB 92 MAY 92 STS-49 PRIMARY INTELSAT + IOCM UNIQUE JUL 91 DEC 91 STS-44 SECONDARY* DOD + + IPMP-04 MIDDECK LOCKER JUL 91 SEP 91 STS-48 SECONDARY* OCP + IPMP-05 MIDDECK LOCKER JAN 92 FEB 92 STS-42 SECONDARY* OCP + ISEM-01 MPESS JUL 94 FY95 2Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + ISEM-02 MPESS JUL 95 FY95 4Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + ISF-01 FM+DS JUL 97 SHUTTLE PRIMARY SII + +* NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOAD +** FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES +*** IMAX request to fly with designated payload + + +5.5 + + + **** PAYLOAD REQUESTS **** + + PAYLOAD CARRIER REQ DATEFLIGHT DATE FLIGHT/VEHICLE TYPE SPONSOR + + ISF-02 AM+DS JAN 98 SHUTTLE PRIMARY SII + ISF-03 FM+DS JAN 99 SHUTTLE PRIMARY SII + JOINT DAMPING GAS CAN FEB 95 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OAET + LAGEOS II IRIS JUN 91 NOV 92 STS-52 PRIMARY OSSA + LAGEOS III** N/A MAY 94 DELTA II** PRIMARY OSSA + + LDCE-01 GAS CAN APR 92 SEP 92 STS-46 SECONDARY* OCP + LIFESAT-01 TBD JUN 96 DELTA II PRIMARY OSSA + LIFESAT-02 TBD JUN 97 DELTA II PRIMARY OSSA + LIFESAT-03 TBD MAR 98 DELTA II PRIMARY OSSA + LIFESAT-04 TBD DEC 98 DELTA II PRIMARY OSSA + + LIFESAT-05** TBD JUN 99 DELTA II** PRIMARY OSSA + LIFESAT-06** TBD DEC 99 DELTA II** PRIMARY OSSA + LITE I PALLET OCT 93 MAY 94 STS-65 PRIMARY OAET + LITE II-01 PALLET JAN 95 FY95 4Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + LITE II-02 PALLET APR 96 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + + LUNAR OBSERVER** TBD OCT 00 INTERMEDIATE** PRIMARY OSSA + MARS OBSERVER TOS SEP 92 TITAN III PRIMARY OSSA + MEMBRANE GAS CAN JAN 94 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OAET + MICROWAVE-01 MPESS JUL 95 FY96 3Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + MICROWAVE-02 MPESS JUL 97 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OCP + + MODE-B MIDDECK LOCKER AUG 91 SEP 91 STS-48 SECONDARY* OAET + NOAA-I N/A DEC 91 ATLAS E PRIMARY OSSA + NOAA-J N/A DEC 93 ATLAS E PRIMARY OSSA + NOAA-K N/A JUL 94 TITAN II PRIMARY OSSA + NOAA-L N/A JUL 96 TITAN II PRIMARY OSSA + +* NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOAD +** FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES + + + +5.6 + + + **** PAYLOAD REQUESTS **** + + PAYLOAD CARRIER REQ DATEFLIGHT DATE FLIGHT/VEHICLE TYPE SPONSOR + + NOAA-M N/A FEB 97 TITAN II PRIMARY OSSA + OAET-01 MPESS JUL 93 DEC 93 STS-61 SECONDARY OAET + OAET-02 MPESS JUN 95 FY96 4Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OAET + OAET-03** MPESS JUN 96 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OAET + OAET-04** MPESS JUN 96 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OAET + + OAET-FLYER MPESS JUL 94 SEP 94 STS-69 SECONDARY OAET + OPM EURECA MAY 95 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OAET + ORFEUS-SPAS ASTRO-SPAS JAN 93 APR 93 STS-51 PRIMARY OSSA + OSL** TBD MAY 98 DELTA** PRIMARY OSSA + PARE-01 MIDDECK LOCKER OCT 91 SEP 91 STS-48 SECONDARY* OSSA + + PCG-II-02 MIDDECK LOCKER OCT 91 SEP 91 STS-48 SECONDARY* OSSA + PCG-III-06 MIDDECK LOCKER JUL 92 MAY 92 STS-49 SECONDARY* OCP + PMG** N/A APR 92 DELTA II** SECONDARY OSSA + POLAR N/A JUN 93 DELTA II PRIMARY OSSA + RADARSAT N/A DEC 94 DELTA II PRIMARY OSSA + + RME III-05 MIDDECK LOCKER APR 89 SEP 91 STS-48 SECONDARY* DOD + RME III-06 MIDDECK LOCKER JUL 91 DEC 91 STS-44 SECONDARY* DOD + RME III-07 MIDDECK LOCKER JUL 89 FEB 92 STS-42 SECONDARY* DOD + RME III-08 MIDDECK LOCKER AUG 89 MAY 92 STS-45 SECONDARY* DOD + ROMPS-01 HH-G JUL 93 JUN 94 STS-67 SECONDARY* OCP + + SAC-B** N/A JUL 94 PEGASUS** PRIMARY OSSA + SAM-01 MIDDECK LOCKER JUL 91 DEC 91 STS-44 SECONDARY* DOD + SAM-02 MIDDECK LOCKER OCT 88 SEP 91 STS-48 SECONDARY* DOD + SAMPEX N/A JUN 92 SCOUT PRIMARY OSSA + SE-81-09 MIDDECK LOCKER JAN 89 FEB 92 STS-42 SECONDARY* OA + +* NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOAD +** FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES + + + +5.8 + + + **** PAYLOAD REQUESTS **** + + PAYLOAD CARRIER REQ DATEFLIGHT DATE FLIGHT/VEHICLE TYPE SPONSOR + + SE-83-02 MIDDECK LOCKER DEC 91 FEB 92 STS-42 SECONDARY* OA + SEDS I N/A DEC 92 DELTA II SECONDARY OSSA + SEDS II** N/A JAN 93 DELTA II** SECONDARY OSSA + SFU-RETR N/A JUL 94 FY95 1Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY ISAS + SHOOT MPESS SEP 92 JUL 93 STS-57 SECONDARY OSF + + SIRTF** CENTAUR** JUN 00 TITAN IV** PRIMARY OSSA + SL-D2 LM+USS+2 GAS SEP 92 MAR 93 STS-55 PRIMARY DLR + SL-D3 LM + USS SEP 94 FY95 4Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY DLR + SL-E2 LM SEP 96 FY97 4Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY ESA + SL-J LM AUG 92 SEP 92 STS-47 PRIMARY OSSA/NASD + + SLS-02 LM+EDO MAY 93 JUL 93 STS-58 PRIMARY OSSA + SLS-03 LM+EDO OCT 95 FY96 2Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + SLS-04 LM+EDO OCT 97 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + SLS-05** LM+EDO JUL 99 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + SMEX-04 N/A JAN 96 PEGASUS PRIMARY OSSA + + SMEX-05 N/A JUN 97 PEGASUS PRIMARY OSSA + SMEX-06 N/A DEC 97 PEGASUS PRIMARY OSSA + SMEX-07 N/A JUN 98 PEGASUS PRIMARY OSSA + SMEX-08 N/A DEC 98 PEGASUS PRIMARY OSSA + SMEX-09** N/A JUN 99 SMALL** PRIMARY OSSA + + SMEX-10** N/A DEC 99 SMALL** PRIMARY OSSA + SMEX-11** N/A JUN 00 SMALL** PRIMARY OSSA + SMEX-12** N/A DEC 00 SMALL** PRIMARY OSSA + SMEX-13** N/A JUN 01 SMALL** PRIMARY OSSA + SMEX-14** N/A DEC 01 SMALL** PRIMARY OSSA + +* NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOAD +** FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES + + + +5.8 + + + **** PAYLOAD REQUESTS **** + + PAYLOAD CARRIER REQ DATEFLIGHT DATE FLIGHT/VEHICLE TYPE SPONSOR + + SMEX-15** N/A JUN 02 SMALL** PRIMARY OSSA + SMEX-16** N/A DEC 02 SMALL** PRIMARY OSSA + SOHO CENTAUR JUL 95 ATLAS IIAS PRIMARY OSSA + SOLAR PROBE** CENTAUR MAY 02 TITAN IV** PRIMARY OSSA + SPACEHAB-01 SPACEHAB JAN 93 JUL 93 STS-57 PRIMARY SPACEHAB + + SPACEHAB-02 SPACEHAB JUL 93 DEC 93 STS-61 PRIMARY SPACEHAB + SPACEHAB-03 SPACEHAB FEB 94 JUN 94 STS-67 PRIMARY SPACEHAB + SPACEHAB-04 SPACEHAB AUG 94 FY95 2Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY SPACEHAB + SPACEHAB-05 SPACEHAB MAR 95 FY95 3Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY SPACEHAB + SPACEHAB-06 SPACEHAB OCT 95 FY95 4Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY SPACEHAB + + SPACEHAB-07 SPACEHAB APR 96 FY96 3Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY SPACEHAB + SPACEHAB-08 SPACEHAB NOV 96 FY97 3Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY SPACEHAB + SPAS-III SPAS FEB 93 MAY 94 STS-65 PRIMARY DOD + SPTN-201-01 MPESS JUN 89 MAY 93 STS-56 SECONDARY OSSA + SPTN-201-02 MPESS MAY 94 JUN 94 STS-67 SECONDARY OSSA + + SPTN-201-03 MPESS MAY 95 FY95 3Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OSSA + SPTN-204 MPESS MAY 93 JAN 94 STS-62 SECONDARY OSSA + SRL-01 SL-MPESS+PALL SEP 93 OCT 93 STS-60 PRIMARY OSSA + SRL-02 SL-MPESS+PALL SEP 94 FY95 1Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + SRL-03 SL-MPESS+PALL JAN 96 FY96 4Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + + SSBUV-A-01 UNIQUE APR 92 MAY 92 STS-45 SECONDARY OSSA + SSBUV-A-02 UNIQUE JAN 93 MAY 93 STS-56 SECONDARY OSSA + SSBUV-A-03 UNIQUE JAN 94 APR 94 STS-64 SECONDARY OSSA + SSBUV-A-04 UNIQUE JAN 95 FY95 4Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OSSA + SSBUV-A-05 UNIQUE JAN 96 FY96 1Q SHUTTLE SECONDARY OSSA + +* NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOAD +** FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES + + + +5.9 + + + **** PAYLOAD REQUESTS **** + + PAYLOAD CARRIER REQ DATEFLIGHT DATE FLIGHT/VEHICLE TYPE SPONSOR + + SSBUV-A-06 UNIQUE JAN 97 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OSSA + SSBUV-A-07 UNIQUE JAN 98 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OSSA + SSBUV-A-08 UNIQUE JAN 99 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OSSA + SSBUV-A-09 UNIQUE JAN 00 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OSSA + SSBUV-A-10 UNIQUE JAN 01 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OSSA + + SSF/MB-01(FEL) UNIQUE NOV 95 FY96 2Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/MB-02 UNIQUE DEC 95 FY96 2Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/MB-03 UNIQUE MAR 96 FY96 3Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/MB-04 UNIQUE JUN 96 FY96 4Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/MB-05 UNIQUE SEP 96 FY97 2Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + + SSF/MB-06(MTC) UNIQUE DEC 96 FY97 3Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/MB-07 UNIQUE MAR 97 FY97 3Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/MB-08 UNIQUE JUN 97 FY97 4Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/MB-09 UNIQUE SEP 97 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/MB-10 UNIQUE DEC 97 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + + SSF/MB-11 UNIQUE MAR 98 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/MB-12 UNIQUE JUN 98 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/MB-13 UNIQUE SEP 98 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/MB-14 UNIQUE DEC 98 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/MB-15 UNIQUE MAR 99 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + + SSF/MB-16 UNIQUE JUN 99 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/MB-17 UNIQUE SEP 99 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/MB-18 UNIQUE DEC 99 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/UF-01 UNIQUE MAY 97 FY97 4Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/UF-02 UNIQUE AUG 97 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + +* NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOAD +** FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES + + + +5.10 + + + **** PAYLOAD REQUESTS **** + + PAYLOAD CARRIER REQ DATEFLIGHT DATE FLIGHT/VEHICLE TYPE SPONSOR + + SSF/UF-03 UNIQUE NOV 97 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/UF-04 UNIQUE MAY 98 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/UF-05 UNIQUE AUG 98 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/UF-06 UNIQUE NOV 98 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + SSF/UF-07 UNIQUE MAY 99 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + + SSF/UF-08 UNIQUE AUG 99 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + STL-01 MIDDECK LOCKER DEC 91 MAY 92 STS-45 SECONDARY* OSSA + SWAS N/A JUN 95 PEGASUS PRIMARY OSSA + TANK VENT MPESS JAN 95 SHUTTLE SECONDARY OAET + TDRS-06 IUS MAR 93 JAN 93 STS-54 PRIMARY OSO + + TDRS-07 TBD APR 95 TBD PRIMARY OSO + TERRA SCOUT MIDDECK LOCKER JUL 91 DEC 91 STS-44 SECONDARY* DOD + TOMS-01 N/A SEP 93 PEGASUS PRIMARY OSSA + TOMS-02** N/A JUN 97 PEGASUS** PRIMARY OSSA + TPITS PALLET SEP 92 FY95 1Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSF + + TSS-01 SL-MPESS+PALL OCT 90 SEP 92 STS-46 PRIMARY OSF + TSS-02** SL-MPESS+PALL OCT 94 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + TSS-03** SL-MPESS+PALL OCT 96 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + UARS UNIQUE AUG 91 SEP 91 STS-48 PRIMARY OSSA + USML-01 LM+EDO MAR 92 JUN 92 STS-50 PRIMARY OSSA + + USML-02 LM+EDO SEP 94 FY95 3Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + USML-03 LM+EDO SEP 97 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + USML-04 LM+EDO SEP 00 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + USMP-01 MSL+SL-MPESS SEP 92 NOV 92 STS-52 PRIMARY OSSA + USMP-02 MSL+SL-MPESS AUG 93 JAN 94 STS-62 PRIMARY OSSA + +* NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOAD +** FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES + + + +5.11 + + + **** PAYLOAD REQUESTS **** + + PAYLOAD CARRIER REQ DATEFLIGHT DATE FLIGHT/VEHICLE TYPE SPONSOR + + USMP-03 MSL+SL-MPESS AUG 94 FY95 3Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + USMP-04 MSL+SL-MPESS AUG 95 FY96 4Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + USMP-05 MSL+SL-MPESS AUG 96 FY97 3Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + USMP-06** MSL+SL-MPESS AUG 97 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + USMP-07** MSL+SL-MPESS AUG 98 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + + USMP-08** MSL+SL-MPESS AUG 99 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + USMP-09** MSL+SL-MPESS AUG 00 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + USMP-10** MSL+SL-MPESS AUG 01 SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + UVPI-04 N/A JUL 91 DEC 91 STS-44 SECONDARY* DOD + VFT-1-01 MIDDECK LOCKER JUL 91 DEC 91 STS-44 SECONDARY* DOD + + VFT-1-02 MIDDECK LOCKER JUN 88 MAY 92 STS-45 SECONDARY* DOD + WIND TBD DEC 92 DELTA II PRIMARY OSSA + WISP MPESS+PALL JAN 95 FY96 1Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + WSF-01 UNIQUE SEP 92 DEC 93 STS-61 PRIMARY OCP + WSF-02 UNIQUE SEP 93 FY95 2Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OCP + + WSF-03 UNIQUE SEP 94 FY95 4Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OCP + WSF-04 UNIQUE SEP 95 FY96 3Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OCP + XTE FSS MAR 94 FY96 3Q SHUTTLE PRIMARY OSSA + +* NON-COMPLEX SECONDARY PAYLOAD +** FOR NASA PLANNING PURPOSES + + + +5.12 + +SECTION 6 + + +PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST + + +6 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + 2 PHASE FLOW Demonstration of a High Efficiency Thermal + Interface (HETI) in an Integrated Thermal Control + System. + + AAFE Aeroassist Flight Experimental vehicle that simulates the atmospheric + Experiment flight phase of an Aeroassisted Orbital Transfer + Vehicle (OATV) returning from geosynchronous orbit. + Provides environmental and design data for an AOTV. + + AC Atlas Centaur Intermediate Class Expendable Launch Vehicle. + + ACE Advanced Composition Free flying scientific spacecraft that may be + Explorer solar, celestial or earth pointing. + + ACES Acoustic Containerless Technical demonstration to obtain early + Experiment System microgravity tests of gas transport phenomena in a + 3-axis levitation furnace. + + ACTS Advanced Communications Flight verification of high risk communications + Technology Satellite technology to support future satellite + communications systems. + + AD Animal Development-Genetics Series of experiments to determine effects of + weightlessness on animal genetics. + + ADSF Automatic Directional Technology demonstration of directional + Solidification Furnace solidification of magnetic materials, immiscibles, + and IR detection materials. + + AF Polar Bear Air Force Polar Bear Study atmospheric effects on electromagnetic + propagation. + + +6.1 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + AFE American Flight Collects quantitative in-flight data on + Echocardiograph cardiovascular changes in the crew. + + AFITV Air Force Instrumented Test Anti-satellite target vehicle. + Vehicle + + AFP-675 Air Force Program-675 Collects infrared data to support Strategic Defense + Initiative program. Formerly, Cryogenic Infrared + Radiance Instrument for Shuttle (CIRRIS). + + ALT Altitude Orbit altitude in nautical miles. + + AM Auxiliary Module Provides consumables resupply, payload changeout + and additional on-orbit volume for the ISF Facility + Module (FM). + + AMOS Air Force Maui Optical Technology development/geophysical environment + Station study. Calibrate AMOS ground-based electro-optical + sensors and study on-orbit plume phenomenology + using the Shuttle as a test object. + + AMPTE Active Magnetosphere Satellite to study transfer of mass from the solar + Particle Tracer Experiment wind to the magnetosphere. + + ANS Astronomical Netherlands Study the sky in ultraviolet and x-ray from above + Satellite the atmosphere. + + APCG Advanced Protein Crystal Second generation flight system for protein crystal + Growth growth in a microgravity environment. + + APE Aurora Photography Enhance understanding of the geographic extent and + Experiment dynamics of the aurora. + +6.2 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + APM Ascent Particle Monitor Collects particulate materials from the Orbiter + during ascent, using an automated + mechanical/electrical assembly. + + ARABSAT Arab Satellite Communications satellite of the Arab Satellite + Communications Organization. + + ARC Aggregation of Red Cells Studies aggregation of red cells and blood + viscosity under low-g conditions. + + ARF Aquatic Research Facility Houses a variety of small aquatic specimens for + research on microgravity adaptation. + + ASC American Satellite Company Satellite to provide commercial communication + service to continental United States, Hawaii, + Alaska, and Puerto Rico. + + ASEM Assembly of Station by One of a series of experiments designed to support + Extravehicular Activity SSF development by demonstrating strut handling and + Methods EVA translation techniques. + + ASP Attitude Sensor Package Foreign Reimbursable Hitchhiker-G payload. + + ASTRO Astronomy Program designed to obtain ultraviolet (UV) data on + astronomical objects using a UV telescope. + + ASTRO-SPAS European cross-bay carrier. + + ATDRS Advanced Tracking and Data Next generation of NASA tracking, data and + Relay Satellite communications satellites. + + + +6.3 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + ATLAS Atmospheric Laboratory for Measures long term variability in the total energy + Applications and Science radiated by the sun and determines the variability + in the solar spectrum. + + ATLAS I/II Commercial and DOD intermediate class expendable + launch vehicles. + + ATLAS-E DOD medium class expendable launch vehicle. + + AUSSAT Australian Communication Direct broadcast communication satellite which + Satellite provides services to continental Australia and + offshore territories. + + AXAF Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics A major free flying X-Ray observatory using a high + Facility resolution telescope. Designed to operate in orbit + for 15 years. + + AXAF-R Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Retrieval of AXAF observatory. + Facility-Retrieval + + B/U Back-up + + BATTERY Sodium Sulfur Battery Characterization of Sodium Sulfur battery + Flight Experiment performance in microgravity. + + BBXRT Broad Band X-Ray Telescope Provides high resolution x-ray spectra for both + point and extended sources, including stellar + coronae, x-ray, binaries, active agalactic nuclei, + and clusters of galaxies. + + + + +6.4 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + BIMDA Bioprocessing With the A wide range of tests focused on the assembly of + Materials Dispersion macromolecules. Uses a middeck thermal enclosure. + Apparatus + + C360 Cinema 360 35mm motion picture camera for the purpose of + photographing crew and mission activities. + + CANEX Canadian Experiments Group of Canadian experiments conducted aboard + STS-13 (41-G) by a Canadian Payload Specialist. + + CANEX-2 Canadian Experiments-2 Tests of Canadian developed real-time machine + vision system (SVS) using an RMS deployed target + (CTA), experiments in material exposure, spacecraft + glow, phase partitioning, metal diffusion and space + adaptation tests. + + CAPL Capillary Pump Loop Experiment to quantify behavior of a full-scale + Experiment capillary pumped loop heat transfer system in + microgravity. + + CASSINI Saturn Orbiter/Titan Probe complements CRAF + mission. Primary objective is comprehensive study + of Saturn, its rings and moons. + + CBDE Carbonated Beverage Pepsico, Inc. experiment to evaluate packaging and + Dispenser Evaluation dispensing techniques for space flight consumption + of carbonated beverages. + + CCAP Commercial Complex Commercial secondary payload utilizing small + Autonomous Payload self-contained payload hardware. + + + +6.5 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + CDR Commander Member of the Shuttle flight crew in command of the + flight. + + CENTAUR Upper stage system for Atlas and Titan ELVs. + + CETA Crew and Equipment Multi-purpose crew system that provides rapid + Translation Aid return to the Shuttle airlock in case of emergency, + allows efficient translation, and carries + equipment. + + CFES Continuous Flow Demonstrates the technology of pharmaceutical + Electrophoresis System processing in space. + + CGBA Commercial Generic Develops advanced systems for and investigations in + Bioprocessing Apparatus bioprocessing of materials. + + CHAMP Comet Halley Active Observes Comet Halley on STS flights. + Monitoring Program + + CHROMEX Chromosomes Experiment Investigation of the effects of space flight on + plant tissue growth. + + CLOUDS Cloud Logic to Optimize Use Hand-held 35 mm photography for observations of + of Defense Systems cloud formation, dissipation, and opaqueness. + + CM-X Commercial Middeck Payload Commercial development middeck payload (X denotes + approximate number of lockers). + + CMSE Extended Duration Space Evaluation of candidate composite materials for + Environment Candidate space structures for degradation due to exposure in + Materials Exposure low earth orbit (passive/active systems). + + +6.6 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + CMSE/E Candidate Materials Space Evaluation of candidate composite materials for + Exposure (CMSE) Evaluation space structures for degradation due to exposure in + of Oxygen Interaction With low earth orbit with EOIM-III for baseline data + Materials-III (EOIM-03) correlation. + + CNCR Characterization of Microgravity effects on circadian rhythms of + Neurospora Circadian neurospora. + Rhythms in Space + + COBE Cosmic Background Explorer Determines the spectrum anistropy of cosmic + microwave background. + + COMSTAR Communications satellite for COMSAT. + + CONCAP Consortium for Materials Investigates reactions occurring on the surface of + Development in Space materials when exposed to the atomic oxygen flow in + (Complex Autonomous earth orbit on high temperature super-conducting + Payload) films and on materials degredation/reaction + samples. + + CONE Cryogenic Orbital Nitrogen A collection of cryogenic fluid technology + Experiment experiments using nitrogen as the cryogen. + + CRAF Comet Rendevous Asteroid Explores an asteroid and a comet to gather new + Fly-by information on the origin and evolution of the + solar system, prebiotic chemical evolution and the + origin of life, and astrophysical plasma dynamics + and processes. + + CREAM Cosmic Radiation Effects Uses an active cosmic ray monitor and seven passive + and Activation Monitor packages to record on-orbit cosmic ray + environments. + +6.7 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + CRISTA-SPAS Cryogenic Infrared A U.S./German Joint Aeronomy Payload intended to + Spectrometer Telescope for explore the variability of the atmosphere and to + Atmosphere provide measurements that will complement those + provided by UARS. + + CRUX Cosmic Rays Upset Studies on-orbit cosmic ray environments and + Experiment monitors upsets on microcircuit devices. + + CRW Crew The Shuttle flight crew for a particular mission. + + CRYO-HP Cryogenic Heat Pipe GAS canister payload using liquid oxygen as the + heat pipe working fluid and may be flown as a + Hitchhiker. + + CRYSP Crystal Sample Package A series of experiments to determine the effects of + the complex radiation environment of space on the + performance characteristics of advanced materials. + + CSA Canadian Space Agency + + CTA Canadian Target Assembly Deployable Target used for test of Canadian + experimental space vision system (SVS) in CANEX-2. + + CVTE Crystals By Vapor Transport Investigate application of chemical vapor transport + Experiment crystal growth process to materials of practical + value in semiconductor and electro-optical device + + CXM Commercial Cross-bay Commercial development cross-cargo bay payload + Carrier (MSL) using Materials Science Laboratory (MSL) class + systems or equivalents. + + + +6.8 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + DAD Dual Air Density Measures global density of upper atmosphere and + lower exosphere. + + DCWS Debris Collision Warning Provides the capability for sensing space debris in + System the 1 to 10 mm size and determines albedo and + spectral characteristics of a large sample of low + earth orbit debris. + + DEE Dexterous End Effector Demonstrates a sensor for the Shuttle RMS which + will allow for more precise control. + + DELTA Medium class expendable launch vehicle. + + DFI PLT Development Flight A pallet used to accommodate the DFI used on the + Instrumentation Pallet first four Shuttle flights. + + DLR Deutsche Forschungsanstalt Federal German aerospace research establishment. + fur Luft-und Raumfahrt + + DMOS Diffusive Mixing of Organic Grow crystals of organic compounds for research + Solutions programs for the 3M Corporation's Science Research + Laboratory. + + DOD Department of Defense + + DOD M88-01 Department of Defense Evaluates the capability of man in space to enhance + M88-01 air, naval, and ground force operations and + assesses the feasibility of observations of space + debris while in orbit. + + DS Docking System Docking system for use in assembly and servicing of + the ISF. + +6.9 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + DSCT Directional Solidification Cadmium telluride will be grown using the + of Cadmium Telluride directional solidification technique. + + DSP Defense Support Program Geosynchronous DOD satellite. + + DUR Duration Mission duration of each Shuttle flight. + + DXS Diffuse X-ray Spectrometer Shuttle experiment to conduct spectral observations + of the diffuse galactic soft x-ray background to + determine the ionic, elemental abundances and the + plasma temperature of the hot phase of the + interstellar medium. + + EASE/ACCESS Experimental Assembly of Obtains human factors data during assembly of + Structures in EVA/Assembly structures in space during Extra Vehicular + Concept for Construction of Activity. + Erectable Space Structures + + EDO Extended Duration Orbiter Kit added to Orbiter to extend energy resources to + support mission duration up to sixteen days. + + EEVT Electrophoresis Equipment Technology demonstration of apparatus to evaluate + Verification Test the effects of electrophoresis on biological cells + in zero-g. + + ELECTROLYSIS Electrolysis Performance Investigation of techniques for improving + Improvement Experiment electrolysis technology in microgravity. + + ELRAD Earth-Limb Radiance Obtain measurements of earth-limb radiance for + Equipment various positions of the sun from near limb up to 9 + degrees below earth horizon. + + +6.10 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + ELV Expendable Launch Vehicle + + EO Escape Orbit + + EOIM Evaluation of Oxygen Determines effects of atomic oxygen degradation on + Interaction with Materials 1100 candidate materials. + + EOS Earth Observing System A complement of polar orbiting satellites + conducting Earth science observations. + + EP Electric Propulsion Evaluates performance of an arc jet electric + thruster. + + EQUATOR-S German cooperative, part of the International Solar + Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) program, will study the + ring current and Near Earth Plasma Sheet in the + equational region. + + ERBS Earth Radiation Budget Collects global earth radiation budget data. + Satellite + + ESA European Space Agency + + ESA-x European Space Agency-x Foreign Reimbursable Hitchhiker-G payload sponsored + by the ESA. + + ESMC Eastern Space and Missile USAF organization headquartered at Patrick AFB, + Center Florida. + + EURECA European Retrievable Platform placed in orbit for six months offering + Carrier conventional services to experimenters. + + +6.11 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + EUVE Extreme Ultraviolet Produces definitive sky map and catalog of extreme + Explorer ultraviolet portion of electromagnetic spectrum + (100-1000 angstroms). + + EUVE RETR Extreme Ultraviolet Mission to perform on-orbit retrieval of the EUVE + Explorer-Retrieval payload from the Explorer platform. + + EXOSAT ESA X-Ray Satellite Provides continuous observations of x-ray sources. + + FARE Fluid Acquisition and Obtains data to evaluate fluid dynamics associated + Resupply Experiment with capillary liquid acquisition devices. + + FAST Fast Auroral Snapshot Spacecraft to investigate the processes operating + Explorer within the auroral region. + + FDE Fluid Dynamics Experiment A package of six experiments flown in the middeck + that involve simulating the behavior of liquid + propellants in low gravity. + + FEA Fluids Experiment Assembly Investigate floating zone crystal growth processing + investigations on selected semi-conductor + materials. + + FEE French Echocardiograph Obtains on-orbit cardiovascular system data. + Equipment + + FEL First Element Launch Initial launch of components for the Space Station + Freedom manned base (SSF/MB). + + + + + +6.12 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + FLOATZONE Float Zone Crystal of Microgravity materials processing experiment to + Cadmium Telluride demonstrate feasibility of producing large, high + quality, single-crystal specimens of cadmium + telluride. + + FLT Flight The flight sequence number for Shuttle missions. + + FLT OPPTY Flight Opportunity A planned Shuttle flight without assigned payloads. + + FLTSATCOM Fleet Communication U.S. Navy communications satellite. + Satellite + + FM Facility Module A man-tended module in support of ISF providing + space for middeck locker inserts and common racks + for payload accommodations. + + FPE French Postural Experiment Studies sensory-motor adaptations in + weightlessness. + + FROZEPIPE Frozen Startup of a Heat Examines the thermal behavior of a high capacity + Pipe in Microgravity heat pipe system in microgravity. + + FSA FSS Servicing Aid Electronics module to support on-orbit servicing. + + FSS Flight Support System Support system used for revisit missions. + + FTS-DTF Flight Telerobotic Servicer Technology development test flight of a telerobotic + Demonstration Test Flight manipulator system that will provide a new + capability and flight qualified hardware to support + NASA's future missions. + + + +6.13 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + FUSE Far Ultraviolet Astronomy Ultraviolet Satellite + Spectroscopy Explorer + + GALAXY Hughes communications satellite. + + GALILEO Investigates the chemical composition and physical + state of Jupiter's atmosphere and satellites. + + GAS Get Away Special Alternate name for the Small Self-contained Payload + (SSCP) program, providing standard canisters to + accommodate low-cost space experimentation. + + GAS BRIDGE Getaway Special Bridge Structure in the payload bay that can hold up to + twelve GAS canisters. + + GAS CAN GAS Canister + + GAS TEST Test instrumentation to verify ability of the GAS + hardware to function properly in flight. + + GE General Electric American + Communications, Inc. + + GEOTAIL NASA-Japan cooperative mission to explore Geotail + of the Earth Plasma Physics. + + GHCD Growth Hormone Microgravity effects on growth hormone distribution + Concentration & of various plant life. + Distribution in Plants + + GLO Shuttle Glow A Hitchhiker payload to measure optical emissions + observed on the surface of spacecraft and Shuttle. + +6.14 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + GLOMR Global Low Orbit Message Packet data relay satellite. + Relay + + GLOW Experimental Investigation Determination of the spectral content of luminosity + of Spacecraft GLOW near Shuttle surfaces, to assess influence on + optical experiments. + + GOES Geostationary Operational NOAA weather satellites. + Environmental Satellite + + GOSAMR Gelation of Sols: Applied Investigate gelation of multicomponent colloidal + Microgravity Research solutions and suspensions (SOL). + + GP Gravity Probe Scientific probe to test Einstein's Theory of + Relativity. + + GRO Gamma Ray Observatory Investigates extraterrestrial gamma-ray sources. + + GSO Geosynchronous Orbit + + GTO Geosynchronous Transfer + Orbit + + HCMM Heat Capacity Mapping Produces thermal maps for discriminating of rock + Mission types, mineral resources, plant temperatures, soil + moisture, snow fields, and water runoff. + + HE High Eccentricity Orbit + + HEAO High Energy Astronomical Satellite to study energetic radiation from space. + Observatory + + +6.15 + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + HEE Human Energy Expenditure Human experiment to measure energy expenditure in + space. + + HEEO Highly Elliptical + Equatorial Orbit + + HELIO Heliocentric + + HERCULES HERCULES This experiment upgrades/expands the + Latitude/Longitude Locator (L3) experiment using a + charge coupled device with inertial reference + gyros. The objective is to locate earth surface + sites within 1 nautical mile. + + HETE High Energy Transient Spacecraft to study gamma ray burst sources and + Experiment source locations, and x-ray burst sources and + source locations. + + HH-G Hitchhiker-Goddard Shuttle cargo bay sidewall mounted carrier for + small experiments. + + HH-G1 Hitchhiker-Goddard Demonstration flight of Hitchhiker-G hardware. + + HH-M Hitchhiker-Marshall Shuttle cargo bay across-bay carrier for small + experiments. + + HILAT High Latitude Evaluate propagation effects of disturbed plasmas + on radar and communications systems. + + HME Handheld Microgravity Provides for middeck experiments of limited scope + Experiment in order to allow for low-cost, timely testing of + concepts or procedures, or the early acquisition of + data. + +6.15 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + HPCG Handheld Protein Crystal Develops techniques to produce in microgravity + Growth protein crystals of sufficient size and quality to + permit molecular analysis by diffraction + techniques. + + HPP Heat Pipe Performance & Environment experiment to study the microgravity + Working Fluid Behavior in effects of working fluids used in heat pipes. + Micro-gravity + + HPTE High Precision Tracking Demonstrates ability to propagate a low power laser + Experiment beam through the atmosphere. + + HRSGS-A High Resolution Shuttle Obtains high resolution spectra, in the visible and + Glow Spectroscopy-A near visible wavelength range of the Shuttle + surface glow as observed on the vertical tail of + the Orbiter in LEO. + + HS-376 RET HS-376 Retrieval Salvage of HS-376 communication satellites launched + on the tenth Shuttle mission. + + HST Hubble Space Telescope Observes the universe to gain information about its + origin, evolution and disposition of stars, + galaxies, etc. + + HST REV Hubble Space Telescope Revisit mission to the Hubble Space Telescope to + Revisit replace science instruments or other orbital + replacement units (ORU's). + + IBIS Instrument for Biological Cell and tissue culture system to investigate + Investigations in Space effects of micro-g on the function of a variety of + cells. + + +6.17 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + IBSE Initial Blood Storage Evaluates changes in blood tissue during various + Equipment storage conditions. + + IBSS Infrared Background Obtains infrared measurements on rocket plumes, + Signature Survey shortwave infrared Earth-limb, Shuttle environment, + and chemical release from the payload bay while + detached in proximity to the Orbiter. + + ICBC IMAX Cargo Bay Camera + + IECM Induced Environment A package of ten instruments designed to fly in the + Contamination Monitor Orbiter payload bay on a special pallet to check + for contamination in and around the Orbiter. It + also has the capability to be operated on the end + of the RMS outside of the payload bay. + + IEF Isoelectric Focussing Gathers experimental data on the extent of + Experiment electroosmosis in space. + + IEH International Extreme-UV Hitchhiker experiment to study ultraviolet + Far-UV Hitchhiker emissions. + + IG Igloo Structure which provides a pressurized and + thermally controlled environment for Spacelab + pallet subsystems. + + IMAX IMAX Systems Corp., A large screen motion picture format used by the + Toronto, Ontario, Canada NASA/Smithsonian project documenting significant + space activities. + + IML International Microgravity Series of microgravity missions devoted to material + Laboratory and life sciences studies. + +6.18 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + INCL Inclination Orbit inclination in degrees. + + INSAT Indian Satellite Communication and meteorological satellite for the + government of India. + + INTELSAT-VI-R INTELSAT-VI-Reboost The retrieval, repair and deployment of a + communications satellite for the International + Telecommunication Satellite organization. + + IOCM Interim Operational Measures molecular and particulate contamination in + Contamination Monitor the cargo bay from prelaunch to post-landing. + + IPMP Investigation into Polymer Investigate low-G environment effects on industrial + Membranes Processing processing techniques for developing polymer + membranes. + + IR-IE Infrared Imaging Equipment Infrared video camera used to measure temperature + gradients on the Orbiter surface. + + IRAS Infrared Astronomical All sky survey for objects that emit infrared + Satellite radiation. + + IRCFE Infrared Communications Demonstrates the feasibility of using diffuse + Flight Experiment infrared light as a carrier for Shuttle crew + communications. + + IRIS Italian Research Interim Italian upper stage for use on the Shuttle. + Stage + + IRT Integrated Rendezvous Radar A target for testing of Shuttle Orbiter rendezvous + Target techniques and capabilities in orbit. + + +6.19 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + ISAC INTELSAT Solar Array Studies atomic oxygen effects on materials (silver + Coupons and zinc sulphite). + + ISAIAH Israeli Space Agency Gravity perceptions by hornets and their reactions + Investigation About Hornets to changes in gravity. + + ISAS Institute of Space and The Institute of Space and Astronautical Science of + Astronautical Science Japan. + + ISC International Space Commercial joint endeavor activity. + Corporation + + ISEM ITA Standardized Experiment Cross-bay structure for accommodating multiple + material processing experiments and other + investigations + + ISF Industrial Space Facility Commercially-owned, man-tended orbiting facility + for research and manufacturing activities. + + ITV Instrumented Test Vehicle Target for Anti Satellite. + + IUS Inertial Upper Stage Upper stage system for Shuttle and Titan. + + IUTE Industry University Series of Space Technology experiments for U.S. + Technology Experiment industry and universities to be flown on the + Shuttle or ELV. + + JOINT DAMPING Measurement of the damping behavior of liquids in a + variety of rotating tanks. + + + + +6.20 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + L3 Latitude/Longitude Locator Tests the capability of a space sextant/camera + system to locate earth surface targets within 10 + nautical miles. + + LAGEOS Laser Geodynamics Satellite Spherical passive satellite covered with + retroflectors which are illuminated by ground-based + lasers to determine precise measurements of the + Earth's crustal movements. + + LDCE Limited Duration Space Evaluation of candidate space structure composite + Environment Candidate materials for degradation due to exposure in LEO + Materials Exposure (passive systems). + + LDEF Long Duration Exposure Free-flying satellite providing accommodations for + Facility experiments requiring long term exposure to the + space environment. + + LEO Low Earth Orbit + + LFC Large Format Camera Acquire synoptic, high-resolution images of the + Earth's surface. + + LIFESAT Life Sciences Satellite Life science missions with micro-gravity + experimentation as the primary objective. + + LIQUID MOTION Liquid Motion in a Rotating Investigation of the behavior of liquids in a + Tank variety of rotating tanks. + + LITE Lidar In-Space Technology Project to measure the atmospheric parameters from + Experiment a space platform utilizing laser sensors. + + LM Long Module Spacelab Crew Module. + +6.21 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + LO Lunar Observer Geological, elemental, gravity, and magnetic field + mapping of moon. + + MACE Middeck Active Control Validation of controls/structures interaction + Experiment technologies in zero gravity. + + MAGELLAN Spacecraft designed to globally map the surface of + Venus. + + MAGSAT Magnetic Field Satellite Map the magnetic field of the earth. + + MAR Middeck Accommodations Rack An experiment integration facility installed in the + middeck of the Shuttle with stowage volume + equivalent to five middeck lockers. Power + distribution and active thermal control options are + available. + + MARS OBSERVER Spacecraft to study the surface, climate, + gravitational, and magnetic fields of the planet + Mars. + + MBB Messerschmitt-Boelkow-Blohm A German industrial aerospace organization. + + MD Middeck Lower deck of the Shuttle crew compartment. + + MEMBRANE Permeable Membrane for Verification of membrane transport performance in + Plant Nutrient Delivery low gravity. + System + + MGM Mechanics of Granular Microgravity experiment to study the effects of + Materials heat and near-zero gravity on the physical + properties associated with various materials. + +6.22 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + MICROWAVE Microwave Power Demonstrates the ability to transmit microwave + Transmission power in space and to evaluate the efficiencies and + performance of key hardware elements in the + environment of space. + + MIS I Drug Microencapsulation in Evaluates the effects of microgravity on methods + Microgravity used to encapsulate drugs within biodegradable + polymers. Combines materials science with + biomedical product development and results in the + production of a pharmaceutical product in space. + + MLE Mesoscale Lightning Record and observe the visual characteristics of + Experiment large scale lightning as seen from space using + onboard television cameras. + + MLR Monodisperse Latex Reactor Produces monodisperse latex particles in the two to + forty micron range. + + MODE Middeck 0-g Dynamics To study the dynamics of liquids and skewed space + Experiment structures in the microgravity environment. + + MORELOS Mexican communication satellite system. + + MPEC Multi-Purpose Experiment An extended Hitchhiker-G. GAS canister capable of + Canister deploying an internally stowed payload. + + MPESS Mission Peculiar Equipment A cross-bay Shuttle payload carrier and support + Support Structure system for payloads weighing up to 3000 pounds. + Managed by Goddard Space Flight Center (see SL-MPESS). + + MPSE Mexican Payload Specialist Experiment performed by a Mexican payload + Experiment specialist on the Shuttle flight which deployed the + MORELOS satellite. +6.23 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + MS Mission Specialist A member of Shuttle flight crew primarily + responsible for Orbiter subsystem and payload + activities. + + MSACP Microgravity Science and + Applications Cooperative + Program + + MSL Materials Science A payload which remains attached to the Shuttle to + Laboratory perform materials processing experiments in low-g. + + MTC Man-tended Capability Ability to perform laboratory operations on the SSF + when the Shuttle is present. + + N/A Not Applicable + + NASDA National Space Development + Agency of Japan + + NATO North Atlantic Treaty Communications satellite for NATO. + Organization + + NOAA National Oceanic and Series of operational environmental satellites in + Atmospheric Administration polar orbit. + + NOSL Night/Day Optical Survey of Optical survey of lightning. + Lightning + + NOVA Advanced Navy Navigation Satellite. + + + + +6.24 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + NTE NASA Technology Experiments A series of technology experiments sponsored by the + Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology and + flown on the Shuttle. + + OA NASA Office of the + Administrator + + OAET NASA Office of Aeronautics, + Exploration and Technology + + OAET-1 Office of Aeronautics, Several advanced space technology experiments + Exploration and utilizing a common data system and mounted on a + Technology-1 platform in the Shuttle bay, previously called + OAST-2. + + OAET-FLYER Office of Aeronautics, Free flyer deployed from the Shuttle containing + Exploration and several space technology experiments. + Technology-Flyer + + OASIS OEX Autonomous Supporting Collects environmental data in the Orbiter during + Instrumentation System dynamic STS flight phases. + + OAST NASA Office of Aeronautics + and Space Technology + + OAST-1 Office of Aeronautics and A payload which remained attached to the Shuttle to + Space Technology-1 demonstrate a large light-weight solar array + capable of being restowed in flight. + + OCP NASA Office of Commercial + Programs + + +6.25 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + OCTW Optical Communication Thru Demonstrates system to allow Shuttle crews to + the Shuttle Window Flight interface with payloads without depending on + Demonstration Orbiter communication systems. + + OEX Orbiter Experiments Series of engineering experiments on the Orbiter. + + OIM Oxygen Interaction with Tests which obtained quantitative rates of oxygen + Materials interaction with materials used on the Orbiter and + advanced payloads. + + OPA NASA Office of Public + Affairs + + OPM Optical Properties Monitor An experiment to determine the effects of the space + environment on critical spacecraft and optical + materials by evaluating optical properties over + time on a deployable carrier. + + ORFEUS-SPAS Orbiting and Retrievable A German developed payload to explore the + Far and Extreme Ultraviolet distribution and character of radiation absorbing + Spectrometer material in the solar system and to perform direct + ultraviolet observations of the direct interstellor + component. + + ORS Orbiter Refueling System An experiment to demonstrate the ability of the STS + to perform on-orbit satellite refueling. + + OSCAR Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur communication satellite. + Amateur Radio + + OSF NASA Office of Space Flight + + +6.26 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + OSL Orbiting Solar Laboratory Provide detailed data on the sun, to augment our + studies of distant stars and cosmic processes. + + OSO NASA Office of Space + Operations + + OSS-1 Office of Space Science-1 Single Pallet carrying eight experiments to + demonstrate the use of the Shuttle for + investigations in space plasma physics, solar + physics, astronomy, etc. and to characterize the + Orbiter and payload bay environment. + + OSSA NASA Office of Space + Science and Applications + + OSTA Office of Space and + Terrestial Applications + (currently OAET) + + OSTA-1 Shuttle attached payload using the Shuttle Imaging + Radar (SIR-A) to obtain high resolution images of + earth. + + OSTA-2 Microgravity experiments. + + OSTA-3 Acquire photographic and radar images of the + Earth's surface. + + P-CENT Gravitropic Responses of Quantitative characterization of plant cell growth + Plant Seedlings from gravitropic plant seeds without guidance from + a significant gravity force. + + +6.27 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + PAL or PALL Pallet Spacelab Pallet structure. + + PALAPA Synchronous satellite communication system for the + Republic of Indonesia. + + PAM Payload Assist Module An upper stage system used on the Shuttle and the + Delta ELV. + + PARE Physiological & Anatomical Study the physiological and anatomical changes that + Rodent Experiment occur in mammals under weightless space flight + conditions. + + PBE Pool Boiling Experiment Study fundamental mechanisms that constitute pool + boiling. + + PCG-II Protein Crystal Growth-II PCG activity in controlled temperature module. + + PCG-III Protein Crystal Growth-III Obtain high quality protein crystals to facilitate + analysis of structures. + + PCGPROTO Protein Crystal Growth Development of rapid response equipment to + Prototype facilitate investigation of new/special PCG + techniques or samples. + + PDRS/PFTA Payload Deployment and First object to be unberthed and reberthed by the + Retrieval System/Payload remote manipulator system, used to test the + Flight Test Article performance of the RMS in handling a massive + object. + + PHCF Pituitary Growth Hormone Microgravity induced effects on pituitary (active + Cell Function growth) hormones in various types of living cells. + + +6.28 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + PIONEER VENUS Remote sensing and direct measurements of Venus and + its surrounding environment. + + PL OPPTY Payload Opportunity + + PLAN Planetary Trajectory High Energy Trajectory to Outer Planets. + + PLC Payload Commander A member of the Shuttle crew having overall crew + responsibility for planning, integration, and + on-orbit coordination of payload mission + activities. + + PLT Pilot A member of the Shuttle crew whose primary + responsibility is to pilot the Orbiter. + + PLUM Polymerization With Light Perform ultra-violet light induced polymerization + Under Microgravity of organic polymers. + + PM Polymer Morphology Determines effects of weightlessness on + morphological formation of polymers as they undergo + physical transition. + + PMC Permanently Manned Ability for a four person crew to occupy the Space + Capability Station Freedom Manned Base on a permanent basis + with periodic crew rotation. + + PMG Plasma Motor Generator ELV secondary payload experiment to verify ability + of plasma sources to couple electric current along + a wire. + + PMZF Programible Multi-Zone Materials processing apparatus located in the + Furnace middeck accommodations rack. + +6.29 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + POLAR Polar Auroral Plasma Physics spacecraft. + + PPE Phase Partitioning Study separation behavior of two phase system + Experiment generated by the mixture in water of polyglucose + and polyethylene glycol. + + PS Payload Specialist A member of the Shuttle crew, who is not a NASA + astronaut, whose presence is required to perform + specialized functions with respect to one or more + payloads or other mission unique activities. + + PSAS Phenytoin for Space Determines the efficacy of Phenytoin for the + Adaptation Syndrome treatment of Space Adaptation Syndrome (SAS) and + explore etiology of SAS as related to partial + seizures. + + PSE Physiological Systems Examines effects of hormone therapy on changes in + Experiment organic systems during spaceflight. + + PVTOS Physical Vapor Transport of Grow crystalline films on selected substrates of + Organic Solids organic solids + + RADARSAT Radar Satellite Remote free flyer sensing satellite that will + monitor land, sea and ice for five years over the + poles (U.S./Canadian). + + REQ Request + + REX Radiation Experiment Research effects of electron density irregularities + on transionosphere radio signals. + + + +6.30 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + RME Radiation Monitoring Measures gamma radiation levels in the Shuttle + Equipment environment. + + RMS Remote Manipulator System A Canadian developed, remotely controlled (from the + Orbiter crew cabin) arm for deployment and/or + retrieval of payloads from the Orbiter payload bay. + + ROMPS Robotic Materials Investigates zero gravity anealing of semiconductor + Processing System thin film and investigates robot handling of thin + film samples. + + S Scout Small Class Expendable Launch Vehicle. + + SAC-B Satellite de Aplicaciones Argentine spacecraft carrying Hard X-Ray + Cientificas-B Spectrometer to investigate solar flares and cosmic + transient X-ray emissions. + + SAGE Strategic Aerosol and Gas Map vertical profiles of the ozone, aerosol, + Experiment nitrogen Rayleigh molecular extinction around the + globe. + + SAM Shuttle Activation Monitor Collects gamma and x-ray data as a function of + geomagnetic location from spacecraft materials. + + SAMPEX Solar, Anomalous, and A spacecraft to study solar energetic particles, + Magnetospheric Particle anomalous cosmic rays, galactic cosmic rays, and + Explorer magnetospheric electrons. + + SAMS Space Acceleration Provides Orbiter acceleration measurements in + Measurement System support of microgravity experiments. + + + +6.31 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + SAREX Shuttle Amateur Radio Low cost space to ground voice and slow scan + Experiment television experiment. + + SAS Space Adaptation Syndrome Physiological changes which occur when adapting to + microgravity. + + SATCOM RCA communications satellite. + + SBS Satellite Business Systems All digital domestic communication system servicing + large industry, the government, etc. + + SE Student Experiment Experiments sponsored by the Shuttle Student + Involvement Program (SSIP). + + SEDS Small Expendable Deployer Experimental tether deployment device. + System + + SFMD Storable Fluid Management Demonstrates transfer of room-temperature fluids in + Demonstration zero-g using various transfer techniques. + + SFP Space Flight Participant A Shuttle crew member whose presence is not + required for operation of payloads or mission + unique activities, but is determined by the NASA + Administrator to contribute to other approved NASA + objectives or to be in the national interest. + + SFU-RETR Space Flyer Unit Retrieval A reusable, retrievable unmanned free flyer to be + launched on the Japanese H-II rocket and retrieved + by Shuttle. + + + + +6.32 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + SHARE Space Station Heat Pipe Demonstrates and quantifies the thermal performance + Advanced Radiator Element of a high capacity, 50 foot, space constructible, + heat pipe radiator element. + + SHOOT Super Fluid Helium On Orbit Demonstrates the feasibility of on-orbit transfer + Transfer Demonstration of superfluid helium using thermomechanical + techniques. + + SII Space Industries, Inc. U.S. company providing commercially-owned + Industrial Space Facility (ISF). + + SIR Shuttle Imaging Radar Series of synthetic aperture radar experiments. + + SIRTF Space Infrared Telescope Will span the infrared part of the spectrum with a + Facility thousand-fold increase in sensitivity. + + SKYNET United Kingdom military communication satellite. + + SL-D1 Spacelab D1 First dedicated German Spacelab mission. + + SL-D2, -D3 Spacelab D2, D3 Second and third in a series of German Spacelab + Missions. Objectives include microgravity research + and technology preparation for Space Station use. + + SL-E2 Spacelab E2 ESA sponsored science mission directed toward + multidiscipline research in material science, fluid + science, life science, space science, observation + and technology. + + SL-J Spacelab J Combined NASDA/NASA Spacelab mission. Objectives + include life sciences, microgravity, and technology + research. + +6.33 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + SL-MPESS Spacelab MPESS MPESS Carrier managed by Marshall Space Flight + Center + + SLS Space Life Sciences Investigates the effects of weightlessness exposure + Laboratory using both man and animal specimens. + + SLSTP Space Life Sciences Series of payloads to support a broad range of life + Training Program science studies. + + SMEX Small Explorer Payloads being designed to fly on Small Class ELV. + + SMR San Marco Range Italian small class ELV launch range off Kenya + coast. + + SMRM Solar Maximum Repair Conducted a technology demonstration of the STS + Mission capability to rendezvous, service, checkout and + deploy. + + SOHO Solar Heliospheric Provides optical measurements as well as plasma + Observatory field and energetic particle observations of the + sun system for studies of the solar interior, + atmosphere and solar wind. + + SOLAR PROBE Study unexplored region of the solar atmosphere, + measure electromagnetic fields and study the + particle populations close to the sun. + + SOOS Stacked OSCAR on Scout Two OSCAR satellites. + + SPACEHAB U.S. company providing commercially-owned + pressurized module for conducting experiments in a + man-tended environment. Also a series of payloads + to be flown on the Space Shuttle. +6.34 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + SPACELAB 1 Demonstrated Spacelab's capabilities for + multidisciplinary research. + + SPACELAB 2 Demonstrated Spacelab's capabilities for + multidisciplinary research and verified system + performance. + + SPACELAB 3 Dedicated materials processing mission emphasizing + research in microgravity conditions. + + SPADVOS Spaceborne Direct Viewing Evaluates the crew's ability to utilize direct + Optical System viewing system to allow realtime detection of + ground and airborne targets. + + SPAS Shuttle Pallet Satellite Payload Carrier developed by MBB of W. Germany. + + SPAS-01/01A German Shuttle Pallet Demonstrates the utilization of the MBB platform + Satellite and systems as a carrier for science experiments. + + SPAS-III Shuttle Pallet Satellite A reflight of the Infrared Background Survey (IBSS) + III mission. + + SPTN Shuttle Pointed Autonomous X-ray astronomy, medium energy survey mission, + Research Tool for Astronomy using retrievable free flyer. + + SPTN-HALLEY SPARTAN-HALLEY Search for molecules containing nitrogen, carbon or + sulfur and observes the UV spectrum between 2100 + and 3400A. + + + + + +6.35 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + SRL Space Radar Laboratory Series of flights to acquire radar images of the + Earth's surface. The images will be used for + making maps, interpreting geological features, and + conducting resource studies. + + SS Sun Synchronous Sun-synchronous polar orbit. + + SSBUV Shuttle Solar Backscatter Series of flights to measure ozone characteristics + Ultra-Violet Instrument of the atmosphere. + + SSCE Solid Surface Combustion Determines the gas-phase flamespread over solid + Experiment fuel surfaces in microgravity. + + SSF Space Station Freedom Orbiting Space Station. + + SSF/MB Space Station Freedom Assembly launches of modules for the SSF Manned + Manned Base Base. + + SSF/UF Space Station + Freedom/Utilization Flight + + SSIP Shuttle Student Involvement Competitions held between 1981-1985 in which the + Program winning High School students proposed experiments + which were accepted for Shuttle flights. + + STEX Sensor Technology Demonstrates radiation measurement technology. + Experiment + + STL Space Tissue Loss An experiment to validate or confirm model of + skeletal and cardiac muscle atrophy, collect data + on catabolic pathway and control mechanisms, and + test candidate pharmaceuticals for efficacy. + +6.36 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + STP-XX Space Test Program-XX A series of payloads which include DOD STP + secondary experiments. + + STS Space Transportation System + + STTP Life Sciences Space Activity to develop and encourage interest on the + Technology Training Program part of college students in space biology and + medicine. + + SWAS Submillimeter Wave Spacecraft to study how molecular clouds collapse + Astronomy Satellite to form stars and planetary systems. + + SYNCOM Hughes Geosynchronous Provides communication services from geosynchronous + Communication Satellite orbit principally to the U.S. government. + + TANK VENT Tank Venting Experiment Investigation of concepts to provide tank + fill-while-venting to 90 percent full capacity. + + TAPS Two Axis Pointing System An instrument support system which allows pitch, + roll, or combinations thereof to precisely point + instruments at different targets. + + TBD To Be Determined + + TDRS Tracking and Data Relay Series of NASA tracking, data and communications + Satellite satellites to replace the NASA ground based + network. + + TELESAT Canadian Telecommunication Communication satellite built for Telesat Canada to + Satellite provide voice and TV coverage to trans-Canada + network of Earth stations. + + +6.37 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + TELSTAR AT&T Communications AT&T COMSTAR replacement -- provides communication + Satellite services to the continental U.S., Alaska, Hawaii, + and Puerto Rico. + + TEMP Two Phase Mounting Plate Operates a mechanically pumped two phase head + Experiment acquisition transport and rejection system in + microgravity. + + TERRA SCOUT Evaluates the ability of an expert imagery analyst + to conduct realtime analysis from low earth orbit. + + TIP Transit Improvement Program Improved configuration Transit Navigation + Satellite. + + TIS Teacher in Space + + TITAN II DOD medium class expendable launch vehicle. + + TITAN III Commercial intermediate class expendable launch + vehicle. + + TITAN IV DOD large class expendable launch vehicle. + + TLD Thermoluminescent Dosimeter Obtains gamma ray measurements of the Shuttle + environment. + + TOMS Total Ozone Mapping Study of Stratospheric ozone. + Spectrometer + + TOS Transfer Orbit Stage Upper stage system for Shuttle and Titan. + + + +6.38 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + TPCE Tank Pressure Control A study to determine the effects of microgravity on + Experiment the thermal stratification of fluids and to + validate the effects of jet induced mixing. + + TPITS Two Phase Integrated Evaluation and demonstration of on-orbit thermal + Thermal System performance of prototypical SSF 2 phase thermal bus + control system. + + TSS Tethered Satellite System System capable of deploying and retrieving + satellite attached by a wire tether from distances + up to 100 km from the Orbiter. + + U.S. United States + + UARS Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite to study chemical processes acting within + Satellite and upon the stratosphere, mesosphere, and lower + thermosphere. + + ULYSSES Formerly ISPM Investigates the properties of the heliosphere (sun + (International Solar Polar and its environment). + Mission) + + USML United States Microgravity Series of flights of a microgravity materials + Laboratory processing laboratory attached to the Shuttle. + + USMP United States Microgravity Conduct materials processing experiments in the + Payload microgravity environment available in the Orbiter + cargo bay while in low earth orbit. + + USS Unique Support Structure + + UV Ultraviolet + +6.39 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + UVPI Ultraviolet Plume Imager Free-flying satellite observation of Orbiter OMS + burns. + + VCS Voice Controlled System Evaluates effectiveness of voice controlled system + on the Shuttle cargo bay closed circuit television. + + VFT Visual Function Test in A biomedical study to determine effects of + Space microgravity on human visual performance. + + VIPOR Visual Investigation A series of experiments to study elements that can + Program on Orbiter affect and degrade the performance of any optical + Operations (photo, visual, or video) system. + + WESTAR Western Union Telegraph A C-band satellite to replenish and expand the + Communication Satellite Westar system (Western Union domestic communication + system). + + WFF Wallops Flight Facility + + WIND Satellite to measure solar wind input to + magnetosphere. + + WINDEX Window Experiment To obtain calibrated measurements of + environmentally induced optical emissions. + + WISP Waves in Space Plasma Active experiments using sensors on a free-flyer to + measure space plasma excitation by radio + transmitters in the Shuttle payload bay. + + WOSE Weather Officer in Space Assesses the feasibility of expert weather + Experiment observations from space to observe, photograph, and + videotape atmospheric and ionospheric phenomena. + +6.40 + + + **** PAYLOAD/ACRONYM LIST **** + + + PAYLOAD/ACRONYM NAME DESCRIPTION + + + WSF Wake Shield Facility Molecular and chemical beam epitaxy growth of + compound semiconductors, high temperature + superconductors, and other materials using + techniques requiring ultra-high vacuum, high + pumping speeds, and relatively large working + volumes. + + WSMC Western Space and Missle A USAF organization with Headquarters at Vandenberg + Center Air Force Base, California. + + XTE X-Ray Timing Explorer A payload to be used in Earth orbit to investigate + the physical nature of compact X-Ray sources by + studying fluctuations in X-Ray brightness over + time-scales ranging from microseconds to years. + + + + +6.41 +  \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/perspect.txt b/textfiles.com/science/perspect.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..531c45a8 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/perspect.txt @@ -0,0 +1,210 @@ + + THE MATHEMATICS BEHIND PERSPECTIVE + by Max Pandaemonium + + +The illustration of perspective on a two-dimensional screen from a set +of three-dimensional images can be accomplished by mapping a three- +dimensional point onto a two-dimensional plane. Taking it one point +at a time, we find the point of intersection where the line-of-sight +from the observer to this given point interscts a plane (which +represents the screen of a computer, for instance). + +I will use vector mathematics in the derivation that follows. If you +are not familiar with vector mathematics, you're going to have some +trouble following along; but I will explain what I am doing as I go +along, if not why it works mathematically. + +Hereafter I will use this notation: Figures, such as points and +planes and lines, will be referenced by capital letters; values, such +as vectors or real numbers, will be referenced by lowercase letters. +If there is a point A, then the vector a (if not previously defined as +something else) indicates the location of the point A from the origin. +That is, if A is (a, b, c), then a = . + +Here is how I will proceed with the derivation. First we will define +the reference plane (screen) C. Then we will find the line of sight, +L, between the point in question and the observer. Then we will find +the point of intersection of the line and the plane, and will +translate that into a two-dimensional location on the plane (i.e., the +screen). + +Let the point P be the location of the point we wish to map to the +plane. Therefore, p is the vector from the origin to the point P. +Similarly we will define point V to be the location of the observer. +Also, let a unit vector (i.e., having a length of 1) be the facing +vector, r. Thus r represents the direction in which the observer is +looking, and therefore does not have to be back toward the origin; it +can be in any direction. + +We'll define the plane C to be located at the head of the facing +vector r. In other words, the primarily point in C, which we will +call S (which represents the center of the screen) is given by + + s = v + r + (i) + +Since we want this plane to be perpendicular to the facing +vector, r, we can declare that r is a normal vector for C. Thus an +equation of C (where u is a general vector) can be: + + C: r dot (u - v - r) = 0. + (ii) + +(This equation implies that r and u - v - r are always perpendicular.) + +Now that C is defined, we will define the line of sight, L. This is +very simple, since a direction vector for this line might be p - v. + +Here lies the main part of the derivation. We must now find the +point, which we shall call T, where the line L and the plane C +intersect. The vector t - v, logically, should be a scalar multiple +of p - v. Thus we shall say + + t - v = k(p - v) + (iii) + +where k is some real number. + +The pieces of the puzzle are almost ready to be fit together. One +clear objective is to find k, the scalar multiple that corresponds to +finding T. In doing this we will define a vector x, which will have +its tail at S, the center of the screen, and its head at T, the mapped +point. This is useful because, when we want to transfer the three- +dimensional point T to a two-dimensional map on the screen, it will be +useful to have the vector set up this way. (Just as we always have +vectors with their tails at the origins in Cartesian space, we would +like a vector in this new two-dimensional map to have its tail at the +"origin," or center of the screen.) Thus, x is given by + + x = t - v - r. + (iv) + +Substituting equation (iii) into (iv), we get + + x = k(p - v) - r. + (v) + +Now we must have an equation to find k. We know that t - v will lie +on the plane if, according to our equation (i), the two vectors from S +are perpendicular. Equivalently, + + r dot x = 0. + (vi) + +Substuting equation (v) into (vi), + + r dot [k(p - v) - r] = 0. + (vii) + +Now we must substitute identifiers for these vectors to solve for k. +We shall make the following definitions: + + p = ; + r = ; + v = . + (viii) + +Thus equation (vii) becomes + + dot + = 0 + (ix) + +Multiplying through the dot product, + + rx[k(px - vx) - rx] + ry[k(py - vy) - ry] + rz[k(pz - vz) - rz] = 0 + +k rx (px - vx) - rx^2 + k ry (py - vy) - ry^2 + k rz (pz - vz) - rz^2 + = 0 + + k[rx(px - vx) + ry(py - vy) + rz(pz - vz)] = rx^2 + ry^2 + rz^2 + + rx^2 + ry^2 = rz^2 + k = ---------------------------------------. + rx(px - vx) + ry(py - vy) + rz(pz - vz) + (1) + +It is useful to consider some things about k at the present time. +Ideally, k should be a positive number. Consider: If k = 0, then t - +v is of zero length, and therefore P and V are coincident. If k < 0, +that means that P is not on the other side of C that V is; in simple +terms, P is "behind" V. If k is undefined (the denominator is zero), +then there is no k that will define t - v -- in other words, line L is +parallel to C, and therefore there will be no mapping. In either of +cases, the calculation can stop here, since the point will not be +visible. + +Now we still have the matter of transferring this three-dimensional +space coordinate into a two-dimensional screen coordinate. To do +this, first we will find the value of x. From equation (v), +substituting the definitions in (viii), we get + + x = k(p - v) - r + + x = k( - ) - + + x = . + (x) + +Now we must define two unit vectors, u and u', which represent the x'- +and y'-axes of the new two-dimensional system. Note that u and u' +have their tails at S, and both u and u' must be contained in C. In +other words, + + r dot u = r dot u' = 0. + (xi) + +Since we want to find these x' and y' values in the new two- +dimensional system, we will find the scalar projection of vector x on +both u and u' in turn. This is a simple matter: + + x' = u dot x; + y' = u' dot x. + (xii) + +If we take the value definitions + + u = ; + u' = + (xiii) + +then we can combine equations (x), (xii), and (xiii) to get + + x' = u dot x; + y' = u' dot x + + x' = dot + ; + y' = dot + + +x' = ux[k(px - vx) - rx) + uy[k(py - vy) - ry] + uz[k(pz - vz) - rz]; +y' = u'x[k(px - vx) - rx) + u'y[k(py - vy) - ry] + + u'z[k(pz - vz) - rz] + (2) + +where k is calculated according to equation (1). QED. + + +Note that proof above is quite transparent as to the actual values of +u and u'. Naturally they should be perpendicular, since they represent +x'- and y'-axes, but what should we set them to be? + +A natural interpretation is to have the y'-axis, that is, the one +represented by the vector u', to be "up"; that is, to correspond to +the real z-axis. A choice of u and u' for this might be + + u = ; + u' = . + (3) + +It should be noted quickly that this will not work if r and k are +parallel. If this should be so (that is, rx and ry are simultaneously +zero), then this alternate form can be used: + + u = <-rz, 0, 0>; + v = <0, -1, 0>. + (3a) + + -)(- \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/pi.ind b/textfiles.com/science/pi.ind new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8c3da382 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/pi.ind @@ -0,0 +1,440 @@ +From: msb@sq.com (Mark Brader) +Subject: AFU FAQ archive - pi.indiana + +In the above-cited article, I write: + +> I have a couple of long articles online giving some of the history of +> the bill and an interpretation of what the author appears to have been +> thinking; but here is the full text of the bill for what it is worth. +> I'll send the articles to anyone who asks for them in email, but I +> don't think they'd be of great interest here. + +Perhaps they would, however, be of sufficient interest to put in the +archive (if only to forestall future email requests for them!). +Here they are: + + + + + +Article 15233 of sci.math: +Xref: sq sci.math:15233 soc.history:3911 +Path: sq!geac!torsqnt!news-server.csri.toronto.edu!rpi!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!wuarchive!psuvax1!ukma!ghot +From: ghot@ms.uky.edu (Allan Adler) +Newsgroups: sci.math,soc.history +Subject: Re: Mathematical Scandals +Message-ID: <1991Mar27.214332.29378@ms.uky.edu> +Date: 27 Mar 91 21:43:32 GMT +Sender: ghot@ms.uky.edu (Allan Adler) +Organization: University Of Kentucky, Dept. of Math Sciences +Lines: 165 + + +Lorenzo Sadun paints the legislation of pi = 3 (or 3.14) as reasonable. +I happen to have in my files a copy of an article by Will E. Edington of +De Pauw University, entitled + + "House Bill No. 246, Indiana State Legislature, 1897", + +which appeared in the Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science. I don't +happen to have written the year of the article. I vague recall it being +in the 1950's, but I might be mistaken. + +Edington's article is based on " the bill itself,..., the Journals of the +House and Senate for 1897, and the files of the three Indianapolis papers +for January and February, 1897." He also draws on an article of Prof.Waldo +in the Proc.Indiana Acad.Science in 1916 on the subject. + +The author of the bill was Edwin J. Goodwin, M.D. It was introduced into +the House by Mr. Taylor I. Record, Representative from Posey County, on +Jan.18, 1897. The following is the statement of the bill: + + "HOUSE BILL NO. 246 + + "A bill for an act introducinga new mathematical truth and offered as a +contribution to education to be used only by the State of Indiana free of +cost by paying any royalties whatever on the same, provided it is accepted +and adopted by the official action of the legislature of 1897. + + "Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Indiana: +It has been found that a circular area is to the square on a line equal to the +quadrant of the circumference, as the area of an equilateral rectangle is to +the square on one side. The diameter employed as the linear unit according to +the present rule in computing the circle's area is entirely wrong, as it +represents the circles area one and one-fifths times the area of a square +whose perimeter is equal to the circumference of the circle. This is because +one-fifth of the diameter fils to be represented four times in the circle's +circumference. For example: if we multiply the perimeter of a square by +one-fourth of any line one-fifth greater than one side, we can, in like +manner make the square's area to appear one fifth greater than the fact, as +is done by taking the diameter for the linear unit instead of the quadrant +of the circle's circumference. + + "Section 2. It is impossible to compute the area of a circle on the +diameter as the linear unit without tresspassing upon the area outside the +circle to the extent of including one-fifth more area than is contained within +the circle's circumference, because the square on the diameter produces the +side of a square which equals nine when the arc of ninety degrees equals +eight. By taking the quadrant of the circle's circumference for the linear +unit, we fulfill the requirements of both quadrature and rectification of +the circle's circumference. Furthermore, it has revealed the ratio of the +chord and arc of ninety degrees, which is as seven to eight, and also the +ratio of the diagonal and one side of a square which is as ten to seven, +disclosing the fourth important fact, that the ratio of the diameter and +circumference is as five-fourths to four; and because of these facts and the +further fact that the rule in prresent use fails to work both ways +mathematically, it should be discarded as wholly wanting and misleading in +its practical applications. + + "Section 3. In further proof of the value of the author's proposed +contribution to education, and offered as a gift to the State of Indiana, +is the fact of his solutions of the trisection of the angle, duplication of +the cube and quadrature having been already accepted as contributions to +science by the American Mathematical Monthly, the leading exponent of +mathematical thought in this country. And be it remembered that these +noted problems had been long since given up by scientific bodies as +unsolvable mysteries and above man's ability to comprehend." + +I think the text of the bill should dispell any illusions as to its +resasonableness. Note the mention of the American Mathematical Monthly: +I don't know whether the Monthly actually published what this bill claims. +If it did, that might be a scandal worthy of Kenton Yee's list. + +Edington describes the fate of the bill in the committees of the Indiana +legislature. First it was referred to the House Committee on Canals, which was +also referred to as the Committee on Swamp Lands. Notices of the bill appeared +in the Indianapolis Journal and the Indianapolis Sentinel on Jan. 19,1897, +both of which described it a a bill telling how to square circles. On the same +day, "Representative M.B.Butler, of Steuben County, chairman of the +Committee on Canals, submitted the following report: + + "Your Committee on Canals, to which was referred House Bill No.246, entitled +an act for the introduction of a mamthematical truth, etc., has had the same +under consideration and begs leave to report the same back to the House with +the recommendation that said bill be referred to the Committee on Education." + +The next day, the following article appeared in the Indianapolis Sentinel: + + "To SQUARE THE CIRCLE + + "Claims Made That This Old Problem Has Been Solved. + "The bill telling how to square a circle, introduced in the House by +Mr.Record, is not intended to be a hoax. Mr. Record knows nothing of the bill +with the exception that he introduced it by request of Dr.Edwin Goodwin of +Posey County, who is the author of the deomstration. The latter and State +Superintendent of Public Instruction Geeting believe that it is the long-sought +solution of the problem, and they are seeking to have it adopted by the +legislature. Dr. Goodwin, the author, is a mathematician of note. He has it +copyrighted and his proposition is that if the legislature will indorse the +solution, he will allow the state to use the demonstration in its textbooks +free of charge. The author is lobbying for the bill." + +On "February 2, 1897, ...Representative S.E. Nicholson, of Howard County, +chairman of the Committee on Education, reported to the House. + + "Your Committee on Education, to which was referred House Bill No.246, +entitled a a bill for an act entitled an act introducing a new mathematical +truth, has had same under consideration, and begs leave to report the same +back to the House with the recommendation that said bill do pass. + +"The report was cincurred in, and on February 8,1897, it was brought up for the +second reading, following which it was considered engrossed. Then +'Mr. Nicholson moved that the consitutional rule requiring bills to be read +on three days be suspended, that the bill may be read a third time now.' The +constitutional rule was suspended by a vote of 72 to 0 and the bill was then +read a third time. It was passed by a vote of 67 to 0, and the Clerk of the +House was directed to inform the Senate of the passage of the bill." + +The newspapers reported the suspension of the consitutional rules and +the unanimous passage of the bill matter-of-factly, except for one line +in the Indianapolis Journal to the effect that "this is the strangest +bill that has ever passed an Indiana Assembly." + +The bill was referred to the Senate on Feb.10,1897 and was read for the first +time on Feb.11 and referred to the Committee on Temperance. "On Feb.12 +Senator Harry S. New, of Marion County, Chairman of the COmmittee on +Temperance, made the following report to the Senate: + "Your committee on Temperance, to which was referred House Bill No.246, +introduced by Mr.Record, has had the same under consideration and begs leave +to report the same back to the Senate with the recommendation that said bill +do pass." + +The Senate Journal mentions only that the bill was read a second time on +Feb.12, 1897, that there was an unsuccessful attempt to amend the bill +by strike out the enacting clause, and finally it was postponed indefinitely. +That the bill was killed appears to be a matter of dumb luck rather than the +superior education or wisdom of the Senate. It is true that the bill was +widely ridiculed in Indiana and other states, but what actually brought about +the defeat of the bill is recorded by Prof.C.A.Waldo in an article he wrote +for the Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science in 1916. The reason +he knows is that he happened to be at the State Capitol lobbying for the +appropriation of the Indiana Academy of Science, on the day the Housed passed +House Bill 246. When he walked in the found the debate on House Bill 246 +already in progress.In his article, he writes (according to Edington): + +"An ex-teacher from the eastern part of the state was saying: 'The case is +perfectly simple. If we pass this bill which establishes a new and correct +value for \pi, the author offers to our state without cost the use of his +discovery and its free publication in our school text books, while everyone +else must pay him a royalty.' The roll was then called and the bill passed its +third and final reading in the lower house. A member then showed the writer +[i.e. Waldo -AA] a copy of the bill just passed and asked him if he would like +an introduction to the learned doctor, its author. He declined the courtesy +with thanks remarking that he was acquainted with as many crazy people as he +cared to know. + +"That evening the senators were properly coached and shortly thereafter as it +came to its final reading in the upper house they threw out with much +merriment the epoch making discovery of the Wise Man from the Pocket." + +So much for the bill regarding the value of \pi. Before we laugh too hard +at the legislature of Indiana or at the state of education in 1897, I think +we should have a moment of silence as we contemplate what fate the bill +might have if it were brought up for a referendum today. + +Allan Adler +ghot@ms.uky.edu + + +Article 15360 of sci.math: +Xref: sq sci.math:15360 soc.history:3971 +Newsgroups: sci.math,soc.history +Path: sq!msb +From: msb@sq.sq.com (Mark Brader) +Subject: Indiana Pi Bill (was: Mathematical Scandals) +Message-ID: <1991Apr2.021121.11810@sq.sq.com> +Followup-To: sci.math +Summary: pi = 3.2; annotated text of bill follows +Organization: SoftQuad Inc., Toronto, Canada +References: <1991Mar27.214332.29378@ms.uky.edu> +Date: Tue, 2 Apr 91 02:11:21 GMT +Lines: 227 + +This article is cross-posted as part of a cross-posted thread; +followups are directed to sci.math. + +Before I start I should point out that this topic is in fact covered +in the master Frequently Asked Questions list -- I wrote the entry there +-- and that nobody has yet mentioned this. Everyone posting to the net +should be familiar with this and the other articles that are regularly +reposted to news.announce.newusers! However, I think it's okay to post +this article, as it goes into rather more detail than can appear there. + +> ghot@ms.uky.edu (Allan Adler) writes a long and informative article +> about the 1897 Indiana legislature almost passing a circle-squarer's +> "corrected" value of pi, and included the text of the bill. I did not +> know about this bill, and I stand corrected. +> +> (BTW, from the text of the bill I couldn't quite figure out what the +> value of pi was supposed to be. If somebody could sift through +> the bill and answer that I'd appreciate it.) + +David Singmaster's article (Mathematical Intelligencer, vol. 7 (1985) #2, +p.69-72), which was mentioned in another posting in this thread, takes +each mathematical statement in the bill at face value and derives a +value of pi by comparing it to the truth. I don't think this is fair; +it seems clear to me that the author's model of the world had more +deviations from reality than the value of pi. At the end of this +article I explain why I consider the bill to assign the value 3.2 to pi. + +I posted some information about the affair to the net in about 1985, +and still have it online. As with Allan Adler's posting, which also +included the text of the bill, my source for this was Will Edington's +PIAS article -- I don't have a date either, but a reference in the text +means that it must have been the second half of 1935 of thereabouts. +I hadn't read Singmaster's article at the time. Anyway, I have edited +down most of what I wrote about the story behind the bill, as much of +it duplicated what Allan posted. I have retained some bits that he +didn't mention, and some other bits needed for continuity. + +One interesting difference between today's Usenet and those days -- +I originally felt it necessary to post this in three parts because +of its length! + + +(Edited old posting follows.) + + +I have been unable to find any reference by Martin Gardner to the +story, neither in "Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science" nor in +his Scientific American columns. Gardner did write a column about pi in +July 1960. I have seen brief references to the story in several places, +including the Guinness Book of World Records. Frequently these +references give the *wrong* wrong value of Pi. It was 3.2, not 3 as +the Bible seems to suggest, nor 4 as Guinness says. + + +THE STORY + +The author of the bill was Dr. Edwin J. Goodwin, an M.D., of +Solitude, Indiana. It seems that he was a crank mathematician. +He contacted his Representative, one Taylor I. Record, with his +epoch-making suggestion: if the State would pass an Act recognizing +his discovery, he would allow all Indiana textbooks to use it without +paying him a royalty. + +Nobody in the Indiana Legislature knew enough mathematics to know that +the "discovery" was nonsense. In due course the bill had its third +House reading, and passed 67-0. At this point the text of the bill +was published "and, of course, became the target for ridicule", +"in this and other states". + +By this time a real mathematician, Prof. C. A. Waldo, had learned +what was going on. In fact, he was present when the bill was read +on February 5, 1897. ("...imagine [the author's] surprise when he +discovered that he was in the midst of a debate upon a piece of +mathematical legislation. An ex-teacher was saying ... 'The case is +perfectly simple. If we pass this bill which establishes a new and +correct value for Pi, the author offers ... its free publication in +our school text books, while everyone else must pay him a royalty'", +Waldo wrote in a 1916 article.) But the House had passed the bill. + +Fortunately, Indiana has a bicameral legislature. The bill came up +for first reading in the Senate on Thursday, February 11. Apparently +in fun, they referred it to the Committee on Temperance. The Committee +reported back on Friday, February 12, approving the bill, which then +had its second reading. + +The Indianapolis Journal reported what happened: "The Senators +made bad puns about it, ridiculed it, and laughed over it. The fun +lasted half an hour. Senator Hubbell said that it was not meet for +the Senate, which was costing the State $250 a day [!], to waste its +time in such frivolity ... He moved the indefinite postponement of +the bill, and the motion carried. ... All of the senators who +spoke on the bill admitted that they were ignorant of the merits of +the proposition. [In the end,] it was simply regarded as not being a +subject for legislation." + + +ANNOTATED TEXT OF THE BILL + +/* Following is the text of Indiana House Bill #246 of 1897, with my + * own annotations (in comment signs and exdented, like this text). + * In my annotations, A, r, d, c, and s are respectively the circle's + * area, radius, diameter, circumference, and the side of the inscribed + * square. */ + + + A bill for an act introducing a new mathematical + truth and offered as a contribution to education to be + used only by the State of Indiana free of cost by paying + any royalties whatever on the same, provided it is ac- + cepted and adopted by the official action of the leg- + islature of 1897. + +/* You normally have to pay royalties on mathematical truths? + * The Pythagoras estate must be doing well by now... */ + + + SECTION 1. + Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State + of Indiana: It has been found that a circular area is to + the square on a line equal to the quadrant of the cir- + cumference, as the area of an equilateral rectangle is + to the square on one side. + +/* The part after the last comma is a remarkable way of saying + * "as 1 is to 1". In other words, this says A = (c/4)^2, which + * is the same as A = (pi*r/2)^2 = (pi^2/4)*r^2 instead of the + * actual A = pi*r^2. */ + + The diameter employed as the linear + unit according to the present rule in computing the + circle's area is entirely wrong, as it represents the + circle's area one and one-fifth times the area of a + square whose perimeter is equal to the circumference of + the circle. + +/* The formula A = pi*r^2 is interpreted as A = d*(c/4), which is correct. + * The author claims that the d factor should be c/4, so the ratio of + * the area by the author's formula to the area by the real formula + * is c/(4*d), that is, pi/4. Since he believes pi = 3.2, this ratio + * is 3.2/4, which is 4/5. Therefore the area by the author's rule + * is 1/5 smaller than the actual area. Now he apparently thinks that + * the reciprocal of 1-1/5 is 1+1/5, and thus that the other area is + * 1/5 larger than his area, which of course would actually require + * the ratio to be 5/6. */ + + This is because one-fifth of the di- + ameter fails to be represented four times in the + circle's circumference. + +/* In other words, c = (1-1/5) * (4*d); consistent with pi = 3.2. */ + + For example: if we multiply the per- + imeter of a square by one-fourth of any line one-fifth + greater than one side, we can in like manner make the + square's area to appear one fifth greater than the fact, + as is done by taking the diameter for the linear unit + instead of the quadrant of the circle's circumference. + +/* He says that if we consider the area of a square of side x to be + * (4*x)*(x/4) and we replace the second x by (1+1/5)*x, we get an + * area 1/5 too large, and this is analogous to using d in place of + * c/4 with the circle. */ + + + SECTION 2. + It is impossible to compute the area of a circle + on the diameter as the linear unit without tresspassing + upon the area outside the circle to the extent of in- + cluding one-fifth more area than is contained within the + circle's circumference, because the square on the diame- + ter produces the side of a square which equals nine when + the arc of ninety degrees equals eight. + +/* I can only assume that "nine" is a mistake for "ten". See also + * the annotation after the next one. */ + + By taking the quadrant of the + circle's circumference for the linear unit, we fulfill + the requirements of both quadrature and rectification of + the circle's circumference. + +/* Getting repetitive here... */ + + Furthermore, it has revealed the ra- + tio of the chord and arc of ninety degrees, which is as + seven to eight, and also the ratio of the diagonal and + one side of a square which is as ten to seven, disclos- + ing the fourth important fact, that the ratio of the di- + ameter and circumference is as five-fourths to four; and + because of these facts and the futher fact that the rule + in present use fails to work both ways mathematically, + it should be discarded as wholly wanting and misleading + in its practical applications. + +/* The meat of the bill. He says that s/(c/4) = 7/8, and d/s = 10/7, + * therefore d/c = (10/7)*(7/8)/4, which he reduces only as far as + * (5/4)/4. Of course this is 5/16, and gives pi = c/d = 16/5 = 3.2. + * It also implies that the square root of 2 is 10/7. */ + + + SECTION 3. + In further proof of the value of the author's pro- + posed contribution to education, and offered as a gift + to the State of Indiana, is the fact of his solutions of + the trisection of the angle, duplication of the cube and + quadrature of the circle having been already accepted as + contributions to science by the American Mathematical + Monthly, the leading exponent of mathematical thought in + this country. + +/* When I first posted this I assumed that the A.M.M. must have had a + * policy of politely acknowledging crankish submissions, but apparently + * at one time they simply printed whatever they were sent. I haven't + * checked this out. */ + + And be it remembered that these not- + ed problems had been long since given up by scientific + bodies as unsolvable mysteries and above man's ability + to comprehend. + +/* "Given up" is not the same as "proved insoluble"! */ + +-- +Mark Brader "Sir, your composure baffles me. A single counter- +SoftQuad Inc. example refutes a conjecture as effectively as ten. +Toronto ... Hands up! You have to surrender." +utzoo!sq!msb, msb@sq.com -- Imre Lakatos + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/pi.txt b/textfiles.com/science/pi.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..0264c346 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/pi.txt @@ -0,0 +1,133 @@ + Four Thousand Decimals of Pi + ---------------------------- + + +3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 41971 69399 37510 + 58209 74944 59230 78164 06286 20899 86280 34825 34211 70679 + 82148 08651 32823 06647 09384 46095 50582 23172 53594 08128 + 48111 74502 84102 70193 85211 05559 64462 29489 54930 38196 + 44288 10975 66593 34461 28475 64823 37867 83165 27120 19091 + + 45648 56692 34603 48610 45432 66482 13393 60726 02491 41273 + 72458 70066 06315 58817 48815 20920 96282 92540 91715 36436 + 78925 90360 01133 05305 48820 46652 13841 46951 94151 16094 + 33057 27036 57595 91953 09218 61173 81932 61179 31051 18548 + 07446 23799 62749 56735 18857 52724 89122 79381 83011 94912 + + 98336 73362 44065 66430 86021 39494 63952 24737 19070 21798 + 60943 70277 05392 17176 29317 67523 84674 81846 76694 05132 + 00056 81271 45263 56082 77857 71342 75778 96091 73637 17872 + 14684 40901 22495 34301 46549 58537 10507 92279 68925 89235 + 42019 95611 21290 21960 86403 44181 59813 62977 47713 09960 + + 51870 72113 49999 99837 29780 49951 05973 17328 16096 31859 + 50244 59455 34690 83026 42522 30825 33446 85035 26193 11881 + 71010 00313 78387 52886 58753 32083 81420 61717 76691 47303 + 59825 34904 28755 46873 11595 62863 88235 37875 93751 95778 + 18577 80532 17122 68066 13001 92787 66111 95909 21642 01989 + + 38095 25720 10654 85863 27886 59361 53381 82796 82303 01952 + 03530 18529 68995 77362 25994 13891 24972 17752 83479 13151 + 55748 57242 45415 06959 50829 53311 68617 27855 88907 50983 + 81754 63746 49393 19255 06040 09277 01671 13900 98488 24012 + 85836 16035 63707 66010 47101 81942 95559 61989 46767 83744 + + 94482 55379 77472 68471 04047 53464 62080 46684 25906 94912 + 93313 67702 89891 52104 75216 20569 66024 05803 81501 93511 + 25338 24300 35587 64024 74964 73263 91419 92726 04269 92279 + 67823 54781 63600 93417 21641 21992 45863 15030 28618 29745 + 55706 74983 85054 94588 58692 69956 90927 21079 75093 02955 + + 32116 53449 87202 75596 02364 80665 49911 98818 34797 75356 + 63698 07426 54252 78625 51818 41757 46728 90977 77279 38000 + 81647 06001 61452 49192 17321 72147 72350 14144 19735 68548 + 16136 11573 52552 13347 57418 49468 43852 33239 07394 14333 + 45477 62416 86251 89835 69485 56209 92192 22184 27255 02542 + + 56887 67179 04946 01653 46680 49886 27232 79178 60857 84383 + 82796 79766 81454 10095 38837 86360 95068 00642 25125 20511 + 73929 84896 08412 84886 26945 60424 19652 85022 21066 11863 + 06744 27862 20391 94945 04712 37137 86960 95636 43719 17287 + 46776 46575 73962 41389 08658 32645 99581 33904 78027 59009 + + 94657 64078 95126 94683 98352 59570 98258 22620 52248 94077 + 26719 47826 84826 01476 99090 26401 36394 43745 53050 68203 + 49625 24517 49399 65143 14298 09190 65925 09372 21696 46151 + 57098 58387 41059 78859 59772 97549 89301 61753 92846 81382 + 68683 86894 27741 55991 85592 52459 53959 43104 99725 24680 + + 84598 72736 44695 84865 38367 36222 62609 91246 08051 24388 + 43904 51244 13654 97627 80797 71569 14359 97700 12961 60894 + 41694 86855 58484 06353 42207 22258 28488 64815 84560 28506 + 01684 27394 52267 46767 88952 52138 52254 99546 66727 82398 + 64565 96116 35488 62305 77456 49803 55936 34568 17432 41125 + + 15076 06947 94510 96596 09402 52288 79710 89314 56691 36867 + 22874 89405 60101 50330 86179 28680 92087 47609 17824 93858 + 90097 14909 67598 52613 65549 78189 31297 84821 68299 89487 + 22658 80485 75640 14270 47755 51323 79641 45152 37462 34364 + 54285 84447 95265 86782 10511 41354 73573 95231 13427 16610 + + 21359 69536 23144 29524 84937 18711 01457 65403 59027 99344 + 03742 00731 05785 39062 19838 74478 08478 48968 33214 45713 + 86875 19435 06430 21845 31910 48481 00537 06146 80674 91927 + 81911 97939 95206 14196 63428 75444 06437 45123 71819 21799 + 98391 01591 95618 14675 14269 12397 48940 90718 64942 31961 + + 56794 52080 95146 55022 52316 03881 93014 20937 62137 85595 + 66389 37787 08303 90697 92077 34672 21825 62599 66150 14215 + 03068 03844 77345 49202 60541 46659 25201 49744 28507 32518 + 66600 21324 34088 19071 04863 31734 64965 14539 05796 26856 + 10055 08106 65879 69981 63574 73638 40525 71459 10289 70641 + + 40110 97120 62804 39039 75951 56771 57700 42033 78699 36007 + 23055 87631 76359 42187 31251 47120 53292 81918 26186 12586 + 73215 79198 41484 88291 64470 60957 52706 95722 09175 67116 + 72291 09816 90915 28017 35067 12748 58322 28718 35209 35396 + 57251 21083 57915 13698 82091 44421 00675 10334 67110 31412 + + 67111 36990 86585 16398 31501 97016 51511 68517 14376 57618 + 35155 65088 49099 89859 98238 73455 28331 63550 76479 18535 + 89322 61854 89632 13293 30898 57064 20467 52590 70915 48141 + 65498 59461 63718 02709 81994 30992 44889 57571 28289 05923 + 23326 09729 97120 84433 57326 54893 82391 19325 97463 66730 + + 58360 41428 13883 03203 82490 37589 85243 74417 02913 27656 + 18093 77344 40307 07469 21120 19130 20330 38019 76211 01100 + 44929 32151 60842 44485 96376 69838 95228 68478 31235 52658 + 21314 49576 85726 24334 41893 03968 64262 43410 77322 69780 + 28073 18915 44110 10446 82325 27162 01052 65227 21116 60396 + + + + + From a table of pi to 10,000 decimals, calculated on the IBM 704 by Cie IBM, +France, Institut de Calcul Scientifique. Limited space does not permit the +presentation of the entire table. + + +--- + All of the above was copied from: "The Lore of Large Numbers," chapter titledº"The Long Trail Contnued" pages 72 and 73. Regrettably, the name of the +author was not noted when it was photocopied. + + +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X + + Another file downloaded from: NIRVANAnet(tm) + + & the Temple of the Screaming Electron Jeff Hunter 510-935-5845 + Rat Head Ratsnatcher 510-524-3649 + Burn This Flag Zardoz 408-363-9766 + realitycheck Poindexter Fortran 415-567-7043 + Lies Unlimited Mick Freen 415-583-4102 + + Specializing in conversations, obscure information, high explosives, + arcane knowledge, political extremism, diversive sexuality, + insane speculation, and wild rumours. ALL-TEXT BBS SYSTEMS. + + Full access for first-time callers. We don't want to know who you are, + where you live, or what your phone number is. We are not Big Brother. + + "Raw Data for Raw Nerves" + +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/pickup_t b/textfiles.com/science/pickup_t new file mode 100644 index 00000000..163e2972 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/pickup_t @@ -0,0 +1,226 @@ + + THE PICKUP COIL + +***************************************************************** +DISCLAIMER: which is to say that if you have not read it already, +let me know now and I will post you a copy. There are sticklers +who would jump all over me if they thought I was documenting +experiments where the instructions appear to direct a person to +act in such a way as would, or could, cause injury to themselves +or others, break laws, etc.. Understand now that I advocate +common sense, and that common sense should be used at all times +around Tesla coils. +***************************************************************** + +The "pickup coil" is a very useful detection and experimental +device in high-frequency Tesla work. Tesla wound and employed +many of these type coils in his RF work. A careful review of the +COLORADO SPRINGS NOTES will show that he used a "pickup" coil in +a great many of his experiments there. + +The "pickup" coil is really nothing more than a very simple +Tesla secondary. These coils usually do not need not be very +electrically strong, high Q, or critically designed and con- +structed. Normally these coils are built quickly, with a minimum +of fuss and expense. + +Old Tesla coils that have failed us as secondaries in spark +systems make ideal pickup coils providing that have not +completely broken down, and even spare good coils may be used. +But often a specific experiment requires a resonator be tuned to +a particular frequency, and it is perhaps best to wind a new coil +to meet the experimental requirements. Also, I prefer the pickup +coil to be physically small so that I can move it around easily, +though that is not always an experimental necessity. + +I generally wind these coils with Formvar enamel magnet wire (#22 +or smaller) on a somewhat fat coil form so that I end up with a +rather squat coil. I usually do not spend time sanding, sealing, +or capping both ends of the coil form. I set the coil form up on +a spindle, tape down the first few turns with plastic electrical +tape, and wind away. The coil is typically wound by hand in less +than 30 minutes, and finished with a few strips of tape at the +top to hold things in place. A top cap with an insulator does +find use; on 6" PVC drain pipe a plastic coffee can lid will fit, +and a small insulator may be easily attached. After I have worked +with a pickup coil for awhile, and have found that it meets +specific needs, I will throw on a few coats of sealer to stick +the wire down on the form so it won't fall off, and generally +spruce up and harden the coil. + +So what do you do with these rather shoddy coils? Experiment +with them! Learn the ins and outs of tuning, resonance, and RF +currents. Find where your RFI is getting out and plug the leaks. +The list of possible uses goes on and on, but I will try to cover +a few interesting ones. + +TRACING RFI + +Most coilers are not using oscilloscopes and frequency generators +to tune their coils, which is OK, but how do you trace RFI +leaking out of your coil system and into the TV, radio, or tele- +phone? I have had RFI so intense that it reset the clock on my +VCR, and the VCR was off. In any case it is a mistake to try to +use any solid state equipment in an area influenced by the pulse +fields of a working Tesla coil, which means any O'scope built in +the last 20 years is out of luck anyway once you turn the coil +on. One way to trace RFI is with a tuned pickup coil and 120 volt +neon indicator bulb. + +Wind a pickup coil that is lower in frequency than the Tesla coil +system you are operating. Tune the pickup coil to match your +system frequency by grounding the base wire of the pickup coil to +the same location that you are grounding the base wire from the +Tesla coil secondary, then begin taking off turns of wire from +the pickup coil until the pickup coil is resonating, and you get +a spark from the open end of the coil. If too many turns are +removed, simply splice some wire back on the coil until you get +back to a nice sharp tune. + +A word of caution. The tune of a pickup coil can be exceedingly +sharp. The presence of your body close to the coil (or other +large object, including the floor) will be sufficient in many +cases to alter the resonate frequency. It you decide that the +coil is in tune while it is sitting close to the floor, or while +you are standing right next to it, you may lose the sharp tune +when you move it or step away. Some of the experiments performed +with pickup coils may require a very precise tune, so it is best +to have the coil tuned in sharp when it is not affected by nearby +objects. I set the coil up on an insulator (like plastic buckets) +at least 3 feet above the floor, and step back two or more steps +after subtracting or adding wire before I judge the coil output. + +Once the pickup coil is in sharp tune I generally harden the coil +a bit to keep it from falling apart when working with it. A few +extra strips of tape are nice, and I sometimes cut small slots +and anchor the top and bottom leads wires with hot glue. A +standard meter probe with an alligator clip at one end, a few +extra alligator clips, and a small 120 volt neon indicator bulb +should be assembled. The first thing I check are the building 60 +cycle grounds. + +Find the location of the ground connection used by the power +utility inside (or outside) of the structure you are concerned +about. Depending on the local code, the building construction, +and the contractor, this can be just about anywhere. Once +located, set up an insulator near the ground connection and +position your pickup coil. Using an alligator clip, connect the +base wire of the pickup coil to the 60 cycle ground. Step back, +turn out the lights, and have an assistant fire the Tesla Coil +while carefully observing the bare end wire of the pickup coil. +Any sparking of the pickup coil indicates a serious RF leak that +is energizing the neutral wire in the entire building, and could +be a fire hazard. If the pickup coil does not spark, but you can +detect corona at the wire tip, you have an RF leak that deserves +to be resolved as it will cause interference problems with any +grounded circuit board on the 60 cycle system. + +If the pickup coil does not resonate to the point where spark or +corona is detectable with the naked eye, a 120 volt neon +indicator bulb may be used to detect resonate rise. Connect one +lead of the bulb to the top of the pickup coil and repeat the +experiment. If the Tesla coil system in use has any connection at +all to the 60 cycle ground, the neon indicator bulb should glow. +An insulated capacitance (large conductive surface, antenna) may +be connected to the second lead of the neon indicator to increase +sensitivity. (see: THE INVENTIONS RESEARCHES AND WRITING OF +NIKOLA TESLA, 1992 edition, ISBN 0-88029-812-X, pp185, fig.124) + +An interesting note here is that a pickup coil with a neon +indicator bulb can frequently detect bleedover in the 60 cycle +HOT wire(s) if a serious RF leak is detected on the neutral wire. +If sparking or corona was detected with the naked eye on the +pickup coil when connected to the neutral wire, move the base +wire of the pickup coil to a 60 cycle hot wire and repeat the +experiment. Be advised that the pickup coil will be 60 cycle hot, +appropriate precautions should be taken. + +In the event that 60 cycle ground contamination is detected with +the pickup coil, the obvious solution is to re-work the Tesla +coil ground. I have always advised the use of dedicated, heavy +(meaning low impedance, high current) RF grounding for any +serious Tesla work. + +Another interesting use of the pickup coil is for experimenting +with transmission of electrical power through ground currents. +For obvious reasons I prefer to conduct these experiments with a +rather small, low power Tesla coil, usually 4 inches in diameter +or so. The reader who has followed some of my Tesla work will +begin to understand why I recommend such system parameters as +large (even huge) primary coils in Tesla coil design, not just +for efficiency, but also because it allows for tuning flexibility +to perform experiments such as this. + +Take your small Tesla coil system, with the secondary coil +grounded to a dedicated RF ground, and load discharger onto the +coil until no spark allowed to break out. Then re-tune the coil. +HINTS: If you do not have an oscilloscope and frequency counter, +use a low pressure light, such as a neon or florescent tube +(brighter glow = closer in tune), or draw spark with a grounded +probe, as an indicator of system tune. If the primary on your +existing coil system is not large enough to allow the tank +circuit to tune with the new secondary configuration, lash on a +temporary primary extension, and keep in mind you will want +tighter coupling. + +A normal 1/4 wave Tesla coil system with large discharger that is +not allowed to spark is called a "Tesla Transmitter". The system +energy is trapped in the resonator, and is forced to ground by +the high voltage on the discharger. Tesla transmitters pump ex- +ceptionally strong currents through the base wire and ground +path. They will "power up" or energize the RF ground to the point +that spark may be drawn off the ground with a key or other +conductor held in the hand. This condition of a "powered up" +ground is excellent for Tesla transmission experiments. + +Once the Tesla coil system is top loaded and tuned for trans- +mission, wind and tune a pickup coil to match the new system +frequency. Using just the bare pickup coil connected to the +dedicated RF ground (or simply "system" ground); sparking from +the pickup coil will be so intense that the coil will be des- +troyed in short order. To get a sharp tune on the pickup coil +without frying it, it will sometimes be necessary to establish a +remote ground so that the coil can be brought into tune without +burning up. A simple remote ground for tuning purposes is easy to +establish: connect the pickup coil to a water pipe and subtract +turns until sparking or corona is detected, drive a short copper +clad ground rod some distance from system ground and connect the +pickup coil to this, or set up a small insulated counterpoise +over the system ground and connect the pickup coil to the +counterpoise. + +Once the pickup coil is in sharp tune you may have an assistant +work the controls of the Tesla transmitter and you may take the +pickup coil into the field. I have been able to detect RF ground +currents by connecting the base wire of the pickup coil at the +following locations (objects): basement copper water pipe in the +neighbors houses (300 ft, 600 ft), galvanized storm culvert (500 +ft), creek bed (connection to 50 foot AL flashing sunk in bottom, +1500 ft), 3 foot copper clad ground rod (200 ft). The input power +into the Tesla transmitter in this case was below 1.4 kVA into a +4 inch coil with 30 x 4 toroid. By using a high Q six inch coil +(wound with #21 magnet wire on a properly sealed coil form) tuned +to the transmitter frequency with a small toroid, I was able to +light florescent tubes at the creek bed ground connection 1/4 +mile away from the transmitter. + +Tesla transmitter performance is greatly dependant upon the spark +gaps. In Tesla's transmission experiments with small oscillators +he used a mercury break which produced a continuous wave +(undamped) signal (see: U.S. Patent No. 609,245, "Electrical- +Circuit Controller" ; U.S. Patent No. 568,179 "Method and +Apparatus for Producing Currents of High Frequency"; NIKOLA +TESLA: LECTURE BEFORE THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES - APRIL 6, +1897, edited by Leland I. Anderson, 1994, Twenty First Century +Books, ISBN 0-9636012-7-X, pp74 fig 17 & 18. The next best thing +is a quench gap with closely spaced electrodes which are sealed +airtight, and lastly is the normal static and rotary gaps used by +most coilers which produce a highly damped signal. + +Richard Quick + + +... If all else fails... Throw another megavolt across it! +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/pictures.txt b/textfiles.com/science/pictures.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..833dfa17 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/pictures.txt @@ -0,0 +1,500 @@ + + HOW WE GET PICTURES FROM SPACE + +Since the first cave dweller ventured out to gaze up at the night +sky, people have sought to know more about the mysterious images and +lights seen there. Being limited by what could be seen with the +unaided eye, that early stargazer relied on intellect and imagination +to depict the universe, etching images in stone by hand, measuring +and charting the paths of the wanderers, and becoming as familiar +with the sky as the limited technology would allow. + +Although stargazers frequently took the wrong paths in attempting to +explain what they saw, many of them developed new tools to overcome +their limitations. Galileo crafted a fine telescope for observing the +heavens. His hand-drawn pictures of the satellites of Jupiter, the +"cup handles" of Saturn, and the phases of Venus, when combined with +the possible reasons for those facts, shook the very foundations of +the European society in the Middle Ages. Bigger and more powerful +telescopes, combined with even newer tools, such as spectroscopes and +cameras, have answered most of the the questions of those ancient +stargazers. But in doing so, they have unfolded even newer mysteries. + +Beginning in the 1960s, our view of the heavens reached beyond the +obscuring atmosphere of Earth as unmanned spacecraft carried cameras +and other data sensors to probe the satellites and planets of the +Solar System. Images those spacecraft sent back to the Earth provided +startling clarity to details that are only fuzzy markings on the +planets' surfaces when seen from Earth-based telescopes. Only two of +the presently known planets, Neptune and Pluto, remain unexplored by +our cameras. In August 1989, Voyager 2 will snap several thousand +closeup frames of the planet Neptune and its largest satellite, +Triton. By the end of the 20th century, only Pluto will not have been +visited by one of our spacecraft. + +The knowledge humans have today of outer space would astound Galileo. +Spacecraft have sent back pictures of a cratered and moon-like +surface of the planet Mercury and revealed circulation patterns in +the atmosphere of Venus. From Mars, they have sent back images of +craters, giant canyons, and volcanoes on the planet's surface. +Jupiter's atmospheric circulation has been revealed, active +volcanoes on the Jovian moon Io have been shown erupting, and +previously unknown moons and a ring circling the planet discovered. +New moons were found orbiting Saturn and the Saturnian rings were +resolved in such detail that over 1,000 concentric ring features +became apparent. At Uranus, Voyager sent back details of a planet +that is covered by a featureless, bluish-green fog. The planet is +encircled by rings darker than charcoal and shaped by shepherding +satellites, accompanied by five large satellites, and immersed in a +magnetic field. + +Those discoveries, and thousands of others like them, were made +possible through the technology of telemetry, the technique of +transmitting data by means of radio signals to distant locations. +Thus, the spacecraft not only carries data sensors but must also +carry a telemetry system to convert the data from the various sensors +into radio pulses. These pulses are received by a huge dish antenna +here on Earth. The signals are relayed to data centers where +scientists and engineers can convert the radio pulses back into the +data the sensors originally measured. + +A camera system on board the spacecraft measures reflected light from +a planet or satellite as it enters the spacecraft's optical system. A +computer converts the measurements into numerical data, which are +transmitted to a receiver on Earth by radio waves. On Earth, +computers reassemble the numbers into a picture. + +Because the measurements are taken point by point, the images from +space are not considered "true" photographs, or what photographers +call a "continuous tone," but rather a facsimile image composed of a +pattern of dots assigned various shades from white to black. The +facsimile image is much like the halftones newspapers use to recreate +photographs. ŽIf you examine a newspaper photograph with a magnifying +glass, you will see that is is composed of many small, variously +shaded dots. + +Even more closely related to the way images are received from space +is the way a television set works. For a picture to appear on a +television set, a modulated beam of light rapidly illuminates long +rows of tiny dots. filling in one line then the next until a picture +forms. These dots are called picture elements, or pixels for short, +and the screen surface where they are located is called a raster. +Raster scanning refers to the way the beam of light hits the +individual pixels at various intensities to recreate the original +picture. Of course, scanning happens very fast, so it is hardly +perceptible to the human eye. Images from space are drawn in much the +same manner on a television-like screen (a cathode-ray tube). + +Although cameras on a spacecraft probing the Solar System have much +in common with those in television studios, they also have their +share of differences. For one, the space-bound cameras take much +longer to form and transmit an image. While this may seem like a +disadvantage, it is not. The images produced by the slow-scanning +cameras are of a much higher quality and contain more than twice the +amount of information present in a television picture. + +The most enduring image gatherer in space has been the Voyager 2 +spacecraft. Voyager carries a dual television camera system, which +can be commanded to view an object with either a wide-angle or +telephoto lens. The system is mounted on a science platform that can +be tilted in any direction for precise aiming. Reflected light from +the object enters the lenses and falls on the surface of a +selenium-sulfur vidicon television tube, 11 millimeters square. A +shutter in the camera controls the amount of light reaching the tube +and can vary exposure times from 0.005 second for very bright objects +to 15 seconds or longer when searching for faint objects such as +unknown moons. + +The vidicon tube temporarily holds the image on its surface until it +can be scanned for brightness levels. The surface of the tube is +divided into 800 parallel lines, each containing 800 pixels, giving a +total of 640,000. As each pixel is scanned for brightness, it is +assigned a number from 0 to 255. + +The range (0 to 255) was chosen because it coincides with the most +common counting unit in computer systems, a unit called a byte. In +computers, information is stored in bits and bytes. The bit is the +most fundamental counting or storage unit, while a byte is the most +useful one. A bit contains one of two possible values, and can best +be thought of as a tiny on-off switch on an electrical circuit. A +byte, on the other hand, contains the total value represented by 8 +bits. The value can be interpreted in many ways, such as a numerical +value, an alphabet character or symbol, or a pixel shaded between +black and white. In a byte, the position of each bit represents a +counting power of 2. (By convention, bit patterns are read from right +to left.) Thus, the first bit (the righmost bit) of the eight bit +sequence represents 2 to the zero power, the second bit refers to 2 +to the 1 power, and so on. For each bit in a byte that has a one in +it, you add the value of that power of two (the sequence value) until +all eight bits are counted. For example, if the byte has the bit +value of 00101101, then it represents the number 45. The binary table +at the end of this document shows how translation of bits and bytes +to numbers is done. + +If all the bits in an eight-bit sequence are ones, then it will +correspond to the value 255. That is the maximum value that a byte +can count to. Thus, if a byte is used to represent shades of gray in +an image, then by convention the lowest value, zero, corresponds to +pure black, while the highest value 255, corresponds to pure white. +All other values are intermediate shades of gray. + +When the values for all the pixels have been assigned, they are +either sent directly to a receiver on Earth or stored on magnetic +tape to be sent later. Data are typically stored on tape on board the +spacecraft when the signals are going to be temporarily blocked, such +as when Voyager passes behind a planet or a satellite. For each +image, and its total of 640,000 pixels, 5,120,000 bits of data must +be transmitted (640,000 x 8). When Voyager flew close to Jupiter, +data were transmitted back to Earth at a rate of more than 100,000 +bits per second. This meant that once data began reaching the +antennas on Earth's surface, information for complete images was +received in about 1 minute for each transmission. + +As the distance of the spacecraft from Earth increases, the quality +of the radioed data stream decreases and the rate of transmission of +data has to be slowed correspondingly. Thus, at the distance of +Uranus, the data has to be transmitted some six to eight times slower +than could be done at Jupiter. That means that only one picture can +be transmitted in the time six pictures were taken at Jupiter. +However, for the Uranus encounter, scientists and engineers devised a +scheme to get around that limitation. The scheme was called data +compression. + +To do that, they reprogrammed the spacecraft en route. Instead of +having Voyager transmit the full 8 bits for each pixel, its computers +were instructed to send back only the differences between brightness +levels of successive pixels. That reduced the data bits needed for an +image by about 60 percent. Slowing the transmission rate meant that +noise did not interfere with the image reception, and by compressing +the data, a full array of striking images was received. The computers +at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) restored the correct +brightness to each pixel, producing both black-and-white and +full-color images. + +The radio signals that a spacecraft such as Voyager sends to Earth +are received by a system of large dish antennas called the Deep Space +Network (DSN). The DSN is designed to provide command, control, +tracking and data acquisition for deep space missions. Configured +around the globe at locations approximately 120 degrees apart, DSN +provides 24-hour line-of-sight coverage. + +Stations are located at Goldstone, California, and near Madrid, +Spain, and Canberra, Australia. The DSN, managed by NASA's Jet +Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, consists of three +64-meter (210-ft) diameter dish-shaped antennas, six 34-meter +(111-ft) diameter antennas, and three 26-meter (85-ft) antennas. As +antennas at one station lose contact, due to Earth's rotation, +antennas at the next station rotate into view and take over the job +of receiving spacecraft data. While one station is tracking a deep +space mission, such as Voyager, the other two are busy tracking +spacecraft elsewhere in the sky. + +During Voyager's contact with Saturn, the DSN recovered more than 99 +percent of th 17,000 images transmitted. That accomplishment required +the use of a technique known as "antenna arraying." Arraying for the +Saturn encounter was accomplished by electronically adding signals +received by two antennas at each site. Because of the great distance +Uranus is from the Earth, the signal received from Voyager 2 was only +one-fourth as strong as the signal received from Saturn. A new +arraying technique, which combined signals from four antennas, was +used during the Uranus encounter to allow up to 21,600 bits of data +to be received each second. + +Arraying's biggest payoff came in Australia, whose government +provided its Parkes Radio Astronomy Observatory 64-meter antenna to +be linked with the DSN's three-antenna complex near Canberra. The +most critical events of the encounter, including Voyager's closet +approaches to Uranus and its satellites, were designed to occur when +the spacecraft would be transmitting to the complex in Australia. The +data were successfully relayed to JPL through that array. + +The DSN was able to track Voyager's position at Saturn with an +accuracy of nearly 150 kilometers (about 90 miles) during its closest +approach. This accuracy was achieved by using the network's +radiometric system, the spacecraft's cameras, and a technique called +Very Long Baseline Interferometry, or VLBI. VLBI determines the +direction of the spacecraft by precisely measuring the slight +difference between the time of arrival of the signal at two or more +ground antennas. The same technique was used at Uranus to aim the +spacecraft so accurately that the deflection of its trajectory caused +by the planet's gravity would sent it on to Neptune. + +When the DSN antennas receive the information from the spacecraft, +computers at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory store it for future use +and reassemble it into images. To recreate a picture from data that +has been sent across the vacuum of space, computers read the data bit +by bit, calculating the values for each pixel and converting the +value into a small square of light. The squares are displayed on a +television screen on the spacecraft. The resulting image is a +black-and-white facsimile of the object being measured. + +Color images can be made by taking three black-and-white frames in +succession and blending ("registering") them on one another in the +three color-planes of a television screen. In order for that to work, +however, each of the three frames has to be taken by the camera on +board the spacecraft through different filters. On Voyager, one frame +is taken through a blue filter, one through a green, and one through +an orange. + +Filters have varying effects on the amount of light being measured. +For example, light passes through a blue filter will favor the blue +values in the image making them appear brighter or transparent, +whereas red or orange values will appear much darker than normal. On +Earth the three images are given the appropriate colors of the +filters through which they were measured and then blended together to +give a color image. + +An important feat the interplanetary spacecraft must accomplish is +focusing on its target while traveling at extremely high speeds. +Voyager sped past Uranus at more then 40,000 miles an hour. To get an +unblurred image, the cameras on board had to steadily track their +target while the camera shutters were open. The technique to do this, +called image-motion compensation, involves rotating the entire +spacecraft under the control of the stabilizing gyroscopes. The +strategy was used successfully both at Saturn's satellite Rhea and at +Uranus. Both times, cameras tracked their targets without +interruption. + +Once the image is reconstructed by computers on Earth, it sometimes +happens that objects appear nondescript or that subtle shades in +planetary details such as cloudtops cannot be discerned by visual +examination alone. This can be overcome, however, by adding a final +"contrast enhancement" to the production. The process of contrast +enhancement is like adjusting the contrast and brightness controls on +a television set. Because the shades of the image are broken down +into picture elements, the computer can increase of decrease +brightness values of individual pixels, thereby exaggerating their +difference and sharpening even the tiniest details. + +For example, suppose a portion of an image returned from space +reveals an area of subtle gray tones. Data from the computer +indicates the range in brightness values is between 98 and 120, and +all are fairly evenly distributed. To the unaided eye, the portion +appears as a blurred gray patch because the shades are too nearly +similar to be discerned. To eliminate this visual handicap, the +brightness values can be assigned new numbers. The shades can be +spread farther apart, say five shades apart rather than the one +currently being looked at. Because the data are already stored on +computers, it is a fairly easy task to isolate the twenty-three +values and assign them new ones: 98 could be assigned 20, 99 assigned +25, and so on. The resulting image is "enhanced" to the unaided eye, +while the information is the same accurate data transmitted from the +vicinity of the object in space. + +The past 25 years of space travel and exploration have generated an +unprecedented quantity of data from planetary systems. Images taken +in space and telemetered back to Earth have greatly aided scientists +in formulating better and more accurate theories about the nature and +origin of our Solar System. Data gathered at close range, and from +above the distorting effects of Earth's atmosphere, produce images +far more detailed than pictures taken by even the largest Earth-bound +telescopes. + +In our search to understand the world as well as the universe in +which we live, we have in one generation reached farther than in any +other generation before us. We have overcome the limitations of +looking from the surface of our planet and have traveled to others. +Whatever yearning drew those first stargazers from the security of +their caves to look up at the night sky and wonder still draws men +and women to the stars. + +_____________________________________________________________________ + + + +BINARY TABLE + +Bit of Data 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +Sequence Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 +Binary Value 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 +Byte Value 0 +0 +32 +0 +8 +4 +0 +1 = 45 + + + +Sequence Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +Brightness Values Binary Values +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + 0 (black) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 9 (dark gray) 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 + 62 (gray) 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 +183 (pale gray) 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 +255 (white) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + +______________________________________________________________________ + + + +BRIEF HISTORY OF PICTURES BY UNMANNED SPACECRAFT + +NAME: Pioneer 4 +YEAR: 1959 +MISSION: Moon: measured particles and fields in a flyby, entered + heliocentric orbit. + +NAME: Ranger 7 +YEAR: 1964 +MISSION: Moon: 4,316 high-resolution TV pictures of Sea of Clouds; + impacted. + +NAME: Ranger 8 +YEAR: 1965 +MISSION: Moon: 7,137 pictures of Sea of Tranquility; impacted. + +NAME: Ranger 9 +YEAR: 1965 +MISSION: Moon: 5,814 pictures of Crater Alphonsus; impacted. + +NAME: Surveyor 1 +YEAR: 1966 +MISSION: Moon: 11,237 pictures, soft landing in Ocean of Storms. + +NAME: Surveyor 3 +YEAR: 1967 +MISSION: Moon: 6,315 pictures, first soil scoop; soft landed in Sea + of Clouds. + +NAME: Surveyor 5 +YEAR: 1967 +MISSION: Moon: more than 19,000 pictures; first alpha scatter + analyzed chemical structure; soft landed in Sea of + Tranquility. + +NAME: Surveyor 6 +YEAR: 1967 +MISSION: Moon: 30,065 pictures; first lift off from lunar surface, + moved ship 10 feet, soft landed in Central Bay region. + +NAME: Surveyor 7 +YEAR: 1968 +MISSION: Moon: returned television pictures, performed alpha scatter, + and took surface sample; first soft landing on ejecta + blanket beside Crater Tycho. + +NAME: Lunar Orbiter 1 +YEAR: 1966 +MISSION: Moon: medium and high-resolution pictures of 9 possible + landing sites; first orbit of another planetary body; + impacted. + +NAME: Lunar Orbiter 2 +YEAR: 1966 +MISSION: Moon: 211 frames (422 medium and high-resolution pictures); + impacted. + +NAME: Lunar Orbiter 3 +YEAR: 1967 +MISSION: Moon: 211 frames including picture of Surveyor 1 on lunar + surface; impacted. + +NAME: Lunar Orbiter 4 +YEAR: 1967 +MISSION: Moon: 167 frames; impacted. + +NAME: Lunar Orbiter 5 +YEAR: 1967 +MISSION: Moon: 212 frames, including 5 possible landing sites and + micrometeoroid data; impacted. + +NAME: Mariner 4 +YEAR: 1964 +MISSION: Mars: 21 pictures of cratered moon-like surface, measured + planet's thin, mostly carbon dioxide atmosphere; flyby. + +NAME: Mariners 6 and 7 +YEAR: 1969 +MISSION: Mars: verified atmospheric findings: no nitrogen present, + dry ice near polar caps; both flybys. + +NAME: Mariner 9 +YEAR: 1971 +MISSION: Mars: 7,400 pictures of both satellites and planet's + surface; orbited. + +NAME: Mariner 10 +YEAR: 1973 +MISSION: First multiple planet encounter. + + Venus: first full-disc pictures of planet; ultraviolet + images of atmosphere, revealing circulation patterns; + atmosphere rotates more slowly than planetary body; flyby. + + Mercury: pictures of moon-like surface with long, narrow + valleys and cliffs; flyby; three Mercury encounters at + 6-month intervals. + +NAME: Pioneer 10 +YEAR: 1972 +MISSION: Jupiter: first close-up pictures of Great Red Spot and + planetary atmosphere; carries plaque with intergalactic + greetings from Earth. + +NAME: Pioneer 11 (Pioneer Saturn) +YEAR: 1973 +MISSION: Jupiter: pictures of planet from 42,760 km (26,725 mi) above + cloudtops; only pictures of polar regions; used Jupiter's + gravity to swing it back across the Solar System to Saturn. + + Saturn: pictures of planet as it passed through ring plane + within 21,400 km (13,300 mi) of cloudtops; new discoveries + were made; spacecraft renamed Pioneer Saturn after leaving + Jupiter. + +NAME: Pioneer Venus 1 +YEAR: 1978 +MISSION: Venus: studied cloud cover and planetary topography; + orbited. + +NAME: Pioneer Venus 2 +YEAR: 1978 +MISSION: Venus: multiprobe, measuring atmosphere top to bottom; + probes designed to impact on surface but continued to return + data for 67 minutes. + +NAME: Viking 1 +YEAR: 1975 +MISSION: Mars: first surface pictures of Mars as well as color + pictures; landed July 20, 1976; remained operating until + November 1982. + +NAME: Viking 2 +YEAR: 1975 +MISSION: Mars; showed a red surface of oxidized iron; landed + September 03, 1976. + +NAME: Voyager 1 +YEAR: 1977 +MISSION: Jupiter: launched after Voyager 2 but on a faster + trajectory; took pictures of Jupiter's rapidly changing + cloudtops; discovered ring circling planet, active volcano + on Io, and first moons with color: Io, orange; Europa, + amber; and Ganymede, brown; flyby. + + Saturn: pictures showed atmosphere similar to Jupiter's, but + with many more bands and a dense haze that obscured the + surface; found new rings within rings; increased known + satellite count to 17; flyby. + +NAME: Voyager 2 +YEAR: 1977 +MISSION: Jupiter: color and black-and-white pictures to complement + Voyager 1; time-lapse movie of volcanic action on Io; flyby. + + Saturn: cameras with more sensitivity resolved ring count to + more than 1,000; time-lapse movies studied ring spokes; + distinctive features seen on several moons; 5 new satellites + were discovered; flyby. + + Uranus: first encounter with this distant planet; photo- + graphed surface of satellites, resolved rings into multi- + colored bands showing anticipated shepherding satellites; + discovered 10 new moons, 2 new rings, and a tilted magnetic + field; flyby. + + Neptune: encounter scheduled for 1989. + +--- +NASA FACTS, HOW WE GET PICTURES FROM SPACE, Haynes, NF-151/7-87 + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/pihist.txt b/textfiles.com/science/pihist.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..947bd3f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/pihist.txt @@ -0,0 +1,73 @@ + +Msg #43120 in *Science Echo* Created on 07/25/89 at 02:22:53 +To: Daniel Osborn, From: Pete Tyjewski +Subject: bible pi=3 + +pi=3 1/8 babylonians 2200BC +pi=(16/9)^2=3.16 egypt 2000BC +pi=3 I kings 7:23,II Chronicles 4:2,500 BC *Bible is right dont make waves +pi=3.14163 archimedes 300bc +pi=355/113=3.1415929 valentinus 1573 +pi=3.1415926535897932 I Newton 1665 +pi=20 places Euler 1755 1Hr +pi=205 digits Johann Dase 1844 2 months +pi= 16/sqr(3) or 9.23 bill 246 indiana state law 1897 +pi to 840 places Ferguson (desk calculator) 1947 3yrs + 2000 places EINAC 1949 70 Hr + 3000 places NORAC 1955 13 minutes (NavalOrdanceResearchCalculator) + 7500 places pegasus (london)1957 33H + 10,000 places IBM 704 1958 1Hr43Min + 16,167 places IBM 704 1959 4.3Hr + 20,000 places IBM 7090 1961 39Min + 100,000 places IBM 7090 1961 8hr + 250,000 places IBM 7030 1966 + 500,000 places CDC 6600 1967 28Hr +Taken from A History of PI by Petr Beckman,St Martins press + 1,000,000 places CDC 7600 1973 24Hr + 29,360,000 places Cray-2 1986 +134,217,000 places NEC SX-2 1987 +201,000,000 places NEC SX-2 1988 +From: Ron Freimuth - Fido Science Echo. +480,000,000 places Gregory and David Chudnovsky, Columbia Univ Jun 1989 +From: Jerry Lewis - Fido Science echo. +This last one if printed out is supposed to be 600miles long ... if its a +normal +printer 132 columns 60 lines its 63,000 Sheets 21 boxes of paper or 12 Miles +of paper I guess the 600 miles is for one line in Pica.. Cray-2 and IBM-VF +Supercomputers +several months of interupted time. Maybe Pi will come out in CDRom soon. +Maybe someone can append more to this list or maybe someone from Columbia can +give a bit more detail on the 500M digits. +The Biblical refrences you asked apout... the diameter of solomns temple bowl +and the circumference are given... in both th non cronological books +lets look for beowolf .. and trhe golden apples.. + + +--- + * Origin: Astronomy & Solar (513)398-7883 Mason,Oh (Opus 1:108/81) + +D>elete, R>eply, N>ext, C>ontinuous, Q>uit, RETURN = Next (D,R,N,C,Q)? + + + + +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X + + Another file downloaded from: NIRVANAnet(tm) + + & the Temple of the Screaming Electron Jeff Hunter 510-935-5845 + Rat Head Ratsnatcher 510-524-3649 + Burn This Flag Zardoz 408-363-9766 + realitycheck Poindexter Fortran 415-567-7043 + Lies Unlimited Mick Freen 415-583-4102 + + Specializing in conversations, obscure information, high explosives, + arcane knowledge, political extremism, diversive sexuality, + insane speculation, and wild rumours. ALL-TEXT BBS SYSTEMS. + + Full access for first-time callers. We don't want to know who you are, + where you live, or what your phone number is. We are not Big Brother. + + "Raw Data for Raw Nerves" + +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/plantpai.txt b/textfiles.com/science/plantpai.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c8095a13 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/plantpai.txt @@ -0,0 +1,750 @@ +Newsgroups: rec.food.veg +From: altar@beaufort.sfu.ca (Ted Wayn Altar) +Subject: Plant Pain +Message-ID: +Sender: news@sfu.ca +Organization: Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C., Canada +Date: Fri, 18 Dec 1992 16:54:17 GMT +Lines: 389 + +[This document contains both parts concatenated.] + +I see that the old chestnut of "plant pain" has again been +invoked. Apparently, this is a common argument and so, dear +reader, permit me to re-post an older message of mine that +attempts to address this issue in a discursive, but also +humourous manner. + + Happy Holiday Season, + + ted + + + + + THE DIVERSIONARY TACTIC OF PLANT PAIN + + TED ALTAR + + + +A. HOW MIGHT CHARLES DARWIN RESPOND? + + With respect to this extravagant debate on plant pain we +have at hand a most promiscuous adjoining of some verified +facts with improper inferences. This reminds me of a story +(probably apocryphal as are so many of the best anecdotes) +about Charles Darwin who in his later years was the guest of +a family whose two boys approached him with a clever +deception. Using some old desiccated specimens of insects, +they had deftly attached the wings of a butterfly, the head +of a beetle and the legs of a grasshopper to the body of a +centipede. "We have this strange bug we caught some time +ago" they innocently said, "Can you tell us what it might +be?" Darwin squinted and examined it as best he could and +asked, "Can you remember if it hummed when you caught it?" +he asked in all seriousness. Without smirking, the boys +answered yes, whereupon Darwin replied, "Just as I thought, +it is a humbug!" + + +B. THE SPECIOUS INFERENCE OF PLANT PAIN. + +No doubt we all have been amazed by much "humbug" on this +conference, but maybe no greater example is to be given than +that of "plant pain". Those whose common sense remains +intact will have no difficulty in accepting as sufficient +the following: + + 1. Our best science to date shows that plants lack any + semblance of a central nervous system or any other system + design for such complex capacities as that of a conscious + suffering from felt pain. + + 2. Plants simply have no evolutionary need to feel pain. + Animals being mobile would benefit from the ability to sense + pain; plants would not. Nature does not create gratuitously + such complex capacities as that of feeling pain unless there + should be some benefit for the organism's survival. + + +Well, as Oliver Goldsmith realistically observed, "Every +absurdity has its champions to defend it". And yes, we +have some defenders who would ignore common sense and argue +for plant pain. Remarkable!. But maybe not so remarkable +if we keep in mind the motivation for such humbug. The +following argument has repeated been voiced against the +concern of us who would forward greater regard for the +woefully neglected and grievous suffering of those sentient +creatures who cannot defend, nor articulate in words, their +plight. The following `reductio ad absurdum' is supposed to +suffice as an irrefutable trashing of animal rights. + + Premise(1) If a sentient being can consciously experience + pain and suffering, then it is wrong to inflict + pain & suffering on such a sentient being + Premise(2) Plants are sentient beings that can experience + pain & suffering + Conclusion: It is wrong to inflict pain & suffering on plants. + +In order to challenge the acceptability of premise(1), the +anti-AR would have us believe that such a premise +ineluctably leads to the absurd conclusion as stated above. +In order to achieve this coup de grace of animal rights, the +anti-AR who would give little or no coin to premise (1), +would instead introduce the claims of premise(2) as somehow +"scientifically established". In order to debunk animal +rights as foolish, the anti-AR would first have us believe +in the reality of "plant pain". Hence, they would attempt +to bury AR into a hole but ironically by first bulldozing a +much deeper one for themselves. + + + +E. "EVERY ABSURDITY HAS ITS CHAMPIONS TO DEFEND IT" + +You say that I am merely spinning my wheels on a straw man? +Then permit me to quote from two of the most loquacious and +articulate promoters of plant "pain" on this conference. + +Poster A would bait us with the following argument, an +argument that presumably he still holds as having merit by +virtue of his repeated postings of this worn polemic: + + AR: "You're crude and unfeeling; you'd probably laugh + at your mother's death." + non-AR: "That's silly, my mother is a human. A deer isn't." + AR: "Deer can suffer, and so do cattle...so I don't eat meat." + non-AR: "You apparently have no problem killing plants, though." + AR: "It's not the same. Plants aren't animals." + non-AR: "You're killing a living thing for food, nevertheless." + AR: "But it can't feel; it's not sentient; it has no nervous + system." + non-AR: "Does dissimilarity rule out 'pain'?" + AR: "Yes." + non-AR: "That's completely illogical and unscientific." + +Note how Poster A would invoke the authority of logic and +science as "completely" on his side. Next, consider the +assertions of Poster B: + + As a plant molecular biologist with quite a few + refereed papers on the subject of cellular + communication in plants, please allow me to debunk the + unsubstantiated mythology described above. Plants have + no *need* to feel pain? Ridiculous. + + When a plant is attacked by an herbivorous insect, + might it not be in the best interest of the plant to + mobilize its chemical defenses in other parts of the + plant in anticipation of further insect attack? When a + leaf is infected by a pathogenic fungus, might the rest + of the plant wish to bolster its chemical and enzymatic + defenses against the spread of the pathogen? News + flash -- the plant *would* benefit, hence the + development of a systemic (throughout the plant) + response to local tissue damage by herbivores and + pathogens. (Many) references available upon request. + It might easily be argued that *because* plants can't + move they need effective chemical defenses and + effective detection and communication. This is the + case. You may doubt the sensory and integrative + abilities of plants, so I invite you to spend a few + weeks in my lab and learn the truth. Plants don't have + nerves, since they don't share a particularly recent + common ancestor with animals. Plants feel tissue + injury and respond quickly, precisely, and with an + effective battery of defenses. They don't feel *like + us*, but it would be a mistake to say that they *don't + feel*. + + +Here we have the authority of logic, science and "truth" +being imprecated against the sorry state of AR nescience and +"mythology". Yet, no single published book, or paper in a +scientific journal, has been cited as indeed making this +claim that "plants feel pain". Sure, there is interesting +evidence about plants reacting to local tissue damage and +even sending signalling molecules serving to stimulate +certain chemical defenses of nearby plants. But what has +this got to do with supporting the only morally relevant +claim worth considering, namely that "plants FEEL AND SUFFER +from pain"? Where are the scientific references for this +putative fact? + + Now, dear reader, please be patient with my indulgence to +develop a reasoned reply to such assertive and authoritative +pronouncements about plant pain. + + +C. A REDUCTIO ON A REDUCTIO + +Although the plant pain promoters are fond of reductios, +they will not likely appreciate the following extension of +their own. By their "logic", it would equally be the case +that rain clouds behave purposefully in the sense that they +could be said to functionally remove, by way of raining, +excessive moisture that is causing their overstaturation. +Furthermore, rain clouds bear meaningful information about +their level of oversaturation in the form of weight relative +to volume. Do not clouds, therefore, "sense" (in some +tortured notion of the word) when atmospheric pressure is +insufficient for their moisture content to remain in a +vaporous state? The promoters of plant pain would have us +believe, against our good common sense, that by the mere +presence of purposive BEHAVIOURS of avoidance and REACTIONS +to tissue damage in plants we therefore must attribute to +plants mental states like that of some kind of "felt pain". +Well, then by the same logic we must do the same to clouds. +In the hole that these promoters of plant pain would dig for +themselves, not only must we accept the thesis of plant +pain, we would also have to swallow some notion of "cloud +sentience"! + + +D. THE BEHAVIOURAL INFERENCE OF MENTAL STATES + +Lest we forget the ultimate point of what follows, let us +not forget the central thesis of AR. Simply stated: to the +extent other animals share with us, at least to some degree, +certain morally relevant attributes, then to that extent we +cannot ignore, for the purposes of consistency or justice, +giving due regard and concern towards those animals. Two +attributes that are arguably relevant are: + + 1. our commonly shared interest in the avoidance of + pain and suffering. + + 2. and the quality of other animals also being + subjects-of-a-life which matters to them as to how such + a life fares well or ill. + +Both these qualities posit other animals having certain +mental states. Also note that in order to speak of "mental +states" proper, we would denote, as common usage would +dictate, that such states are marked by consciousness. It +is simply insufficient to mark off mental states by only the +presence of purposefulness or intentionality since many +objects, like thermostats and hand calculators, possess +purposeful-looking behaviours or are in an information- +bearing state. + +Let us further observe that the attribution of morally +relevant mental states to even humans was at one time an +issue of contention. For example, consider the case of that +very prestigious scientific apologist of his society's +ambient prejudices, Silas Mitchell, founder of American +neurology. He claimed that civilized men suffered pain in a +far more ethically relevant manner: + + "In our process of being civilized we have won . . . + intensified capacity to suffer. The savage does not + feel pain as we do" [1]. + +Today, we can witness a similar prejudice that animals do +not suffer pain to the same capacity as we do. For +instance, a cow after surgery will right away start eating +grass, therefore it will be said that the cow cannot be +suffering from post-surgery pain. Just as with the stoic +"savage", who is to say that a cow is not likewise simply +bearing the pain more "heroically" since, as with the non- +civilized human, food is more of an imperative than moaning +with pain; indeed, what else can they do? + +So then, how do we properly attribute the existence of +mental states to other animals, or even to ourselves for +that matter, since in the past we have certainly made +mistakes on this score? As we have seen, the *criterion of +outward functional behaviour* has been faulty with even +humans. Yet, our plant pain promoters would employ this +same criterion at a different level, turn things on their +head and argue that because plants react to noxious stimuli, +they therefore feel pain. Now, if the inference of pain +from overt behaviours has been faulty for attributing pain +where we now know pain most assuredly exists, then it is +probably equally faulty in attributing pain where pain does +not exist. If reactions or behaviours were sufficient, then +we would have to say that a mere toy doll crying and +wriggling, when triggered to do so by certain stimuli, was +indeed in pain. + +Similarly, we cannot infer the presence of felt pain simply +by the presence of a sub-class of behaviours which are +functional for an organism's amelioration or avoidance of +noxious stimuli. Thermostats obviously react to thermal +changes in the environment and respond in a functionally +appropriate manner to restore an initial "preferred" state +thereby maintaining an equilibrium of the status quo. We +would be dirt foolish, however, to then attribute to +thermostats that therefore they must "sense" or "feel" some +kind of "pain". Even warning quotes around our terms don't +protect us from such an catachrestic absurdity. + +Clearly, the behavioral criterion of even functional +avoidance/defense reactions, is simply not sufficient nor +even necessary for the proper attribution of pain as a felt +mental state. This is not to say that it is completely +irrelevant for it can at least index the presence of pain in +those creatures we already know or have good reason to +believe experience and suffer pain. Behaviour by itself +does not index pain in our toy doll or thermostat, but +behaviour does usefully index the occurrence of pain and +suffering in those animals that we already have reason to +believe have the capacity to suffer. + + +E. THE RELEVANCE OF SPECIALIZED STRUCTURE + +To state the obvious, science, including the biological +sciences, are generally committed to the working assumption +of scientific materialism or physicalism [2]. Now, unless +the "new" biology has returned to some arcane version of +vitalism or dualism, then we must start with the generally +accepted scientific assumption that matter is the only +existent or real primordial constituent of the universe. + +Let it be said at the outset that scientific materialism as +such does not preclude the existence of emergent or +functional qualities like that of mind, consciousness, and +feeling (or even, dare I say it, free will), but all such +qualities are dependant upon the existence of organized +matter. If there is no hardware, there is nothing for the +software to run on. If there is no intact, living brain, +there is simply no mind. Now, just for the record it should +also be said that even contemporary versions of dualism or +mind-stuff theories will also make depended their embodied +mental states in this world on the presence of sufficiently +organized matter. + +To briefly state the case, what is referred to as non- +reductive materialism [3] would simply consider cognitive +functions like consciousness and mind as emergent properties +of sufficiently organized matter. Just as breathing is a +function of a complex system of organs referred to +aggregately as the respiratory system, so too is +consciousness a function of the immensely complex +information-processing capabilities of a central nervous +system. Now, according to such a neo-functionalist account +of mental states, HOW the matter is organized and in with +WHAT materials is not necessarily delimited to the mammalian +brain. It is possible in theory, that our Alpha Centaurians +who evolved from carrots could equally instantiate some +"higher" functions of consciousness. This may even be +possible with a future computer given a sufficiently complex +and orderly organization of its hardware and clever +software. While such a computer does not yet exist, and we +don't yet know about those Alpha Centaurians, we DO know +that certain living organisms on this planet do possess the +requisite complexity of specialized and highly organized +structure for the emergence of mental states. + + In theory, plants could possess a mental state like pain, +but IF, AND ONLY IF there is a requisite complexity of +organized plant tissue which could serve to INSTANTIATE the +kinds of complex information processing that is prerequisite +to such higher order mental states as that of consciousness +and felt pain. A mammalian brain is not necessary but an +immensely complex hierarchically organized central processor +of some form would be. + + Now, where is the morphological evidence that such a +complexity of tissue in plants exist? Single cells or even +aggregates of surrounding tissue is not sufficient for there +to be a functional state of felt pain any more than even +todays complex integrated circuit chips evince consciousness +of any kind. A lot is required and plants just don't have +it. This is not to say that they cannot exhibit complex +reactions, but we are simply OVER-INTERPRETING such +reactions when they are designated as "felt pain". + +With respect to all mammals, birds, and reptiles, we know +that they possess a sufficiently complex neural structure to +enable felt pain plus an evolutionary need for such +consciously felt states. They possess complex and +specialized organizations of tissue call sense organs, they +possess a specialized and complex structure for processing +information and for centrally orchestrating appropriate +behaviours in accordance with mental representations, +integrations and reorganizations of that information. The +proper attribution of felt pain in these animals is well +justified, but it is not for plants by any stretch of the +imagination. + + + ted + + +I. REFERENCES + +[1] Cited from M. Pernick's (1985) "A CALCULUS OF SUFFERING: + PAIN, PROFESSIONALISM AND ANESTHESIA IN 19TH C. + AMERICA. New York: Columbia University Press. Cited + in turn in Bernard Rollin's (1989), "THE UNHEEDED CRY: + ANIMAL CONSCIOUSNESS, ANIMAL PAIN AND SCIENCE". + Oxford: Oxford University Press. I would strongly + recommend Rollin's book as a very well argued and + documented scholarly work on this important issue. + +[2] Burtt, E. A. (1924). THE METAPHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS OF + MODERN SCIENCE. London: Routledge & Kegan +[3] See Flanagan, Owen's THE SCIENCE OF THE MIND (2n ed). + Mass.: The MIT Press. Provides for a good review of + these issues. + THE FALLACIES BEHIND THE PLANT PAIN ARGUMENT + + Many are destined to reason wrongly, others, not to + reason at all; and others, to persecute those who do + reason. (Voltaire) + + +How, then, could anybody seriously entertain this humbug of plant +pain? Is it not remarkable that the most persistent and +articulate of the anti-AR would forward such contentious and +prima facie absurd claims. But I guess it is not so remarkable +if we keep in mind their dogged intent to debunk the claims of +animal rights, seemingly no matter at what cost to good sense, +rationality, or even established scientific fact. Since, as we +have seen, many would claim to be avowed ethical subjectivists, +at least when it is convenient to do so, I guess we should not be +surprised that rationality and intellect is merely made sullied +handmaidens for advancing their quest to discredit the case for +animal rights. + +What follows, dear reader, are five of the common flaws of reason +masquerading as arguments on behalf of plant rights. + + +1. Error #1: THE ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIUM + +In the name of open-mindedness, we are asked to take seriously +the claim of plant pain because the disbelievers and the +incredulous simply cannot prove that plants have no felt pain, or +that our knowledge of such things as with many other things, is +simply incomplete and uncertain. For instance, it has been said +that: + + "The simple fact that "cruelty" cannot be DIS-proved + introduces reasonable doubt into this argument." + +Here we have the presumption of innocence found in a court of law +being inappropriately transferred to how scientific theories are +to be established or seriously entertained. Normally, we would +argue on BEHALF of a scientific theory by presenting evidence for +it, not by pointing to our current lack of evidence unless one is +arguing AGAINST a theory. The plant pain promoters would turn +the logic of scientific justification on its head. + +Now, in a general or ultimate sense it is TRIVIALLY TRUE that +there is no final "proof" against such wild notions, but then +there is also no ultimate proof against unicorns or ghosts. It +is a well known INFORMAL FALLACY to conclude from a lack of +disproof for something's existence that it therefore exists or +must be taken as a serious possibility for existence. That is to +say, it is simply false to argue that a proposition is true +simply on the basis that it has not been proved false. The idea +here is to try to persuade people of a proposition which avails +itself of facts and reasons the falsity or inadequacy of which is +not readily discerned. + +This flawed logic is technically referred to by logicians as the +"ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIUM" (argument from ignorance). This is a +logically invalid argument, one that would exploit our common +ignorance of things. Now, you might ask, why shouldn't we permit +speculative theories to enter into our foundation of ethics. +Consider, however, the following example: + + "no breath of scandal has ever touched the mayor, + therefore she is MUST be incorruptibly honest". + +Maybe she is and maybe she is not, but our ignorance does not +establish the truth or falsity of the conclusion that she is +incorruptibly honesty. It is simply unfair to employ our +ignorance as the sole basis of support for some social/public +concern. + +Similarly, what we DO KNOW about how animals experience pain and +suffering is of relevance for a system of public ethics. What we +do know about plants is that they DO NOT HAVE a nervous system +nor a structure at the cellular level designed to process +information in a manner that would conceivably enable a conscious +suffering of pain or discomfort. What we do NOT YET KNOW about +the workings of plants, of how consciousness in general is +enabled, or of how the universe as a whole works, is simply not +relevant. It is one thing to plea for open-mindedness, it is +quite another to promote intellectual promiscuity under the same +banner. + + +2. Error #2: EQUIVOCATION OF TERMS TO BOOTLEG A FALSE +CONCLUSION + +To understand this very slippery and flawed reasoning that +logicians refer to as the informal fallacy of EQUIVOCATION, +consider the following example: + + "The end of a thing is its perfection; + death is the end of life; + hence, death is the perfection of life" + +Note the two senses of the word "end" and how the last part of +the sentence confuses them. The word "end" may mean either +"goal" or "last event". Both meanings are legitimate, but to +confuse the two in an argument is a fallacy. In the example +above we have two legitimate premises but a false conclusion that +does not follow from the premises, unless we remove the +equivocation and rewrite, say, the first premise as: + + "The LAST EVENT of a thing is its perfection". + +But such a premise is patently false. + +This is exactly the kind of flawed argumentation that is +occurring with our promoters of plant pain. For instance, the +term "sentient" is deemed applicable to plants given ONE of its +meanings to simply be the "responsiveness to sensory stimuli". +After arguing further that what plants do at a molecular level +can be deemed a "sensory response", even thought they do not +possess specialized organizations of tissue called sense organs +(see error #3 below), they would then have us accept the +designation that plants are "sentient". + +Let us, for the sake of argument, accept their twisted meaning of +the term of "sentient" to simply mean a functional reaction on a +biochemical or cellular level to noxious or warning stimuli. In +this sense, they will argue that a plant can be said to be +"sentient". But at a different juncture they would then have us +conclude that because plants are indeed "sentient" they also +"feel" tissue injury or assault as "unpleasant"! What the wily +plant pain promoters have done is simply bootleg a false +conclusion by switching between two quite difference meanings of +the word "sentient". Permit me to lay it out: + + premise 1: Plants are responsive to "sense" impressions + premise 2: As defined in the dictionary, anything + responsive to sense impressions are sentient + conclusion 1: Plants are sentient + + +Note that premise 1 employs the word "sense" in a very +restrictive manner to mean, for the plant pain promoters, +"reactions to certain stimuli". Now, for them to jump from this +minimal and idiosyncratic usage of "sentient" to the issue of +plant pain, our wily abusers of ordinary language IMPLICITLY are +forwarding something like the following argument. + + conclusion 1: Plants are sentient + premise 3: Sentient beings are conscious of sense + impressions + conclusion 2: plants are conscious of sense impressions + + premise 4: To be conscious of a noxious stimuli is felt as + unpleasant + conclusion 3: noxious stimuli to plants is unpleasant + + +From unpleasant we then arrive at plant pain. Of course, our +plant promoters will protest that they never said that plants +have "consciousness" or "feel" pain, but only that they respond +in a manner similar to how we respond to pain. Well, if that be +truly the only claim and no more, then there is simply no +relevance whatsoever of such an idiosyncratic notion plant "pain" +to the real ethical issue of animals suffering from felt pain. +If it is not irrelevant, then we have either one of 2 results: + + 1. equivocating on usage of "sentient" to bootleg a false + conclusion. This is a logical, not a semantic, fallacy. + + 2. redefining what ordinary people mean by pain and + suffering so that these terms no longer refer to a conscious + awareness of pain/suffering. Now we have the error of + irrelevant re-definition. This brings us to the next error + of reasoning. + + +3. Error #3: LOGOMACHY OR "LET'S PLAY RE-DEFINITION" + +. For most people, "sentient" designates the capacity to feel. +That is, it would refer to a mental state, not a mere set of +behaviours. The Oxford English Dictionary list 3 core meanings, +of which the plant pain promoters will selectively choose only +one, it being the most minimal definition, namely: + + "def 2: Phys. Of organs or tissues: responsive to sensory + stimuli." + +Of course, they do not look any further. If they were, they +might be surprised to discover that the word "sensory" refers to +the organs of "sense" or belonging to "sensation" In turn, the +words "sense" and "sensation" refers to the organs or mental +states of perception, of psychical affection, of consciousness, +etc. Indeed, it is designated right at the beginning that +"sensation" is "now commonly the subjective element in the +operation of the senses; psychical feeling" (OED). The meanings +that predominate refer to mental states, and as we have noted, +all mental states are marked by consciousness. Yet, our plant +pain promoters ignore these obvious conventions of ordinary word +meanings and would legislate their own. And what motivates this +re-definition of our terms? Certainly, not to promote clarity or +scientific accuracy. If plants have "pain" but no consciousness +then what are we to make of such muddy oxymorons as that of an +"unconscious pain" or an "unfelt pain"? + +If our promoters of plant pain weren't so blunt serious, this +might all be very funny. Indeed, good puns and amusing gaffs +result from an incongruous and inapposite word usage. For +example, someone once stole the seats from all the toilets in a +Canadian RCMP station. The official press release by the +Mounties said that they still had nothing to go on. Methinks our +pain promoters also have nothing to go on. + + +4. Error #4: REMOTE PARALLELS DO NOT MAKE FOR IDENTITIES + +Now, we have been entertained by our plant pain promoters of some +interesting facts like that of oak trees diverting some of its +activity to an increase production of tannic acid in respond to, +say, a Gypsy moth invasion. We are informed that: + +> There IS a parallel here, and the relative complexity of the +> sensory and interpretive mechanisms is irrelevant. + +The cruel fact remains, however, that PARALLELS DO NOT MAKE FOR +IDENTITIES. Indeed, how something is achieved is just as +important as what is being achieved in order to properly +attribute there to be identity. For animals, conscious +motivation to avoid pain figures very large in how they would +avoid or mitigate pain. Pain is not something that is unfelt. +It makes no sense to speak of "unfelt, unconscious pain", yet our +plant pain promoters will insist upon there being a morally +relevant parallel. + +To illustrate this point about identity, please permit me to work +from a different and more familiar example. Now, it has been +argued that computers "think" as evidence by their capacity to +manipulate symbols. What shall we make of this?. + + Searle's (1980) well-known Chinese room argument, however, at +least makes clear that computers as syntactic engines are not +"understanders" of language even if they should one day be +successful at translating from Chinese to English back to +Chinese. The subjective life and mind accompanying a person's +performances would seem to involve more than the computer's +superior efficiency at manipulating data according to sequences +of algorithm-governed operations. To even here speak of "rule- +governed operations" is misleading since it suggests we can talk +of these machines under the description of them "following +rules". Shanker (1987) makes the case that this violates our +logical grammar of rule-following being a normative rather a +mechanical action and that it is an action predicated on some +necessary minimal "understanding" of the rule. Due to the +literal ascription implied by this trope about computers, we are +lapsing into the same kind of conceptual confusion that would +occur if we were to literally ascribe to the members of a meeting +that they were following Robert's rules of order even though they +were ignorant of, or did not understand the rules. If we were to +say such a thing, it would only be FIGURATIVE for simply saying +that the members just happen to be inadvertently or unknowingly +abiding by Robert's rules. Notwithstanding the generosities of +idealization and wishful rhetoric, the computer analogue still +remains a metaphor and one that too often invites a misleading +anthropomorphism (Dreyfus, 1987). + + Indeed, as the problems of the computer metaphor are becoming +more widely appreciated and, as Michie (1982) notes, the former +heuristic value of the metaphor is being replaced by more exact +and fruitful formalizations and mathematics, the metaphor is +beginning to become less frequent in the scientific prose of AI +science itself. While anthropomorphic speculation inaugurated +both the animal and computer models, it is a circumspect +anthropomorphism tempered with naturalism that now appears to be +the most fruitful approach for the understanding of animals +(Griffin, 1981), but it is an "objectivist", or more precisely an +electrical-mechanical and symbolic-mathematical prose, that is +more fitting for AI. With respect to plants, the language of +mental states is simply addleheaded and daft. + + +5. Error #5: OVER-INTERPRETATION OF ESTABLISHED FACTS + +Now, we have been told that "there IS some evidence which shows +that plants are "sentient", in the broad sense of the word." +Hmm., more likely the narrow and twisted sense of the word. But +again, all we have is simply the interesting but morally +irrelevant facts about plants reacting to certain noxious +stimuli, or to the signalling molecules of other plants under +attack. We are then asked about how this might be different from +our own sense of smell. They would ask, "is this not equivalent +to plant sensation or of a plant sensing its environment?" By +now, we should be able to readily reply that such usage simply +stretches our ordinary definitions of the word "sense". Mere +behavioural reactions and avoidance to certain stimuli is +insufficient for the attributions of mental states like that of +perceptions and knowing sensation. Again, we have either an +equivocation of usage to bootleg false conclusion, or we simply +have a re-defninition of our ordinary meanings to something +idiosyncratic and morally irrelevant. HOW the plants do what +they do is just as important as the function of what those +reactions subserve. + + +Here is an example of over-interpretation that was due to this +error of only observing the end result and not the means. It was +once thought that army ants were comprised of a strategic +military column marching through the forest with direction, +purpose and foresight. Well, it turns out that these ants simply +follow the smell of the ants in front, and in turn the leading +ants simply, in a somewhat random manner, lurch or are, pushed +forward. If these ants were to be placed on a flat surface and +the leading ants were to make a circle back to the rump end of +the column, the marching column of ants would simply go around +and around until they died. Where is the intentional purpose, +planning and foresight? There is no scouting ahead of the +terrain, no deliberative leadership, just a very simply mechanism +that under normal conditions in the uneven terrain of the forest +works very effectively to keep the ants ever moving forward in +search new food supplies. The key point is that for many +centuries people over-interpreted what was going on simply +because they only observed the overt functional behaviours and +not the means and enabling conditions for those behaviours. + + +6. THE BELIEF IN NON-EXISTENT PAINS. :-) + +Patient reader, permit me to finish with one last observation. +Hypochondriacs are, as you know, people who believe in pains that +simply don't exist. This much they have in common with our plant +pain promoters. Of course, hypochondriacs also are easily +persuaded that they must themselves have what even the most +superficial description of an illness would describe. I'll leave +it to the reader to decide if this parallel also applies to our +plant pain promoters. Now, there is the amusing story of one +such person who after hearing a lecture on diseases of the +kidney, immediately phoned his doctor. The good doctor patiently +explained that in that particular disease there were no pains or +discomfort of any kind, whereupon our hypochondriac gasped, "I +knew it, my symptoms exactly!" :-) + + + ted + + + REFERENCES + + +Dreyfus, Hubert L. (1987). Misrepresenting human intelligence. + In Rainer Born (Ed.), Artificial intelligence: The case + against. London: Croom Helm. +Griffin, Donald R. (1981). The question of animal awareness: + Evolutionary continuity of mental experience (2nd ed.). + California: William Kaufmann. Another good book that I + would highly recommend. +Michie, Donald (1982). Machine intelligence and related topics. + London: Gordon & Breach Science Publishers. +Searle, J. (1980). Minds, brains, and programs. Behavioral and + Brain Sciences, 3, 417-457. +Shanker, S. G. (1987). The decline and fall of the mechanist + metaphor. In Rainer Born (Ed.), Artificial intelligence: + The case against. London: Croom Helm. +Taylor, Charles (1964). The explanation of behaviour. London: + Routledge & Kegan Paul. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/polymers b/textfiles.com/science/polymers new file mode 100644 index 00000000..5f55046b --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/polymers @@ -0,0 +1,253 @@ +New inclusions to the old stuff: +Info on magnet wire coatings! + + +From all the discussion on this group about building ones own capacitors +and what types of materials make good coil forms, I became interested in +obtaining some hard (or semi-hard) data on different types of polymers. I +was also interested when someone (?) asked whether ABS was a good material +for coil forms - I had no idea. It seems that it is much preferable to PVC +as Richard guessed. + +I thought I'd share the results of my library searches: + +First, I'd like to list some of the plastics with their chemical name and +thier abreviations. Trade names are listed if they are well known. + +chemical name abreviation aka notes +------------- ----------- --- ------ +polyethylene PE polythene-British! + + CH2-CH2 monomer + + HDPE High density PE + LDPE Low density PE + +polypropylene PP replace one H in PE + by CH3 + +polyvinyl chloride PVC replace one H in PE + by one Cl atom + +polyvinylidene chloride CPVC PVDC replace two H in PE + by two Cl + +polystyrene PS replace H in PE by + a benzene ring + +polyvinyl flouride PVF replace H in PE by + F atom + +polyvinylidene flouride PVDF Kynar repace two H in PE + by two F atoms + *wire wrap insul. + +polymethyl methacrylate PMMA Plexiglas + Lucite + Perspex (Jim Oliver) + +polytetraflouroethylene PTFE Teflon replace all H in PE + by F atoms + +polychlorotrifloroethylene PCTFE Kel-F replace 3 H in PE + with F one with Cl + +polyamide 6 PA 6 Nylon 6 + +polyamide 66 PA 66 Nylon 66 + +polyamide-imide PAI Torlon + +polyurethane PUR + +polycarbonate PC Lexan + +Polyacetal POM Delrin + +polyethlene terephthalate PET Mylar co-polymer of PE + +cellulose actetate butyrate CAB Butyrate + +cellulose nitrate CN "Laquer" *typical constituent + laquers + +acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene ABS Cycopac ter-polymer of + polystyrene + * warning Jim Oliver says + this name may apply to + may many diff materials + +polyimide PI Kapton + +polyvinyl formal ? Formvar wire coating + +OK, there are zillions of others, but these are the ones I picked because I +heard of them before... +A couple of comments: Notice that there are many polymers which share a +common structure with polyethylene, all that changes is replacing one or +more of the H atoms in (PE) with some other atom or group of atoms. Then +there are plastics which are called co-polymers or ter-polymers. A co- +polymer is just taking two different monomers and sticking them together in +a unit cell before polymerizing. Example: PET. Likewsie, a ter-polymer is +just sticking three monomers into a unit cell and then polymerizing. A very +common example is ABS which is used as sewar and drainage pipe. + + +Now for the useful stuff. What are the electrical properties of some of +these polymers? The most useful properties in my mind are the dielectric +constant (or permittivity), the dielectric strenght, and the dissipation +factor. All of these properties are dependent on temperature and frequency, +but amazingly they also depend somewhat on the actual thickness of the +material (as in thin films). + +----A couple of notes: +All three properties mentioned above depend on frequency, but it turns out +that for many non-polar polymers (ie PE) that the dielectric constant and +dissipation factor do not depend much on frequency. I'll show some data for +some of the plastics I could find. However, nobody seems to have data on +the frequency dependence of the dielectric strength. It is best just to +assume that this was done at DC. + +One property which is not well known for polymers is that the breakdown +electric field or dielectric strength (VOLTS/INCH etc...) depends on the +actual thickness of the film. Typically, as the film gets thinner, the +dielectric strength goes up!!! For example, LDPE has a strength of 800volts +per mil at 80 mils, but this goes up to 1400volts/mil at 20mils!! +Polystyrene exceeds even this! + +Finally what is dissipation factor? It is a measure of how lossy the +material is to alternating electric fields (as in Tesla coils and tank +capacitors). It is defined by + + Ir + --- = tangent (delta) = DF + Ic + +where Ir is the resistive or dissipative current and Ic is the capacitive +or displacement or reactive current. Delta is the phase angle between +these currents (in the complex plane). Another expression which contains +the same information is the Power Factor. For those familiar with this term +they are related by: + + PF=DF/SQRT(1+DF^2) + +For small DF, then PF is approximately equal to DF. Obvisously, one would +like to have DF as small as possible for low loss, high Q systems. In fact, +for the purposes of approximation, the Q of a capacitor with low DF or PF +is simply Q=1/DF=1/PF + +Absolute power lost in the system is: +1. goes up with the square of the voltage gradient (electric field) +2. goes up linearly with the volume of the dielectric in the field + ( as Richard said, make your coil forms thin) +3. goes up linearly with increasing dielectric constant +4. generally increases with frequency + + +polymer dielectric dielectric dissipation + constant strength factor + 50Hz / 1Mhz (Kv/cm) 50Hz / 1Mhz (x10^-3) +-------- ----------- ----------- ----------- +LDPE 2.29 / 2.28 370 .15 / .08 +HDPE 2.35 / 2.34 -- .24 / .20 +PP 2.27 / 2.25 240 .40 / .50 +PVC-plasticized 4-8 / 4-5 270 80 / 120 +PS 2.5 / 2.5 200-300 .1-.4/.05-.4 +ABS 2.4-5/2.4-3.8 ~400 3-8 / 2-15 +PMMA 3.3-3.9/2.2-3.2 140 40-60/4-40 +POM 3.7 / 3.7 400 5 / 5 +PTFE 2.1 / 2.1 480 .2 / .2 +PCTFE 2.3-2.8/2.3-2.5 550 1 / 20 +PA-6 3.8 / 3.4 400 10 / 30 +PA-66 8 / 4 600 140 / 80 +PC 3.0 / 2.9 380 .7 / 10 +PET 4.0 / 4.0 420 2 / 20 +PI 3.5 / 3.4 560 2 / 5 +PUR-linear 5.8 / 4.0 >300 120 / 70 +PUR-thermoset 3.6 / 3.4 240 50 / 50 +PUR-thermoplas 6.6 / 5.6 300 30 / 60 +CAB 3.7 / 3.5 400 6 / 21 +Silicone 3.6 200 5-13 / 7 + + +Another comparison: + +polymer Dielectric constant / Dissipation Factor (x10^-3) + + 100 Hz 1000 Hz 1 Mhz 10 Mhz + +ABS 2.8/5 2.8/6 2.8/8 2.8/7 +PMMA 3.6/62 3.2/58 3.1/40 2.9/33 +PC 3.1/1 3.1/1.3 3.1/7 3.1/11 +PE 2.3/.1 2.3/.1 2.3/.1 2.3/.1 +PA-6 4.2/31 3.8/24 3.8/31 4.0/20 + + +Magnet wire coatings from Phelps-Dodge: +All data pertain to 18 gauge magnet wires +Build= thickness of coating + +Coating What's it made of Build DC +---------- ----------------- ----- breakdown + +Thermaleze-T (TZT) polyester-imide 2.8mils 11kV + +Armored Polythemaleze 3.05mils 11kV +(APTZ) modified polyester& + modified polyamide-imide + +Imideze (ML) Aromatic polyimide 2.9mils 12kV + +Formvar modified polyviynyl 3.0mils 10kV + formal + +Sodereze modified polyurethane 2.9mils 8.5kV + +Nyleze Polyurethane 2.9mils 8.5kV + & polyamide + +* Note: for the dielectric breakdown, I'm not exactly sure of what they're +takling about since for some of the materials one would get 12kV/3mils +=4KV/mil which doesn't realyy make sense - it's too big by a rather wide +margin, I think. 1Kv/mil is more reasonable. +Anyway, here's the dielectric constant/DF numbers for these matearials: + +Material Dielectric Const. / DF x 10^-3 + + 1kHz 100kHz 1Mhz rating +TZT 3.7/5.6 3.56/16.4 3.58/21.5 3rd + +APTZ 3.86/6.9 3.69/22.1 3.67/26.6 5th + +ML 3.34/0.9 3.3/5.7 3.36/9.8 2nd to + teflon + +Formvar 3.6/11.2 3.41/25.2 3.37/28.4 5th + +Soldereze 3.85/11.3 3.66/20.7 3.66/23.1 4th + +Nyleze 4.07/19.7 3.78/27.1 3.75/27.2 6th + + +References: +1. Polymer Engineering Principles, Richard C. Progelhof and James Throne +2. Plastics for Electronics, Martin T. Goosey +3. Handbook of Plastics in Electronics, Dan Grzegorczyk and George Feineman +4. SPI Plastics Engineering Handbook, Society of the Plasitics Industry +5. Electrical Engineer's Handbook, Pender - 4th Edition +6. Phelps-Dodge magnet wire product data + +Plastics sources: probably best to check your local distributors, but there +is a mail order company called US Plastic Corp @800-537-9724 (catalog). +They have rod/sheet/tubing of PVC, PMMA, CAB, POM, PE, PS. Of particlular +note: + Butyrate tubing up to 6 " diameter * lower loss coil forms + Polystyrene tubing to 4 " dia * very low loss coil form + 4x8ft LDPE sheet 60mil or other * Richard's Capacitors + +If you all are sick of seeing this I'll refrain from futher posts! + +-Ed + + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/putnam.92 b/textfiles.com/science/putnam.92 new file mode 100644 index 00000000..5a0026e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/putnam.92 @@ -0,0 +1,521 @@ +From: brnstnd@ocf.berkeley.edu (Dan Bernstein) +Newsgroups: sci.math +Subject: 1992 Putnam problems and unofficial solutions +Date: 7 Dec 1992 20:20:44 GMT +Message-ID: <1g0bmsINNh22@agate.berkeley.edu> +Organization: IR +Lines: 513 + +As usual, first come the problems, then the problems with solutions. +Send any followup remarks to the USENET newsgroup sci.math. + + +Problem A1 + +Prove that f(n) = 1 - n is the only integer-valued function defined on +the integers that satisfies the following conditions. +(i) f(f(n)) = n, for all integers n; +(ii) f(f(n + 2) + 2) = n for all integers n; +(iii) f(0) = 1. + + +Problem A2 + +Define C(alpha) to be the coefficient of x^1992 in the power series +expansion about x = 0 of (1 + x)^alpha. Evaluate + +\int_0^1 C(-y-1) ( 1/(y+1) + 1/(y+2) + 1/(y+3) + ... + 1/(y+1992) ) dy. + + +Problem A3 + +For a given positive integer m, find all triples (n,x,y) of positive +integers, with n relatively prime to m, which satisfy (x^2 + y^2)^m = (xy)^n. + + +Problem A4 + +Let f be an infinitely differentiable real-valued function defined on +the real numbers. If + +f(1/n) = n^2/(n^2 + 1), n = 1,2,3,..., + +compute the values of the derivatives f^(k)(0), k = 1,2,3,... . + + +Problem A5 + +For each positive integer n, let + +a_n = { 0 if the number of 1's in the binary representation of n is even, + 1 if the number of 1's in the binary representation of n is odd. + +Show that there do not exist positive integers k and m such that + +a_{k+j} = a_{k+m+j} = a_{k+2m+j}, for 0 <= j <= m - 1. + + +Problem A6 + +Four points are chosen at random on the surface of a sphere. What is the +probability that the center of the sphere lies inside the tetrahedron +whose vertices are at the four points? (It is understood that each point +is independently chosen relative to a uniform distribution on the sphere.) + + +Problem B1 + +Let S be a set of n distinct real numbers. Let A_S be the set of numbers +that occur as averages of two distinct elements of S. For a given n >= 2, +what is the smallest possible number of distinct elements in A_S? + + +Problem B2 + +For nonnegative integers n and k, define Q(n,k) to be the coefficient of +x^k in the expansion of (1+x+x^2+x^3)^n. Prove that + +Q(n,k) = \sum_{j=0}^n {n \choose j} {n \choose k - 2j}, + +where {a \choose b} is the standard binomial coefficient. (Reminder: For +integers a and b with a >= 0, {a \choose b} = a!/b!(a-b)! for 0 <= b <= a, +and {a \choose b} = 0 otherwise.) + + +Problem B3 + +For any pair (x,y) of real numbers, a sequence (a_n(x,y))_{n>=0} is +defined as follows: + +a_0(x,y) = x +a_{n+1}(x,y) = ( (a_n(x,y))^2 + y^2 ) / 2, for all n >= 0. + +Find the area of the region { (x,y) | (a_n(x,y))_{n>=0} converges }. + + +Problem B4 + +Let p(x) be a nonzero polynomial of degree less than 1992 having no +nonconstant factor in common with x^3 - x. Let + +( d^1992 / dx^1992 ) ( p(x) / x^3 - x ) = f(x) / g(x) + +for polynomials f(x) and g(x). Find the smallest possible degree of f(x). + + +Problem B5 + +Let D_n denote the value of the (n-1) by (n-1) determinant + +| 3 1 1 1 ... 1 | +| 1 4 1 1 ... 1 | +| 1 1 5 1 ... 1 | +| 1 1 1 6 ... 1 | +| . . . . ... . | +| 1 1 1 1 ... n+1 | + +Is the set {D_n/n!}_{n >= 2} bounded? + + +Problem B6 + +Let M be a set of real n by n matrices such that +(i) I \in M, where I is the n by n identity matrix; +(ii) if A \in M and B \in M, then either AB \in M or -AB \in M, but not both; +(iii) if A \in M and B \in M, then either AB = BA or AB = -BA; +(iv) if A \in M and A \noteq I, there is at least one B \in M such that + AB = -BA. + +Prove that M contains at most n^2 matrices. + +Now the unofficial solutions. Thanks to Noam Elkies for the B6 solution; +thanks also to Peter Akemann, Greg John, and Peter Montgomery. + +The Putnam exam deserves criticism this year for an exceptional number +of typos and poorly worded problems. How can someone taking the Putnam +be sure that his solutions will be graded carefully, if the exam itself +shows sloppy typography, grammar, and style? + + +Problem A1 + +Prove that f(n) = 1 - n is the only integer-valued function defined on +the integers that satisfies the following conditions. +(i) f(f(n)) = n, for all integers n; +(ii) f(f(n + 2) + 2) = n for all integers n; +(iii) f(0) = 1. + +(The comma in (i) is wrong. Either ``conditions.'' should be +``conditions:'' or the semicolons should be periods. Little things...) + +Solution: Certainly if f(n) = 1 - n then (i), (ii), and (iii) hold. +Conversely, say (i), (ii), and (iii) hold. We show that f(k) = 1 - k +and f(1 - k) = k for every k >= 0. For k = 0 and 1 we have f(0) = 1 and +f(1) = f(f(0)) = 0. For k >= 2, by induction we have f(k - 2) = 3 - k +and f(3 - k) = k - 2. Note that f(n + 2) + 2 = f(f(f(n + 2) + 2)) = f(n). +So f(k) = f(k - 2) - 2 = 1 - k and f(1 - k) = f(3 - k) + 2 = k as desired. +As k and 1 - k for k >= 1 cover the integers, we are done. + + +Problem A2 + +Define C(alpha) to be the coefficient of x^1992 in the power series +expansion about x = 0 of (1 + x)^alpha. Evaluate + +\int_0^1 C(-y-1) ( 1/(y+1) + 1/(y+2) + 1/(y+3) + ... + 1/(y+1992) ) dy. + +Solution: C(alpha) is given by the usual binomial coefficient formula +{alpha \choose 1992} = \alpha (\alpha - 1) ... (\alpha - 1991) / 1992!. +Hence C(-y-1) = (-y-1)(-y-2)...(-y-1992)/1992! = (y+1)...(y+1992)/1992!. +Set f(y) = (y+1)(y+2)...(y+1992). Now f has logarithmic derivative +f'/f = ( 1/(y+1) + 1/(y+2) + ... + 1/(y+1992) ). Hence our integral +equals \int_0^1 f(y)/1992! f'(y)/f(y) dy = \int_0^1 f'(y) dy/1992! = +(f(1) - f(0))/1992! = (1993! - 1992!)/1992! = 1993 - 1 = 1992. + + +Problem A3 + +For a given positive integer m, find all triples (n,x,y) of positive +integers, with n relatively prime to m, which satisfy (x^2 + y^2)^m = (xy)^n. + +Solution: Certainly xy < x^2 + y^2 so m < n. Put n = m + k, k > 0. +Let d be the greatest common divisor of x and y. Say x = ds, y = dt. +Now d^{2m}(s^2 + t^2)^m = d^{2n}(st)^n, so (s^2 + t^2)^m = d^{2k}(st)^n. +If a prime p divides s then p divides d^{2k}(st)^n = (s^2 + t^2)^m, +so p must divide t. But s and t are relatively prime. Hence s = 1. +Similarly t = 1. So d^{2k} = 2^m. Hence d is a power of 2, say d = 2^j, +and m = 2jk. As n = m + k = 2jk + k we see that k is a common factor of +m and n. Thus k = 1. So m = 2j, n = 2j + 1, x = y = d = 2^j. If m is odd +then there are no solutions; if m is even then the only possible solution +is (m + 1,2^{m/2},2^{m/2}). This does satisfy the given conditions. + + +Problem A4 + +Let f be an infinitely differentiable real-valued function defined on +the real numbers. If + +f(1/n) = n^2/(n^2 + 1), n = 1,2,3,..., + +compute the values of the derivatives f^(k)(0), k = 1,2,3,... . + +(``Let f be a foo. If bar, compute blah.'' Does this mean that one need +only answer the question if ``bar'' happens to be true? May one choose +his favorite f, such as f(x) = x, observe that it does not satisfy ``bar'', +and [successfully] answer the question without computing anything? +``If ..., compute'' should be ``Assume ... . Compute''.) + +Solution: We first observe that the function g(x) = 1/(1 + x^2) satisfies +all the known properties of f: it is infinitely differentiable, and +g(1/n) = n^2/(n^2 + 1). From the Taylor expansion of g around 0, +g(x) = 1 - x^2 + x^4 - x^6 + ..., we see that g^(k)(0) is 0 for k odd, +(-1)^{k/2}k! for k even. + +Can f differ from g in its derivatives at 0? The difference h = f - g +is an infinitely differentiable function with roots at 1/n for every +positive n. We show that any such function has all derivatives 0 at 0. +Suppose not. Take the least k >= 0 for which h^(k)(0) is nonzero. +Without loss of generality say it is positive. By continuity h^(k) is +positive in an open interval U around 0. Let S be the set of positive +elements of U. Now h^(k-1) is increasing on S, and by minimality of k +we have h^(k-1)(0) = 0, so h^(k-1) is positive on S. Then h^(k-2) is +increasing on S, and h^(k-2)(0) = 0, so h^(k-2) is positive on S. In +general h^j is positive on S for j down from k to 0 by induction. In +particular h is positive on S, but this is impossible, as 1/n is in S +for n sufficiently large. + +Thus f has all the same derivatives as g: f^(k)(0) is 0 for k odd, +(-1)^{k/2}k! for k even. + + +Problem A5 + +For each positive integer n, let + +a_n = { 0 if the number of 1's in the binary representation of n is even, + 1 if the number of 1's in the binary representation of n is odd. + +Show that there do not exist positive integers k and m such that + +a_{k+j} = a_{k+m+j} = a_{k+2m+j}, for 0 <= j <= m - 1. + +(Is every student supposed to know what the writer means by ``the binary +representation of n''? Anyway, this problem is well known in some circles. +I don't think Putnam writers should copy problems.) + +Solution: Let us suppose the opposite. Pick m minimal such that, for +some k, a_{k+j} = a_{k+m+j} for every 0 <= j <= 2m - 1. The minimality +guarantees that m is odd. (Indeed, say m = 2m'. If k = 2k' is even, +then put j = 2j' for 0 <= j' <= m - 1 = 2m' - 1. Now a_n = a_{2n} so +a_{k'+j'} = a_{k+j} = a_{k+m+j} = a_{k'+m'+j'} as desired. If on the +other hand k = 2k' - 1 is odd, then put j = 2j' + 1 for 0 <= j' <= 2m' - 1. +Now a_{k'+j'} = a_{k+j} = a_{k+m+j} = a_{k'+m'+j'} as desired.) + +We cannot have m = 1. Indeed, if a_k = a_{k+1} = a_{k+2}, then we have +a_{2n} = a_{2n+1} for n = k/2 if k is even or n = (k+1)/2 if k is odd. +But a_{2n} + a_{2n+1} = 1 always. Hence m is an odd number greater than 1. + +Define b_n = (a_n + a_{n-1}) mod 2. For 1 <= j <= 2m - 1 we have +b_{k+j} = b_{k+m+j}. This range of j covers at least 5 values; we can +certainly choose j so as to make k+j equal to 2 mod 4. Then k+m+j is +odd. But b_n is 0 when n is 2 mod 4, and b_n is 1 when n is odd, so we +have a contradiction. + + +Problem A6 + +Four points are chosen at random on the surface of a sphere. What is the +probability that the center of the sphere lies inside the tetrahedron +whose vertices are at the four points? (It is understood that each point +is independently chosen relative to a uniform distribution on the sphere.) + +Solution: Pick three points A, B, C, and consider the spherical triangle +T defined by those points. The center of the sphere lies in the convex +hull of A, B, C, and another point P if and only if it lies in the convex +hull of T and P. This happens if and only if P is antipodal to T. So the +desired probability is the expected fraction of the sphere's surface area +which is covered by T. + +Denote the antipode to a point P by P'. We consider the eight spherical +triangles ABC, A'BC, AB'C, A'B'C, ABC', A'BC', AB'C', A'B'C'. Denote +these by T_0, T_1, T_2, T_3, T_4, T_5, T_6, T_7; we regard each T_i +as a function of the random variables A, B, C. There is an automorphism +of our probability space defined by (A,B,C) -> (A,B,C'). Hence T_0 and +T_4 have the same distribution, and similarly T_1 and T_5, T_2 and T_6, +and T_3 and T_7. Of course the same applies to B, so that T_0 and T_2, +T_1 and T_3, T_4 and T_6, and T_5 and T_7 all have the same distribution. +Finally T_0 and T_1, T_2 and T_3, T_4 and T_5, and T_6 and T_7 all have +the same distribution. We conclude that all the T_i have exactly the +same distribution. In particular the fractional area A_i of T_i has the +same distribution for all i. + +On the other hand the total fractional area of all the T_i is exactly +1: the eight triangles cover the sphere exactly once. Hence each T_i +has expected fractional area 1/8. In particular, T_0, the probability we +wanted, has expected value 1/8. + +Note that this proof does not require the full strength of uniform +distribution in the usual measure; nor does it require independence +between all the variables. It requires only certain automorphisms of +the probability space. + + +Problem B1 + +Let S be a set of n distinct real numbers. Let A_S be the set of numbers +that occur as averages of two distinct elements of S. For a given n >= 2, +what is the smallest possible number of distinct elements in A_S? + +(``Smallest possible number of distinct elements in A_S''? Who talks +about ``the number of _distinct_ elements'' of a set? How about just +``the number of elements''? Or ``the size''? Aargh. The quantifiers +here are completely out of whack: n has to be fixed [not ``given''] +before anything else, and it's not immediately clear that ``smallest +possible'' refers to ``the minimum over all S''. Proposed rewrite: +``Fix n >= 2. For any set S of n real numbers, let A_S be the set of +averages of two distinct elements of S. What is the minimum, over all +S, of the size of A_S?'') + +Solution: We put the elements of S in order: s_1 < s_2 < ... < s_n. +We have s_1 + s_2 < s_1 + s_3 < ... < s_1 + s_{n-1} < s_1 + s_n < +s_2 + s_n < s_3 + s_n < ... < s_{n-1} + s_n. Hence the 2n - 3 averages +(s_i + s_j)/2, i < j, with i = 1 or j = n, are all distinct. So A_S +has size at least 2n - 3. This is achieved if, for instance, +S = {1,2,...,n}. + + +Problem B2 + +For nonnegative integers n and k, define Q(n,k) to be the coefficient of +x^k in the expansion of (1+x+x^2+x^3)^n. Prove that + +Q(n,k) = \sum_{j=0}^n {n \choose j} {n \choose k - 2j}, + +where {a \choose b} is the standard binomial coefficient. (Reminder: For +integers a and b with a >= 0, {a \choose b} = a!/b!(a-b)! for 0 <= b <= a, +and {a \choose b} = 0 otherwise.) + +Solution: (1+x^2)(1+x) = 1+x+x^2+x^3, so (1+x^2)^n(1+x)^n = (1+x+x^2+x^3)^n, +so (\sum {n\choose j} x^{2j}) (\sum {n\choose m} x^m) = \sum Q(n,k)x^k. +The coefficient of x^k on the left is the sum of {n\choose j}{n\choose m} +over all j,m with m + 2j = k, i.e., \sum_j {n\choose j}{n\choose k-2j}. + + +Problem B3 + +For any pair (x,y) of real numbers, a sequence (a_n(x,y))_{n>=0} is +defined as follows: + +a_0(x,y) = x +a_{n+1}(x,y) = ( (a_n(x,y))^2 + y^2 ) / 2, for all n >= 0. + +Find the area of the region { (x,y) | (a_n(x,y))_{n>=0} converges }. + +(The parentheses in (a_n(x,y))^2 are confusing, as the writer also +uses parentheses to denote the entire sequence of a_n.) + +Solution: Note that (x,y) and (x,-y) produce the same sequence, and +(-x,y) and (x,y) produce the same sequence after the first step. So +we will restrict attention to nonnegative x and y and quadruple our +final answer. + +Fix x and y. Set f(z) = ( z^2 + y^2 ) / 2, so that a_n(x,y) = +f(a_{n-1}(x,y)). Now f'(z) = z, so f is increasing on the positive reals. +So (a_n(x,y))_n is monotone---either increasing, decreasing, or constant. +We consider several (non-exclusive) possibilities. + +Case 1. Say y > 1. Then f(z) > (1 + z^2)/2 + (y - 1) >= z + (y - 1), so +a_n(x,y) increases by at least y - 1 at each step. + +Case 2. Say f(x) < x. Then we have 0 < a_n(x,y) < a_{n-1}(x,y) <= x for +every n. (Indeed, for n = 1 we have 0 < f(x) < x. For n >= 2 we have +a_{n-1}(x,y) < a_{n-2}(x,y) by induction. So a_n(x,y) < a_{n-1}(x,y), +as f is increasing.) As (a_n(x,y))_n is decreasing and bounded below, +it converges. + +Case 3. Say f(x) > x > 1. Define g(z) = f(z) - z, so that g(x) > 0. +We have g'(z) = z - 1, so g is increasing past 1. Now a_n(x,y) >= +x + ng(x). (Indeed, for n = 1 we have a_1(x,y) = f(x) = x + g(x). +For n >= 2 set a = a_{n-1}(x,y). We have a >= x + (n-1)g(x) > x by +induction. So g(a) > g(x), and a_n(x,y) = f(a) = a + g(a) > a + g(x) >= +x + ng(x) as desired.) So a_n increases without bound. + +Case 4. Say x < 1, y < 1. Then f(x) < f(1) < (1 + 1)/2 = 1. Similarly +a_n(x,y) < 1 for every n. As (a_n(x,y))_n is bounded and monotone, it +converges. + +Let's put this all together. For y > 1 the sequence diverges. For y < 1 +and x < 1 the sequence does converge. For y < 1 and x > 1, the sequence +converges if f(x) < x, and diverges if f(x) > x. The points we miss in +this tally---y = 1, x = 1, f(x) = x---have zero total area. + +The condition f(x) < x is equivalent to (x-1)^2 + y^2 < 1, which +describes a quarter-circle of radius 1 in the region y > 0, x > 1. Thus +the total area for positive x and y is 1 (for the square y < 1, x < 1) +plus pi/4 (for the quarter-circle). The final answer is quadruple this, +or 4 + pi. + + +Problem B4 + +Let p(x) be a nonzero polynomial of degree less than 1992 having no +nonconstant factor in common with x^3 - x. Let + +( d^1992 / dx^1992 ) ( p(x) / (x^3 - x) ) = f(x) / g(x) + +for polynomials f(x) and g(x). Find the smallest possible degree of f(x). + +(The second sentence is backwards---``let'' should be followed +immediately by the variable being introduced. Would you say ``Let +2 equal x + y for integers x and y''?) + +Solution: First divide p(x) by x^3 - x: p(x) = (x^3 - x)q(x) + r(x), +with r of degree at most 2. Now f(x)/g(x) = D^1992 (q(x) + r(x)/(x^3-x)) += D^1992 (r(x)/(x^3-x)), as q has degree less than 1992; here we write +D for d/dx. We expand r(x)/(x^3-x) in partial fractions as -r(0)/x + +r(1)/2(x-1) + r(-1)/2(x+1). Now the 1992nd derivative of this is +Cr(0)/x^1993 + Cr(1)/(x-1)^1993 + Cr(-1)/(x+1)^1993 for a certain +nonzero constant C which we don't care about. This then equals +(Cr(0)(x^2-1)^1993 + Cr(1)(x^2+x)^1993 + Cr(-1)(x^2-x)^1993)/(x^3-x)^1993. + +The numerator and denominator here are coprime, for none of x, x-1, x+1 +divide the numerator. (If, for instance, x divided the numerator, then +r(0) would have to be 0, but then p(x) would have a factor of x in +common with x^3-x, contrary to hypothesis.) So f(x) is a multiple of +the numerator and g(x) is a multiple of the denominator. Our question +is thus ``What is the smallest possible degree of the polynomial P = +U(x^2-1)^1993 + V(x^2+x)^1993 + W(x^2-x)^1993, over all U, V, W which +can arise as U=Cr(0), V=Cr(1), W=Cr(-1)?'' + +P has degree at most 2.1993. Its 2.1993 coefficient is U + V + W. Its +2.1993-1 coefficient is 1993V - 1993W. Its 2.1993-2 coefficient is +-1993U + 1993.(1992/2)V + 1993.(1992/2)W. If all three of these are +zero then by linear algebra all of U, V, W are zero, which is not +possible. Hence P, and thus also f, has degree at least 2.1993-2, or +double 1992. This is achieved if, for instance, p(x) = r(x) = 3x^2 - 2, +so that r(0)+r(1)+r(-1)=-2+1+1=0 and r(1)=r(-1). + +(The degree restriction on p in this problem seems somewhat strange, +though it simplifies the solution slightly. Noam Elkies notes that +the ``nonzero constant C'' above will be zero---so that f will be 0--- +if we're working over a field with characteristic dividing 1992!. +Should the problem have explicitly identified the ground field as +the reals?) + + +Problem B5 + +Let D_n denote the value of the (n-1) by (n-1) determinant + +| 3 1 1 1 ... 1 | +| 1 4 1 1 ... 1 | +| 1 1 5 1 ... 1 | +| 1 1 1 6 ... 1 | +| . . . . ... . | +| 1 1 1 1 ... n+1 | + +Is the set {D_n/n!}_{n >= 2} bounded? + +(``The value of the determinant''? Why not just ``the determinant''? +Why talk about ``the set'' when it's much more common to talk about +``the sequence''? And where's the period on the first sentence?) + +Solution: No, it is the harmonic series. + +We subtract the first row from each of the other rows, to get a matrix +3 1 1 1 ... 1, -2 3 0 0 ... 0, -2 0 4 0 ... 0, ..., -2 0 0 0 ... n. +Then we subtract 1/3 of the new second row from the first, 1/4 of the +new third row from the first, and so on, to kill all the 1's along the +top. We are left with a triangular matrix, with diagonal X 3 4 ... n, +where X equals 3 - (-2)/3 - (-2)/4 - ... - (-2)/n = +3 + 2/3 + 2/4 + ... + 2/n = 2(1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + ... + 1/n). Thus +the determinant is n! times 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + ... + 1/n. Q. E. D. + + +Problem B6 + +Let M be a set of real n by n matrices such that +(i) I \in M, where I is the n by n identity matrix; +(ii) if A \in M and B \in M, then either AB \in M or -AB \in M, but not both; +(iii) if A \in M and B \in M, then either AB = BA or AB = -BA; +(iv) if A \in M and A \noteq I, there is at least one B \in M such that + AB = -BA. + +Prove that M contains at most n^2 matrices. + +Solution (courtesy Noam Elkies): Fix A in M. By (iii) AB = eBA, where e +is either +1 or -1, for any B in M. Then AAB = AeBA = eABA = e^2BAA = BAA. +So A^2 commutes with any B in M. Of course the same is true of -A^2. On +the other hand by (ii) A^2 or -A^2 is in M. Pick C = A^2 or C = -A^2 so +that C is in M. + +If C is not I, then by (iv) we can find a B in M such that CB = -BC. But +we know CB = BC for any B in M. Thus CB = 0, which is impossible, as by +(ii) no two elements of M can multiply to 0. + +We conclude that C must be I. In other words, for any A in M, either A^2 +or -A^2 must be I. + +Now suppose M has more than n^2 matrices. The space of real n by n +matrices has dimension n^2, so we can find a nontrivial linear relation +\sum_{D in M} x_D D = 0. Pick such a relation with the smallest possible +number of nonzero x_D. We will construct a smaller relation, obtaining a +contradiction and finishing the proof. + +Pick an A with x_A nonzero, and multiply by it: \sum_{D in M} x_D DA = 0. +In light of (ii) the matrices DA run over M modulo sign. Hence we have a +new relation \sum_{E in M} y_E E = 0. The point of this transformation is +that now the coefficient y_I of I is +- x_A, which is nonzero. + +Pick any C other than I such that y_C is nonzero. By (iv) pick B in M +such that CB = -BC. Multiply \sum_{E in M} y_E E = 0 by B on both the left +and the right, and add: \sum_{E in M} y_E (BE + EB) = 0. Now by (iii) we +have BE + EB = (1 + e_{BE})BE, where e_{BE} is either +1 or -1. In +particular e_{BI} = 1 (clear) and e_{BC} = -1 (by construction of B). +So we get \sum_{E in M} y_E (1 + e_{BE}) BE = 0, where at least one term +does not disappear and at least one term does disappear. As before the +matrices BE run over M modulo sign. So we have a relation with fewer +terms as desired. + + +---Dan Bernstein, brnstnd@ocf.berkeley.edu, 7 December 1992 diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/puzzle.jok b/textfiles.com/science/puzzle.jok new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e2837f4c --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/puzzle.jok @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +Article 585 of sci.physics: +Path: puukko!santra!tut!enea!mcvax!uunet!husc6!sri-unix!ctnews!andrew!RP%OZ.AI.MIT.EDU@XX.LCS.MIT.EDU +From: RP%OZ.AI.MIT.EDU@XX.LCS.MIT.EDU +Newsgroups: sci.physics +Subject: Mathematical Puzzle] +Message-ID: <898@sri-arpa.ARPA> +Date: 17 Mar 88 11:05:00 GMT +Lines: 18 + +From: Richard Pavelle + +The following puzzle circulated over various mailing lists 10 years ago. +I am sending it to Physics because many readers have not seen it and +it is very difficult to solve. But my real question is whether anyone +can tell me the background of this problem? Enjoy............ + +There are two integers each between 1 and 100. P knows their product, +S knows their sum. Obviously, if they told each other the sum and +product, they could figure out what the integers were. Instead, they +have the following conversation: + + P: I don't know what the numbers are. + S: I knew you didn't. Neither do I. + P: Oh! Now I know. + S: Oh! So do I. + +What are the two integers? + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/quantum.ani b/textfiles.com/science/quantum.ani new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c137867c --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/quantum.ani @@ -0,0 +1,406 @@ + Evidence supporting quantum + + information processing in animals + + + James A. Donald + + 1068 Fulton Av + Sunnyvale, CA 94089-1505 + USA + + +I show that quantum systems can rapidly solve some +problems for which finite state machines require a non- +polynomially large time. This class of problems is +closely related to the class of problems that animals +can solve rapidly and effortlessly, but are intractable +for computers by all known algorithms. + + + +1. Introduction + Animals, including very simple animals, can +rapidly and effortlessly perceive objects, whereas +computers take nonpolynomial time to do this by all +known algorithms [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Our persistent +inability to emulate perception gives reason to doubt +the current paradigm and to look for an alternative +paradigm. + Penrose[7] and many others [8, 9, 10] argue from +practical considerations, Godel's theorem, and on +philosophical grounds, that consciousness or awareness +is non-algorithmic and so cannot be generated by a +system that can be described by classical physics, such +as a conventional computer, but could perhaps be +generated by a system requiring a quantum (Hilbert +space) description. Penrose suspects that aspects of +quantum physics not yet understood might be needed to +explain consciousness. In this paper we shall see that +only known quantum physics is needed to explain +perception. + Bialek[11, 12] and Frolich[13] suggested on very +different grounds that cells process information using +quantum mechanical processes. Frolich suggested a class +of mechanisms that might enable them to do this despite +the high temperature and large size of biological +membranes and macromolecules. Deutch[14] showed that +quantum systems can solve some problems that computers +cannot solve in polynomial time, but he did not show +that quantum systems could solve perception problems. +Penrose[7] conjectured that some areas where animals +are superior to computers are of this class, but did +not find any examples. Bialek[15] argued that +perception is inherently non-polynomial if done +algorithmically, and therefore neurons must be doing +something remarkable, but he did not show that quantum +mechanics would enable them to do this. + This paper will show that quantum systems can also +rapidly solve perception problems, closing the gap +between Bialek's argument and Deutch's result, and +demonstrating Penrose's conjecture. This result +supports the idea that animals perceive by processing +sensory information quantum mechanically in hilbert +spaces corresponding to many strongly coupled degrees +of freedom. + +2. The Perception Problem + Perception is the problem of inferring the +external world from immediate sensory data by finding +instances of known categories such that they would +generate the immediate sensory data. Animals do this +very well, and, for perception problems that only +require recognizing objects as instances of innate +categories rather than learnt categories, animals with +very simple nervous systems sometimes perceive almost +as well as animals with complex nervous systems such as +ourselves, and perhaps better in some cases and some +circumstances. Indeed animals do this so well and so +effortlessly that people only began to recognize that +there was a problem to be solved when we attempted to +program computers to perceive. + The fact that animals perceive effortlessly has +lead to a widespread belief that some polynomial time +algorithm must exist, yet no significant progress has +been made in the search for an efficient perception +algorithm. + A number of perception problems have been studied +very thoroughly, in particular the target acquisition +problem in radar and sonar, and the visual problem of +inferring objects from two dimensional data. + An algorithm that could perceive in polynomial +time is called direct perception (DP), or bottom up +perception. Such algorithms unsuccessfully attempt to +construct object descriptions (top level) from +immediate data (bottom level). The algorithms that do +work are called indirect perception (IP), or top down +perception. Such algorithms start at the top level +(objects) and search for a match with the immediate +data. Such algorithms take non-polynomial time [2, 3], +for they must try an non-polynomial number of object +hypotheses. + Many top down algorithms are not strictly top down - +they start from both top and bottom and look for a +match in the middle, but this does not change the +character of the algorithm. + Bottom up algorithms do not work. Ullman[16] gives +examples of situations where perception must be purely +top down because all local or explicit information is +suppressed, scrambled or misleading, so that bottom up +processing has nothing to start from. Gregory[17], made +the same argument long before these acronyms were +coined, using the example of a dalmatian against a +background of spots. In Gregory's lucid terminology we +perceive by forming object hypotheses that fit the +data. + Kanade[5] showed that when we attempt to +generalize the polyhedral labeling problem it no longer +has a unique solution. (The polyhedral labeling problem +is a special case of the problem of forming a 2 1/2 D +image, which is the problem of identifying contours in +an image and labeling them as silhouette, convex, +concave, groove, or mere change in surface albedo.) His +result means that even when there is local and explicit +data in an image, this is not sufficient to form a +visual perception. You also need knowledge of what +objects are likely. This led him to perform the +negative chair experiment: He constructed an unlikely +unfamiliar object and had people look at it. They +misperceived it even though it was right in front of +them. This experiment showed that not only is light and +shade insufficient in itself to construct 3D or 2 1/2 D +descriptions of the image, but even with small angle +stereoscopic and small angle apparent motion data, it +is still insufficient. Object perception is primary. We +do not see three dimensionally and infer objects from +the three dimensional information. We do not see what +we think we see - we perceive it by forming hypotheses. +Gregory[17] made the same argument using the example of +reversed masks, but many people argued that this was a +special case. Kanade[5] showed the same phenomenon +occurs with any complex object. This shows that it is +pointless to do anything elaborate to the immediate +data without an object hypothesis. + The results for the target acquisition problem are +similar to the visual perception problem: If the target +and background signals are comparable then the only way +to extract the target signal is to find the correct +object hypothesis. You cannot find the correct object +hypothesis by extracting the target signal first. This +is a tractable problem if you are only interested in a +single class of objects with a single orientation, for +example a specific type of interceptor on an intercept +course at full speed, but it is an intractable problem +if you are interested in many different possible +targets that can be travelling in many different +possible directions at many different speeds, with +several similar moving objects present at once, and +several similar interfering radars, yet bats solve this +problem with the effortless rapidity that animals +always show when using their most important senses for +normal survival purposes. + +3. Quantum Solution + All computer programs that successfully solve non- +trivial perception problems have as their hard step a +search for the global minimum of a function. This works +for an artificially simple microworld [4], and it also +works when the categories consist of a short list of +rigid objects with only two degrees of freedom in their +position and one degree of freedom in their orientation +[18], but if we allow irregular and elastic categories +with many internal variables, such as occur in the real +world, then the dimension of the space becomes much too +large for exhaustive search (the combinatorial +explosion, [6]). + In some areas of AI, such as chess, search is an +acceptable algorithm because we merely want a good +sequence, not the best sequence, and this can be +achieved in polynomial time, but in perception we want +the right object hypothesis, not merely a good object +hypothesis. + Thus the problem of perceiving efficiently is +equivalent to the problem of efficiently minimizing a +class of many variable functions. Almost everyone who +has confronted this problem has argued, from the fact +that animals perceive rapidly, that it must be +sufficient to find a good minimum, not the global +minimum, but it all cases tried so far, algorithms that +stop before finding the global minimum have been +unsuccessful, as one would expect from the nature of +the problem. + Any classical system performing such a +minimization can only sample the system locally in +phase space, thus if the function is irregular and +general the system must find a non-polynomially large +number of local minima before it finds the global +minimum. This the reason why a chess playing computer +must explicitly generate an enormous number of +sequences and evaluate each one, and a perceiving +computer must explicitly generate a non-polynomially +large number of object hypotheses and evaluate each +one, but this is not how we play chess and this is not +how we perceive. + If the function to be minimized is completely +general then the problem is non-polynomial (NP) +complete. It is likely that animals and computers are +both equally incapable of solving large NP complete +problems. This leads us to expect that the class of +functions corresponding to the class of perception +problems is not general, but has some special property +that enables animals to get a handle on it. + We shall see that the perception problem +corresponds to the problem of finding the global +minimum of a function of many variables, where the +global minimum is much deeper than any other minimum. + One may easily show that a quantum system with a +potential corresponding to such a function may be +rapidly brought to the ground state by cooling where +the ground state is not localized, followed by +adiabatic cooling so that the ground state becomes +substantially localized in the well containing the +global minimum, whereas a classical system with the +corresponding hamiltonian requires nonpolynomially +large time to reach the corresponding ground state by +cooling; for a classical system the ground state is +always localized in the well so the system will rattle +randomly from one local minimum to another, until it +finally hits the well containing the global minimum; +the number of local minima will be exponential in the +number of degrees of freedom. + For this to work in polynomial time the momentum +terms in the initial hamiltonian must be large enough +relative to the potential terms to prevent substantial +localization, which requires that the significant +degrees of freedom of the system be initially far in +the quantum domain. The change in state will remain +adiabatic during the change in hamiltonian if the local +minima are sufficiently shallow relative to the global +minimum that the ground state is not significantly +localized in local minima during the change. + We can deduce that the global minimum is much +deeper than any local minimum from the way in which +these functions are constructed. + The function to be minimized is a measure of the +discrepancy between the perception and the immediate +sensory data. We wish to minimize the function with +respect to a set of variables that constitute a parse +tree describing the external world assumed to be +generating the immediate data (the object hypothesis). +The grammar of the parse tree is a model of the world +and the way in which the world interacts with the +senses. There will be a single deep well because the +immediate data has much higher apparent entropy than +the parse tree data. In other words the immediate data +is not noise, it has internal consistency in that it is +capable of being generated from a much smaller parse +tree. Conversely, if the immediate data was +indistinguishable from noise, there would be no +dominant global well. The probability that a second +dissimilar parse tree will have a comparably good fit +to the data varies exponentially with the difference +between the apparent entropies of the parse tree and +the immediate data. + This result is also supported by the fact that +programs that truncate their search produce flagrant +errors, suggesting that almost right interpretations +are rare, and by the fact that genuinely ambiguous +images (images with two distinct interpretations) +seldom occur in nature but only occur when contrived by +artists, indicating that cases where the two deepest +wells are of comparable depth are very rare in nature. +(We can ignore the very common case - fitting a +stimulus of small apparent entropy, for example a +Rorschach blot, with a complex perception.) + +4. Objections + Many people have vigorously argued that the brain +is too warm and wet, macromolecules too large, heavy, +and slow, for living things to process information +quantum mechanically. + The mechanism I have described (adiabatically +cooling the ground state) is an equilibrium mechanism +that can only work for very small systems or at very +low temperatures. There are however a few small +loopholes in this argument: +_ Although deviations from classical trajectories +usually decline rapidly with the size of the system, in +systems far from equilibrium deviations from the +probabilities that one would expect from classical +local causality decline much more slowly, for example +the quantum scar effect [19]. (These deviations are +what is needed to process information quantum +mechanically in ways that have no classical equivalent, +rather than deviations from the classical +trajectories.) +_ Finding a short unstable closed cycle in a many +variable chaotic system is (like finding the minimum +energy) also an NP problem, but in phase space rather +than coordinate space. Such trajectories are +distinguished quantum mechanically [19], but they are +not distinguished classically. +_ Quantum effects tend to increase with the number +of coupled degrees of freedom. Also systems with more +coupled degrees of freedom tend to contradict classical +causality in a stronger and more direct fashion. +Frolich proposes a very large number of redundant +degrees of freedom, moderately driven from equilibrium. +Bialek proposes a moderate number of degrees of +freedom, very strongly driven. +_ Although macromolecules are too large and +heavy, their electrons are not. In macromolecules +containing many highly polarizable groups the groups +will have energy eigenstates where the relative +polarizations have substantial non-local correlations. +The relative polarization state will effect the way in +which such molecules cleave - one method by which cells +process information is by cleaving and joining RNA +chains. Another possibility is that unstable +macromolecules with highly conjugated electron +structures are synthesized on cell membranes by the +oxidative polymerization of serotonin, although no such +molecules have been found in biological systems. + +5. Predictions + The theoretical results of this paper lead me to +make an experimental prediction: I predict that +perception neurons proceed in one large indivisible +step directly from low level inputs to high level +outputs; for example the inputs for a "face of social +superior"[20, 21] neuron would be pixel neurons, edge +detection neurons, and similarly low level feature +detectors. This prediction is hard to test directly +because neurons with high level outputs have vast +numbers of diverse inputs and it is difficult to +determine what most of these inputs signify. But from +this prediction flow some predictions that are easier +to test: +_ Neurons that generate high level perceptions will +be located in regions well supplied with low level +data. The neural net model would lead us to expect some +physical separation between low level inputs and high +level outputs, contrary to observation [20, 21]. +_ Plausible intermediate level outputs will be rare +or nonexistent. For example Kendrick[20, 21] found many +neurons that respond only to faces, but none that +respond only to frontal or only to profile views of +faces, and none that respond to specific distinguishing +features of faces, neurons that respond to heads with +horns but none that respond to horns in isolation from +a head. +_ Neurons that originate high level outputs will +have star rather than tree topology because each low +level input is only significant in the context provided +by most of the other distinct and separate low level +inputs +_ The delay between low level inputs stabilizing and +high level output starting will often be very short, +making it implausible that there is any neural net +generating essential intermediate level inputs. +_ Many of the inputs will be low level. Observation +of some low level inputs would not disprove all +possible neural net models, since such an observation +would not prove that intermediate level inputs were +inessential, but it would disprove all simple standard +neural net models which assume that a neurons output +frequency is a simple function of its inputs, e.g. a +weighted sum of inputs or a weighted sum of low order +products of inputs. + +References +[1] S. Conner, New Scientist 121 No. 1648 (1989) 68 +[2] J.K. Tsotsos, in: IEEE First International + Conference on Computer Vision, IEEE Computer society + press, Washington DC 1987) p. 346 +[3] L.M. Kirousis & C.H. Papadimitriou, in: 26th + Annual Symposium on Foundations of computer Science, + Portland Oregon, 1985) p.175 +[4] T. Kanade, Artificial Intelligence, 13 (1980) 279 +[5] T. Kanade, Artificial Intelligence, 17 (1981) 409 +[6] M.J. Lighthill in: Artificial Intelligence, a + paper symposium, SRC report, Science research + council, London (1973) p1 +[7] R. Penrose, The Emperors New Mind, (Oxford + University press, 1989) +[8] M. Lockwood, Mind Brain and the Quantum, (Basil + Blackwell Inc, Oxford, 1989) p.240 +[9] I.N. Marshall, New Ideas in Psychology, 7 (1989) 73 +[10] C.I.J.M. Stuart, Y. Takahashi, H. Umezawa, + Foundations of Physics, 9 (1979) 301 +[11] W. Bialek and A. Sweitzer, Phys. Rev. Lett. 54 + (1986) 725 +[12] W. Bialek, Phys. Rev. Lett., 56 (1986) 996 +[13] H. Frolich, Physics Letters, 110A (1985) 480 +[14] D. Deutch, Proc. Roy. Soc. (Lond.), A400, (1985) 97 +[15] W. Bialek, Phys. Rev. Lett., 58 (1987) 741 +[16] S. Ullman, Behavioral & brain Sciences, 3 (1980) 373 +[17] R.L. Gregory, The Intelligent Eye (McGraw Hill, + San Francisco 1970) p. 57 +[18] W.E.L Grimson, Object Recognition by Computer, + (MIT Press 1990) +[19] R.V. Jensen & M.M. Sanders, Phys. Rev. Lett., 63 + (1989) 2771 +[20] K.M. Kendrick, Science, 236 no 4800 (1987) 448 +[21] K.M. Kendrick, New Scientist, 126 No. 1716 (1990) 62 + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/referenc b/textfiles.com/science/referenc new file mode 100644 index 00000000..732c9b0c --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/referenc @@ -0,0 +1,273 @@ +Ok, I have been compiling all the sources of Tesla coil info I have: +(updated Jan 10, 1995) + +Sources for Books and Computer Programs on Theory and Design: + +Tesla Book Company +P.O. Box 121873 +Chula Vista, CA 91912 +800-398-2056 + +Lots of titles+IBM compatible software mixed with a bunch of fringe science +stuff. I list some of the serious titles below... + +International Tesla Society, Inc. +P.O. Box 5636 +Colorado Springs, CO 80931 +719-475-0918 voice +719-475-0582 fax + +Lots of overlap with the Tesla Book Co.. I bought my books from here +originally. They also have a museum and a yearly conference dealing with +all subjects dealing with Tesla. Sell video tapes from the International +Tesla Symposium. Of note: look for tapes from the Corum brothers and From +Bill Wystock these are the real thing, not the "fringe" stuff. Also look +for new books/tapes on the TESLA MAGNIFIER. This this the 3 coil version of +the tesla coil (primary, secondary(resonant or nonresonant), magnifier ( +resonant)) which tesla experimented with at Colorado Springs. It is +more efficent than an ordinary 2 coil system because priamry-secondary +coupling can be much tighter. + +Lindsay's Technical Books +Lindsay Publications, INC +PO Box 538, Bradley IL 60915 +815-935-5353 + +Really cool catalog on all sorts of bizzare techie stuff-you should get a +catalog just for the entertainment value! Anyway, much of the Tesla stuff +is reprints or compilations of old material which is not generally +availible at most libraries. Interesting stuff but perhaps not as useful as +the newer books. They now have the books by Robert Iannini and Gordon +McComb (see below). They have Tesla Coil design software by Walt Noon +(I haven't personally seen it although Rickard Quick says he helped Walt +develop it) and a couple of small books on building coils. Also, you can +get Tesla's "Lectures, Patents, and Researches"... + +Recent update here: +Lindsay now has the "Tesla Coil Builder's Guide to the Colorado Springs +Notes" by Richard Hull of the Tesla Coil Builders of Richmond(Va) (TCBOR). +For those unfamiliar with the CSN, they were Telsa's notes of expreiments +done during his stay at Colorado Springs. HE developed many of his ideas on +MAGNIFIER design there. The CSN are not particularly useful to the hobbiest +so Hull wrote some notes which clarify many points of detail. He back up +many of his statements with results of impressive work done by the TCBOR. +Many of the TCBOR's are shown in excellent photographs of thier standard +coil and many different magnifier designs. A MUST HAVE book! About $20. + +John H. Couture +10823 New Salem Point +San Diego, CA 92126 + +Computer Design Program and Manuals for tesla coils. I don't have the +program, so I can't comment on it. More on the book below. + +************************************************************************** +Other Sources of Information: + +Tesla Coil Builder's Association +Harry Goldman +3 Amy Lane +Queensbury, NY 12804 +518-792-1003 + +TCBA publishes a newsletter 4x a year @$24/year. +Information on theory, design, and construction of tesla coils. +Also has trade/sale section for those hard to find parts: high voltage +transformers and capacitors. There are ocasional updates from Tesla Coil +Builders Clubs like the one in Virginia (TCBOR) which is doing some +fantastic work on Tesla's "extra" coil/ magnifier system. +************************************************************************* + +Books and Articles generally available: + +*BUILD YOUR OWN LASER, PHASER, ION RAY GUN & Other working Space age +Projects by Robert E. Iannini + +Sounds goofy, but there a lot of interesting and workable designs here. +One chapter on a neon sign transformer based tesla coil. ~250,000volts. +Also includes other high voltage projects like a Cockroft-Walton type +voltage multipier and high energy capacitor systems for exploding wires and +the like. + +In case you don't recognize the author, he's the same guy who +runs INFORMATION UNLIMITED. They advertise in Radio Electronics/ +Electronics Now and have kits for many of the projects given in this book. +My latest address for Information Unlimited is: + Dept RES14, + Box 716, + Amherst, NH 03031 + Ph#:603-673-4730 + FAX:603-672-5406 + + +*GADGETEER's GOLDMINE by Gordon McComb. + +Similar to above. Lots of parts sources listed. Also has a chapter on +building your own PLASMA GLOBE and one on Van De Graff generators and other +high voltage projects. Includes many sources for parts- but the list is +somewhat outdated. + +*RADIO ELECTRONICS- SEPTEMBER 1991 + +Issue has a construction project for a soild state tesla coil by Duane A. +Bylund. ~ 100,000volt system. This system illustrates the direct drive type +of Tesla coil ( like Tesla's extra coil system). He also used to supply +kits. +------------------------------------------------------------------------- +*INTERNET-freebies +Check out anon ftp to ftp.ee.ualberta.ca (circuit cookbook directory) +There is a nice small book by Harry Suomalainen called TESLA COIL THEORY +AND APPLICATIONS - it's in POSTSCRIPT. It covers standard spark gap driven +coils as well as direct drive soild state coil systems. +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- +You will also want to check out the internet (ftp) site at: + >ftp.funet.fi +go to the directory pub/sci/electronics/tesla +There is some general literature as well as GIF's of Coils and some +programs for computing tesla coil parameters (Have not tried them). +This place is rather busy and allow only 80 anon ftps, so I suggest trying +at 5:00-7:00pm EDT. +This apparently has a few tesla coil desing programs plus (more imporatntly +in my opinion) text files of Richard Quick's Experiments and designs. There +is also a huge (~1Mb) text file of the last few years of discussion of +tesla coil desing and theory from the tesla@grendel list mentioned below. +So you didn't have to miss anything good!!! Definitly worth reading but +long! + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- +There are at least two discussion groups running for tesla related stuff: +>usa-tesla@usa.net (send an email to get on the distribution list) + +>tesla@grendel.objinc.com (send email to get on list) Run by Chip Atkinson + By far, this list has the most detailed technical discussions I + have seen. These people are constantly sharing information on real + designs. They have many tips on obtaining parts or fabricating some + elements from scratch. It's a vey busy list, so you'd better have + plenty of disk space or a good printer! Richard Quick is probably + the most experienced builder on the list - He'll send (so far) a + 2hr video of his work for $10 and PPD high quality tape. I'm + getting one. +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +On the World Wide Web: + +Try http://www.eskimo.com/~billb + and select Tesla Coil Info + +There are pointers to GIF's, programs, and other goodies. He's also got +some other odd ball science stuff in here too. + +I have been informed that Matt Cavic will also have some interesting info +in his home page: ( sorry Matt, but you ain't got much yet) + +http:/www.inlink.com/users/asimov/home.html + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------- +*A SOLID-STATE LOW-VOLTAGE TESLA COIL DEMONSTRATOR by Donald G. Bruns, +American Journal of Physics. #60 (9), Sept. 1992, pg 797 + +Good on basic theory especially on resonant coupling effects. Suggests some +low voltage experiments - useful before you invest big $$$ in a full scale +system! Only problem with this treatment is that he treats the secondary coil +as a "lumped" circuit. That is, he models the seconday as a small capacitor +in series with the secondary inductance. This model is not realistic +because it does not treat the tesla secondary coil as a transmission line +or normal mode helical antenna. (More below in Kraus & Jackson) +Very useful to read if you want to know more about critical coupling +between tuned resonant circuits. Lists quite a few references. + +* ANTENNNAS by J. D. Kraus + +This book has very little in it which will actually help you build a tesla +coil but gives a great expostion on all types of antennas including helical +antennas. A tesla coil can be thought of as a poorly radiating helical +antenna (Kraus calls it normal mode). This cannot be correctly modeled by a +simple "lumped" circuit model since helical resonators have more than one +resonant frequency. + +* REFERENCE DATA FOR RADIO ENGINEERS, 4th ed 1956 pp 682-686 +* WIDE FREQUENCY RANGE TUNED HELICAL ANTENNAS AND CIRCUITS, by + A.G. Kandoian and W. Sichak, IRE Convention Record (1953) + [only large librarys are likely to ahev this one] + +Have a couple of formulas for computing the resonant frequency of normal +mode helical antennas. The formulas do not account for capacitve loading +from discharge electrodes or the from the discharge itself so they can only +be used as a practical starting point. + +* FIELD THEORY OF TRAVELLING WAVE TUBES, by J.D. JACKSON + Proc IRE 36 No 7, p 853 JUly 1948 + +Yes, its the same Jackson who has tortured so many physics grad students +with his EM book! This work predates the above paper -it is rather +involeved but I include it for completeness. It shows how to set up +equations for analyzing the helical antenna problem in the context of +travelling wave tubes. + +********************************************************************* +One final harping: +There are many old and not-so-old books on computing inductances for coils. +Among the authors are: +F.W. Grover +Herbert B. Dwight + +In their treatments for single layer coils they always introduce the +concept of the coil self-capacitance. Presumably you would take the self- +capacitance in parallel to the inductance of the coil to compute its +resonant frequency. Although their formulas are suspect on theoretical +grounds (see above lumped circuit approx), they can be used to approximate +resonant frequencies -- but only to within an order of magnitude! Depending +on the physical dimensions of the coil lenght, dia, winding pitch their +self capacitance can vary widely. In turn, computed resonant frequencies +will not usually reflect the correct dependencies on these parameters. + +However, these books are very helpful for computing Primary Coil +inducatnces for pancake as well as solinoidal forms. They also give +information on skin effect losses as well as the less well known +"proximity" effect losses which most people seem to ignore in thier designs + +********************************************************************** +Books available from Tesla Book Co. and Intl. Tesla Soc. + +*Modern Tesla Coil Theory -Duane A. Bylund +Coupled RLC theory-transmission line theory-capacitive discharge coils- +transistor and tube driven coils-excellent book (highly recomend) +Covers spark gap driven coils, direct drive solid state coils, and has a +section on the use of grounding center-poises. + + +*Modern Resonance Transformer Design Theory -D.C. Cox +simple theory-some practical info + + +*Tesla Coil Design Manual - J.H. Couture +lots on design curves bases on compiled experimental data- construction +tips- weak on theory- rather inefficient desings compared to the Quick and +Hull desings + + +*Vacuum Tube Tesla Coils -J.F. Corum, K.L. Corum +lots of references to literature-explains tesla coil in terms of +transmission line theory-also refers to Tesla's experiments at Colorado +Springs. Also contains the formula for computing resonant frequencies of +the helical antenna. (Highly recommend) Has a large section, of course, on +vacuum tube driven coils - their design and theory. + +> These guys also have a computer design program for IBM type computers +called the TC TUTOR. I don't own a copy, but based on their book, I would +guess that these guys know better than most what's phyically important in +coil design + + +*Tesla Coil Secrets - R.A. Ford +reprints from old articles-very cheap and interesting-probably not good to +base you new design on some of these old projects though.... +*********************************************************************** + +If you have something to add to this list, send it along. I'm thinking of +writing up a sort of TESLA FAQ since there always seems to be interest. + +-Ed + + + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/rel_ftl.faq b/textfiles.com/science/rel_ftl.faq new file mode 100644 index 00000000..88a4ee17 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/rel_ftl.faq @@ -0,0 +1,1124 @@ +Newsgroups: rec.arts.startrek.tech +Path: bloom-beacon.mit.edu!gatech!purdue!mozo.cc.purdue.edu!news.physics.purdue.edu!bohr.physics.purdue.edu!hinson +From: hinson@bohr.physics.purdue.edu (Jason W. Hinson) +Subject: Relativity and FTL Travel +Message-ID: +Sender: usenet@physics.purdue.edu (News Administration) +Organization: Physics Department, Purdue University +Date: Thu, 2 Feb 1995 00:38:06 GMT +Lines: 1114 + + +NOTE: I HOPE this is the last time I'll be posting edition 3.1 of this +post, however I make no promises. My spare time is scarce these days, +and I am still working on getting edition 4.0 completed. It will +include the following: a new sectioning method; an entirly new section +(not manditory reading if you just want to understand the FTL +arguments) which gives more information on special relativity, +paradoxes, and even takes a look at general relativity; and a +re-worked FTL discussion which will talk about the various ideas for +how one could imagine FTL travel (like wormholes, "changing the speed +of light", etc.). This re-worked FTL section will also show why I +think the best method for explaining FTL travel as it is depicted on +Trek is still, by far, the one given in the edition below. + +So, be looking for edition 4.0--if not in March then in April. Thanks +for the patience, and if you'd like to be placed on a mailing list to +receive 4.0 via e-mail when it is finished, just let me know. + + + +This is edition 3.1 of this post. Only slight corrections have been +made since version 3.0. As planned, it has become a regular monthly +post on the rec.arts.startrek.tech newsgroup. Again, let me know if +you think that any changes should be made. + + +What is it about, and who should read it: + This is a detailed explanation about how relativity and that +wonderful science fictional invention of faster than light travel do +not seem to get along with each other. It begins with a simple +introduction to the ideas of relativity. The next section includes +some important information on space-time diagrams, so if you are not +familiar with them, I suggest you read it. Then I get into the +problems that relativity poses for faster than light travel. If you +think that there are many ways for science fiction to get around these +problems, then you may not understand the problem that I discuss in +the forth section, and I strongly recommend that you read it to +increase your understanding of the FTL problem. Finally, I introduce +my idea (the only one I know of) that, if nothing else, gets around +the second problem I discuss in an interesting way. + The best way to read the article may be to make a hard copy. I +refer a few times to a diagram in the second section, and to have it +readily available would be helpful. + I hope you can learn a little something from reading this, or +at least strengthen your understanding of that which you already know. +Your comments and criticisms are welcome, especially if they indicate +improvements that I can make for future posts. + And now, without further delay, here it is. + + + Relativity and FTL Travel + +Outline: + +I. An Introduction to Special Relativity + A. Reasoning for its existence + B. Time dilation effects + C. Other effects on observers + D. Experimental support for the theory +II. Space-Time Diagrams + A. What are Space-Time Diagrams? + B. Constructing one for a "stationary" observer + C. Constructing one for a "moving" observer + D. Interchanging "stationary" and "moving" + E. Introducing the light cone + F. Comparing the way two observers view space and time +III. The First Problem: The Light Speed Barrier + A. Effects as one approaches the speed of light + B. Conceptual ideas around this problem +IV. The Second Problem: FTL Implies The Violation of Causality + A. What is meant here by causality, and its importance + B. Why FTL travel of any kind implies violation of causality + C. A scenario as "proof" +V. A Way Around the Second Problem + A. Warped space as a special frame of reference + B. How this solves the causality problem + C. The relativity problem this produces + D. One way around that relativity problem +VI. Conclusion. + + + + +I. An Introduction to Special Relativity + + The main goal of this introduction is to make relativity and its +consequences feasible to those who have not seen them before. It should +also reinforce such ideas for those who are already somewhat familiar +with them. This introduction will not completely follow the traditional +way in which relativity came about. It will begin with a pre-Einstein +view of relativity. It will then give some reasoning for why Einstein's +view is plausible. This will lead to a discussion of some of the +consequences this theory has, odd as they may seem. Finally, I want to +mention some experimental evidence that supports the theory. + + The idea of relativity was around in Newton's day, but it was +incomplete. It involved transforming from one frame of reference to +another frame which is moving with respect to the first. The +transformation was not completely correct, but it seemed so in the realm +of small speeds. + Here is an example of this to make it clear. Consider two +observers, you and me, for example. Let's say I am on a train that +passes you at 30 miles per hour. I throw a ball in the direction the +train is moving, and the ball moves at 10 mph in MY point of view. Now +consider a mark on the train tracks. You see the ball initially moving +along at the same speed I am moving (the speed of the train). Then I +throw the ball, and the ball is able to reach the mark on the track +before I do. So to you, the ball is moving even faster than I (and the +train). Obviously, it seems as if the speed of the ball with respect to +you is just the speed of the ball with respect to me plus the speed of +me with respect to you. So, the speed of the ball with respect to you += 10 mph + 30 mph = 40 mph. This was the first, simple idea for +transforming velocities from one frame of reference to another. In other +words, this was part of the first concept of relativity. + + Now I introduce you to an important postulate that leads to the +concept of relativity that we have today. I believe it will seem quite +reasonable. I state it as it appears in a physics book by Serway: "the +laws of physics are the same in every inertial frame of reference." +What it means is that if you observe any physical laws for a given +situation in your frame of reference, then an observer in a reference +frame moving with a constant velocity with respect to you should also +agree that those physical laws apply to that situation. + As an example, consider the conservation of momentum. Say that +there are two balls coming straight at one another. They collide and go +off in opposite directions. Conservation of momentum says that if you +add up the total momentum (mass times velocity) before the collision and +after the collision, that the two should be identical. Now, let this +experiment be performed on a train where the balls are moving along the +line of the train's motion. An outside observer would say that the +initial and final velocities of the balls are one thing, while an +observer on the train would say they were something different. However, +BOTH observers must agree that the total momentum is conserved. They +will disagree on what the actual numbers are, but they will agree that +the law holds. We should be able to apply this to any physical law. If +not, (i.e., if physical laws were different for different frames of +reference) then we could change the laws of physics just by traveling in +a particular reference frame. + A very interesting result occurs when you apply this postulate to +the laws of electrodynamics. What one finds is that in order for the +laws of electrodynamics to be the same in all inertial reference frames, +it must be true that the speed of electromagnetic waves (such as light) +is the same for all inertial observers. Simply stating that may not +make you think that there is anything that interesting about it, but it +has amazing consequences. Consider letting a beam of light take the +place of the ball in the first example given in this introduction. If +the train is moving at half the velocity of light, wouldn't you expect +the light beam (which is traveling at the speed of light with respect to +the train) to look as if it is traveling one and a half that speed with +respect to an outside observer? Well, this is not the case. The old +ideas of relativity in Newton's day do not apply here. What accounts +for this peculiarity is time dilation and length contraction. + Now, I give an example of how time dilation can help explain a +peculiarity that arises from the above concept. Again we consider a +train, but let's give it a speed of 0.6 c (where c = the speed of light +which is 3E8 m/s--3E8 means 3 times 10 to the eighth). An occupant of +this train shines a beam of light so that (to him) the beam goes +straight up, hits a mirror at the top of the train, and bounces back to +the floor of the train where some instrument detects it. Now, in my +point of view (outside the train), that beam of light does not travel +straight up and straight down, but makes an up-side-down "V" shape +because of the motion of the train. Here is a diagram of what I see: + + + /|\ + / | \ + / | \ + light beam going up->/ | \<-light beam on return trip + / | \ + / | \ + / | \ + / | \ + ---------|---------->trains motion (v = 0.6 c) + +Let's say that the trip up takes 10 seconds in my point of view. The +distance the train travels during that time is: + (0.6 * 3E8 m/s) * 10 s = 18E8 m. +The distance that the beam travels on the way up (the slanted line to +the left) must be + 3E8 m/s * 10s = 30E8 m. +Since the left side of the above figure is a right triangle, and we know +the length of two of the sides, we can now solve for the height of the +train: + Height = [(30E8 m)^2 - (18E8 m)^2]^0.5 = 24E8 m. +(It is a tall train, but this IS just a thought experiment.) Now we +consider the frame of reference of the traveler. The light MUST travel +at 3E8 m/s for him also, and the height of the train doesn't change +because relativity contracts only lengths in the direction of motion. +Therefore, in his frame the light will reach the top of the train in + 24E8 m / 3E8 (m/s) = 8 seconds, +and there you have it. To me the event takes 10 seconds, while +according to him it must take only 8 seconds. We measure time in +different ways. + To intensify this oddity, consider the fact that all inertial +frames are equivalent. That is, from the traveler's point of view he is +the one who is sitting still, while I zip past him at 0.6 c. So he will +think that it is MY clock that is running slowly. This lends itself +over to what seem to be paradoxes which I will not get into here. If +you have any questions on such things (such as the "twin paradox" -- +which can be understood with special relativity, by the way) feel free +to ask me about them, and I will do the best I can to answer you. + As I mentioned above, length contraction is another consequence +of relativity. Consider the same two travelers in our previous example, +and let each of them hold a meter stick horizontally (so that the length +of the stick is oriented in the direction of motion of the train). To +the outside observer, the meter stick of the traveler on the train will +look as if it is shorter than a meter. Similarly, the observer on the +train will think that the meter stick of the outside observer is the one +that is contracted. The closer one gets to the speed of light with +respect to an observer, the shorter the stick will look to that +observer. The factor which determines the amount of length contraction +and time dilation is called gamma. + Gamma is defined as (1 - v^2/c^2)^(-1/2). For our train (for +which v = 0.6 c), gamma is 1.25. Lengths will be contracted and time +dilated (as seen by the outside observer) by a factor of 1/gamma = 0.8, +which is what we demonstrated with the difference in measured time (8 +seconds compared to 10 seconds). Gamma is obviously an important number +in relativity, and it will appear as we discuss other consequences of +the theory. + Another consequence of relativity is a relationship between mass, +energy, and momentum. By considering conservation of momentum and +energy as viewed from two frames of reference, one can find that the +following relationship must be true for an unbound particle: + E^2 = p^2 * c^2 + m^2 * c^4 +Where E is energy, m is mass, and p is relativistic momentum which is +defined as + p = gamma * m * v (gamma is defined above) +By manipulating the above equations, one can find another way to express +the total energy as + E = gamma * m * c^2 +Even when an object is at rest (gamma = 1) it still has an energy of + E = m * c^2 +Many of you have seen something like this stated in context with the +theory of relativity. + It is important to note that the mass in the above equations has +a special definition which we will now discuss. As a traveler approaches +the speed of light with respect to an observer, the observer sees the +mass of the traveler increase. (By mass, we mean the property that +indicates (1) how much force is needed to create a certain acceleration +and (2) how much gravitational pull you will feel from that object). +However, the mass in the above equations is defined as the mass measured +in the rest frame of the object. That mass is always the same. The +mass seen by the observer (which I will call the observed mass) is given +by gamma * m. Thus, we could also write the total energy as + E = (observed mass) * c^2 +That observed mass approaches infinity as the object approaches the +speed of light with respect to the observer. + + These amazing consequences of relativity do have experimental +foundations. One of these involves the creation of muons by cosmic rays +in the upper atmosphere. In the rest frame of a muon, its life time is +only about 2.2E-6 seconds. Even if the muon could travel at the speed +of light, it could still go only about 660 meters during its life time. +Because of that, they should not be able to reach the surface of the +Earth. However, it has been observed that large numbers of them do +reach the Earth. From our point of view, time in the muons frame of +reference is running slowly, since the muons are traveling very fast +with respect to us. So the 2.2E-6 seconds are slowed down, and the muon +has enough time to reach the earth. + We must also be able to explain the result from the muons frame +of reference. In its point of view, it does have only 2.2E-6 seconds to +live. However, the muon would say that it is the Earth which is +speeding toward the muon. Therefore, the distance from the top of the +atmosphere to the Earth's surface is length contracted. Thus, from its +point of view, it lives a very small amount of time, but it doesn't have +that far to go. + Another verification is found all the time in particle physics. +The results of having a particle strike a target can be understood only +if one takes the total energy of the particle to be E = Gamma * m * c^2, +which was predicted by relativity. + These are only a few examples that give credibility to the theory +of relativity. Its predictions have turned out to be true in many +cases, and to date, no evidence exists that would tend to undermine the +theory. + + + In the above discussion of relativity's effects on space and time +we have looked at only length contraction and time dilation. However, +there is a little more to it than that, and the next section attempts to +explain this to some extent. + + + + + +II. Space-Time Diagrams + + In this section we examine certain constructions known as space- +time diagrams. After a short look at why we need to discuss these +diagrams, I will explain what they are and what purpose they serve. +Next we will construct a space-time diagram for a particular observer. +Then, using the same techniques, we will construct a second diagram to +represent the coordinate system for a second observer who is moving with +respect to the first observer. This second diagram will show the second +observer's frame of reference with respect to the first observer; +however, we will also switch around the diagram to show what the first +observer's frame of reference looks like with respect to the second +observer. Finally, we will compare the way these two observers view +space and time, which will make it necessary to first discuss a diagram +known as a light cone. + + In the previous section we talked about the major consequences of +special relativity, but now I want to concentrate more specifically on +how relativity causes a transformation of space and time. Relativity +causes a little more than can be understood by simple length contraction +and time dilation. It actually results in two different observers +having two different space-time coordinate systems. The coordinates +transform from one frame to the other through what are known as a +Lorentz Transformation. Without getting deep into the math, much can be +understood about such transforms by considering space-time diagrams. + A space-time diagram gives us a means of representing events +which occur at different locations and at different times. For the +space part of the diagram, we will be looking in only one direction, the +x direction. So, the space-time diagram consists of a coordinate system +with one axis to represent space (the x direction) and another to +represent time. Where these two principle axes meet is the origin. +This is simply a point in space that we have defined as x = 0 and a +moment in time that we have defined as t = 0. In Diagram 1 (below) I +have drawn these two axes and marked the origin with an o. + For certain reasons we want to define the units that we will use +for distances and times in a very specific way. Let's define the unit +for time to be the second. This means that moving one unit up the time +axis will represent waiting one second of time. We then want to define +the unit for distance to be a light second (the distance light travels +in one second). So if you move one unit to the right on the x axis, you +will be looking at a point in space that is one light second away from +your previous location. In Diagram 1, I have marked the locations of +the different space and time units (Note: In my diagrams, I am using +four spaces to be one unit along the x axis and two character heights +to be one unit on the time axis). + With these units it is interesting to note how a beam of light is +represented in our diagram. Consider a beam of light leaving the origin +and traveling to the right. One second later, it will have traveled one +light second away. Two seconds after it leaves it will have traveled +two light seconds away, and so on. So a beam of light will always make +a line at an angle of 45 degrees to the x and t axes. I have drawn such +a light beam in Diagram 2. + + + Diagram 1 Diagram 2 + t t + ^ ^ + | | light + + + / + | | / + + + / + | | / + -+---+---o---+---+---> x -+---+---o---+---+-> x + | | + + + + | | + + + + | | + + + At this point, we want to decide exactly how to represent events +on this coordinate system. First, when we say that we are using this +diagram to represent the reference frame of a particular observer, we +mean that in this diagram the observer is not moving. We will call this +observer the O observer. So if the O observer starts at the origin, +then one second later he is still at x = 0. Two seconds later he is +still at x = 0, etc. So, he is always on the time axis in our +representation. Similarly, any lines drawn parallel to the t axis (in +this case, vertical lines) will represent lines of constant position. +If a second observer is not moving with respect to the first, and this +second observer starts at a position two light seconds away to the right +of the first, then as time progresses he will stay on the vertical line +that runs through x = 2. + Next we want to figure out how to represent lines of constant +time. To do this, we should first find a point on our diagram that +represents an event which occurs at the same time as the origin (t = 0). +To do this we will use a method that Einstein used. First we choose a +point on the t axis which occurred prior to t = 0. Let's use an example +where this point is occurs at t = -3 seconds. At that time we send out +a beam of light in the positive x direction. If the beam bounces off of +a distant mirror at t = 0 and heads back toward the t axis, then it +will come back to the us at t = 3 seconds. So, if we send out a beam at +t = -3 seconds and it returns at t = 3 seconds, then the event of it +bouncing off the mirror occurred simultaneously with the time t = 0. + To use this in our diagram, we first pick two points on the t +axis that mark t = -3 and t = 3 (let's call these points A and B +respectively). We then draw one light beam leaving from A in the +positive x direction. Next we draw a light beam coming to B in the +negative x direction. Where these two beams meet (let's call this point +C) marks the point where the original beam bounces off the mirror. Thus +the event marked by C is simultaneous with t = 0 (the origin). A line +drawn through C and o will thus be a line of constant time. All lines +parallel to this line will also be lines of constant time. So any two +events that lie along one of these lines occur at the same time in this +frame of reference. I have drawn this procedure in Diagram 3, and you +can see that the x axis is the line through both o and C which is a line +of simultaneity (as one might have expected). + Now, by constructing a set of simultaneous time lines and +simultaneous position lines we will have a grid on our space-time +diagram. Any event has a specific location on the grid which tells when +and where it occurs. In Diagram 4 I have drawn one of these grids and +marked an event (@) that occurred 3 light seconds away to the left of +the origin (x = -3) and 1 light seconds before the origin (t = -1). + + + Diagram 3 Diagram 4 + t t + | | | | | | | + B ---+---+---+---+---+---+--- + | \ | | | | | | + + \ ---+---+---+---+---+---+--- + | \ | | | | | | + + \ ---+---+---+---o---+---+--- x + | \ | | | | | | + -+---+---o---+---+---C- x ---@---+---+---+---+---+--- + | / | | | | | | + + / ---+---+---+---+---+---+--- + | / | | | | | | + + / + | / + A + | + + + Now comes an important addition to our discussion of space-time +diagrams. The coordinate system we have drawn will work fine for any +observer who is not moving with respect to the O observer. Now we want +to construct a coordinate system for an observer who IS traveling with +respect to the O observer. The trajectories of two such observers have +been drawn in Diagrams 5 and 6. Notice that in our discussion we will +always consider moving observers who pass by the O observer at the time +t = 0 and at the position x = 0. Now, the traveler in Diagram 5 is +moving slower than the one in Diagram 6. You can see this because in a +given amount of time, the Diagram 6 traveler has moved further away from +the time axis than the Diagram 5 traveler. So the faster a traveler +moves, the more slanted this line becomes. + + + Diagram 5 Diagram 6 + t t + | / | / + + + / + | / | / + + + / + |` |/ + -+---+---o---+---+--- x -+---+---o---+---+- x + ,| /| + + / + + / | / | + + / + + / | / | + + + What does this line actually represent? Well, consider an object +sitting on this line, right next to our moving observer. If a few +seconds later the object is still sitting on that line (right next to +him), then in his point of view, the object has not moved. The line is +a line of constant position for the moving observer. But that means +that this line represents the same thing for the moving observer as the +t axis represented for the O observer; and in fact, this line becomes +the moving observer's new time axis. We will mark this new time axis as +t' (t-prime). All lines parallel to this slanted line will also be +lines of constant position for our moving observer. + Now, just as we did for the O observer, we want to construct +lines of constant time for our traveling observer. To do this, we will +use the same method that we did for the O observer. The moving observer +will send out a light beam at some time t' = -T, and the beam will +bounce off some mirror so that it returns at time t' = +T. Then the point +at which the beam bounces off the mirror will be simultaneous with the +origin, where t' = t = 0. + There is a very important point to note here. What if instead of +light, we wanted to throw a ball at 0.5 c, have it bounce off some wall, +and then return at the same speed (0.5 c). The problem with this is +that to find a line of constant time for the moving observer, then the +ball must travel at 0.5 c both ways in the reference frame of the MOVING +observer. But we have not yet defined the coordinate system for the +moving observer, so we do not know what a ball moving at 0.5 c with +respect to him will look like on our diagram. However, because of +relativity, we know that the speed of light itself CANNOT change from +one observer to the next. In that case, a beam of light traveling at c +in the frame of the moving observer will also be traveling at c for the +O observer. So no matter what observer we are representing on our +diagram, a beam of light will ALWAYS make a 45 degree angle with respect +to the x and t axes. + In Diagram 7, I have labeled a point A' which occurs some amount +of time before t' = 0 and a point B' which occurs the same amount of +time after t' = 0. I then drew the two light rays as before and found +the point where they would meet (C'). Thus, C' and o occur at the same +time in the eyes of the moving observer. Notice that for the O +observer, C' is above his line of simultaneity (the x axis). So while +the moving observer says that C' occurs when the two observers pass (at +the origin), the stationary observer says that C' occurs after the two +observers have passed by one another. In Diagram 8, I have drawn a line +passing through C' and o. This line represents the same thing for our +moving observer as the x axis did for the O observer. So we label this +line x'. + From the geometry involved in finding this x' axis, we can state +a general rule for finding the x' axis for any moving observer. First +recall that the t' axis is the line that represents the moving +observer's position on the space-time diagram. The faster O' is moving +with respect to O, the greater the angle between the t axis and the t' +axis. So the t' axis is rotated at some angle (either clockwise or +counterclockwise, depending on the direction O' is going--left or right) +away from the t axis. The x' axis is a line rotated at the same angle, +but in the _opposite_ direction (counterclockwise or clockwise) away +from the x axis. + + + Diagram 7 Diagram 8 + t t t' + | / | / + + B' + / + | / \ | / __--x' + + / C' + / __C'- + |/ / |/__-- + -+---+---+---o---/---+---+- x -+---+---+-__o---+---+---+- x + /| / * __-- /| + / / __-- / + + // | -- / | + A' + / + + / | / | + + + Now, x' is a line of constant time for O', and any line drawn +parallel to x' is also a line of constant time. Such lines, along with +the lines of constant position form a grid of the space-time coordinates +for the O' observer. I have tried my best to draw such a grid in +Diagram 9. If you squint your eyes while looking at that diagram, you +can see the skewed squares of the coordinate grid. You can see that if +you pick a point on the space-time diagram, the two observers with their +two different coordinate systems will disagree on when and where the +event occurs. + As a final note about this, think back to what really made these +two coordinate systems look differently. Well, the only thing we +assumed in creating these systems is that the speed of light is the same +for all observers. In fact, this is the only reason that the two +coordinate systems look the way they do. + + In our understanding of space-time diagrams, I also want to +incorporate the idea that all reference frames that move with a constant +velocity are considered equivalent. By this I mean that O was +considered as the stationary observer only because we defined him as +such. Then, when I called O' the moving observer, I meant that he was +moving with respect to O. However, we should just as easily be able to +define O' as the stationary observer. Then, to him, O is moving away +from him to the left. Then, we should be able to draw the t' and x' +axes as the vertical and horizontal lines, while the t and x axes become +the rotated lines. I have done this in Diagram 10. By examining this +Diagram, you can confirm that it makes sense to you in light of our +discussion thus far. + + + Diagram 9 Diagram 10 + t' t t' + +-----------------/-------+ \ | + | / /_-/""/ /__/-"/ / _| \ + + |/-"/ / _/--/" / /_-/""/| \ | + | /_-/""/ /__/-"/ / _/-->x' \ + + |"/ / _/--/" / /_-/""/ | \| + |/_-/""/ /__o-"/ / _/--/| ---+---+---o-__+---+--- x' + | / _/--/" / /_-/""/ /_| | ""--__ + |-/""/ /__/-"/ / _/--/" | + ""--x + |/ _/--/" / /_-/""/ /__/| | + |""/ /__/-"/ / _/--/" / | + + +-------------------------+ | + + The last thing I want to do in this discussion is to compare the +way our two observers view a particular event. First, let me note that +with what we have discussed we cannot make a complete comparison of the +two observers' coordinate systems. You see, we have not seen how the +lengths which represents one unit of space and time in the reference +frame of O compares with the lengths representing the same units in O'. +I will tell you that the lengths are in fact different; however, I will +not take up any more of your time by going into exactly how they +compare. Also, to do this comparison one would use the fact that for +the observers we have defined, if an event occurs at a point (x,t) for O +and (x',t') for O', then x^2 - t^2 = x'^2 - t'^2. The best way to show +this on the diagram is to draw hyperbolas represented by these +equations, and I don't even want to consider how to do this with my +limited experience with ASCII graphics. + There is, however, one comparison that we can make, and it will +be of importance in later discussions. In Diagram 8, in addition to the +O and O' space and time axes, I have also marked a particular event with +a star, "*". Recall that for O, any event on the x axis occurs at the +same time as the origin (the place and time that the two observers pass +each other). Since the marked event appears under the x axis, then O +must believe that the event occurs before the observers pass each other. +Also recall that for O', those events on the x' axis are the ones that +occur at the same time the observers are passing. Since the marked +event appears above the x' axis, O' must believe that the event occurs +after the observers pass each other. So, when and where events occur +with respect to other events is completely dependent on who is observing +the events. Now, how can this make sense? How can one event be both in +the future for one observer and in the past to another observer. To +better understand why this situation doesn't contradict itself, we need +to look at one other construction typically shown on a space-time +diagram. + In Diagram 11 I have drawn two light rays, one which travels in +the +x direction and another which travels in the -x direction. At some +negative time, the two rays were headed towards x = 0. At t = 0, the +two rays finally get to x = 0 and cross paths. As time progresses, the +two then speed away from x = 0. This construction is known as a light +cone. + A light cone divides a space-time diagram into two major +sections: the area inside the cone and the area outside the cone (as +shown in Diagram 11). Let me mention here that specifically I will call +the cone I have drawn a light cone centered at the origin, because that +is where the two beams meet. Now, consider an observer who has been +sitting at x = 0 (like our O observer) and is receiving and sending +signals at the moment marked by t = 0. Obviously, if he sends out a +signal, it proceeds away from x = 0 into the future, and the event +marked by someone receiving the signal would be above the x axis (in his +future). Also, if he is receiving signals at t = 0, then the event +marked by someone sending the signal would have to be under the x axis +(in his past). Now, if it is impossible for anything to travel faster +than light, then the only events occurring before t = 0 that the observer +can know about at the moment are those that are inside the light cone. +Also, the only future events (those occurring after t = 0) that he can +influence are, again, those inside the light cone. + Now, one of the most important things to note about a light cone +is that it's position is the same for all observers (because the speed of +light is the same for all observers). For example, picture taking the +skewed coordinate system of the moving observer and superimposing it on +the light cone I have drawn. If you were to move one unit "down" the x' +axis (a distance that represents one light second for our moving +observer), and you move one unit "up" the t' axes (one second for our +moving observer), then the point you end up at should lie somewhere on +the light cone. In effect, a light cone will always look the same on +our diagram reguardless of which observer is drawing the cone. + This fact has great importance. Consider different observers who +are all passing by one another at some point in space and time. In +general, they will disagree with each other on when and where different +events have and will occur. However, if you draw a light cone centered +at the point where they are passing each other, then they will ALL agree +as to which events are inside the light cone and which events are +outside the light cone. So, reguardless of the coordinate system for +any of these observers, the following facts remain: The only events +that any of these observers can ever hope to influence are those which +lie inside the upper half of the light cone. Similarly, the only events +that any of these observers can know about as they pass by one another +are those which lie inside the lower half of the cone. + Now let's apply this to the observers and event in Diagram 8. As +you can see, the event in question is indeed outside the light cone. +Because of this, even though the event is in one observers past, he +cannot know about the event at this time. Also, even though the event +is in the other observer's future, he can never have an effect on the +event. In essence, the event (when it happens, where it happens, how it +happens, etc.) is of absolutely no consequence for these two observers at +this time. As it turns out, any time you find two observers who are +passing by one another and an event which one observer's coordinate +system places in the past and the other observer's coordinate system +places in the future, then the event will always be outside of the light +cone for the observers. + But doesn't this relativistic picture of the universe still +present an ambiguity in the concepts of past and future? Perhaps +philosophically it does, but not physically. You see, the only time you +can see these ambiguities is when you are looking at the whole space- +time picture at once. If you were one of the observers who is actually +viewing space and time, then as the other observer passes by you, your +whole picture of space and time can only be constructed from events that +are inside the lower half of the light cone. If you wait for a while, +then eventually you can get all of the information from all of the events +that were happening around the time you were passing the other observer. +From this information, you can draw the whole space-time diagram, and +then you can see the ambiguity. But by that time, the ambiguity that +you are considering no longer exists. So the ambiguity can never +actually play a part in any physical situation. Finally, remember that +this is only true if nothing can travel faster than the speed of light. + + Diagram 11 + t + ^ + | light + \ + / + \ inside / + \ + / + outside \ | / outside + ---+---+---o---+---+---> x + / | \ + / + \ + / inside \ + / + \ + | + + + Well, that concludes our look at relativity and space-time +diagrams. Now, we can use these concepts to discuss the problems +presented by FTL travel. + + + + + +III. The First Problem: The Light Speed Barrier + + In this section we discuss the first thing (and in some cases the +only thing) that comes to mind for most people who consider the problem +of faster than light travel. I call it the light speed barrier. As we +will see by considering ideas from the first section, light speed seems +to be a giant, unreachable wall standing in our way. I also introduce a +couple of fictional ways to get around this barrier; however, part of my +reason for introducing these solutions is to show that they do not solve +the problem discussed in the next section. + + Consider two observers, A and B. Let A be here on Earth and be +considered at rest for now. B will be speeding past A at highly +relativistic speeds. If B's speed is 80% that of light with respect to +A, then gamma for him (as defined in the first section) is +1.6666666... = 1/0.6 +So from A's point of view B's clock is running slow and B's lengths in +the direction of motion are shorter by a factor of 0.6. If B were +traveling at 0.9 c, then this factor becomes about 0.436; and at 0.99 c, +it is about 0.14. As the speed gets closer and closer to the speed of +light, A will see B's clock slow down infinitesimally slow, and A will +see B's lengths in the direction of motion becoming infinitesimally +small. + In addition, If B's speed is 0.8 c with respect to A, then A will +see B's observed mass as being larger by a factor of gamma (which is +1.666...). At 0.9 c and 0.99 c this factor is about 2.3 and 7.1 +respectively. As the speed gets closer and closer to the speed of +light, A will see B's observed mass (and thus his energy) become +infinitely large. + Obviously, from A's point of view, B will not be able to reach +the speed of light without stopping his own time, shrinking to +nothingness in the direction of motion, and taking on an infinite amount +of energy. + + Now let's look at the situation from B's point of view, so we +will consider him to be at rest. First, notice that the sun, the other +planets, the nearby stars, etc. are not moving very relativistically +with respect to the Earth; so we will consider all of these to be in the +same frame of reference. Let B be traveling past the earth and toward +some nearby star. In his point of view, the earth, the sun, the other +star, etc. are the ones traveling at highly relativistic velocities with +respect to him. So to him the clocks on Earth are running slow, the +energy of all those objects becomes greater, and the distances between +the objects in the direction of motion become smaller. + Let's consider the distance between the Earth and the star to +which B is traveling. From B's point of view, as the speed gets closer +and closer to that of light, this distance becomes infinitesimally +small. So from his point of view, he can get to the star in practically +no time. (This explains how A seems to think that B's clock is +practically stopped during the whole trip when the velocity is almost +c.) If B thinks that at the speed of light that distance shrinks to +zero and that he is able to get there instantaneously, then from his +point of view, c is the fastest possible speed. + + So from either point of view, it seems that the speed of light +cannot be reached, much less exceeded. However, through some inventive +imagination, it is possible to come up with fictional ways around this +problem. Some of these solutions involve getting from point A to point +B without traveling through the intermittent space. For example, +consider a forth dimension that we can use to bend two points in our +universe closer together (sort of like connecting two points of a "two +dimensional" piece of paper by bending it through a third dimension and +touching the two points directly). Then a ship could travel between two +points without moving through the space in between, thus bypassing the +light speed barrier. + Another idea involves bending the space between the points to +make the distance between them smaller. In a way, this is what highly +relativistic traveling looks like from the point of view of the +traveler; however, we don't want the associated time transformation. So +by fictionally bending the space to cause the space distortion without +the time distortion, one can imagine getting away from the problem. + + Again I remind you that these solutions only take care of the +"light speed barrier" problem. They do not solve the problem discussed +in the next section, as we shall soon see. + + + + +IV. The Second Problem: FTL Implies The Violation of Causality + + In this section we explore the violation of causality involved +with faster than light travel. First I will explain what we mean here +by causality and why it is important that we do not simply throw it +aside without a second thought. I will then try to explain why any +faster than light method that allows you to travel faster than light in +any frame you wish will also allow you to violate causality. + + When I speak of causality, I have the following particular idea +in mind. Consider an event A which has an effect on another event B. +Causality would require that event B cannot in turn have an effect on +event A. For example, let's say that event A is a murderer making a +decision to shoot and kill his victim. Let's then say that event B is +the victim being shot and killed by the murderer. Causality says that +the death of the victim cannot then have any effect on the murderer's +decision. If the murderer could see his dead victim, go back in time, +and then decide not to kill him after all, then causality would be +violated. In time travel "theories," such problems are reasoned with +the use of multiple time lines and the likes; however, since we do not +want every excursion to a nearby star to create a new time line, we +would hope that FTL travel could be done without such causality +violations. As I shall now show, this is not a simple problem to get +around. + + I refer you back to the diagrams in the second section so that I +can demonstrate the causality problem involved with FTL travel. In +Diagram 8, two observers are passing by one another. At the moment +represented by the principle axes shown, the two observers are right +next to one another an the origin. The x' and t' axes are said to +represent the K-prime frame of reference (I will call this Kp for +short). The x and t axes are then the K frame of reference. We define +the K system to be our rest system, while the Kp observer passes by K at +a relativistic speed. As you can see, the two observers measure space +and time in different ways. For example, consider again the event +marked "*". Cover up the x and t axis and look only at the Kp system. +In this system, the event is above the x' axis. If the Kp observer at +the origin could look left and right and see all the way down his space +axis instantaneously, then he would have to wait a while for the event +to occur. Now cover up the Kp system and look only at the K system. In +this system, the event is below the x axis. So to the observer in the K +system, the event has already occurred. + Normally, this fact gives us no trouble. If you draw a light +cone (as discussed in the second section) through the origin, then the +event will be outside of the light cone. As long as no signal can +travel faster than the speed of light, then it will be impossible for +either observer to know about or influence the event. So even though it +is in one observer's past, he cannot know about it, and even though it is +in the other observer's future, he cannot have an effect on it. This is +how relativity saves its own self from violating causality. + Now consider what would happen if a signal could be sent +arbitrarily fast. From K's frame of reference, the event has already +occurred. For example, say the event occurred a year ago and 5 light +years away. As long as a signal can be sent at 5 times the speed of +light, then obviously K can receive a signal from the event. However, +from Kp's frame of reference, the event is in the future. So as long as +he can send a signal sufficiently faster than light, he can get a signal +out to the place where the event will occur before it occurs. So, in +the point of view of one observer, the event can be known about. This +observer can then tell the other observer as they pass by each other. +Then the second observer can send a signal out that could change that +event. This is a violation of causality. + Basically, when K receives a signal from the event, Kp sees the +signal as coming from the future. Also, when Kp sends a signal to the +event, K sees it as a signal being sent into the past. In one frame of +reference the signal is moving faster than light, while in the other +frame it is going backwards in time. Also notice that in this example I +never mentioned anything about how the signal gets between two points. +I didn't even require that the signal be "in our universe" when it is +traveling. The only thing I required is that the signal starts and ends +as events in our universe. As long as this is true, and as long as +either observer (K or Kp) can send any faster than light signal in their +own frame of reference, then the causality problem can be produced. + As a short example of this, consider the following. Instead of +sending a message out, let's say that Kp sends out a bullet that travels +faster than the speed of light. This bullet can go out and kill someone +light-years away in only a few hours (for example) in Kp's frame of +reference. Now, say he fires this bullet just as he passes by K. Then +we can call the death of the victim the event (*). Now, in K's frame of +reference, the victim is already dead when Kp passes by. This means +that the victim could have sent a signal just after he was shot that +would reach K before Kp passed by. So K can know that Kp will shoot his +gun as he passes, and K can stop him. But then the victim is never hit, +so he never sends a message to K. So K doesn't know to stop Kp and Kp +does shoot the bullet. Obviously, causality is not very happy about +this logical loop that develops. + + If this argument hasn't convinced you, then let me try one more +thought experiment to convince you of the problem. Here, to make +calculations easy, we assume that a signal can be sent infinitely fast. + + Person A is on earth, and person B speeds away from earth at a +velocity v. To make things easy, let's say that v is such that for an +observer on Earth, person B's clock runs slow by a factor of 2. Now, +person A waits one hour after person B has passed earth. At that time +person A sends a message to person B which says "I just found a bomb +under my chair that will take 10 minutes to defuse, but goes off in 10 +seconds ... HELP" He sends it instantaneously from his point of view... +well, from his point of view, B's clock has moved only half an hour. So +B receives the message half an hour after passing earth in his frame of +reference. + Now we must switch to B's point of view. From his point of view, +A has been speeding away from him at a velocity v. So, to B, it is A's +clock that has been running slow. Therefore, when he gets the message +half an hour after passing earth, then in his frame of reference, A's +clock has moved only 1/4 an hour. So, B sends a message to A that says: +"There's a bomb under your chair." It gets to A instantaneously, but +this time it is sent from B's frame of reference, so instantaneously +means that A gets the message only 1/4 of an hour after B passed Earth. +You see that A as received an answer to his message before he even sent +it. Obviously, there is a causality problem, no matter how you get the +message there. + OK, what about speeds grater than c but NOT instantaneous? +Whether or not you can use the above argument to find a causality +problem will depend on how fast you have B traveling. If you have a +communication travel faster than c, then you can always find a velocity +for B (v < c) such that a causality problem will occur. However, if you +send the communication at a speed that is less than c, then you cannot +create a causality problem for any velocity of B (as long as B's +velocity is also less that c). + + So, it seems that if you go around traveling faster than the +speed of light, causality violations are sure to follow you around. +This causes some very real problems with logic, and I for one would like +to find a way around such problems. This next section intends to do just +that. + + + + +V. A Way Around the Second Problem + + Now we can discuss my idea for getting around the causality +problem produced by FTL travel. I will move through the development of +the idea step by step so that it is clear to the reader. I will then +explain how the idea I pose completely gets rid of causality violations. +Finally, I will discuss the one "bad" side effect of my solution which +involves the fundamentals of relativity, and I will mention how this +might not be so bad after all. + + Join me now on a science fictional journey of the imagination. +Picture, if you will, a particular area of space about one square light- +year in size. Filling this area of space is a special field which is +sitting relatively stationary with respect to the earth, the sun, etc. +(By stationary, I mean relativistically speaking. That means it could +still be moving at a few hundreds of thousands of meters per second with +respect to the earth. Even at that speed, someone could travel for a +few thousand years and their clock would be off by only a day or two +from earth's clocks.) So, the field has a frame of reference that is +basically the same as ours on earth. In our science fictional future, a +way is found to manipulate the very makeup (fabric, if you will) of this +field. When this "warping" is done, it is found that the field has a +very special property. An observer inside the warped area can travel at +any speed he wishes with respect to the field, and his frame of +reference will always be the same as that of the field. This means that +x and t axes in a space time diagram will be the same as the ones for +the special field, reguardless of the observer's motion. In our +discussion of relativity, we saw that in normal space a traveler's frame +of reference depends on his speed with respect to the things he is +observing. However, for a traveler in this warped space, this is no +longer the case. + To help you understand this, let's look at a simple example. +Consider two ships, A and B, which start out sitting still with respect +to the special field. They are in regular space, but in the area of +space where the field exists. At some time, Ship A warps the field +around him to produce a warped space. He then travels to the edge of +the warped space at a velocity of 0.999 c with respect to ship B. That +means that if they started at one end of the field, and A traveled to +the other end of the field and dropped back into normal space, then B +says the trip took 1.001001... years. (That's 1 light-year divided by +0.999 light-years per year.) Now, if A had traveled in normal space, +then his clock would have been moving slow by a factor of 22.4 with +respect to B's clock. To observer A, the trip would have only taken +16.3 days. However, by using the special field, observer A kept the +field's frame of reference during the whole trip. So he also thinks it +took 1.001001... years to get there. + Now, let's change one thing about this field. Let the field +exist everywhere in space that we have been able to look. We are able +to detect its motion with respect to us, and have found that it still +doesn't have a very relativistic speed with respect to our galaxy and +its stars. With this, warping the field now becomes a means of travel +within all known space. + + The most important reason for considering this as a means of +travel in a science fiction story is that it does preserve causality, as +I will now attempt to show. Again, I will be referring to Diagram 8 in +the second section. In order to demonstrate my point, I will be doing +two things. First, I will assume that the frame of reference of the +field (let's call it the S frame) is the same as that of the x and t +system (the K system) shown in Diagram 8. Assuming that, I will show +that the causality violation discussed in the previous section will not +occur using the new method of travel. Second, I will show that we can +instead assume that the S frame is the same as that of the x' and t' +system (the K-prime--or Kp for short--system), and again causality will +be preserved. + Before I do this, let me remind you of how the causality +violation occurred. The event (*) in the diagram will again be focused +on to explore causality. This event is in the past of the K system, but +it is in the future of the Kp system. Since it is in the past according +to the K observer, an FTL signal could be sent from the event to the +origin where K would receive the signal. As the Kp observer passed by, +K could tell him, "Hay, here is an event that will occur x number of +light years away and t years in your future." Now we can switch over to +Kp's frame of reference. He sees a universe in which he now knows that +at some distant point an event will occur some time in the future. He +can then send a FTL signal that would get to that distant point before +the event happens. So he can influence the event, a future that he +knows must exist. That is a violation of causality. But now we have a +specific frame of reference in which any FTL travel must be done, and +this will save causality. + First, we consider what would happen if the frame of the special +field was the same as that of the K system. That means that the K +observer is sitting relatively still with respect to the field. So, in +the frame of reference of the field, the event "*" IS in the past. That +means that someone at event "*" can send a message by warping the field, +and the message will be able to get to origin. Again, the K observer +has received a signal from the event. So, again he can tell the Kp +observer about the event as the Kp observer passes by. Again, we switch +to Kp's frame of reference, and again he is in a universe in which he +now knows that at some distant point an event will occur some time in +the future. But here is where the "agains" stop. Before it was +possible for Kp to then send a signal out that would get to that distant +point before the event occurs. But NOW, to send a signal faster than +light, you must do so by warping the field, and the signal will be sent +in the field's frame of reference. But we have assumed that the field's +frame of reference is the same as K's frame, and in that frame, the +event has already occurred. So, as soon as the signal enters the warped +space, it is in a frame of reference in which the event is over with, +and it cannot get to the location of the event before it happens. What +Kp basically sees is that no matter how fast he tries to send the +signal, he can never get it to go fast enough to reach the event. In +K's frame, it is theoretically possible to send any signal, even an +instantaneous one in any direction; but in Kp's frame, some signals +which would appear to him to be FTL cannot be sent (specifically, +signals which would go back in time in the K frame). So we see that +under this first consideration, causality is preserved. + To further convince you of my point, I will now consider what +would happen if the frame of the special field was the same as that of +the Kp system instead of the K system. Again, consider an observer at +the event "*" who wishes to send a signal to K before Kp passes by K. +The event of K and Kp passing one another has the position of the origin +in our diagram. In order to send this signal, the observer at "*" must +warp the field and thus enter the system of the Kp observer. But in the +frame of reference of Kp, when he passes by K, the event "*" is in the +future. Another way of saying this is that in the Kp frame of +reference, when the event "*" occurs, Kp will have already passed K and +gone off on his merry way. So when the signal at "*" enters the warped +space, it's frame of reference switches to one in which K and Kp have +already passed by one another. That means that it is impossible for "*" +to send a signal that would get to K before Kp passes by. The +possibility of creating a causality violation thus ends here. + Let me summarize the two above scenarios. In the first +situation, K could know about the event before Kp passes. So Kp can +know about the event after he passes K, but Kp could not send a signal +that would then influence the event. In the second situation, Kp can +send a signal that would influence the event after he passed by K. +However, K could not know about the event before Kp passed, so Kp cannot +have previous knowledge of the event before he sends a signal to the +event. In either case, causality is safe. Also notice that only one +case can be true. If both cases existed at the same time, then +causality would be no safer than before. Therefore, only one special +field can exist, and using it must be the only way that FTL travel can +be done. + Many scenarios like the one above can be conceived using +different events and observers, and (under normal situations) FTL +travel/communication can be shown to violate causality. However, in all +such cases the same types of arguments are used that I have used here, +and the causality problem is still eliminated by using the special +field. In general, this is because no observer can ever send a signal +which goes backward in time in the frame of the special field. + I thus see warp travel in Star Trek like this: Subspace is a +field which defines a particular frame of reference at all points in +known space. When you enter warp, you are using subspace such that you +keep its frame of reference reguardless of your speed. Not only does +this mean that normal warp travel cannot be used to grossly violate +causality, but since your frame of reference does not depend on your +speed as it does in relativity, relativistic effects in general do not +apply to travelers using warp. Since relativistic effects don't apply, +you also have a general explanation as to why you can exceed the speed +of light in the first place. + + So, is this the perfect solution where FTL travel exists without +any side effects that make it logically impossible? Does this mean that +FTL travel in Star Trek lives, and all we have to do is accept the idea +that subspace/warped space involves a special frame of reference? Well, +not quite. + You see, there is one problem with all of this which involves the +basic ideas which helped form relativity. We said that an observer +using our special mode of transportation will always have the frame of +reference of the field. This means that his frame of reference does not +change with respect to his speed, and that travel within the warped +field does not obey Einstein's Relativity. At first glance, this +doesn't seem too bad, it just sounds like good science fiction. But +what happens when you observe the outside world while in warp? To +explore this, let's first look back at why it is necessary for the frame +of reference to change with respect to speed. We had assumed that the +laws of physics don't simply change for every different inertial +observer. It had been found that if the laws of electrodynamics look +the same to all inertial observers, then the speed of an electromagnetic +wave such as light must be the same for all observers. This in turn +made it necessary for different observers to have different frames of +reference. Now, let's go backwards through this argument. If different +observers using our special mode of transportation do not have different +frames of reference, then the speed of light will not look the same to +all observers. This in turn means that if you are observing an +electromagnetic event occurring in normal space while you are within the +warped space, the laws governing that occurrence will look different to +you than they would to an observer in normal space. + Perhaps this is not that big of a problem. One could assume that +what you see from within warped space is not actually occurring in real +space, but is caused by the interaction between the warped space and the +real universe. The computer could then compensate for these effects and +show you on screen what is really happening. I do not, however, pretend +that this is a sound explanation. This is the one part of the +discussion that I have not delved into very deeply. Perhaps I will look +further into this in the future, but it seems as if science fiction +could take care of this problem. + + + + +VI. Conclusion. + + I have presented to you some major concepts of relativity and the +havoc they play with faster than light travel. I have shown you that the +violation of causality alone is a very powerful deterrent to faster than +light travel of almost any kind. So powerful are its effects, in fact, +that I have found only one way to get around them if we wish to have +faster than light travel readily available. I hope I have convinced you +that (1) causality is indeed very hard to get around, and (2) my idea +for a special field with a particular frame of reference does get around +it. For the moment, I for one see this as the only way that I would +ever want to consider the possibility of faster than light travel. +Though I do not expect you to be so adamant about the idea, I do hope +that you see it as a definite possibility with some desirable outcomes. +If nothing else, I hope that I have at least educated you to some extent +on the problems involved when considering the effects of relativity on +faster than light travel. + + + + + Jason Hinson + + +-Jay + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/relative.ftl b/textfiles.com/science/relative.ftl new file mode 100644 index 00000000..b802ec9d --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/relative.ftl @@ -0,0 +1,794 @@ +From: hinson@bohr.physics.purdue.edu (Jason W. Hinson) +Newsgroups: rec.arts.startrek.tech +Subject: Relativity and FTL Travel +Summary: A detailed look at the problem +Message-ID: <8974@dirac.physics.purdue.edu> +Date: 18 Dec 92 21:35:54 GMT +Organization: Purdue University Physics Department +Lines: 785 + + + +Finally, here it is. It is a length discussion, 794 lines by my count, +but it is fairly complete for what I intended to do. Also, if you are +only interested in a particular part, you can just skip the rest. + +What is it about, and who should read it: + This is a detailed explanation about how relativity and that +wonderful science fictional invention of faster than light travel do not +seem to get along with each other. It begins with a simple introduction +to the ideas of relativity. This section includes some important +information on space-time diagrams, so if you are not familiar with +them, I suggest you read it. Then I get into the problems that +relativity poses for faster than light travel. If you think that there +are many science fictional ways that we can get around these problems, +then you probably do not understand the second problem which I discuss +in the third section, and I strongly recommend that you read it to +educate yourself. Finally, I introduce my idea (the only one I know of) +that, if nothing else, gets around this second problem in an interesting +way. + The best way to read the article may be to make a hard copy. I +refer back a few times to a Diagram in the first section, and to have it +readily available would be nice. + I hope you can learn a little something from reading this, or at +least strengthen your understanding of that which you already know. +Your comments and criticisms are welcome, especially if they indicate +improvements that can be made for future posts. + And now, without further delay, here it is. + + + + Relativity and FTL Travel + +Outline: + +I. An Introduction to Special Relativity + A. Reasoning for its existence + B. Time dilation effects + C. Other effects on observers + E. Space-Time Diagrams + D. Experimental support for the theory +II. The First Problem: The Light Speed Barrier + A. Effects as one approaches the speed of light + B. Conceptual ideas around this problem +III. The Second Problem: FTL Implies The Violation of Causality + A. What is meant here by causality, and its importance + B. Why FTL travel of any kind implies violation of causality + C. A scenario as "proof" +IV. A Way Around the Second Problem + A. Warped space as a special frame of reference + B. How this solves the causality problem + C. The relativity problem this produces + D. One way around that relativity problem +V. Conclusion. + + + + + + + +I. An Introduction to Special Relativity + + The main goal of this introduction is to make relativity and its +consequences feasible to those who have not seen them before. It should +also reinforce such ideas for those who are already somewhat familiar +with them. This introduction will not completely follow the traditional +way in which relativity came about. It will begin with a pre-Einstein +view of relativity. It will then give some reasoning for why Einstein's +view is plausible. This will lead to a discussion of some of the +consequences this theory has, odd as they may seem. For future +reference, it will also introduce the reader to the basics of space-time +diagrams. Finally, I want to mention some experimental evidence that +supports the theory. + + The idea of relativity was around in Newton's day, but it was +incomplete. It involved transforming from one frame of reference to +another frame which is moving with respect to the first. The +transformation was not completely correct, but it seemed so in the realm +of small speeds. I give here an example of this to make it clear. + Consider two observers, you and me, for example. Lets say I am +on a train which passes you at 30 miles per hour. I through a ball in +the direction the train is moving, and the ball moves at 10 mph in MY +point of view. Now consider a mark on the train tracks. You see the +ball initially moving along at the same speed I am moving (the speed of +the train). Then I through the ball, and before I can reach the mark on +the track, the ball is able to reach it. So to you, the ball is moving +even faster than I (and the train). Obviously, it seems as if the speed +of the ball with respect to you is just the speed of the ball with +respect to me plus the speed of me with respect to you. So, the speed +of the ball with respect to you = 10 mph + 30 mph = 40 mph. This was +the first, simple idea for transforming velocities from one frame of +reference to another. In other words, this was part of the first concept +of relativity. + + Now I introduce you to an important postulate that leads to the +concept of relativity that we have today. I believe it will seem quite +reasonable. I state it as it appears in a physics book by Serway: "the +laws of physics are the same in every inertial frame of reference." +What it means is that if you observer any physical laws for a given +situation in your frame of reference, then an observer in a reference +frame moving with a constant velocity with respect to you should also +agree that those physical laws apply to that situation. + As an example, consider the conservation of momentum. Say that +there are two balls coming straight at one another. They collide and go +off in opposite directions. Conservation of momentum says that if you +add up the total momentum (mass times velocity) before the collision and +after the collision, that the two should be identical. Now, let this +experiment be preformed on a train where the balls are moving along the +line of the train's motion. An outside observer would say that the +initial and final velocities of the balls are one thing, while an +observer on the train would say they were something different. However, +BOTH observers must agree that the total momentum is the same before and +after the collision. We should be able to apply this to any physical +law. If not, (i.e. if physical laws were different for different +frames of reference) then we could change the laws of physics just by +traveling in a particular reference frame. + A very interesting result occurs when you apply this postulate +to the laws of electrodynamics. What one finds is that in order for the +laws of electrodynamics to be the same in all inertial reference frames, +it must be true that the speed of electromagnetic waves (such as light) +is the same for all inertial observers. Simply stating that may not +make you think that there is anything that interesting about it, but it +has amazing consequences. Consider letting a beam of light take the +place of the ball in the first example given in this introduction. If +the train is moving at half the velocity of light, wouldn't you expect +the light beam (which is traveling at the speed of light with respect to +the train) to look as if it is traveling one and a half that speed with +respect to an outside observer? Well this is not the case. The old +ideas of relativity in Newton's day do not apply here. What accounts +for this peculiarity is time dilation and length contraction. + Here I give an example of how time dilation can help explain a +peculiarity that arises from the above concept. Again we consider a +train, but let's give it a speed of 0.6 c (where c = the speed of light +which is 3E8 m/s). An occupant of this train shines a beam of light so +that (to him) the beam goes straight up, hits a mirror at the top of the +train, and bounces back to the floor of the train where it is detected. +Now, in my point of view (outside of the train), that beam of light does +not travel straight up and straight down, but makes an up-side-down "V" +shape since the train is also moving. Here is a diagram of what I see: + + + /|\ + / | \ + / | \ + light beam going up->/ | \<-light beam on return trip + / | \ + / | \ + / | \ + / | \ + ---------|---------->trains motion (v = 0.6 c) + +Lets say that the trip up takes 10 seconds in my point of view. The +distance the train travels during that time is: + (0.6 * 3E8 m/s) * 10 s = 18E8 m. +The distance that the beam travels on the way up (the slanted line to +the left) must be + 3E8 m/s * 10s = 30E8 m. +Since the left side of the above figure is a right triangle, and we know +the length of two of the sides, we can now solve for the height of the +train: + Height = [(30E8 m)^2 - (18E8 m)^2]^0.5 = 24E8 m +(It is a tall train, but this IS just a thought experiment). Now we +consider the frame of reference of the traveler. The light MUST travel +at 3E8 m/s for him also, and the height of the train doesn't change +because only lengths in the direction of motion are contracted. +Therefore, in his frame the light will reach the top of the train in 24E8 m / 3E8 (m/s) = 8 seconds, +and there you have it. To me the event takes 10 seconds, while +according to him it must take only 8 seconds. We each measure time in +different ways. + To intensify this oddity, consider the fact that all inertial +frames are equivalent. That is, from the traveler's point of view he is +the one who is sitting still, while I zip past him at 0.6 c. So he will +think that it is MY clock that is running slowly. This lends itself +over to what seem to be paradoxes which I will not get into here. If +you have any questions on such things (such as theJ"twin paradox" -- +which can be understood with special relativity, by the way) feel free +to ask me about them, and I will do the best I can to answer you. + As I mentioned above, length contraction is another consequence +of relativity. Consider the same two travelers in our previous example, +and let each of them hold a meter stick horizontally (so that the length +of the stick is oriented in the direction of motion of the train). To +the outside observer, the meter stick of the traveler on the train will +look as if it is shorter than a meter. Similarly, the observer on the +train will think that the meter stick of the outside observer is the one +that is contracted. The closer one gets to the speed of light with +respect to an observer, the shorter the stick will look to that +observer. The factor which determines the amount of length contraction +and time dilation is called gamma. + Gamma is defined as (1 - v^2/c^2)^(-1/2). For our train (for +which v = 0.6 c), gamma is 1.25. Lengths will be contracted and time +dilated (as seen by the outside observer) by a factor of 1/gamma = 0.8, +which is what we demonstrated with the difference in measured time (8 +seconds compared to 10 seconds). Gamma is obviously an important number +in relativity, and it will appear as we discuss other consequences of +the theory. + Another consequence of relativity is a relationship between +mass, energy, and momentum. By considering conservation of momentum and +energy as viewed from two frames of reference, one can find that the +following relationship must be true for an unbound particle: + E^2 = p^2 * c^2 + m^2 * c^4 +Where E is energy, m is mass, and p is relativistic momentum which is +defined as + p = gamma * m * v (gamma is defined above) +By manipulating the above equations, one can find another way to express +the total energy as + E = gamma * m * c^2 +Even when an object is at rest (gamma = 1) it still has an energy of + E = m * c^2 +Many of you have seen something like this stated in context with the +theory of relativity. + It is important to note that the mass in the above equations has +a special definition which we will now discuss. As a traveler approaches +the speed of light with respect to an observer, the observer sees the +mass of the traveler increase. (By mass, we mean the property that +indicates (1) how much force is needed to create a certain acceleration +and (2) how much gravitational pull you will feel from that object). +However, the mass in the above equations is defined as the mass measured +in the rest frame of the object. That mass is always the same. The +mass seen by the observer (which I will call the observed mass) is given +by gamma * m. Thus, we could also write the total energy as + E = (observed mass) * c^2 +That observed mass approaches infinity as the object approaches the +speed of light with respect to the observer. + + So far we talked about the major consequences of special +relativity, but now I want to concentrate more specifically on how +relativity causes a transformation of space and time. Relativity causes +a little more than can be understood by simple length contraction and +time dilation. It actually results in two different observers having +two different space-time coordinate systems. The coordinates transform +from one frame to the other through what are known as Lorentz +Transformation. Without getting deep into the math, much can be +understood about such transforms by considering space-time diagrams. + A space-time diagram consists of a coordinate system with one +axis to represent space and another to represent time. Where these two +principle axes meet is the origin (see Diagram 1 below), and for the +most part, we consider ourselves to be at that point. Anything above +the principle space axis is in our future, while anything below that +axis is in our past. Any event can be described as a point in this axis +system. For example, consider an event that took place 3 seconds ago +and was 2 light seconds (the distance light travels in 2 seconds) away +from you to the left (x = -2 light seconds). This event is marked in +Diagram 1 as a "*". + Now consider a traveler going away from the origin to the right. +As time progresses forward, the traveler gets further and further from +the time axis. The faster he goes, the more slanted the line he makes +will be as he is able to get far down the x axis in a short amount of +time. One important traveler to consider here is light. If we define +the x axis in light seconds and the time axis in seconds, then light +will speed away from the origin creating a line at a 45 degree angle to +the two axes. On diagram 2, I have drawn two lines which represent a +pulse of light going away from the origin in the plus and minus x +directions. The two pulses are extended back into the past, as if they +started from far off, came to the origin, and sped away in the future. +This figure is known as a light cone. + A light cone divides a space-time diagram into two major +sections: the area inside the cone and the area outside the cone. If it +is impossible for anything to travel faster than light, then the only +events in the past that you can know about at this moment are those that +are inside the light cone. Also, the only events that you can influence +in the future are, again, those inside the light cone. + Let us now consider (again) an arbitrary traveler who is going +slower than the speed of light. As a consequence of the Lorentz +transforms that I have mentioned, the line he makes on the space-time +diagram becomes his new time line (t'). Because of relativity, his +space axis will also be transformed. As can be seen in Diagram 3, his +time axis has been rotated by some angle clockwise, while his space axis +(x') has been rotated by the same angle counterclockwise. The faster +the speed, the greater this angle, and as you approach the speed of +light, the two axis come closer and closer to being the same line (a +line on the light cone which is at 45 degrees). This gives him a skewed +set of space-time coordinates that I have tried my best to show on +Diagram 4 (squint your eyes, and you can see the skewed squares of the +new coordinate system). It is important to note that in this +transformation, the position of the light cone does not change. If you +move one unit down the space axis, and one unit up the time axis, that +point will still lie somewhere on the light cone. This shows that the +speed of light has not changed for the moving observer (it still travels +one light second per second). + Now let us compare the different ways that each observer views +space and time. Look at the event marked "*" on Diagram 3. For the +observer in the x',t' system, the event is in his future (above his +principle x' axis). For the observer in the x,t system, the event is in +his past. So how does this make since? Recall two things: (1) you can +only know about and influence events that are inside the light cone, and +(2) the light cone does not change for the moving observer. So even if +an event is in one observers past and in another observers future, it +will be outside the light cone, and neither observer will be able to +know about it or influence it. It is the fact that nothing travels +faster than light that causes this to be true. + + + Diagram 1 Diagram 2 + t t + | | light + future \ inside / + | \ cone / + | \ | / + | outside \ | / outside + | cone \ | / cone + -------------+------------- x -------------+------------- x + | / | \ + | / | \ + event * | / | \ + | / inside \ + past / cone \ + | + + + + Diagram 3 + t t' + | / + | / + | / + | / ___---> x' + |/___---''' + -------------+------------- x + * ___ ---'''| + ''' / | note: * = event + / | + / | + / | + + + + + +Diagram 4 principle t' axis + / + +---------------------/-----------+ + |__---/"" / / / / __/--| + | / / / /__--/""" / | + | / /___-/-"""/ / / | + |__/---"/" / / / /__--/| + | / / / / ___/--""/ / | + |/ / _/_---/"" / / / | ___--->principle x' axis + |___-/-"""/ / / / __/---""" + | / / / /__--/""" / | + | / / ___O--""/ / / /| + |_/_---/"" / / / /___-/-| O = Origin + |/ / / / __/---"/" / | + | / /__--/""" / / / | + |___/--""/ / / / _/_---| + | / / / /___-/-"""/ | + +---------------------------------+ + + + These amazing consequences of relativity do have experimental +foundations. One of these involves the creation of muons by cosmic rays +in the upper atmosphere. In the rest frame of a muon, its life time is +only about 2.2E-6 seconds. Even if the muon could traveling at the +speed of light, it could still only go about 660 meters during its life +time. Because of that, they should not be able to reach the surface of +the Earth. However, it has been observed that large numbers of them do +reach the Earth. From our point of view, time in the muons frame of +reference is running slow, since the muons are traveling very fast with +respect to us. So the 2.2E-6 seconds are slowed down, and the muon has +enough time to reach the earth. + We must also be able to explain the result from the muons frame +of reference. So in its point of view, it does only have 2.2E-6 seconds +to live. However, the muon would say that it is the Earth which is +speeding toward the muon. Therefore, the distance from the top of the +atmosphere to the Earth's surface is length contracted. Thus, from its +point of view, it lives a very small amount of time, but it doesn't have +that far to go. + Another verification is found all the time in particle physics. +The results of having a particle strike a target can only be understood +if one takes the total energy of the particle to be E = Gamma * m * c^2, +which was predicted by relativity. + These are only a few examples that give credibility to the +theory of relativity. Its predictions have turned out to be true in +many cases, and to date, no evidence exits that would tend to undermine +the theory. + + Well, that was a fairly lengthy look at relativity, but how does +it all apply to faster than light travel? This is what we will look at +next. + + + + +II. The First Problem: The Light Speed Barrier + + In this section we discuss the first thing (and in some cases +the only thing) that comes to mind for most people who consider the +problem of faster than light travel. I call it the light speed barrier. +As we will see by considering ideas from the previous section, light +speed seems to be a giant, unreachable wall standing in our way. I also +introduce a couple of fictional ways to get around this barrier; +however, part of my reason for introducing these solutions is to show +that they do not solve the problem discussed in the next section. + + Consider two observers, A and B. Let A be here on Earth and be +considered at rest for now. B will be speeding past the A at highly +relativistic speeds. If B's speed is 80% that of light with respect to +A, then gamma for him (as defined in the previous section) is +1.6666666... = 1/0.6 +So from A's point of view B's clock is running slow and B's lengths in +the direction of motion are shorter by a factor of 0.6. If B were +traveling at 0.9 c, then this factor becomes about 0.436; and at 0.99 c, +it is about 0.14. As the speed gets closer and closer to the speed of +light, A will see B's clock slow down infinitesimally slow, and A will +see B's lengths in the direction of motion becoming infinitesimally +small. + In addition, If B's speed is 0.8 c with respect to A, then A +will see B's observed mass as being larger by a factor of gamma (which +is 1.666...). At 0.9 c and 0.99 c this factor is about 2.3 and 7.1 +respectively. As the speed gets closer and closer to me speed of light, +A will see B's observed mass (and thus his energy) get infinitely large. + Obviously, from A's point of view, B will not be able to reach +the speed of light without stopping his own time, shrinking to +nothingness in the direction of motion, and taking on an infinite amount +of energy. + + Now lets look at the situation from B's point of view, so we +will consider him be at rest. First, notice that the sun, the other +planets, the nearby stars, etc. are not moving very relativistically +with respect to the Earth; so we will consider all of these to be in the +same frame of reference. Let B be traveling past the earth and toward +some near by star. In his point of view, the earth, the sun, the other +star, etc. are the ones traveling at highly relativistic velocities with +respect to him. So to him the clock on Earth are running slow, the +energy of all those objects becomes greater, and the distances between +the objects in the direction of motion become smaller. + Lets consider the distance between the Earth and the star to +which B is traveling. From B's point of view, as the speed gets closer +and closer to that of light, this distance becomes infinitesimally +small. So from his point of view, he can get to the star in practically +no time. (This explains how A seems to think that B's clock is +practically stopped during the whole trip when the velocity is almost +c.) If B thinks that at the speed of light that distance shrinks to +zero and that he is able to get there instantaneously, then from his +point of view, c is the fastest possible speed. + + So from either point of view, it seems that the speed of light +cannot be reached, much less exceeded. However, through some inventive +imagination, it is possible to come up with fictional ways around this +problem. Some of these solutions involve getting from point A to point +B without traveling through the intermittent space. For example, +consider a forth dimension that we can use to bend two points in our +universe closer together (sort of like connecting two points of a "two +dimensional" piece of paper by bending it through a third dimension and +touching the two points directly). Then a ship could travel between two +points without moving through the space in between, thus bypassing the +light speed barrier. + Another idea involves bending the space between the points to +make the distance between them smaller. In a way, this is what highly +relativistic traveling looks like from the point of view of the +traveler; however, we don't want the associated time transformation. So +by fictionally bending the space to cause the space distortion without +the time distortion, one can imagine getting away from the problem. + + Again I remind you that these solutions only take care of the +"light speed barrier" problem. They do not solve the problem discussed +in the next section, as we shall soon see. + + + +III. The Second Problem: FTL Implies The Violation of Causality + + In this section we explore the violation of causality involved +with faster than light travel. First I will explain what we mean here +by causality and why it is important that we do not simply throw it +aside without a second thought. I will then try to explain why +traveling faster than light by any means (except the one introduced in +the next section) will produce a violation of causality. Finally, +attempting to remove any doubt, we will preform a thought experiment to +show that FTL travel does imply the violation of causality. + + When I speak of causality, I have the following particular idea +in mind. Consider an event A which has an effect on another event B. +Causality would require that event B cannot in turn have an effect on +event A. For example, let's say that event A is a murderer making a +decision to shoot and kill his victim. Let's then say that event B is +the victim being shot and killed by the murderer. Causality says that +the death of the victim cannot then have any effect on the murderer's +decision. If the murderer could see his dead victim, go back in time, +and then decide not to kill him after all, then causality would be +violated. In time travel "theories," such problems are reasoned with +the use of multiple time lines and the likes; however, since we do not +want every excursion to a nearby star to create a new time line, we +would hope that FTL travel could be done without such causality +violations. As I shall now show, this is not a simple problem to get +around. + + I refer you back to the diagrams in the first section so that I +can demonstrate the causality problem involved with FTL travel. In +Diagram 3, two observers are passing by one another. At the moment +represented by the principle axes shown, the two observers are right +next to one another an the origin. The x' and t' axes are said to +represent the K-prime frame of reference (I will call this Kp for +short). The x and t axes are then the K frame of reference. We define +the K system to be our rest system, while the Kp observer passes by K at +a relativistic speed. As you can see, the two observers measure space +and time in different ways. For example, consider again the event +marked "*". Cover up the x and t axis and look only at the Kp system. +In this system, the event is above the x' axis. If the Kp observer at +the origin could look left and right and see all the way down his space +axis instantaneously, then he would have to wait a while for the event +to occur. Now cover up the Kp system and look only at the K system. In +this system, the event is below the x axis. So to the observer in the K +system, the event has already occurred. + Normally, this fact gives us no trouble. If you draw a light +cone (as discussed in the first section) through the origin, then the +event will be outside of the light cone. As long as no signal can +travel faster than the speed of light, then it will be impossible for +either observer to know about or influence the event. So even though it +is in one observers past, he cannot know about it, and even though it is +in the other observers future, he cannot have an effect on it. This is +how relativity saves its own self from violating causality. + Now consider what would happen if a signal could be sent +arbitrarily fast. From K's frame of reference, the event has already +occurred. For example, say the event occurred a year ago and 5 light +years away. As long as a signal can be sent at 5 times the speed of +light, then obviously K can receive a signal from the event. However, +from Kp's frame of reference, the event is in the future. So as long as +he can send a signal sufficiently faster than light, he can get a signal +out to the place where the event will occur before it occurs. So, in +the point of view of one observer, the event can be know about. This +observer can then tell the other observer as they pass by each other. +Then the second observer can send a signal out that could change that +event. This is a violation of causality. Basically, when K receives a +signal from the event, Kp sees the signal as coming from the future. +Also, when Kp sends a signal to the event, K sees it as a signal being +sent into the past. + As a short example of this, consider the following. Instead of +sending a message out, let's say that Kp sends out a bullet that travels +faster than the speed of light. This bullet can go out and kill someone +light-years away in only a few hours (for example) in Kp's frame of +reference. Now, say he fires this bullet just as he passes by K. Then +we can call the death of the victim the event (*). Now, in K's frame of +reference, the victim is already dead when Kp passes by. This means +that the victim could have sent a signal just after he was shot that +would reach K before Kp passed by. So K can know that Kp will shoot his +gun as he passes, and K can stop Kp. But then the victim is never hit, +and he never sends a message to K. So K doesn't know to stop Kp and Kp +does shoot the bullet. Obviously, causality is not very happy about +this logical loop that develops. + + If this argument hasn't convinced you, then let me try one more +thought experiment to convince you of the problem. Here, to make +calculations easy, we assume that a signal can be sent infinitely fast. + + Person A is on earth, and person B speeds away from earth at a +velocity v. To make things easy, lets say that v is such that for an +observer on Earth, person B's clock runs slow by a factor of 2. now, +person A waits one hour after person B has passed earth. At that time +person A sends a message to person B which says "I just found a bomb +under my chair that will take 10 minutes to defuse, but goes off in 10 +seconds ... HELP" He sends it instantaneously from his point of view... +well, from his point of view, B's clock has only moved half an hour. So +B receives the message half an hour after passing earth in his frame of +reference. + Now we must switch to B's point of view. From his point of +view, A has been speeding away from him at a velocity v. So, to B, it +is A's clock that has been running slow. Therefore, when he gets the +message half an hour after passing earth, then in his frame of +reference, A's clock has only moved 1/4 an hour. So, B sends a message +to A that says: "There's a bomb under your chair." It gets to A +instantaneously, but this time it is sent from B's frame of reference, +so instantaneously means that A gets the message only 1/4 of an hour +after B passed Earth. You see that A as received an answer to his +message before he even sent it. Obviously, there is a causality +problem, no matter how you get the message there. + OK, what about speeds grater than c but NOT instantaneous? +Whether or not you can use the above argument to find a causality +problem will depend on how fast you have B traveling. If you have a +communication travel faster than c, then you can always find a velocity +for B (v < c) such that a causality problem will occur. However, if you +send the communication at a speed that is less than c, then you cannot +create a causality problem for any velocity of B (as long as B's +velocity is also less that c). + + So, it seems that if you go around traveling faster than the +speed of light, causality violations are sure to follow you around. +This causes some very real problems with logic, and I for one would like +to find a way around such problems. This next section intends to do just +that. + + + + +IV. A Way Around the Second Problem + + Now we can discuss my idea for getting around the causality +problem produced by FTL travel. I will move through the development of +the idea step by step so that it is clear to the reader. I will then +explain how the idea I pose completely gets rid of causality violations. +Finally, I will discuss the one "bad" side effect of my solution which +involves the fundamentals of relativity, and I will mention how this +might not be so bad after all. + + Join me now on a science fictional journey of the imagination. +Picture, if you will, a particular area of space about one square light- +year in size. Filling this area of space is a special field which is +sitting relatively stationary with respect to the earth, the sun, etc. +(By stationary, I mean relativistically speaking. That means it could +still be moving at a few hundreds of thousands of meters per second with +respect to the earth. Even at that speed, someone could travel for a +few thousand years and their clock would only be off by a day or two +from earth's clocks.) So, the field has a frame of reference that is +basically the same as ours on earth. In our science fictional future, a +way is found to manipulate the very makeup (fabric, if you will) of this +field. When this "warping" is done, it is found that the field has a +very special property. An observer inside the warped area can travel at +any speed he wishes with respect to the field, and his frame of +reference will always be the same as that of the field. In our +discussion of relativity, we saw that in normal space a traveler's frame +of reference depends on his speed with respect to the things he is +observing. However, for a traveler in this warped space, this is no +longer the case. + To help you understand this, lets look at a simple example. +Consider two ships, A and B, which start out sitting still with respect +to the special field. They are in regular space, but in the area of +space where the field exists. At some time, Ship A warps the field +around him to produce a warped space. He then travels to the edge of +the warped space at a velocity of 0.999 c with respect to ship B. That +means that if they started at one end of the field, and A traveled to +the other end of the field and dropped back into normal space, then B +says the trip took 1.001001... years. (That's 1 light-year divided by +0.999 light-years per year.) Now, if A had traveled in normal space, +then his clock would have been moving slow by a factor of 22.4 with +respect to B's clock. To observer A, the trip would have only taken +16.3 days. However, by using the special field, observer A kept the +field's frame of reference during the whole trip. So he also thinks it +took 1.001001... years to get there. + Now, let's change one thing about this field. Let the field +exist everywhere in space that we have been able to look. We are able +to detect its motion with respect to us, and have found that it still +doesn't have a very relativistic speed with respect to our galaxy and +its stars. With this, warping the field now becomes a means of travel +within all known space. + + The most important reason for considering this as a means of +travel in a science fiction story is that it does preserve causality, as +I will now attempt to show. Again, I will be referring to Diagram 3 in +the first section. In order to demonstrate my point, I will be doing +two things. First, I will assume that the frame of reference of the +field (let's call it the S frame) is the same as that of the x and t +system (the K system) shown in Diagram 3. Assuming that, I will show +that the causality violation discussed in the previous section will not +occur using the new method of travel. Second, I will show that we can +instead assume that the S frame is the same as that of the x' and t' +system (the K-prime--or Kp for short--system), and again causality will +be preserved. + Before I do this, let me remind you of how the causality +violation occurred. The event (*) in the diagram will again be focussed +on to explore causality. This event is in the past of the K system, but +it is in the future of the Kp system. Since it is in the past according +to the K observer, a FTL signal could be sent from the event to the +origin where K would receive the signal. As the Kp observer passed by, +K could tell him, "Hay, here is an event that will occur x number of +light years away and t years in your future." Now we can switch over to +Kp's frame of reference. He sees a universe in which he now knows that +at some distant point an event will occur some time in the future. He +can then send a FTL signal that would get to that distant point before +the event happens. So he can influence the event, a future that he +knows must exist. That is a violation of causality. But now we have a +specific frame of reference in which any FTL travel must be done, and +this will save causality. + First, we consider what would happen if the frame of the special +field was the same as that of the K system. That means that the K +observer is sitting relatively still with respect to the field. So, in +the frame of reference of the field, the event "*" IS in the past. That +means that someone at event "*" can send a message by warping the field, +and the message will be able to get to origin. Again, the K observer +has received a signal from the event. So, again he can tell the Kp +observer about the event as the Kp observer passes by. Again, we switch +to Kp's frame of reference, and again he is in a universe in which he +now knows that at some distant point an event will occur some time in +the future. But here is where the "again's" stop. Before it was +possible for Kp to then send a signal out that would get to that distant +point before the event occurs. But NOW, to send a signal faster than +light, you must do so by warping the field, and the signal will be sent +in the field's frame of reference. But we have assumed that the field's +frame of reference is the same as K's frame, and in that frame, the +event has already occurred. So, as soon as the signal enters the warped +space, it is in a frame of reference in which the event is over with, +and it cannot get to the location of the event before it happens. What +Kp basically sees is that no matter how fast he tries to send the +signal, he can never get it to go fast enough to reach the event. In +K's frame, it is theoretically possible to send a signal +instantaneously; but in Kp's frame, that same signal would have a non- +infinite speed. So we see that under this first consideration, +causality is preserved. + To further convince you of my point, I will now consider what +would happen if the frame of the special field was the same as that of +the Kp system instead of the K system. Again, consider an observer at +the event "*" who wishes to send a signal to K before Kp passes by K. +The event of K and Kp passing one another has the position of the origin +in our diagram (as I hope you understand). In order to send this +signal, the observer at "*" must warp the field and thus enter the +system of the Kp observer. But in the frame of reference of Kp, when he +passes by K, the event "*" is in the future. Another way of saying this +is that in the Kp frame of reference, when the event "*" occurs, Kp will +have already passed K and gone off on his merry way. So when the signal +at "*" enters the warped space, it's frame of reference switches to one +in which K and Kp have already passed by one another. That means that +it is impossible for "*" to send a signal that would get to K before Kp +passes by. The possibility of creating a causality violation thus ends +here. + Let me summarize the two above scenarios. In the first +situation, K could know about the event before Kp passes. So Kp can +know about the event after he passes K, but Kp could not send a signal +that would then influence the event. In the second situation, Kp can +send a signal that would influence the event after he passed by K. +However, K could not know about the event before Kp passed, so Kp cannot +have previous knowledge of the event before he sends a signal to the +event. In either case, causality is safe. Also notice that only one +case can be true. If both cases existed at the same time, then +causality would be no safer than before. Therefore, only one special +field can exist, and using it must be the only way that FTL travel can +be done. + Many scenarios like the one above can be conceived using +different events and observers, and (under normal situations) FTL +travel/communication can be shown to violate causality. However, in all +such cases, the same types of arguments are used that I have used here, +and the causality problem is still eliminated by using the special +field. + + So, is the the perfect solution where FTL travel exists without +any side effects that make it logically impossible? Does this mean that +FTL travel in Star Trek lives, and all we have to do is accept the idea +that subspace/warped space involves a special frame of reference? Well, +not quite. + You see, there is one problem with all of this which involves +the basic ideas which helped form relativity. We said that an observer +using our special mode of transportation will always have the frame of +reference of the field. This means that his frame of reference does not +change with respect to his speed, and that travel within the warped +field does not obey Einstein's Relativity. At first glance, this +doesn't seem too bad, it just sounds like good science fiction. But +what happens when you observer the outside world while in warp? To +explore this, let's first look back at why it is necessary for the frame +of reference to change with respect to speed. We had assumed that the +laws of physics don't simply change for every different inertial +observer. It had been found that if the laws of electrodynamics look +the same to all inertial observers, then the speed of an electromagnetic +wave such as light must be the same for all observers. This in turn +made it necessary for different observers to have different frames of +reference. Now, lets go backwards through this argument. If different +observers using our special mode of transportation do not have different +frames of reference, then the speed of light will not look the same to +all observers. This in turn means that if you are observing an +electromagnetic occurrence from within the warped space, the laws +governing that occurrence will look different to you that they would to +an observer in normal space. + Perhaps this is not that big of a problem. One could assume +that what you see from within warped space is not actually occurring in +real space, but is caused by the interaction between the warped space +and the real universe. The computer could then compensate for these +effects and show you on screen what is really happening. I do not, +however pretend that this is a sound explanation. This is the one part +of the discussion that I have not delved into very deeply. Perhaps I +will look further into this in the future, but it seems like science +fiction could take care of this problem. + + + + +V. Conclusion. + + I have presented to you some major concepts of relativity and +the havoc they play with faster than light travel. I have show you that +the violation of causality alone is a very powerful deterrent to faster +than light travel of almost any kind. So powerful are its effects, in +fact, that I have found only one way to get around them. I hope I have +convinced you that (1) causality is indeed very hard to get around, and +(2) my idea for a special field with a particular frame of reference +does get around it. For the moment, I for one see this as the only way +I want to consider the possibility of faster than light travel. Though +I do not expect you to be so adamant about the idea, I do hope that you +see it as a definite possibility with some desirable outcomes. If +nothing else, I hope that I have at least educated you to some extent on +the problems involved when considering the effects of relativity on +faster than light travel. + + + + Jason Hinson + +-Jay + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/rife3.asc b/textfiles.com/science/rife3.asc new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d6964b02 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/rife3.asc @@ -0,0 +1,348 @@ + CONFIDENTIAL RIFE REPORT + By + Lyks Sieger, M.D. + +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- +PRETEND FOR A MOMENT THAT YOU HAVE JUST DISCOVERED A REMARKABLE NEW THERAPY +WHICH CAN ERADICATE ANY DISEASE. +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Surely the medical world will reserve its highest awards for you. But such was +not the case for Semmelweiss, when he struggled to convince surgeons to practice +sterile procedures. Nor for Pasteur, ridiculed for years for the germ theory. +Other visionaries who went through the Inquisition for breaking new ground +include Roentgen and his X-rays, Morton and his ether anaesthesia, Harvey and +his theory of blood circulation, and others. It does seem that orthodox +medicine resents those who challenge its cherished beliefs. And too often, the +pioneer pays a price for such blasphemy. + Well, certainly the research foundations would welcome news of your +astounding discovery. Won't they all be thrilled to learn you have a cure for +the very same diseases they are receiving hundreds of millions of dollars per +year to investigate? Maybe not, if it means the end of the gravy train. Forget +the research foundations. + So far, you and your amazing cure are not very popular. Why not take it to +the pharmaceutical industry? Surely they would be interested. But remember: you +have a universal cure... it makes all other drugs obsolete. The pharmaceutical +industry may be somewhat less then thrilled. They may even see to it that your +cure never gets licensed by the regulatory agencies, whose incestuous relation +with drug companies were well chronicled by the regular press in 1989. + Now assume that your amazing cure is electronic instrument. The only cost of +using it is electricity. And it's totally harmless to patients, who can recover +without losing their hair or bankrupting their families. So why would anyone +continue to pay up to $200,000 per patient -- to become deathly ill with +chemotherapy, radiation and surgery? You haven't won any friends among the +oncologists, radiologists and surgeons. + You could try the hospitals and big clinics. But how excited are they +going to be about a therapy administered in any doctor's office which reversers +illness before the patient has to be hospitalized? Thanks to you and your +miracle, the staff will be spending their time playing Video game with the +billing computers, sinking putts into urine cups and waiting for someone to +break a leg. + Then how about the insurance companies? Surely they would be delighted to +save the expense of hospitalation. At least the companies which haven't +invested in hospitals. And the ones who don't lose policyholders as a result. +And the companies which aren't trying to divest themselves of their +pharmaceutical stock. On second thought, forget the insurance compies. + Do you still think your cure will be a big hit with the orthodox medical +worid? + Probably the only friends you'll have will be patients and those progressive +doctors who see change as an opportunitt, father than a threat to old ways. +They'll love you. + What follows is the story of just such a sensational therapy, and what +happened to it. In one of the blackest episodes in history, this remarkable +electronic therapy was sabotaged and buried by a sinister group of men. It has +re-emerged publicly only since 1986. This is the story of Royal Rife and his +electronic instruments. If you have never heard about Rife before, you'll be scandalized and +incredulous. But I urge you to reserve judgment until you read the entire story +that follows. + Of course, some may regard this as just an amusing piece of fiction. For +those who are willing to investigate it, I'll refer to highly-respected medical +doctors who worked with Rife, and briefly describe the technical aspects (those +who are bored by technical details have permission to skip to the end). Also, +you may wish to read some of the books on Rife's therapy published since 1986 +for further details. + But in the final analysis, the best way to know if such a remarkable therapy +actually exists is to experience it firsthand. Not just another rigged double- +blind trial, whose conclusion is dictated in advance by vested interests. But +an honest trial, conducted by the one person who has nothing to lose by learning +the truth: yourself. If regulatory and licensing restrictions are observed, it +is your privilege to examine this therapy and use it under appropriate +guidelines, as described at the end of this report. + To return to our thrilling story of yesteryear, who was Royal Rife? And why +haven't we heard about him before? + Royal Rife was a brilliant scientist born in 1888, who died in 1971. After +studying at Johns Hopkins, Rife developed technology commonly used today in +optics, analytical chemistry, radiochemistry, electronics, biochemistry, +ballistics, and aviation. It could be said that Rife practically developed +electromedicine himself. He received 14 awards plus an honorary doctorate from +the University of Heidelberg for his work. In the 66 years that Rife spent +designing and building medical instruments, Rife worked for Zeiss Optics, the +U.S. Government, and private benefactors such as millionaire Henry Timken. + Because Rife was self-educated in many fields, he acquired the habit of +looking beyond tradition and dogma for his answers. He mastered so many +disciplines that his mind contained the skills and knowledge of an entire team +of scientists and technicians of different persuasions. + So whenever technology didn't exist to perform a new task, Rife simply +invented and built it himself: a heterodyning ultraviolet microscope; a +microdissector; a micromanipulator. When you finish reading his report, you may +agree that Rife was probably the most gifted, versatile scientific mind in the +history of mankind. + By 1920, Rife had built the first virus microscope. By 1933 it had evolved +into the incredibly complex Universal Microscope--with nearly SIX THOUSAND +parts, capable of enlarging microbes 60,000 times. With such tools, Rife became +the first man on earth to see a virus. And until just recently, this was the +only microscope which could observe the live action of viruses. Modern electron +microscopes still instantly kill everything beneath them, viewing only the +mummified remains and debris. What the Rife microscope can see is the bustling +activity of viruses as they change form to accommodate changes in environment, +replicate rapidly in response to carcinogens, and transform normal cells into +tumor cells. + But how was Rife able to accomplish this, in as age when electronics and +medicine were still just evolving? Now for a few technical details to satisfy +the skeptics. + Rife painstakingly identified the individual spectroscopic signature of each +microbe, using a slit spectroscope attachment. Then he slowly rotated block +quartz prisms so as to focus light of a single wavelength upon the +microorganism. This wave was singled out because it _resonated_ with the +spectroscopic signature of the microbe based on the now established fact that +every molecule oscillated at its own distinct frequency. Thus, no two species +have the same oscillations for energetic signature. The result of using a resonant wavelength is that micro-organisms which are +invisible in white light suddenly become visible, in a brilliant flash of light, +in the color that resonated with their distinct spectroscopic signature. These +organisms were visible actively invading tissues even in diseases whose origin +is obscure, as the connective tissue diseases. So Rife could see organisms that +no one else could find with ordinary microscopes. (See books by other authors +for technical details) + More than 75% of the organisms Rife could observe with the Universal +Microscope are only visible with ultra-violet light. But ultraviolet light is +outside the range of human vision. Rife overcame this limitation by +heterodyning (a technique which became popular in early radio broadcasting). He +illuminated the microbe with two different wavelengths of ultraviolet light +which resonated with the spectral signature of the microbe. These two waves +produced interference where they merged. And this interference was, in effect, +a third, longer wave which fell into the visible portion of the electromagnetic +spectrum. So once again, Rife made invisible microbes visible, _without_ +killing them. This breached another barrier which is still insurmountable even +for electron microscopes. + By now, Rife was so far ahead of his colleagues of the 1930s, that they +could not follow what he was doing without coming to San Diego to look through +his Virus Microscopes. And many did exactly that. + One was Virinia Livingstion. She eventually moved from New Jersey to his +Point Loma (San Diego) neighborhood, and became a frequent visitor to his lab. +Virginia Livington is generally given credit for identifying the organism which +causes human cancer, beginning with papers she published in 1948. + However Rife had identified the human cancer virus first--in 1920. He then +made TWENTY THOUSAND unsuccessful attempts to transform normal cells into tumor +cells. He finally succeeded when he irradiated the virus, passed it through a +cell-catching filter, and injected it into animals. Not content to prove this +virus caused one tumor, Rife then created _four hundred tumors in succession_ +with this technique (documenting it all with film, photos and meticulous +records). He named his cancer virus "Cryptocides primordiales". Virginia +Livingston, in her papers, renamed it "Progenitor cryptocides". Rife was never +even mentioned in these papers. + He seldom got credit for his discoveries. He was a quiet, unassuming +scientist; dedicated to expanding his discoveries rather than to ambition, fame +and glory. His distaste for medical politics (which he could afford to ignore, +thanks to generous trusts set up by private benefactors) left him at a +disadvantage later, when the forces of evil attacked him. Coupled with the +influence of the pharmaceutical industry in purging his papers from medical +journals, it is hardly surprising that few have heard of Rife. + Meanwhile, debate raged between those who had seen viruses changing into +different forms beneath Rife's microscopes, and those who had not. Those who +condemned without investigation----such as the influential Dr. Thomas Rivers--- +claimed these forms didn't exist. Because his microscope did not reveal them, +Rivers argued that there was "no logical basis for belief in this theory". The +same argument is used today in evaluation many other "alternative" medical +treatments: if there is no precedent, then it must not be valid. Nothing can +convince a closed mind. Most had never actually looked through the San Diego +microscopes--air travel in the 1930s was uncomfortable, primitive, and rather +risky. So the debate about the life cycle of viruses was resolved in favor of +those who never saw it. (Even modern electron microscopes can not show the +transformation from one form into another--only frozen images). + Nevertheless, many scientists and doctors have since confirmed Rife's +discovery fo the cancer virus and its pleomorphic nature, using darkfield techniques, the Naessens microscope, and laboratory experiments. Rife also +worked with the top scientists and doctors of his day, who of course also +confirmed or endorsed various areas of his work. Rife himself ignored the +debate, preferring to concentrate on refining his method of destroying these +tiny killer viruses. + He used the same principle to kill them which made them visible: resonance. +By increasing the intensity of a frequency which resonated naturally with these +microbes, Rife increased their natural oscillations unit they distorted and +disintegrated from structural stresses. This frequency was the "MOR", or mortal +oscillatory rate. It cannot harm anything but the microbe. (Frequencies shown +on modern Rife instruments are longer wave fundamentals of the frequencies +actually used for this). + This principle can be illustrated by using an intense musical note to +shatter a wine glass: the molecules of the glass are already oscillating at +some harmonic (multiple) of that musical note; they are in resonance with it. +Because everything else has a different resonant frequency, _nothing but the +glass_ is destroyed. Hundreds of trillions of different resonant frequencies +exist; each species has its own. + It took Rife many years, working 48 hours at a time, until he discovered +frequencies which specifically destroyed herpes, polio, spinal meningitis, +tetanus, flu, and a immense number ot other dangerous diseases. I have observed +_only one_ less-than-dramatic response in dozens of serious cases. However even +if the symptoms vanish after one treatment, therapy must be repeated for awhile +to prevent a relapse. + The possibilities of using frequencies to eliminate human suffering indeed +seems infinite. Today, doctors are even seeing results in conditions of unknown +origin, such as cataracts, diabetes, and diseases of connective tissue. Perhaps +these conditions are in fact caused by microbes which are invisible to ordinary +microscopes, unless ultraviolet or resonant wavelengths are used to illuminate +them. Of course, proper equipment and technique are required to destroy the +microbes. Frequency-type generators, simply do _not_ get adequate results +unless they are correctly modified. + In 1934, the University of Southern California appointed a Special Medical +Research Committee to bring terminal cancer patients from Pasadena County +Hospital to Rife's San Diego laboratory and clinic for treatment. The team +included doctors and pathologists assigned to examine the patients, if still +alive, in 90 days. At this time, the Committee concluded that 86.5% of the +patients had been---to used their phrase---"completely cured". Then the +treatment was adjusted, and the remaining patients also recovered in less than +four weeks. The total recovery rate was 100%. I sincerely doubt that any other +therapy could ever approach this rate of success. + +Note: even a 100% cure rate is not the final answer. Even a therapy that kills +100% of the microbes may not prevent a relapse due to repopulation from the +environment at a later date. Because microbes, like animal predators, only +attack the week. To return the cells to vigor, it can be immensely helpful to +use a raw food diet such as the Gerson or Wigmore therapy. Such a diet is free +of the denatured molecules of cooked food which gradually clog call machinery +and reduce ts functioning. + But how long can _you_ eat only raw food? Furthermore, in the case of a +chronic condition that has eroded the immune system and other organs. a raw food +diet will usually be too little, and too late to overcome the overwhelming +advantage the microbes now have. + For everyone who thinks he might have cancer one day--and 40% of us +eventually will have--Rife's frequency treatment is the one method found to be almost a guarantee of survival. _Providing_ the correct procedure, frequency, +and instrument is used, I have never seen Rife's frequencies fail in cases +involving micro-organisms. I have also seen dramatic changes in cases which are +not known to be caused by microbes. Perhaps they are caused by microbes not +visible with ordinary microscopes. + On Nov. 20, 1931, forty-four of the nation's most respected medical +authorities honored Rife with a banquet billed as "The End to All Disease". +They were photographed with Rife at the Pasadena estate of Dr. Milbank Johnson. +But by 1939, almost all of them were denying they had ever met Rife. What +happened to make so many brilliant men have memory lapses? Was is an epidemic +of occasional Alzheimer's Disease? + It seems that news of Rife's miracles with terminal patients had reached +other ears. Remember our hypothetical question at the beginning of this report: +what would happen if you discovered a cure for everything? You are about to +find out. + At first, a token attempt was made to buy out Rife. Morris Fishbein, who +had acquired the entire stock of the American Medical Association by 1934, sent +a attorney to Rife with an "offer you can't refuse". And Rife refused. + We may never know the exact terms of this offer. But we do know the terms of +the offer Fishbein made to Harry Hoxsey for control of his herbal cancer remedy. +Fishbein's associates would receive all profits for nine years, and Hoxsey would +receive nothing. Then, if they were satisfied that it worked, Hoxsey would +begin to get 10% of the profits. Hoxsey decided he'd rather just continue to +make all the profits himself. When Hoxsey turned Fishbein down, Fishbein used +his immensely powerful political connections to have Hoxsey arrested 125 times +in 16 months. Although the charges (based on practice without a licence) were +always thrown out of court the harassment drove Hoxsey crazy. At one time he +was arrested once ever 3 days. + But Fishbein must have realized that this strategy would backfire if used on +Rife. After all, arresting Rife would mean that testimony supporting Rife would +be introduced by prominent medical authorities working with Rife. And the +defense would undoubtedly take the opportunity to introduce evidence such as the +1934 medical study. The last thing in the world that the pharmaceutical +industry wanted was a public trial about a painless therapy that cured 100% of +the patients in the 1934 study and cost nothing to use but electricity. It +might give people the idea they didn't need drugs. And finally, Rife had spent +decades accumulating meticulous evidence of his work, including film and stop- +motion photographs. No, different tactics--not necessarily fair or legal--were +called for. + The first incident was the gradual plifering fo components, photographs, +film, and written records from Rife's lab. At one time, Rife employed 125 +assistants; the culprit was never caught. Then, while Rife struggled to +reproduce his missing data, in a day when photocopies and computers were not +available, someone vandalized his precious virus microscopes. Pieces of te +5,682 piece Universal microscope were stolen. Earlier, arson had destroyed the +multi-million dollar Burnett Lab in New Jersey, just as they prepared to +announce confirmation of Rife's work. But the final blow came later, when +police illegally confiscated the remainder of Rife's 50 years of research. + Then in 1939, agents of a family which controlled 85% of the drug industry +assisted Philip Hoyland, in a frivolous lawsuit against his own partners in Beam +Ray Corp. This was the only company manufacturing Rife's frequency instruments +(Rife was not a partner). Although Hoyland lost the case, it achieved the +desired effect: the company was bankrupted by legal expenses. And during the +great Depression, this meant that commercial production of Rife's frequency +instruments ceased entirely. And remember what a universal cure meant to hospitals and research +foundations? Any doctor found working with Rife immediately lost all hospital +privileges and foundation grants. No one who had anything to say about Rife's +therapy could get a paper published in any medical journal. Association with +rife became professional suicide. + On the other hand, big money was spent ensuring that doctors who had seen +Rife's therapy would forget what they saw. Almost no price was too much to +suppress it: remember that today, treatment of a single cancer patient costs +about $200,000. It's big business. And thus Arthur Kendall, the medical school +director who worked with rife on the cancer virus, accepted almost a quarter of +a million dollars to suddenly "retire" in Mexico. That was an absured amount of +money in the Depression. As for Dr. George Dock, another prominent figure, he +was silenced with an enormous grant and the highest honors the A.M.A. could +award. + Between the carrots and sticks, everyone except Dr. Couche and Dr. Johnson +gave up Rife's work. Dr. Johnson died from an injection of poison during a +routine tonsillectomy on Oct. 3, 1944. He was about to announce that the USC +medical committee had agreed that all patients treated with Rife's Instruments +had recovered from terminal illnesses. His research reports and the USC study +disappeared the night of his death. This had a sobering effect on the other +doctors. + To finish the job, the medical journals, supported almost entirely by drug +company advertising, refused to publish any paper by anyone on Rife's therapy. +Thus an entire generation of medical students graduated into practice, without +ever once hearing of Rife's breakthroughs in medicine. + The magnitude of such an insane crime eclipses every mass murder in history. +Cancer picks us off silently, but by 1960 the casualties from this tiny virus +exceeded the carnage of all the wars we American ever fought. I 1989, it was +estimated that 40% of us will experience cancer at some time in our lives. + In Rife's lifetime, e had witnessed the progress of civilization from horse- +and-buggy travel to jet planes. In that same time, he saw the epidemic of +cancer increase from 1 in 24 Americans (1905) to one in three (1971). + He also witnessed the phenomenal growth of the American Cancer Society, the +Salk Foundation, and many others collecting hundred of millions of dollars, for +diseases cured long ago in his own San Diego laboratories. In one period, +176,500 cancer drugs were submitted for approval, ad any which showed favorable +results in _one-sixth of one per cent_ of the cases studied could be licensed. +Some of these drugs had a mortality rate of 14 to 17%. When death came from the +drug, not the cancer, the case was reported as a "complete" or "partial +remission". because the patient didn't actually die from cancer. It was a race +to see which would kill the patient first: the drug or te disease. But it was +a financial success. Cancer became a multi-billion dollar industry, actually +employing more people than the sick! + The inevitable concision reached by Rife was that his life-long labor and +discoveries had not only been ignored, but probably would be buried with him. +At that point, he ceased to produce much of anything, and spent the last third +of his life seeking oblivion in alcohol. They dulled his acute awareness of so +much unnecessary suffering for the profit of a few, and half a century of wasted +research. Today, doctors would be telling millions of patients, "Relax, it's +only cancer. In a few months, you'll be as good as new." + Fortunately, his death was not the end electronic therapy. A dozen or so +humanitarian doctors and engineers reconstructed his frequency instrument, and +kept the therapy alive. Finally it became public again in 1986, with the +publication of books which told Rife's store. A deluge of public and professional interest resulted. Today, at least a +dozen manufacturers are supplying the demand for Rife's frequency instruments, +now known as _Rife Generators_. But as stated previously, the interests. In +1989, journalists linked the pharmaceutical industry with routine bribery of +regulatory agency officials. Through their influence, Three Rife manufacturers +were shut down last year on the ground that claims made during monitored +telephone conversations had not been approved. No one know how long it will be +possible to obtain Rife Generator, before past events are repeated. + Thanks to mass-produced components, modern Rife Generators are considerably +less expensive then the $7,000 broadcasting tube instruments built at one time +by Rife and Lee de Forest (this was the actual production cost; a fortune during +the Depression). It is now possible to obtain a good one for about what a good +stereo system costs. There is tremendous variation in the cost and design of +the modern Rife Generator. Where can the average person go for information? His +doctor won't know. The reader may not be knowledgable about the features of the +Rife Generators. It is possible to spend a lot of money for an instrument which +does not perform any better then a model that costs a third as much. And some +models have undesirable limitations in range and power. + For this reason I wrote "The Consumer Guide to The Rife Generators" with Dr. +Reisdorf, revised 1990. While this guide does not specifically recommend any +particular brand, there is adequate information for you to find the model that +suit your needs. + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/rivest.fac b/textfiles.com/science/rivest.fac new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3edf1221 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/rivest.fac @@ -0,0 +1,154 @@ +Date: Wed, 27 Jun 90 22:19:44 -0400 +From: Theodore Lee +Subject: The F9 factoring result + +MESSAGE FROM RON RIVEST VIA JIM BIDZOS VIA STEVE KENT VIA STEVE CROCKER: +Thanks to Robert Silverman for keeping many people honest. +As an additional effort to that end, I attach an analysis of +the recent factoring effort, done by Ron Rivest. The early +reports of RSA's demise have been greatly exaggerated... +Note: Be sure and read the end of Rivest's note. +Jim Bidzos, RSA Data Security + +To: Whom It May Interest (Feel free to distribute further...) +From: Ronald L. Rivest +Date: June 21, 1990 +Re: Recent Factoring Achievement + (Preliminary draft; may contain typos or other inaccuracies. + Please send corrections to rivest@theory.lcs.mit.edu) + +This note is in response to the numerous inquiries I've received regarding +the recent factoring of a 155-digit number by A. Lenstra, M. Manasse, and +others. (See the New York Times article of 6/20/1990 by G. Kolata.) +This note attempts specifically to correct some of the misimpressions that +may arise from a reading of such popular press articles. + +Using an ingenious new algorithm, Lenstra, Manasse, and others have +factored the 155-digit number known as "F9", the ninth Fermat number: + F9 = 2^(2^9) + 1 = 2^(512) + 1 . +In binary, this number has the form + 100000....000000001 +where there are 511 zeros altogether. (F9 is a 513-bit number.) +This is a fascinating development, and the researchers involved are to be +congratulated for this accomplishment. + +The algorithm used is known as the "number field sieve", or "NFS" (not +to be confused with a network protocol of the same acronym!). The NFS +algorithm is described in the Proceedings of the 1990 ACM STOC Conference. +The NFS algorithm is based on an idea due to Pollard, as developed further by +Arjen Lenstra, Hendrik W. Lenstra, and Mark S. Manasse. + +The NFS algorithm is specifically designed to factor numbers that, +like F9, have a very simple structure: they are of the form + a^b + c +where c is relatively small. (For F9, we have a=2, b=512, and c=1.) +Some simple extensions of this algorithm are also possible, to handle +numbers whose binary representation has many zeros, and related kinds +of numbers (ternary, etc.) Numbers that have such a special structure are +extremely rare and are unlikely to be encountered by chance. That is, +the NFS algorithm does not apply to the kind of "ordinary" numbers that +arise in practical cryptography, such as using RSA. They only apply to +numbers with "sparse" representations having few nonzero components. +(Let us call such numbers "rarefied".) + +When working on a rarefied number, the NFS algorithm has an estimated +running time of the form (for an input number n): + exp(1.56 (ln n)^1/3 (ln ln n)^2/3) (1) +For n = F9, this evaluates to + 4.1 x 10^15 operations, +which, at 3.15 x 10^13 operations/year for a 1 MIP/sec machine (i.e. a +MIP-year), gives a workload estimate of + 130 MIP-years, +only off by a factor of two from the actual work of 275 MIP-years. (That is, +formula (1) may be roughly too low by a factor of two.) + +It is instructive to see the effect of doubling the size of the number +being dealt with. A 1024-bit (332-digit) rarefied number requires an estimated + 1.54 x 10^21 operations + = 4.9 x 10^7 MIP-years, +a dramatic increase in difficulty. The NFS algorithm algorithm is not a +"polynomial-time" algorithm; the difficulty of factoring still grows +**exponentially** with a polynomial function of the length of the input. + +What has this to do with RSA and cryptography? I think there are three +basic points: + -- This development indicates that the status of factoring is + still subject to further developments, and it is wise to be + conservative in one's choice of key-length. + -- The NFS algorithm may yet be generalized to handle "ordinary" + numbers, and the potential impact of this should be considered. + -- Factoring is still a very hard problem, despite everyone's best + efforts to master it. + +Regarding the further extensions of NFS to handle ordinary numbers, this is +judged to be a reasonable possibility by those working on NFS, so it is +helpful to consider what impact this may have. + +It is conjectured (see the ACM STOC paper referenced above) that a successful +extension of the NFS algorithm to ordinary numbers would have a running time +of the form: + exp(2.08 (ln n)^1/3 (ln ln n)^2/3) (2) +This is similar to equation (1) except that the constant 1.56 is +replaced by the constant 2.08. Note that a practical version of such +an extension does NOT yet currently exist (to the best of my +knowledge), but even granting its plausibility we arrive at an +estimate of the tie required to factor a 512-bit number of + 6.5 x 10^20 operations + = 2 x 10^7 MIP-years +which (in my opinion) is a substantial degree of security. It is +interesting to note that this work factor is actually GREATER than that +required by the ``standard'' factoring algorithms (e.g., the quadratic sieve), +which have a running time of + exp((ln n)^1/2 (ln ln n)^1/2); +for a 512-bit number, this gives a work-factor estimate of only + 6.7 x 10^19 operations. +Indeed, the NFS algorithm (when extended) will be asymptotically superior than +the quadratic sieve algorithm, but will be slower for numbers with less +than about 200 digits. That is, assuming that (2) is indeed the correct +running-time estimate for any extension of NFS, then NFS will not affect the +security of any numbers of less than about 215 digits. So any "standards" +that have been considered using 512-bit RSA moduli are not likely to be +affected by any NFS extensions. (At most, one could imagine that the +RSA key-generation process might be extended to check that the resulting +modulus n is not a rarefied number.) + +In the truly worst-case scenario, we would have that an extension of +NFS would be found that allows ordinary numbers to be factored with a +work-factor that is governed by equation (1); in this case one would +need to adjust the sizes of moduli used by RSA upwards by a factor of +less than two to more than offset the new algorithm. A factor of two +in size affects the running time of public-key encryption (or +signature verification) by a factor of four and the running time of +private-key encryption (or signature generation) by a factor of eight. +Noting that the speed of workstations has increased by a factor of +over 100 in the last decade (indeed, such factors have been the +technological advance that made the successful implementation of NFS +possible!), such performance penalties, if necessary, seem to be +easily absorbed by expected technological advances in the speeds of +the underlying RSA implementation technologies. That is, the NFS-like +factoring algorithms do not, even in this worst-case scenario, prevent +successful implementations of the RSA cryptosystem. + +As a cryptographer, I am actually very happy with all the effort that +is being spent trying to determine the exact level of difficulty of +factoring. Achievements such as the recent development of NFS help to +pin down the best-possible rate of growth of the difficulty of +factoring, so that users of cryptographic schemes can pick key sizes +with an increased degree of confidence that unforeseen developments +are unlikely to occur. The best way to ensure confidence in a +cryptographic system is to have it attacked vigorously and +continuously (but unsuccessfully) by well-qualified attackers. If, +despite their best efforts, the difficulty of cracking the system +remains intrinsically exponential, then one can have a reasonably high +degree of confidence that the system is actually secure. This is the +process we have been seeing at work in the recent work on factoring. +The results of the attacks can be used to guide the selection of the +necessary key size for a desired level of security (with an +appropriate margin of safety built in, of course). + +(As a closing note, here's a prediction: I expect that the 128-digit +``challenge RSA cipher'' published in the August 1977 issue of +Scientific American to be cracked (probably by the quadratic sieve +algorithm or a variant, not NFS) during the next 1-3 years. This +accomplishment will require substantially more computer time than the +275 MIP-years required to factor F9.) diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/rotjit_t b/textfiles.com/science/rotjit_t new file mode 100644 index 00000000..509c9576 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/rotjit_t @@ -0,0 +1,265 @@ +Submission for Jim Sheppard; (c) 1991 Robert M. Jamison + + TIME JITTER IN ROTARY-GAP TESLA COILS + ------------------------------------- + + ABSTRACT + +The source of time jitter in rotary gap Tesla Coils is examined both +experimentally and mathematically. Calculations demonstrate that jitter +appears even if the rotary gap is machined to high precision. The +principal source of jitter is shown to be the ringing of the capacitance +and transformer inductance in relationship to the rotary electrodes. A +computer model of jitter was made and supplements the text. + + -*- + +The tone of a rotary gap is the simplest and most immediate indicator of +the presence of jitter. A gap with little jitter has a musical tone and +illuminates with a steady glow much like a natural gas pilot light. As +the jitter increases, the tone takes on a nervous quality and the gap +illumination flutters in intensity. + +The jitter level of several embodied Tesla coil systems was higher than +desired. These systems, all large ones, were powered with inductively +limited transformers. The switching element was a rotary gap. The +following analysis identifies the sources and computes relative +magnitudes of jitter in this type of system. + +As long as the peak firing voltage is kept under control, the effects of +jitter are not catastrophic. But the presence of jitter always +degenerates the purity of the design. The firing containing the +greatest energy causes the highest secondary voltage so extra secondary +insulation must be added. Conversely, missing firings will increase +losses because useful energy stored in the capacitor is not immediately +utilized, but must wait for a while. For small laboratory type Tesla +coils this unproductive idle time and its attendant inefficiency is +inconsequential. But for high power systems such as those used for the +wireless transmission of power it is worthwhile to explore various +configurations of rotary gaps in advance of construction. This +exploration led to some revealing facts about jitter in Tesla coils. + +An oscilloscope was used to observe jitter. After obtaining some +experience with rotary gap Tesla coils of this type, the audible tone +was found to be a more convenient alternate indicator of jitter. In +practice both methods were awkward to quantify the jitter magnitude. So +experiments and computations were used to localize and mathematically +represent it. + +Jitter can be observed on the output electrode of the Tesla coil. The +origin of jitter was localized to the primary circuit by the following +method. The secondary was experimentally removed and jitter was +observed to remain. Admittedly, the secondary also can contribute to +the amount of jitter. But the scope of this analysis is limited to the +iron core transformer, the rotary gap, and the Tesla primary. The +capacitor and air core primary also resonates at a low RF frequency. +This frequency is several orders of magnitude above the frequencies +discussed in this analysis. + +The simplicity and economy of an unenclosed rotary gap accounts for its +popularity over more exotic switching means. On the other hand, its +operation is not as predictable as triggered gaps. Instead of the +forced firing immediately upon appearance of the trigger signal, the +firing appears at an unspecified time during the gradually increasing +voltage gradient. Although the rate of increase of this gradient is an +order-of-magnitude improved from fixed gap designs, there is still a +measure of time uncertainty. Of course, the amount of jitter can be +decreased by increasing the rotational speed of the rotary gap. Since +jitter is inversely proportional to rate of closure of the electrodes, +the uncertainty would be reduced proportionally. From a practical +standpoint, it is not worthwhile to exceed the speed of standard +ungeared motors (3500 to 3600 rpm). If the electrodes are mounted on a +diameter of 9.4 inches, they will be moving at 100 miles per hour (147 +feet per second). The diameter may be increased from this value +somewhat, but large increases will invoke power, noise, safety, and +speed-of-sound problems. Strength must be a consideration if non- +metallic wheels are used because the points on the circumference of this +example sustain an acceleration of 1700 g's. + +Reasonable values may be applied to examine jitter levels in a typical +rotary gap system. Other than the claim of reasonableness, no +particular level of precision is attached to the numbers that follow. +But this approach allows computation of values so that they might may be +put into proper perspective. At one extreme, assume that if a voltage +gradient of 175 KV per inch appears across the electrodes then breakdown +will occur instantly. Also assume the traditional value of below 76.2 +KV per inch where the electrodes will not break down at all. In the +band between these two values the electrodes will not break down +immediately, but after some unspecified period of time. It is the +irregularity of the breakdown time that accounts for a portion of the +total jitter. For example, consider a 10 KV drop across the electrodes. +Using the above figures, the breakdown may occur between 0.0013 inch and +0.0006 inch. The distance at which the gap may fire has an uncertainty +of .0007 inches. With a reasonable rate of electrode closure, such as +100 mph in the above example, this peak to peak component of jitter is +0.4 microsecond. This magnitude is far smaller than the amount of +jitter that was observed so the source of the firing irregularity must +lie elsewhere. + +The consistency of the angular spacing of the electrodes is another +contributory factor. Assume an 1800 rpm system with one particular +electrode displaced one degree of arc ahead of the ideal position. This +electrode will cause an interfiring interval 1 microsecond shorter than +standard. The subsequent interval until the next firing will be 1 +microsecond longer than standard. The sum of this peak to peak jitter +totals 2 microseconds. Again, this magnitude could not account for the +magnitude of jitter observed in the embodiments. + +Spherical shapes are generally used for the rotating electrodes. +Although the sizes of these electrodes are well controlled, it is +interesting to examine the effect of uneven sizes for their effect on +firing irregularity. Consider a closely set gap, a 100 mph closure rate +and the diameter of one of the electrodes 0.005 inch larger than the +other electrodes. The firing would occur 3 microseconds earlier as this +electrode approaches the gap and, since the remaining firings are +unaffected, the peak to peak jitter would also be 3 microseconds. +Once again, this irregularity is not a significant source of jitter. + +Normal erosion of the electrode surface finish will effect the above +cited voltage gradient values somewhat. In light of the small 3 +microsecond jitter shown, it is not cost effective to finish the +electrodes finer than the pitted finish that will naturally occur after +use. It is rarely worthwhile to use any separate finishing operation on +the electrodes. + +Another source of jitter can originate from an induction motor; the +type normally used to drive the rotary gap. These motors have a slip +frequency in the order of one hertz. The rotational frequency and the +number of electrodes can form a beat frequency with the line frequency +which generates firings at irregular positions of the sine wave. It +could simplistically be calculated that a 1750 rpm motor driving a 12 +electrode rotary gap will form a 350 hertz tone. Indeed, some firings +will be spaced by 1/350 of a second. But, even in an ideal system, the +actual number of firings in one full second will fall short of this +value. Because of the slip frequency, there ideally would be six, but +occasionally five, firings per half-sine. Further, if a certain +electrode moves into and out of firing position when the sine wave +crosses zero there may be no firing at all. This non-firing +underutilizes the design because the embodied components stand idle for +a time. + +To eliminate the slip frequency as a source of jitter, the motor in the +above example was replaced with a 1800 rpm synchronous motor. By +physically positioning the electrodes at a desired relation to the phase +of the motor shaft, firings were permitted only at consistently phased +points on each half sine wave. Even the small sources of irregularity +such as electrode angular positioning and dimensional tolerances were +eliminated by extraordinary machining techniques. With all these +precautions, there was still an untenable amount of jitter. + +The unsatisfactory results of these hardware experiments led to computer +modelling and analysis. The computer program simulates the electrical +operation of the transformer with its Q and inductance, the capacitor, +and the gap. The parameters displayed and analyzed are: instantaneous +gap spacing, capacitor voltage, transformer current, incoming line +phase, and energy during firing. The program also emits an audible +simulation of the firing. + +The computer program is available for downloading as ROTJIT.ZIP from: + Colorado Mountain College, Timberline Campus BBS System + Data: (719) 486-2775 + Voice: (719) 486-0133 + 24 Hours 8/1/N 300/1200/2400 +The program is PC compatible and requires an EGA (or better) monitor. + +The high voltage iron core transformer combined with its low-Q +inductive limiting properties is critical to the modelling. +Conventional transformers have too low an output impedance to use +directly, so some electrical compliance needs to be inserted in series +with it. A rheostat is sometimes chosen, but for large size Tesla +coils, inductive limiting becomes a more practical choice because it is +ideally lossless. To obtain this inductance, an external iron-core +inductor may be placed in series with with a conventional transformer. +Since transformers already contain iron, the inductor can be combined +with them. Such transformers are commercially available for igniting +domestic oil burners and for illuminating gas tubes. In the program the +actual location of the inductance is unimportant since the two +configurations are equivalent. This text will consider that the +transformer itself contains inductive limiting. + +This transformer inductance will resonate with the Tesla primary +capacitance at one frequency defined by LC. If this resonant frequency +is 60 hertz then the secondary of the transformer will make a resonant +rise at that frequency to a voltage limited only by the transformer Q or +the firing of a rotary gap. This voltage may be high and, if +uncontrolled, the transformer secondary can destroy itself. +Unfortunately, the lower the transformer losses, the higher the resonant +rise will be. So the likelihood of destructive secondary voltage will +increase with better quality transformers. In the computer program, the +Q is set to about 3 which is representative of one particular +transformer. Q is generally a parameter that is not controlled by the +transformer manufacturer and can be a higher value, such as 10, +depending upon the transformer design. + +In the computer program, the value of the primary capacitor and +transformer inductance resonates higher than 60 hertz. This resonant +frequency can be observed by setting the gap to a very wide spacing. At +this large gap spacing, no firing occurs and there are no transients due +to the rotary gap. But at the turn-on point (at the left-hand side of +the screen) the circuit at rest is stimulated with the non- +differentiable turn-on transient of the sine wave. A sine wave around +zero angle is essentially a ramp input. Although a ramp is a very +gentle stimulus, the capacitor and transformer inductance visibly +resonate. This resonance can be observed adding to the initial cycles +of the 60 hertz waveform. Since the gap is not firing, the 60 hertz +energy cannot supplement this LCR circuit with energy at the resonant +frequency and the resonance dies because of the finite Q of the circuit. +Demo C in the computer program shows this ringing and its damping. It +is more apparent in the capacitor current rather than the voltage +because of the differentiating property of the capacitor. + +When an electrode fires in proper phase with the frequency of this LC +circuit the stored energy in the tank circuit can be increased. Under +this condition the transformer and capacitor voltages can rise to very +high values. If the Q of the circuit is very high, this voltage can +rise and break down the component most susceptible to overvoltage: most +likely the transformer. + +The mechanical phasing of the rotary gap with the line frequency is not +important if there are many firings per cycle of line frequency. But if +only a few electrodes are used and they are oriented so that the few +firings are near the 60 hertz zero-voltage crossing, some half-cycles +may pass without a firing and jitter will be substantial. Demo D in the +program graphically demonstrates this undesirable feature. + +Another undesirable condition appears if the gap is set too small. +Consider the instant where the capacitor is charged to a large value and +the electrodes are far apart. As the electrodes rotate closer to each +other, the gap will eventually strike and the high energy in the +capacitor will be transferred to the primary coil. The electrodes will +continue to become even closer and remain closer for a long period of +time. During this time interval the transformer charges the capacitor +to a small voltage limited by the close electrode spacing. This cycle +repeats and many firings occur during a short time period. But no large +packets of energy are delivered to the primary. The transformer no +longer is supplying current to a capacitor with, on the average, a +moderate charge, but rather to a capacitor with a very low voltage. The +current builds but is limited to the short circuit current of the +transformer. The effects of rapid firing and short circuit current +combine and the electrodes dissipate much more heat. As the gap rotates +the electrodes eventually will move an adequate distance apart and +normal operation will resume until the next electrode makes the gap too +small once again. Demo E in the computer program graphically +demonstrates this undesirable feature. + +When all elements are properly selected, the firing rate is consistent +from half-cycle to half-cycle. Demo A in the computer program +graphically illustrates the elimination of jitter. Note the like energy +bursts from one half-cycle to the next. The capacitor voltage attains a +smaller peak voltage than in a flawed system. The computer speaker +sounds at each energy burst and its rhythmic and monotonous sound +indicates that the system is properly adjusted. + + -*- + +ABOUT THE AUTHOR + +Mr. Jamison is an independent engineering consultant. To optimize his +industrial Tesla coils, he developed the interactive Tesla coil Computer +Aided Design program TSCAD. A demonstration of this program is +downloadable from CMC BBS as TSCADDEM. Using mathematical Tesla coil +modelling he has aided NASA in their extraterrestrial life research +relating to the creation of amino acids by electrical discharges. + + -*- + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/rqexps_t b/textfiles.com/science/rqexps_t new file mode 100644 index 00000000..bb0626fd --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/rqexps_t @@ -0,0 +1,264 @@ + +EXPERIMENTS WITH AN ELECTRICAL COUNTERPOISE AND +THE FUNCTION OF RF GROUNDING IN HELICAL RESONATORS + +*************************************************************** +Sounds impressive? I assure you it is not! I have been wanting +to transcribe some of my lab notes concerning a series of +experiments that I happened into quite accidentally in the fall +of 1992 while working with a four inch coil system. Before I jump +into the simple equipment and instructions required to duplicate +these very educational experiments, I want to give a brief +history of how I happened onto this line of investigation with +Tesla Coil systems. But even before that: The disclaimer! + +This short paper was written for those interested in Tesla +systems who already have a small working coil or two. These +experiments, like any high-voltage or Tesla experiments, can be +dangerous. In addition, several setups detailed below can produce +excessive radio frequency interference (RFI - EMI). It is under- +stood among ALL coilers that any adjustments, tuning, or changing +of connections in a coil system are done with the power off and +with the primary capacitors discharged. It is also understood +that setups which may produce excessive RFI - EMI are properly +shielded (as in a grounded Faraday cage). A REAL Tesla ground is +REQUIRED for some of these experiments. You don't want to set up +the transmitter configuration detailed below under "Optional +Experiments" and ground it to your house wiring! + +I was back-tracking down in size from 6 - 8 eight inch coils +prior to the construction of a new 10" coil system. I was con- +cerned about the expense in time and materials for the new large +primary coil that I was beginning to envision. I wanted to have a +work table or platform where I could wind and test fire simple +primary coil designs. I was looking to resonate several Tesla +secondary coils in the 4 - 5 inch diameter range with a variety +of temporary "lashed up" primary coil shapes and sizes. Due to +space constraints I wanted a rolling platform with a lower shelf +where my homemade capacitor tanks could rest, a side shelf for +the placement of spark gaps, and some method of making a simple +low impedance connection to my heavy, dedicated, RF ground. I +went ahead and built a rolling platform from scratch wood. + +The grounding system on my rolling platform is what led to the +following series of experiments with electrical counterpoises and +RF grounding. The top of the rolling platform had a hole drilled +into the center for a ground wire to come through. For a ground- +ing point directly below the secondary coil, a wire is led +through the hole and it clamps to a rather solid brass block that +was screwed into the underside of the tabletop (junk box find). +The brass block has four #6 multi-strand wires soldered to it +(scrap wire box, the sections were too short for anything else, +so I used all of them). Each wire is insulated with heavy vinyl +tubing as it runs down the four legs of the platform (insulation +was required here because of the close proximity to the capacitor +terminals and the tank circuit wiring). + +I looked around for some method of tying the four #6 ground +cables together at the base of the platform, and settled on what +turned out to be an aluminum traffic sign which came out of a +sheet aluminum scrap bin. It fit precisely under the base of the +platform, and I bolted the four cables to the conductive plate. +A heavy ground strap could be brought in from any direction, the +conductive plate pried gently with a screwdriver, and a large +surface area temporary connection could be made by inserting the +ground strap between the conductive plate and the wooden bottom +of the platform.... Now I will move on with this paper. +**************************************************************** + +MATERIALS REQUIRED ARE: + +A well tuned Tesla coil with a 4 - 6 inch ( 10 - 15 cm ) diameter +secondary. + +Some one inch (2.5 cm) high plastic medicine cups, or some pieces +of plastic scrap about inch high that can be used for simple +light-weight standoff insulators. + +A section (any shape) of flat sheet metal of at least 2.25 square +feet, but not much over 4 square feet (.7 to 1.2 square meters). +The exact size to get the best experimental results will depend +on the size and efficiency of the coil system you are using. +Since this component need have no special characteristics, and +any flat conductive material may be used, you might want to get a +selection of pieces of various sizes. + +A low pressure gas tube (neon, florescent) + +Some sections of braided ground strapping or other flexible +conductor with a large surface area. + +Some simple clamps (clothes pins, large paper clips, etc.) + +Some thick plastic sheeting may be required in places for +insulation. + +A dedicated RF ground for ground pathing and for grounding HV +xfmr cores and Tesla resonators. + +OPTIONAL MATERIALS: + +Toroid or sphere discharge terminals of various sizes. These +additional dischargers are highly recommended for any degree of +experimentation with resonating coils. + +A separate Tesla secondary just a bit larger than the secondary +used in the operating system. The optional experiments do not +require a second coil SYSTEM with tank circuit, etc.. Just a bare +secondary coil that resonates at a slightly higher frequency than +the system used to power these experiments. +**************************************************************** + +Set four or more of the plastic standoff insulators on a +concrete, dirt, or metal floor. A wooden floor will not be +satisfactory, and may well become a fire hazard during the course +of experimentation. A concrete basement or garage floor is ideal. + +Place the flat sheet of metal on top of the plastic insulators so +that the conductor is electrically isolated 1 inch (2.5 cm) above +the floor. This forms an insulated capacitance or "counterpoise". +Use a clothespin or other small clamp and connect one end of a +section of ground strap (or other flexible low impedance +conductor) to the piece of sheet conductor. Connect the other end +of the ground strap to the base wire of a Tesla secondary coil in +a system that has been previously tuned until it will produce at +least 6 inches (15 cm) of spark. The secondary coil should NOT be +connected to any other ground while experimenting with the +counterpoise. Fire the coil using a variac voltage controller on +the primary of the step up xfmr, bringing the coil slowly up and +down in power levels. +--------------------------------------------------------------- +1) Observe the performance of the coil at various power levels. +How does spark from the coil when connected to the counterpoise +compare to spark from the coil when it is grounded to a low +impedance RF ground? Switch the ground connection back and forth +between your counterpoise and your low impedance RF ground. + +2) Observe the space between the counterpoise and the floor when +the coil is in operation at various power levels. + +a) My lab notes indicate that at low power the Tesla secondary +operated normally without a ground connection. The counterpoise +alone is all that is required to achieve efficient resonance +during low power operation. However, as power levels grew, spark +lengths failed to increase, despite significant increases of +input power. + +b) The point at which the coil "stalled" (where additional power +into the system caused no increase in spark length) was also the +point at which a visible electrical disturbance began in the +space between the counterpoise plate and the floor. This +disturbance was marked by bright corona and sparking between the +counterpoise and the floor. This disturbance increased with the +amount of power input into the system, though there was little or +no improvement in the output of spark from the top of the coil. + +c) If you were not able to overwhelm the counterpoise during the +experiment to produce any noticeable effect, your counterpoise +was too large, or your coil was not processing enough energy. Try +a smaller section of flat sheet conductor and re-run the +experiment until you are getting visible effects beneath the +counterpoise. +---------------------------------------------------------------- + +1) With the coil ground wire connected to the counterpoise fire +the coil system at various power levels while holding a low +pressure tube near the counterpoise plate. Observe the tube +brightness. + +2) Repeat experiment #1 above with the coil well grounded to a +dedicated low impedance RF ground. Hold the low pressure tube +near the ground strap. + +a) My lab notes state that when the coil is working off the +counterpoise, a low pressure tube indicates significant standing +voltage and current. Since the counterpoise is insulated from the +floor, leakage and radiation of energy must be unloading the +counterpoise. When the counterpoise is overwhelmed, this leakage +is quite visible with the naked eye, and appears in the form of +corona and sparks to the floor. This indicates a situation where +large amounts of RF interference (RFI) is leaving the system. + +b) When the coil is grounded to a low impedance RF ground there +is only a faint glow from the low pressure tube when it is held +near the ground strap. The tube does brighten when one terminal +is in direct contact to the ground strap, which shows the ground +is energized. This indicates that the RF voltage and current is +no longer trapped and radiating, but is going to ground. +--------------------------------------------------------------- + +1) Connect the base of the secondary coil to the counterpoise. +Place the low pressure tube in series between the counterpoise +and the RF ground. Fire the coil at various power levels and +observe the tube. + +a) This experiment clearly shows the need of a dedicated RF +grounding system on Tesla resonating systems. At very low power +the tube glows brightly, at higher power the tube begins to heat +from the RF current through the low pressure gas. + +---------------------------------------------------------------- + +OPTIONAL EXPERIMENTS + +Load the Tesla coil system with a toroid or other discharger that +is large enough to prevent spark from breaking out, then retune +the system with the new discharger. (hint: without spark, +retuning may be done by the glow of a low pressure tube {brighter += closer in tune} or by drawing off spark with a grounded probe) + + Repeat the experiment series above. + +a) The first thing that will be noted is that ground current has +increased dramatically when spark is no longer allowed to break +out of the discharge terminal. The counterpoise is overwhelmed +immediately, even at very low power. The energy forced into the +secondary is trapped. Due the damped nature of the secondary +oscillations, radiation is inefficient. The trapped energy is +forced to ground. THIS IS THE BASIS OF TESLA'S WIRELESS POWER +TRANSMISSION IDEA. This may now be called a transmitting coil, or +transmitting system. + +Take a second Tesla resonator (just a bare coil, no primary or +tank circuit) of slightly higher frequency than the transmitting +system used to power these experiments. Load discharger onto the +bare secondary until the coil is tuned to match the frequency of +the "driver" system. This simple uncoupled tuned coil will now be +referred to as the "free" coil. + +1) Connect the transmitting Tesla coil system {set up and tuned +as detailed under [OPTIONAL EXPERIMENTS]} to the counterpoise. +Note: the counterpoise is overwhelmed almost the instant the +transmitter coil is energized. Connect the base wire of the +"free" coil to the counterpoise, then energize the transmitter +coil. + +2) Connect the transmitting Tesla coil system to the dedicated RF +ground. Run a ground strap or other flexible low impedance +conductor from the dedicated ground to the base of the "free" +coil. + +a) The "free" coil is retrieving the RF current from the +counterpoise and resonates to spark despite lack of inductive or +electrostatic coupling. This coil may be placed quite some +distance, even off axis, from the transmitting coil and will +still spark well. + +b) The "free" coil still resonates to spark despite the fact that +the transmitter coil is driving into a dedicated low impedance +RF ground. This shows the ability of even a small coil system, +properly set up and tuned, to "power up" a low impedance RF +ground to the point where usable energy may be drawn off. +--------------------------------------------------------------- + +These experiments clearly show the importance and function of RF +grounds for the efficient operation of Tesla resonators. The more +advanced "Optional Experiments" show the basis of Tesla's +wireless power transmission through earth resonate ground +currents. + +Richard Quick + +... If all else fails... Throw another megavolt across it! + + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/rqmsgs_t b/textfiles.com/science/rqmsgs_t new file mode 100644 index 00000000..6013c00d --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/rqmsgs_t @@ -0,0 +1,12923 @@ +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1846 Date: 10-05-93 12:54 + From: Richard Quick + To: David Tiefenbrunn + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +I get some good results, not many people can hold a candle to it. +Need to move into a warehouse with some headroom and more power. +A dedicated substation would be nice... RQ + + DT> Where are you running this thing now, out of curiosity? + DT> Don't the neighbors complain about the RFI? + DT> Do you have any pictures or .GIF files of this unit in + DT> action? + +I run either in the garage for low power tests, or set up outside +in the back driveway for the real high powered stuff. I have had +no RFI complaints, but have had complaints about the noise: the +spark gaps sound much like an unmuffled chainsaw run flat out, +wide open. I made peace, and am allowed to fire up until 10 P.M. +with a days notice. But no more 2-3 A.M. testing... + + > I have used forced air cooling (ozone city) with good results + > up to about 5 KVA. RQ + + DT> Have you tried cooling the air before it is blown into the + DT> spark gap? You could run the air (I'm assumeing that your + DT> using an air compressor) through a coil of copper tubing in + DT> your ice bath. The best part is when the air expands as it + DT> is blown into the gap, it will cool further. (basic physics + DT> of gasses type stuff) + +I cool using forced air from a 220V industrial shop vac motor in +my old set of gaps, the new gaps are quenched by air blast from a +3.5 HP air compressor. The problem is the CFM of air flow +required is so large that I don't think pre-cooling is pratical. +It would require another design modification. The expanding air +alone works pretty well. The real advantage to high speed forced +air is that it not only cools, but it physically disrupts the +high voltage arc, assisting the rotary in making the break. + +Your idea for a forced air cooled rotary gap was excellent. The +only problem I see is in engineering the units to specs close +enough to get excellent performance and safety. My rotors are +dynamically balanced to 5000 RPM, and break rates need to be 450 +BPS or better for good operation. In designing a rotating break I +try to keep the mass as low as possible on the rim: when they +come apart they resemble an explosion, with lots of hot shrapnel +and plenty of arcs and sparks! + + > The research goes into several directions...Anybody know how + > to get lightning to excite a gas laser tube? RQ + +This was misunderstood by severl people. Specifically what I was +wondering about was the possibility of using the oscillator +output (which is similar to lightning) to excite a monopolar (one +wire input) gas laser tube. + + DT> Do you know what the mix is in a standard NeHe laser tube? + + +No. I am not an expert on lasers. But I am more than willing to +learn. I am open to input from anybody with experiance. + + RQ> ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through + RQ> it. + DT> With your equipment, it sounds like you actually could... + +Absolutely, positively. Though I can't figure out how to make a +RF voltmeter that would not be utterly consumed by the output of +my machines. My guess is between 3 - 5 million volts output with +the setup we have been discussing. + +As for proof. Yes, I can supply proof. I have some still photos +taken at about 3600 watts which are very impressive. But as my +work progressed I switched over to recording the experiments on +video tape so I can analysize the tests in the safety and comfort +of my living room. If anybody writes me I will happily provide +a two hour video tape in exchange for: One blank (high quality) +VHS tape, a postage pre-paid return mailer, $10.00 to pay for my +time and effort in seeing that you get a high quality, two hour, +recording of my work. Note this offer is not made on my behalf to +make any money, and I am not resposible for anybody's safety +should they decide to replicate any of the experiments I perform. +I will send a glossy print for $1.00 and a SASE. + +Richard T. Quick II, 10028 Manchester Rd., Suite 253, Glendale, +Missouri, 63122, USA + + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1971 Date:10-09-93 16:29 + From: Richard Quick + To: Guy Daugherty + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + GD> I'd say if they're working that well for you, they're hardly + GD> junk. Is there, uh, any point to this stuff, or just + GD> blasting electrons across the ether? + +Yes, there is a purpose. Actually more than a few. + +High power particle accelerators is one. The typical linear +accelerator of the 30's and 40's were RF powered. They abandoned +the coils as they were not sufficently frequency stable, and the +output was damped as opposed to continous wave. But, a book was +published last year: NICKOLA TESLA ON HIS WORK WITH ALTERNATING +CURRENTS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY, TELEPHONY, +AND TRANSMISSION OF POWER. Leland Anderson, Sun Publishing, +available through 21st Century Books, P.O. Box 2001, +Breckenridge, CO. 80424. + +This work is the result of research into the files of several law +firms dating back to around 1915. Tesla was called to give +depositions for three days to prepare for patent trials against +the Marconi Company. Tesla clearly documented priority in +frequency stablized continous wave signal production and radio +signal transmission (and reception) on multiplexed circuits as +early as 1891. All of Marconi's patents pertaining to radio were +overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1942 or 1943. The key to +this is that Tesla's work in this area was extremely advanced, +and most of it has yet to be applied to high powered accelerator +work. His systems of continous wave RF current production with +very high potentials is easily adapted to small, high powered, +linear particle accelerators. The peak powers of his Colorado +Spings machine (built, tested, and documented in 1899) exceeds +all but the largest accelerators in existance today. By the way, +the Tesla system is continous, and the modern systems are pulsed. +The misunderstanding is damped vs. undamped wave production. The +machine is capable of both, though the famous photos were taken +when the machine was set up to produce damped (disruptive) waves. +I don't think anybody really understood what Tesla was doing, +certainly he never clearly explained it until I read the work +above. + +In addition to this, a moderately sized machine should be capable +of doing research into power transmission through earth resonate +ground currents at frequencies under 30 khz (see document above). +Later Tesla realized the particle accelerator potential of the +machine and designed a power head for a particle beam weapon +using the magnifier circuit as the signal generator. Lasers were +not invented yet when Tesla died, but I believe a low impedance +coil system can supply enormous peak powers to gas laser tubes. + +The Maser is a derivitive of this line of investgation, though +the frequencies of operation are much higher than can be supplied +from a coil system, the idea is exactly the same. Use a tuned gas +laser tube as a cavity resonator excited by the RF output of the +coil system. + +Then there is ball lightning research... + + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 125 Date: 10-09-93 22:35 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + >a two hour video tape in exchange for: One blank (high quality) + >VHS tape, a postage pre-paid return mailer, $10.00 to pay for my + >time and effort in seeing that you get a high quality, two hour, + >recording of my work. Note this offer is not made on my behalf to + >make any money, and I am not resposible for anybody's safety + >should they decide to replicate any of the experiments I perform. + >I will send a glossy print for $1.00 and a SASE. + +RQ>Richard T. Quick II, 10028 Manchester Rd., Suite 253, Glendale, + >Missouri, 63122, USA + +Two comments: + +1) - What IS your monthly electrical bill + +2) - The $10 is in the mail Monday + +have been a wee fan of Tesla for a looong time - talking with some +people now about maybe building a BIG one out in Seattle - have done a +few small ones + + b QMPro 1.51 b 10... 9... 8... 7... 6... (Bo Derek getting older). + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0434 + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2001 Date:10-10-93 16:33 + From: Richard Quick + To: David Bearrow + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + DB> How did you go about winding your coil? What are the specs? + DB> And how much did it cost? + +The first step in winding a coil is to select a coil form. The +coil form should be a low loss material (we are talking RF +losses) like polyethylene, polystyrene, or polypropylene: but the +most common material is PVC plastic drain pipe (thinnest wall is +best) which is high loss. I used a section of PVC thin wall flume +duct. + +Ratios of coil height to width are important. Small coils work +best with aspect ratios (height to width) around 5:1 - 4:1, +larger coils (over 8" diam.) have aspect ratios around 3:1. Now +we are talking about the actual winding length here, so allow an +extra inch or so of coil form on each end. Determine the length +required and cut the ends square. + +The form must be sanded smooth of surface imperfections, dried +thoroughly, and if PVC is used, it must be sealed. A good sealer +is polyurethane, another is two part epoxy paint. By sealing the +surface of the PVC before you wind on wire you can negate the +excessive losses in PVC plastic coil forms. If necessary the coil +form may be sanded after the sealer had dried. + +The coil should be wound with good quality magnet wire. I use +double Formvar enamel coated magnet wire. Magnet wire gives you +maximum inductance. A coil should have over 900 turns, but not +too much over 1000 turns. There is a little leeway here. Select a +gauge of wire which will allow the aspect ratio and number of +turns to fall within this range. + +I plug the ends of the coil form and run a dowel through a center +hole so that it will spin. I set up the wire spool on one end of +a pair of sawhorses, and the coil form on the other end. I wind +the wire on by hand, making sure the windings are tight, smooth, +and even. I use a dab of hot glue or tape to hold the first turns +in place, and make sure to leave a tail of wire at either end. + +Once the coil is wound, it is sealed to prevent corona leakage +and breakdown. I use the same sealers mentioned above. Coats of +sealer are applied until there are no ridges and valleys in the +wire. In other words the coats must build up until the wire is +completely imbedded in sealer. + +The wound, sealed, coil is capped at both ends with plexiglas +plates glued down with epoxy. I cut circles out of plexi sheet +that is about the same thickness as the coil form. I rough up the +surface around the edges to give the epoxy a bite. One small hole +may be drilled into the bottom end plate to allow the air +pressure to equalize, but under no circumstances should any other +holes be drilled. The wire is never allowed inside the form. + +I have numerous coils, my largest coil has specs as follows: +10.5" O.D. thin wall PVC flume duct, the coil form is 34" high. +The coil is wound with #21 magnet wire, 1024 turns, actual +winding length is 32", aspect ratio 3.05:1. The coil is sealed +with eight coats of polyurethane on top of the wire and five +coats under the wire so that the wire is not in contact with the +PVC but is suspended in sealer. + +Coils take time more than anything to construct. I suppose the +material cost for my 10" coil is around $60.00. Smaller coils are +cheaper of course. What can be expensive is putting together the +rest of the oscillator components. Things like HV pulse +capacitors, xfrmrs, and power controllers like variacs. Beginners +can usually start with a few old neon sign xfrmrs, make some caps +(homemade salt water caps are very cheap) or buy some used, and +fire a small coil for under $150.00 from start to finish. + + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Msg#: 2098 Date: 10-12-93 18:29 +From: Bud Davis +To: Richard Quick +Subj: Re: 10kva Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +>In a message of , Richard Quick (1:100/4) writes: +> A twenty-two megawat continuious fire gas laser... +BD> I just picked up this thread a week ago, your recent postings +BD> are saved to a file...This is very interesting! + +MF> 22 MW is your input, with typical gas laser efficiency you'd +MF> be lucky to squeek a (one) measly MegaWatt out. Just enough +MF> to cut through armor at a few inches per second, or mabey a +MF> foot of steel. Don't know about lunar soil. Some gasses +MF> don't scale well to high powers, CO2 would probably be +MF> the best candidate. + +>I kind of thought CO2 was the way to go, but I was not sure. I +>have not had much experience with high powered gas lasers, +>though I did build a ruby rod laser in high school powered by a +>xenon flash tube. I can't find the rod anywhere now... + +BD>CO2 is a good choice for high power. I'm not sure which +BD>transition level for CO2 is used for lasing but I could find +BD>out. + +>I have a feeling that with a properly designed system though, +>the efficiencies could get considerably greater. My assumption +>is based on some experiments which show that RF excites gases +>much more easily than high voltage, high currents, or both. +>Telsa went on and on about the advantages of using RF when +>energizing gasses. + +BD> A Soviet researcher named Kapitza developed RF devices with +BD> plasma temperatures high enough to fuse hydrogen! They used a +BD> cylindrical resonant chamber driven by a room full of tuned +BD> circuits, the high temperature was observed in a corona +BD> discharge along the axis...I guess it went on the back burner +BD> along with the tokomak. + +BD> Hmm...stick a CO2 filled tube in a properly sized RF +BD> resonator... a few mirrors, heat sinks... + + BD> I wish I had your original post. :-( + + BD> ! Origin: Wendell Woodworking BBS(508)544-2402 (1:321/154) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2097 Date:10-13-93 00:46 + From: Richard Quick + To: David Bearrow + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + >> The coil should be wound with good quality magnet wire. I use + >> double Formvar enamel coated magnet wire. Magnet wire gives + >> you maximum inductance. A coil should have over 900 turns, + >> but not too much over 1000 turns. There is a little leeway + >> here. Select a gauge of wire which will allow the aspect + >> ratio and number of turns to fall within this range. + + DB> Did you calculate this so that the capacitive reactance + DB> equals the inductive reactance? I understood thats what was + DB> so interesting about Tesla's coils. + +No. The balancing act that you are referring to occurs in the +primary tank circuit. High voltage pulse discharging capacitance +(capacitive reactance) is made to balance off the heavy primary +coil (inductive reactance). The primary coil is made to very low +resistance; like HEAVY cable, strap, or soft copper water pipe. +The inductive reactance is "canceled" by the capacitive +reactance, and a very low resistance "tank" is formed where heavy +currents can oscillate with low loss. In order to excite the tank +circuit, high voltage feed lines are brought in to charge the +capacitors. Voltage rise in the capacitors (as they charge) +breaks down the main system spark gap, and bang, the tank fires. +Currents of hundreds of amps, with voltages in the thousands of +volts, ring through the Tesla Tank Circuit. + +The energy delivered can easily reach peak powers in the megawat +range. Since the main system spark gap fires hundreds of times +per second, these high peak powers are, for most practical +purposes, continuous. This primary circuit energy is transmited +through inductive coupling to the Tesla Secondary. + +The secondary coil that I described in the quoted post is NOT a +balanced coil. On the contrary, this coil is pushing the extreme +of several design limits in the quest for more efficient power +processing. The secondary coil, wound as I instructed, results in +a very high inductance coil; but it has a significant internal +capacitance and resistance due to the closeness of the windings, +the length of the wire, and the number of turns. + +The high inductance makes the secondary effective. The higher the +inductance, the more energy can be absorbed from the primary tank +circuit. + +Resistance and internal capacitance limit the Tesla secondary for +obvious reasons. Current, especially RF current, reacts poorly to +resistance, which gets worse in small diameter wire. Internal +Capacitance in a coil also reduces throughput, as the capacitance +in the turns of wire slow the current peak. + +Designing a potent Tesla secondary balances the maximum +inductance (a positive factor) against the resistance and +internal capacitance (negitive factors). It takes into account +the need for "critical coupling" between the primary and +secondary (for good energy transfer), resistance of the wire, +internal capacitance between turns, and the breakdown voltages of +the construction. The design given is well researched and proven. + + > BUT THE COIL IS UNBALANCED!!! YOU SAID SO ABOVE!!! + +Yes, it is VERY unbalanced. Yes, the Tesla circuit depends on +balance for maximum efficiency. The high inductance of the +secondary is balanced by the addition of a large (even huge) top +capacitance. Donut shaped dischargers, called toroids, are used +as a large capacitive air terminal. This air terminal capacitance +"unloads" the secondary, and allows for current flow through the +high inductance coil. The secondary coil, as I instructed, will +not function well without an effective discharger; a capacitive +reactance to balance it. Without it the coil will not survive +much input energy and will self destruct. We have just pushed the +limits with modern plastics in 1/4 wave Tesla oscillators. + +Back to the primary; the circuit is tuned. By changing the +location of the tank circuit "tap" connection to the primary, the +frequency of the circuit is altered. The more turns, the lower +the frequency. The secondary coil acts like an antenna. This wire +when excited by the primary, vibrates electrically, and produces +a quarter wave signal. The frequency is primarily a function of +wire length and the capacity of the discharger. The primary and +secondary are both adjusted to operate at the same frequency. So +there is a lot of balancing going on. + +By the way, I make my toroids out of 4-6" ridged flexible black +polyproplyene drain pipe. I make a circle and mount some +cardboard or thin masonite in the center, then cover the thing +with aluminum plumbers tape, and foil glued with adhesive spray. + + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2135 Date:10-14-93 10:57 + From: Richard Quick + To: Bud Davis + Subj: Re: 10kva Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + BD> CO2 is a good choice for high power. I'm not sure which + BD> transition level for CO2 is used for lasing but I could find + BD> out. + + RQ> Please check into it and let us know what turns up. + + >I have a feeling that with a properly designed system though, + >the efficiencies could get considerably greater. My assumption + >is based on some experiments which show that RF excites gases + >much more easily than high voltage, high currents, or both. + >Telsa went on and on about the advantages of using RF when + >energizing gasses. + + BD> A Soviet researcher named Kapitza developed RF devices with + BD> plasma temperatures high enough to fuse hydrogen! They used + BD> a cylindrical resonant chamber driven by a room full of + BD> tuned circuits, the high temperature was observed in a + BD> corona discharge along the axis...I guess it went on the + BD> back burner along with the tokomak. + +I really feel that there is a lot of uncovered work in areas such +as this. The publication I refered to last week (A transcription +of a legal deposistion Tesla gave in 1916, over a period of three +days) is only a year in print. Using some of the ideas that Tesla +presented in this deposistion in work such this has not been +done. + + BD> Hmm...stick a CO2 filled tube in a properly sized RF + BD> resonator... a few mirrors, heat sinks... + +Yup, very close to my thoughts. Tesla states that low pressure +gas, being highly conductive to RF, can be used as the actual +resonator. So take a properly sized resonator, fill it with CO2, +a few mirrors, heat sinks... + +The actual resonator can be the laser tube, and losses can really +be cut down. This is exactally how a MASER works, but needs to be +scaled up for low frequency work. I have been wondering about the +addition of a short coil to the resonate chamber to bring the +frequency down, thereby keeping the size of the resonate chamber +under control. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2138 Date:10-14-93 16:53 + From: Richard Quick + To: Bud Davis + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +P.S. + +I would also be very interested in the source material for the +information you relayed on the Russian RF work. Experiments of +this nature (using RF inputs to excite tuned resonators) is +exactly along the line that my future work will be heading. + +I don't know how much of this thread you were able to pick up in +a week (I have seen a lot of posts indicating new boards getting +this echo in the past week) but I am currently running and +improving very high powered equipment. Experiments of this nature +are not at all beyond my means. I have all of the power +controller circuits, the capacitors, and the HV xfrmrs. I am +developing a new liquid cooled, air blast gap to run in series +with my rotary, and I have plenty of coils, both primaries and +secondaries. + +I have constructed and fired small Tesla Magnifiers in the 2.5 +KVA power range, and feel (like Tesla did) that the magnifier +circuit is a clear and away breakthrough in RF power processing +efficiency. A properly designed and constructed Tesla Magnifier +system easily achieves 70% efficiency, and can be brought up to +over 90% efficient in larger systems. They will produce and +process damped and undamped (continuous wave) signals depending +on the setup and power supply. The currents and voltages this +circuit will handle are nothing short of mind boggling. + +The Magnifier is designed specifically to drive a 1/4 wave +resonator, whether it be helical (coil), coaxial, or cavity, +makes no difference. I doubt that the Russian was using a large +magnifier to drive the resonator in the experiment you mentioned. +James & Kenneth Corum (PhDs) did not publish the mathematical +treatise of the Tesla Magnifier until just a few years ago, and +until the treatise was published, nobody was able to get the free +resonator to function properly as part of the lumped, tuned +circuit. These problems have been worked on and resolved by very +few people since. I can count myself as one of the half dozen or +so who have publicly documented success. + +My best guess is that the Russian was using a large tube powered +RF signal generator to drive a coaxial resonator. I think that if +the experiment were redesigned, it could be done much cheaper, at +much higher powers and efficiencies, with a Tesla Magnifier +driver circuit. Tesla went on and on about this stuff too, nobody +listened then, and few listen today; hell, people ask me all the +time why I chase such "impracticalities". They don't understand +that Tesla was so far ahead of his time that we still haven't +caught up! My guess is that we stand today where Tesla stood in +1898, as far as RF power processing efficiencies are concerned. + +But photos or data from the Russian experiment would be +invaluable for any work in this direction. What did he use for a +transmission line? How did he introduce the signal into the +resonator? From having done a little work with helical resonators +to produce large voltages at very high currents, I realize +technique is half the battle. Any additional information on this +work would be appreciated. + +As for what you missed, well it can't be as much as what is most +likely still to come. Stay tuned!!! And feel free to ask about +anything you don't understand. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1981 Date: 10-16-93 18:39 + From: Richard Quick + To: Ron Beam + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + >On Oct 10 16:33 93, Richard Quick of 1:100/4 wrote: + + >Coils take time more than anything to construct. I suppose + >the material cost for my 10" coil is around $60.00. Smaller + >coils are cheaper of course. What can be expensive is + >putting together the rest of the oscillator components. + >Things like HV pulse capacitors, xfrmrs, and power + >controllers like variacs. Beginners can usually start with a + >few old neon sign xfrmrs, make some caps (homemade salt + >water caps are very cheap) or buy some used, and fire a + >small coil for under $150.00 from start to finish. RQ + + >Richard, do you know what frequency (if not 60Hz) and voltage + >should be used for a coil such as you mentioned? + +Frequency and voltage entirely depend on the aims of the +designer/builder. Since none of these systems are purchased +(nearly every component handcrafted) they can be built to nearly +any specification desired (within reason). Frequency, input & +ouput voltages, current, and impedance are just some of the +variables. The idea with a Tesla coil system is to covert 60 +cycle line current into RF with very high efficiencies. My 10" +secondary coil has a natural 1/4 wave resonate frequency of 132.5 +KHZ. I use a power distribution transformer run backwards (put +240 in and get HV out) to step up my line voltage to ~20,000 +volts. This input RMS voltage is converted into RF (say 132.5 +KHZ) by the Tesla Tank Circuit. The high frequency conversion is +achieved as a property of capacitve discharge through a coil +(tuned oscillating circuit). The main system spark gap acts as a +high voltage switch which allows the capacitor to charge over a +period of time, then discharge nearly instantaneously. Because of +the pulse discharge, the RF generated in the tank circuit has +much greater peak power than the HV feed line from the step up +transformer. The grounded secondary coil receives the EMF from +the primary and converts the energy back into electricity (air +core RF transformer). Since the secondary coil has a much greater +number of windings the voltage is stepped up considerably. + + > What does the coil do (or look like) when you turn it on? + +A 1/4 wave Tesla coil generates very long RF sparks that resemble +natural lighting in many aspects. These sparks do not need to +strike a grounded object but can terminate in air. + + >What can a person do with such a device once constructed? Does + >it have any practical purpose other than to amuse your friends? + +I first began to build small 1/4 wave (spark generating) Tesla +coils for fun. I loved the light show, and so did my friends. As +I gained experiance in building coils I realized that most of the +"plans" were full of inaccuracies. I began to design my own +systems to increase efficiency. As my interest and experiance +grew, I discovered more advanced coil systems that Tesla designed +(the Tesla Magnifier) and began initial research into other +areas: particle acceleration, lasers, wireless power +transmission, and particle beams. I am planning on making a very +serious study in these areas in the next few years. + +Dave Archer is a painter in California who uses a Tesla coil to +electrically spread paint. He places his canvas on a grounded +plate and directs the Tesla discharge over it. The resulting +paintings are regularly featured as space backgrounds and hanging +art on Star Trek TNG, Omni Magazine and several other publica- +tions, as well as private collections. Tesla coils were also used +in the time travel scenes in both Terminator movies, and are re- +emerging in the special effects industry because they photograph +well and the sparks are more realistic than computer generation +or animation. + +Two years ago a man (I don't have his name handy) was issued a +patent for a thermo-couple using a Telsa discharge. + +Tesla coils were used in the first induction heaters, and were +employed medically for the treatment of arthritis and other joint +and muscle problems. The same coil could be adjusted to generate +sufficient voltage to produce X-Rays, and as such a Tesla coil +was a standard medical instrument in Dr's offices in the early +1900s. Nearly all of the first high quality X-Rays were produced +with Tesla driven X-Ray tubes until the 1930's. The first self +cauterizing "electric scalpels" were electrified with a Tesla +coil. + +A Tesla coil is in your monitor (flyback transformer). Tesla +coils were also an important part of the first radio +transmitters. My feeling is that the Tesla coil has a major place +in modern physics, but has not been fully evaluated. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1983 Date:10-16-93 21:30 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +This thread seems to be getting a lot of attention and responses. +I will try to give some basics here, and answer a few questions. + +The modern 1/4 wave Tesla coil (sweet and simple, though there +are other configurations) is an oscillator driven, air core +resonate transformer. + +The oscillating tank circuit drives the secondary coil. The tank +circuit consists of pulse discharging capacitors, air gap (break) +and the primary coil. In my previous post I said the setups are +very flexible, so I will focus on specs for the 10KVA coil. + +The primary coil is wound from a single 100' length of 1/2" soft +copper water pipe placed on plexiglas stand off insulators. The +inside turn starts at 14" in diameter, and the turns wind +outward to form a flat pancake spiral, like the grooves on a +phonograph record. The outside turn is 36" diam.. There are a +total of 15 turns in this coil, spacing between turns is 1/4". + +There are many ways to place the gap and capacitance in the tank +circuit. I like the "balanced" circuit Tesla developed in +Colorado Springs for his monster machine. In the balanced circuit +the capacitance is divided into two equal parts and placed on the +ends of the primary coil. The gap is placed across the HV feed +line feeding the caps. + +I own two .1 mfd 45 kvac pulse discharging capacitors. These two +custom commercial units were purchased to supplement my 14 +homemade polyethylene/aluminum flashing/mineral oil units rated +at .02 mfd 10 kvac pulse. With the 10 KVA coil I use these two +commercial "caps". In the balanced circuit the capacitance is run +in series with the primary, so the actual operating capacitance +is only .05 mfd.. + +I connect one cap to the inside turn terminal of the primary. +The second cap is connected to a movable "tap" lead which can +clip to any location on the heavy primary coil. By moving the tap +lead, the primary coil inductance is varied, and the tank circuit +frequency can be changed. + +With one capacitor terminal connected to each end of the primary, +I still have two free capacitor terminals. Across these terminals +I place the gap, and the HV feed lines. + +When HV 60 cycle current is fed to the capacitors they charge. As +the voltage rises, tension builds in the air gap. When the +tension is sufficient, the gap breaks down and the capacitors are +discharged rapidly. This spark gap acts as a high voltage switch. +When the gap is open, the capacitors charge. When the gap fires, +the caps are discharged in a pulse. Because of the voltage and +currents involved, the gaps on larger coils employ a rotary +break, almost exactly like a large car distributor at high speed. + +This pulse discharging produces a large current (over 1000a@20kv +in my system) from a modest transformer output (.5 amp @ 20kv). +The pulse "rings" from capacitor plate, through the coil, to the +second capacitor plate; and back again. + +The frequency of the "ring" (oscillation) depends on the size of +the cap, and the inductance (# of turns) in the coil. Since my +capacitance is fixed, the coil size (inductance) is varied by +moving the tap to a different location. In this fashion the spark +gap oscillator is tuned. The parameters of this particular system +allows frequencies from ~200 - 57 KHZ. + +Now the secondary coil (specs in previous post) has a natural +frequency of 132.5 KHZ. I load the secondary coil with top +capacitance, most commonly a toroid shaped conductive terminal. +This lowers the natural frequency of the sec. coil. My best +results were obtained using a 40" diam. X 4" thick toroid +discharger, lowering the frequency of the coil from 132.5 kHz to +79 kHz. + +The secondary coil with discharger is placed upright in the +center of the primary coil. The secondary coil base wire is +ground to a heavy, dedicated, RF ground. The air terminal is of +course the other connection. + +By tuning the frequency of the primary tank circuit to match the +frequency of the secondary coil, energy is transferred from +primary coil to secondary coil thorough mutual induction. This is +much like a common transformer, but at these frequencies an iron +core is wasteful. + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1984 Date:10-16-93 21:54 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +10KVA Tesla Coil cont. + +In essence the primary coil is an inductive RF transmitter, and +the grounded secondary coil is an inductive RF receiver. + +The secondary coil receives the energy from the primary and +become electrically excited. The coil develops a 1/4 standing +wave of the system frequency, hence "1/4 wave" Tesla coil, or +"1/4 wave helical resonator" are descriptive terms. What that +means is that the potential at the base of the coil (ground) is +"zero". The voltage rises up the coil until you reach maximum +potential at the top. This is essential to producing good spark. + +If you look at a sine wave of one complete oscillation you will +see half of the wave above the "X" axis, and half of the wave +below the "X" axis. The point where the sine wave crosses the "X" +axis is ground potential or "zero" voltage. + +On the "Y" axis you will find the peaks of the sine wave located +at the 1/4 points of the wave length. These "Y" axis peaks are +the locations of the maximum voltage. The "X" axis crossings +("zero" volts) are the locations of maximum current in the wave. + +So to come back to lay terms, the base of the excited Tesla +secondary is at ground potential, but there is a lot of RF +current flow. For the coil to operate, this current must be +removed, hence a heavy RF ground is required. + +The top of the coil is the high voltage end, where the 1/4 wave +voltage peak is located. Since the voltage is RF, and the +discharge terminal is air insulated, the voltage simply breaks +down the air. Large sparks and streamers and corona leave the +discharger in a display unequalled by anything else in my +experience. + +The high voltage can be trapped in the system by adding +discharger capacitance until the spark will not break out. Energy +is constantly fed into the coil from the primary, and the only +escape is through radiation or the ground wire. Radiation alone +simply cannot remove the energy in the coil, so massive currents +are forced into the ground. This forms the basis of Tesla's +system for wireless power transmission. + +Experiments confirming his ideas can be performed with small +coils. I took a single 6" Tesla secondary, no primary or tank +circuit, just a coil and a discharger; and walked over a quarter +mile, to a nearby creek. I grounded the coil by placing 10' of +aluminum flashing in the creek water. Back in my basement, an +assistant fired a Tesla coil that operated at the same frequency +as my "free" coil in the creek. The system being fired was loaded +with discharger, so spark could not break out. + +Down in the creek I was able to light bulbs from the top of the +grounded coil, despite the 1/4 mile distance (and don't forget a +creek bank and a rebar wall) between my location and the power +supply. This coil was not receiving radiated signal, it was +resonating on base fed ground current. + +Coils can be forced to operate at frequencies other than the +natural 1/4 wave by top loading "extra" coils or other resonators +on the end of the system. Tesla used this more complex "Magnifier +Coil" circuit in the Colorado Springs machine. In the Magnifier, +the secondary coil is forced to resonate at 1/8th, 1/16th, +1/32nd, or any other harmonic of the system frequency. A +transmission line is used to take CURRENT from the secondary to a +RESONATOR located away from the primary/secondary driver system. + +The resonator may be helical (coil), coaxial, or cavity. In this +way the Tesla system may be used as an efficient driver for +experiments in other areas of physics. I have wondered about the +possible use of a tuned cavity resonate laser tube, or linear +particle accelerator. Another guy told me about a Russian using +coaxial resonators for fusion. + +Tesla built a system for the worldwide transmission of electrical +power by top loading the "extra" coil (a base fed 1/4 wave +helical resonator) so spark would not break out. This forced the +tremendous energy to ground. He tuned the system so that the +ground current was also earth resonate. This was a double ended +resonator system of very high efficiency. The earth acted as a +cavity resonator on the base (for the ground current) the extra +coil was a helical resonator a with radiating discharger in the +air. He stated the system was to be used as a multiplexed +wireless transmitter from both the ground and air terminals (he +had tuning and harmonic coils in the ground path). + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2110 Date:10-20-93 00:18 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +OK, back on topic. + +I just dug up a catalog for some more source material. This one +is the Tesla Book Company, P.O. Box 121873, Chula Vista, CA. +91912. They have a 1-800-398-2056 information, catalog, and +ordering service. They carry a book "VACUUM TUBE TESLA COILS", +and I believe that this is the same book that I am going to be +referring to. The Book I am looking at, VACUUM TUBE TESLA COILS, +is written by James & Kenneth Corum. You may also contact Corum & +Associates, Inc. at 8551 State Route 534, Windsor, OH. 44099. I +have met the Corums, they are for real. + +I see some other publications worthy of note in this catalog: +TESLA COIL DESIGNER is a computer program written by my friend +Walt Noon, I use this program to determine ball park frequencies +and inductances in mathematical simulation before I wind any +coil. This software is menu driven and Walt has been very helpful +in working out the bugs and adding features with me. It works and +saves hours of designing time. + +I see an entry here for Dr. Nickola Tesla's Diary 1899-1900. This +was the time Tesla spent in Colorado Springs working on his +monster oscillator, but this does not sound like the preferred +reference, THE COLORADO SPRINGS NOTES which includes most of the +printable photographs of the lab and the machine. However, the +original prints of this work (as I look at my copy) are from +NOLIT, in Belgrad, Yugoslavia, and are now expensive. 21st +Century Books has copies, P.O.Box 2001, 100 South Ridge St. #101, +Breckenridge, CO. 80424-2001, tel. 303-453-9293, but they want +$100.00 where I paid $45.00 a few years back. I will have to take +better care of mine... + +Both of these companies sell "new age science", "zero point +energy" and "scalar wave" material; which in my opinion is +garbage and not worth the paper the printing is on. + +Now the Corum book which I will talk about briefly, is a piece of +hard core electronics engineer stuff, but it is worth trying to +muck through for those who don't believe coil driven RF equipment +can have "practical" uses in physics and electronics. It contains +most of the important facts on "A Technical Analysis of the Extra +Coil as a Slow Wave Helical Resonator". This refers of course to +the function of the "extra" coil in Tesla's Colorado Springs +machine. But the book is much more. Tesla driven X-Ray machines, +tapped coaxial helical resonators, particle accelerators, cavity +resonators, etc. + +The book has charts and diagrams even the most novice electronics +buff would understand sandwiched between pages of calculus needed +to design and construct the equipment. One page (XI-10) shows the +development of conducting electrical resonators from Lord Kelvin +through Tesla, to Schumann's verification of the earth as an +electrical cavity resonator in 1952. + +Books of this quality are rare, and make excellent reading for +anybody interested in high energy electronics. It has an +excellent bibliography. + +In searching for material to lead to coil powered high energy +devices I can say that this points to the right directions. + +"The coaxial geometries do have the advantage of compactness and +portability. And, this may be of significance to those interested +in directed energy devices." + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2109 Date:10-20-93 21:35 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +A couple of weeks ago someone posted me some "new to me" +information about Russian RF resonator work that resulted in a +machine capable of fusion. I asked for some additional +information on this subject, and as of yet I have not heard back. + +However, I have done some delving of my own and came up with some +very interesting information about this guy (P.L. Kapitza). I +stumbled across the name doing some related research (yes this +thread is based in fact, and Tesla's work has practical apps)... + +His name is Peter L. Kapitza, and he shared in a Nobel Prize +in 1978 with Americans Arno Penzias and Robert W. Wilson for his +work in magnetism and the behavior of matter at extremely low +temperatures. His work on RF resonators was apparently done much +earlier, as I find a reference to "High Powered Electronics" in a +Russian periodical, Uspekhi Fizicheskikl Nauk, Vol 78 (November +2, 1962, pp. 181-265). In the same bibliography I find another +"more unusual" reference by physicist Jerzy R. Konieczny "New +Weapon 'X'" in a Polish periodical, Wojskowy Przeglad Lotniczy, +(November 2, 1963, pp. 72-75) apparently referring to a particle +beam device... + +A little more research back to Kapitza, turned up Tesla's name in +a quote!!! (See Margaret Cheney, TESLA, MAN OUT OF TIME, pp.284, +Dorset Press, 1981, available from Barnes & Noble, 126 Fifth Ave, +New York, NY 10011, tel 201-767-7079) + +The quote is too long to reproduced here (it refers to high +powered particle beams), but it clearly shows Kapitza was very +much aware of Tesla's work in this country. Tesla was, by the +way, the first to investigate "magnetism and the behavior of +matter at extremely low temperatures" in the search of super- +conductivity for his coils. Kapitza credits him. + +Tesla lost a laboratory in New York, to fire, at 2:30 A.M., March +13, 1895. The fire is believed to have been caused as a result of +liquid air leaking from his equipment. Tesla stated to the fire +officials at the time that the air liquidation equipment was the +only thing left running in his absence. He used the liquid air to +cool his coils for experiments in high efficiency magnetism... + +Now I'm not saying this means anything... but I keep finding +these references dancing around the subject of particle beam +weapons, fusion, high energy lasers, and power transmission +without wires. These are modern references mind you, not Tesla's; +but the deeper I dig, the more I find Tesla's name. + +I am also finding out more information on involvement of +"National Security" interests in these references. I mentioned +about James & Kenneth Corum having a paper taken from them after +a presentation by the FBI. In Cheney's book (pp. 310) we find +this... "the U.S. government has deemed the material important to +national security and has been at great pains to conceal it's +existence." She is referring to all of Tesla's advanced (and of +course unpublished) research and papers taken into U.S. custody +at the time of his death. + +Now I am sick to death of hearing about Tesla conspiracy, ad +nauseam. But I ask this based on fact (check em yourself). If the +work Tesla did in these areas does not yield workable devices, +then why would there be a "national security" interest? Tesla +laid the ground work for people like Kapitza, Konieczny, and our +own SDI projects. + +Again, I will state that it is not illegal to build coils or +other resonators, lasers, particle accelerators, masers, rail +guns, etc. Though I sometimes feel that the government wants +everything but taxes made illegal. + +I am still not able to locate any information in english on +Kapitza's RF resonator fusion machine. So whoever sent me the +post, please keep digging. + +Now back to the topic... + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2133 Date: 10-21-93 17:41 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +The Tesla Magnifier + +What exactly is the Tesla Magnifier, and how does it differ from +the standard 1/4 wave Tesla Coil? This question has been asked +over and over in the past 93 years. I think I can give some +insight into this for a better understanding of the system. A lot +of the information I will present here (to the best of my knowl- +edge, feel free to prove me wrong) appears in text form for the +first time. + +I have explained in some detail the set up and basic operation of +my 10KVA 1/4 wave system. To get a mental picture of how the +coils are physically positioned for firing in this 1/4 wave +system, imagine a 12" phonograph record, with a Quaker Oats +canister sitting upright on the center. The phonograph record +represents the wide flat primary coil, and the oats canister +represents the 1/4 wave secondary coil. The secondary coil would +be topped with a toroid shaped discharger. + +These coils are "loosely coupled", "coupling" in coil systems +refers to the mutual inductance between primary and secondary. +The coupling is kept loose because these coils are capable of +such high energy transfers that the secondary is overdriven or +"split" if placed in too close proximity to the primary. +Splitting of the secondary is seen in coils that are over driven +or "over coupled". The excess energy absorbed in the secondary +coil causes a frequency split with the result that harmonic 1/4 +wave voltage peaks appear in the secondary coil windings. These +harmonic peaks show up as sparks that break out from the +sides of the coil. If the coupling is not loosened, or input +powers reduced, the coil will be destroyed in short order. + +This is a serious limiting factor in 1/4 wave Tesla systems. +"Critical" or perfect coupling limits the amount of energy that +can be processed through the system. Large toroid dischargers +assist in unloading the secondary, and allow for closer coupling, +but this is like treating the symptom, not effecting a cure. + +The problem with the 1/4 wave coil system is that all of the +energy processed in the system remains trapped in the secondary +until it is removed by spark. As spark lengths and input powers +grow, so do coupling problems. Strain is also put on the tank +circuit. Energy can flow in both directions in the 1/4 wave +system, and secondary energies can unload not only in spark from +the discharge terminal, but can also flow back into the primary +tank circuit. This results in nightmarish problems "quenching" +the arc at the main system spark gaps. In theory no more than 50% +of the input energy can be converted into discharge off the +secondary air terminal, as both primary and secondary energies +equalize before a break can be effected at the main system spark +gap. Once the break (open, non-firing spark gap) is made, the +secondary energy is trapped, and must be radiated or discharged. + +Tesla realized that critical coupling limited the efficiency of +the system, and came up with a unique solution. He added an +"extra" coil to the secondary. The extra coil is a normal 1/4 +wave helical resonator, or Tesla secondary. The coil was placed +away from any inductive effects of the primary/secondary "driver" +coils, and was bottom fed by transmission line with the output of +the driver secondary. Tesla was able to determine certain +"harmonic" shifts in the system, but nobody else was able to +figure out what was happening for years and years. + +What is happening is this. In order for the "extra" coil to +function properly it must be fed RF current that matches it's +natural 1/4 wave frequency. In order to provide a working system, +the output of the secondary driver coil in his three coil Mag- +nifier must be shifted away from it's normal 1/4 wave output. + +The normal 1/4 wave output (high voltage peak) of the Tesla +secondary must be shifted to a lower harmonic in order for the +extra coil to receive current. If you base fed an extra coil with +1/4 wave voltage peaks, all you would get would be sparks from +the transmission line, and a fire at the base of an extra coil +(I've done it). Experiments, and review of Tesla work show that +the 1/8 wave harmonic is preferred. The extra coil will cause +some shifting of the driver coil output, but the system operates +best when THE DRIVER COIL IS WOUND WITH THE PROPER LENGTH OF WIRE +TO FACILITATE 1/8th WAVE OUTPUT. + +This boosts efficiency in several ways. First, the energy in +1/8th wave output is about 20% greater than the energy of a 1/4 +wave peak. The 1/8th wave location on the sine represents 70% +of the wave energy, as opposed to 50% of the energy at the 1/4 +wave point; the 1/8 wave point being the product of both current +and voltage at this location on the sine. While this may seem a +little technical to the novice, a 20% gain is realized by +shifting the output to the lower, 1/8th wave harmonic. + +The second increase in efficiency is due to the fact that the +secondary, or driver coil, is no longer responsible for the end +processing of the system energy. The majority of the resonate +rise, or VSWR, occurs in the uncoupled resonator located some +distance away, and fed by transmission line. The secondary is no +longer stressed by a high voltage point at the top of the coil, +and the current produced in the secondary is removed rapidly by +the transmission line to the end resonator (extra coil). + + +The third boost to efficiency is the ability to tighten the +coupling between the primary and secondary driver set. The coils +can be placed with much greater mutual inductance (tighter +coupling). Energy can then be forced into the driver in much +larger amounts without the problems of splitting and breakdown. +The coils can be arranged more like two nested buckets, with one +inside the other, as opposed to a phonograph record with an oats +canister on top. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 142 Date: 10-24-93 20:25 + From: David Tiefenbrunn + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + On 10-20-93 Richard Quick wrote to David Tiefenbrunn... + + RQ> RQ> The following instructions are for a pulse discharging + RQ> RQ> capacitor with a .02 uf at 35 kvdc rating. + Thanks for the rest of the info. + + I was talking to another engineer that I know, + and I mentioned your Tesla coil. He has a 150W + T-coil. We got to talking about spark gaps. + It seems there used to be a rather large industry + for them, back before vacuume tubes (and even larger + than 10KW). One type was basically a stack of convex + metal disks, with heatsink fins on the outside. The + disks were spaced rather close together (maybe .05"?) + but there were MANY in the stack. This spreads the heat + around. Maybe something like that with compressed air + cooling is a solution. I can try to get more info + if you want. He was also aware of *room* sized + spark gaps in use back then. + + Dave + +___ + * OFFLINE 1.54 * I love the smell of ozone in the morning. + +-!- Maximus 2.01wb + ! Origin: Abbey Road BBS Higganum, Ct. USA (1:320/5967) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 139 Date: 10-26-93 11:57 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + >a two hour video tape in exchange for: One blank (high + >quality) VHS tape, a postage pre-paid return mailer, $10.00 to + >pay for my time and effort in seeing that you get a high + >quality, two hour, recording of my work. Note this offer is + >not made on my behalf to make any money, and I am not + >resposible for anybody's safety should they decide to + >replicate any of the experiments I perform. I will send a + >glossy print for $1.00 and a SASE. + + RQ>Richard T. Quick II, 10028 Manchester Rd., Suite 253, + >Glendale, Missouri, 63122, USA + + DH> Two comments: + + DH> 1) - What IS your monthly electrical bill + +I'd rather not go into electric bills, let's just say it's going +to get worse... + + DH> 2) - The $10 is in the mail Monday + +I will be sure you get lots of Arcs & Sparks for your hard earned +money. I will get the tape out the following mail day. It would +help to know if you are more interested in seeing spark or +techinque. + + DH> have been a wee fan of Tesla for a looong time - talking + DH> with some people now about maybe building a BIG one out in + DH> Seattle - have done a few small ones. + +Big coils are a challenge. But I really think (and experiments +prove) that the Magnifier System is more efficient as you scale +up. Large 1/4 wave Tesla coils are not nearly as efficient. + +Send me a post and let me know what you think of the video. + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 172 Date: 10-27-93 13:29 + From: Richard Quick + To: David Tiefenbrunn + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + DT> Thanks for the rest of the info. + +No problem, I hope you find it useful, I sure have. You don't see +plans for components like that everywhere. + + DT> I was talking to another engineer that I know, + DT> and I mentioned your Tesla coil. He has a 150W + DT> T-coil. We got to talking about spark gaps. + DT> It seems there used to be a rather large industry + DT> for them, back before vacuum tubes (and even larger + DT> than 10KW). One type was basically a stack of convex + DT> metal disks, with heatsink fins on the outside. The + DT> disks were spaced rather close together (maybe .05"?) + DT> but there were MANY in the stack. This spreads the heat + DT> around. Maybe something like that with compressed air + DT> cooling is a solution. I can try to get more info + DT> if you want. He was also aware of *room* sized + DT> spark gaps in use back then. + +I am always interested in more information. I live for the stuff. +As to the gaps you are describing, they are called "quench" gaps. +The metal discs are separated by gaskets of mica. The mica gasket +determines the gap distance between plates. The gasket prevents +air exchange, so as the gap breaks in, the O2 is consumed and +they run with in a nitrogen atmosphere. + +These plates were machined to very close tolerances, and the +actual electrode surface was kept fairly small. The large plate +was used for a heat sink. The best gaps of this type were German +made by Telefunken. + +The advantage of the quench gap is they produce a continuous wave +(undamped) oscillation in the tank circuit. They were employed in +the first long range Tesla transmitters. Most of the major ship +lines (with the exception of White Star I believe) used Tesla +transmitters with Telefunken quench gaps. Telefunken had +contracts with the shipping lines for gap service, and after so +many hours of operation the gap would be removed by a certified +Telefunken technician, cleaned and serviced. Per contract nobody +else was allowed to break the seals. Telefunken had facilities in +every major port. + +Tesla used disruptive breaks in his demonstrations, but clearly +documented that continuous waves from quenched or CW gap systems +were used for transmission of electricty (both for power +transmission and radio). Now this is where is starts to get +interesting. 1/4 wave Tesla systems produce much less spark with +a quench gap, but they will light low pressure gas bulbs many +yards away, so they definately radiate much better. But the Tesla +Magnifier with a quench gap produces excellent spark, AND +radiates over long distances, especially if sparks are prevented +by loading it up with discharger. + +The problem with high powered systems running quench gaps is as +you say, the gaps get huge, and you would almost need a cooling +tower to remove the heat. This heat represents high loss from the +tank circuit. Tesla solved this problem too, but the solution is +not well known. He began running multiple phases directly into +his oscillators, up to 6 phases in the experimental Colorado +Springs, and 4 phases in the commercial Wardenclyff plant on Long +Island. By using a quench gap system in series with a rotary +break running at very high speeds (40,000 BPS and possibly even +higher) he was able to obtain CW output from a disruptive (read +rotary) gap system. This way he was able to reduce loss, keep the +size under control, and still get CW output; at the same time he +was able to really increase the power processed by the system. +This is the type of system required for more advanced work with +coil powered directed energy devices. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 200 Date: 10-30-93 09:52 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>THIS POST MAY BE A REPEAT. MY SYSOP INFORMED MY 10/29/93 THAT +RQ>HE TURNED OFF ALL CONFERENCES FOR OUTGOING MAIL 10 DAYS AGO BY +RQ>MISTAKE. WHAT A MESS! + + The Tesla Magnifier + +What exactly is the Tesla Magnifier, and how does it differ from +the standard 1/4 wave Tesla Coil? This question has been asked +over and over in the past 93 years. I think I can give some +insight into this for a better understanding of the system. A lot +of the information I will present here (to the best of my knowl- +edge, feel free to prove me wrong) appears in text form for the +first time. + +I have explained in some detail the set up and basic operation of +my 10KVA 1/4 wave system. To get a mental picture of how the +coils are physically positioned for firing in this 1/4 wave +system, imagine a 12" phonograph record, with a Quaker Oats +canister sitting upright on the center. The phonograph record +represents the wide flat primary coil, and the oats canister +represents the 1/4 wave secondary coil. The secondary coil would +be topped with a toroid shaped discharger. + +These coils are "loosely coupled", "coupling" in coil systems +refers to the mutual inductance between primary and secondary. +The coupling is kept loose because these coils are capable of +such high energy transfers that the secondary is overdriven or +"split" if placed in too close proximity to the primary. +Splitting of the secondary is seen in coils that are over driven +or "over coupled". The excess energy absorbed in the secondary +coil causes a frequency split with the result that harmonic 1/4 +wave voltage peaks appear in the secondary coil windings. These +harmonic peaks show up as sparks that break out from the +sides of the coil. If the coupling is not loosened, or input +powers reduced, the coil will be destroyed in short order. + +This is a serious limiting factor in 1/4 wave Tesla systems. +"Critical" or perfect coupling limits the amount of energy that +can be processed through the system. Large toroid dischargers +assist in unloading the secondary, and allow for closer coupling, +but this is like treating the symptom, not effecting a cure. + +The problem with the 1/4 wave coil system is that all of the +energy processed in the system remains trapped in the secondary +until it is removed by spark. As spark lengths and input powers +grow, so do coupling problems. Strain is also put on the tank +circuit. Energy can flow in both directions in the 1/4 wave +system, and secondary energies can unload not only in spark from +the discharge terminal, but can also flow back into the primary +tank circuit. This results in nightmarish problems "quenching" +the arc at the main system spark gaps. In theory no more than 50% +of the input energy can be converted into discharge off the +secondary air terminal, as both primary and secondary energies +equalize before a break can be effected at the main system spark +gap. Once the break (open, non-firing spark gap) is made, the +secondary energy is trapped, and must be radiated or discharged. + +Tesla realized that critical coupling limited the efficiency of +the system, and came up with a unique solution. He added an +"extra" coil to the secondary. The extra coil is a normal 1/4 +wave helical resonator, or Tesla secondary. The coil was placed +away from any inductive effects of the primary/secondary "driver" +coils, and was bottom fed by transmission line with the output of +the driver secondary. Tesla was able to determine certain +"harmonic" shifts in the system, but nobody else was able to +figure out what was happening for years and years. + +What is happening is this. In order for the "extra" coil to +function properly it must be fed RF current that matches it's +natural 1/4 wave frequency. In order to provide a working system, +the output of the secondary driver coil in his three coil Mag- +nifier must be shifted away from it's normal 1/4 wave output. + +The normal 1/4 wave output (high voltage peak) of the Tesla +secondary must be shifted to a lower harmonic in order for the +extra coil to receive current. If you base fed an extra coil with +1/4 wave voltage peaks, all you would get would be sparks from +the transmission line, and a fire at the base of an extra coil +(I've done it). Experiments, and review of Tesla work show that +the 1/8 wave harmonic is preferred. The extra coil will cause +some shifting of the driver coil output, but the system operates +best when THE DRIVER COIL IS WOUND WITH THE PROPER LENGTH OF WIRE +TO FACILITATE 1/8th WAVE OUTPUT. + +This boosts efficiency in several ways. First, the energy in +1/8th wave output is about 20% greater than the energy of a 1/4 +wave peak. The 1/8th wave location on the sine represents 70% +of the wave energy, as opposed to 50% of the energy at the 1/4 +wave point; the 1/8 wave point being the product of both current +and voltage at this location on the sine. While this may seem a +little technical to the novice, a 20% gain is realized by +shifting the output to the lower, 1/8th wave harmonic. + +The second increase in efficiency is due to the fact that the +secondary, or driver coil, is no longer responsible for the end +processing of the system energy. The majority of the resonate +rise, or VSWR, occurs in the uncoupled resonator located some +distance away, and fed by transmission line. The secondary is no +longer stressed by a high voltage point at the top of the coil, +and the current produced in the secondary is removed rapidly by +the transmission line to the end resonator (extra coil). + +The third boost to efficiency is the ability to tighten the +coupling between the primary and secondary driver set. The coils +can be placed with much greater mutual inductance (tighter +coupling). Energy can then be forced into the driver in much +larger amounts without the problems of splitting and breakdown. +The coils can be arranged more like two nested buckets, with one +inside the other, as opposed to a phonograph record with an oats +canister on top. + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. + +SLUG-BBS_The Most Unreliable Feed in St. Louis! +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 201 Date: 10-30-93 09:55 + From: Richard Quick + To: Guy Daughterty + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>THIS POST MAY BE A REPEAT. MY SYSOP INFORMED ME 10/29/93 THAT +RQ>HE TURNED OFF ALL CONFERENCES FOR OUTGOING MAIL 10 DAYS AGO BY +RQ>MISTAKE. WHAT A MESS! + + GD> Well, yeah, Richard. We all think you're wacky, and keep + GD> looking toward your direction on the planet waiting to see + GD> the kaboom. + + GD> So, once the atmosphere DOES light, how do we turn it off + GD> again? -!- + +On your last question: Turn off the switch. I use multiple +interlocks in case one or two fuse closed. Had it happen on the +arc welder current limiter once. When I opened the cabinet to +repair the switch, I noticed the variable shunt was also stuck +and there were signs of arcing. But it is an arc welder... + +First remark: Keep looking. Probably won't be a kaboom though, +more like a bazzzap. Obviously even you see the potential. + +But if everybody thinks I'm wacky, should I stop posting? I don't +want to waste people's time. I just thought you all were +interested. + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. + +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 203 Date: 10-30-93 10:02 + From: Richard Quick + To: Guy Daugherty + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>THIS POST MAY BE A REPEAT. MY SYSOP INFORMED ME 10/29/93 +RQ>THAT HE TURNED OFF ALL OUTGOING MAIL FROM OUR BOARD TO THE NET +RQ>ABOUT 10 DAYS AGO BY MISTAKE. WHAT A MESS! + + GD> Well I have a Jacob's ladder on an old theatre marquis neon + GD> transformer. Really makes the kitty stop and pay attention. + GD> Worries people who see it, too. My inner Beavis loves it. + +Yeah, I have some videos of the pole pig settin on the garage +floor with 3/8" copper pipe rails. Pulls arcs clear to the +rafters. Running the tape in slo-mo shows plasmoids forming at +power levels over 5KVA. + +I have also messed with doping the rails with salts which modify +the colors. You can get some pretty good Halloween effects with a +couple of old neons and some strontium or lithium salts. + +By the way Guy, what grade are you in? + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt INTO SYSOP! +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 210 Date: 10-30-93 16:13 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Dave, + +I got your package in the mail today, and your tape went back +out. It is after the pickup time on Saturday, but you should have +the tape by midweek. + +Let me know when you get it, and what you think. I am sorry I had +to cut a lot of material out, but two hours just doesn't seem to +be enough time to give you the tour, show you some techniques, +and show all of the systems. I cut back on a lot of smaller test +and prototype stuff to let you focus on the big coil. + +If your interested in anything else, just let me know. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 419 Date: 11-01-93 10:21 + From: Guy Daugherty + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>But if everybody thinks I'm wacky, should I stop posting? I don't +RQ>want to waste people's time. I just thought you all were +RQ>interested. + + I'd guess that the ones of us who are doing similar research are + completely engrossed with your findings and research- I think it's + interesting, though I fail to see the utility of what the devil it + is you're up to, as opposed to my productive reduction of lifespan, + i.e., posting smartass remarks in a few conferences and running up + the phone bill for dozens of sysops across the globe. I'm curious + what your end goal is, if you believe that even if you can prove + Tesla's principles and concepts to have the validity his proponents + trumpet, how could your break into the lockup current utility + companies have over the conversion and distribution of electrical + energy. + + I have similar feelings about the use of dinosaur ooze for + internal-combustion engine fuel --hydrogen would solve the + pollution, supply limitation and toxicity problems-- but I have no + fantasy of it coming to pass in my lifetime. + + I say keep posting. We're interested. Plus, it narrows down + the amount of territory we'll have to look for you in when + something goes horriblly awry. +-!- + SLMR 2.1a Everybody's a dreamer, everybody's a +star.... + +-!- GEcho 1.00 + ! Origin: The Silhouetter bbs (209)472-0843 USR DS 16.8K +(1:208/216) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 338 Date: 11-01-93 16:43 + From: Robert Taylor + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA TESLA COIL +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Wanted to pass along some reference material that may be of interest. +In addition to the _Tesla, Man Out of Time_ book, Barnes & Noble also +has _The Inventions, Researches, and Writings of Nikola Tesla_ (edited +by Thomas Martin--ISBN 0-88029-812-X)--I picked this one up form them +for about $15 w/in the last 6-9 months--think they still show it in +their catalog. + +The book is made up of transcripts of lectures & demonstrations given +by Tesla, & several chapters are devoted to the coil & what he saw as +its practical applications. Included are alot of technical details of +his construction methods, as well as schematics. Unfortunately, there is +nothing included as to the math that he used in design. + +While looking at this thread, I noticed that someone made mention as to +a variety of spark gap designs. Some of this is covered--including +magnetic & compressed air quenching. + +I did some fooling around with these designs a few years ago, but +never got it to your level of development. Did not know the details +of the oil-immersion cap at the time so I built a humongous Lleyden Jar +cap for the tank circuit (after having blown up a ceramic high freq +transmitter cap--not a pretty sight). + +However, did discover that a good power supply is a plain ol' 15 +KV neon sign transformer (found some used ones at local sign shops). +My biggest problem was working out the inductance--never could get +the primary & secondary to sync properly--but it made one heckuva +broad-band spark gap transmitter. + +Still interested in Tesla & his work. Quite a mind there. + + +-!- Maximus/2 2.00 + ! Origin: BLUFF CITY BBS (1:123/70) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 409 Date: 11-03-93 13:43 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>Dave, + +RQ>I got your package in the mail today, and your tape went back + >out. It is after the pickup time on Saturday, but you should have + >the tape by midweek. + +RQ>Let me know when you get it, and what you think. I am sorry I had + >to cut a lot of material out, but two hours just doesn't seem to + >be enough time to give you the tour, show you some techniques, + >and show all of the systems. I cut back on a lot of smaller test + >and prototype stuff to let you focus on the big coil. + + +GREAT! I will look forward to viewing it! Also, emphasis on the big +coil is perfect. + +TTYL - Dave ë:-) + b QMPro 1.51 b Tagline for mind readers: + + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0434 + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2529 Date:11-03-93 18:32 + From: Randy Mcvittie + To: All + Subj: diode detectors +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RM> I am wondering if anyone else has tried using run of the mill silicon + +RM> diodes for measuring radiation. I have tried some diodes that I had +RM> and I got a decent sized signal off of them and that got me to +RM> wondering why the "Detector Diodes" cost so much, part of it is +RM> gouging but for the most part electronics are VERY CHEAP to produce +RM> once you get the process worked out. +RM> +RM> "Detector diodes" are like $500, the diode I used was about $0.05! +RM> +RM> For anyone wanting to try it out I used a plain 1N4007 and put my DVM +RM> on it and then put the diode in a radiation field. +RM> +RM> 60KV 8.9 mVdc +RM> 80KV 27 - 29 mVdc +RM> 100KV 64 - 70 mVdc +RM> +RM> in a Cobalt 60 beam about 65mVdc +RM> +RM> On a Therac 20 High Energy Linear Accelerator +RM> +RM> 6MeV 348 - 239 mV (peak of pulses) +RM> 9MeV 341 - 239 mV +RM> 13MeV 403 - 350 mV +RM> 17MeV 402 - 372 mV +RM> X18MV 58 - 54 mV +RM> +RM> +RM> I haven't done a lot of work on this yet, it just kind of hit me one +RM> day that this could be worth a try. +RM> +RM> I haven't gone to the library yet to do a search but I'd appreciate +RM> any info on this topic. +RM> +RM> +RM> Cheers +RM> +RM> Randy.... +RM> +RM> +RM> ... OFFLINE 1.42 * We don't need no steenking tag lines... +RM> -!- DlgQWK v0.71a/DLGMail +RM> ! Origin: The Forge - 12 Lines, 2.3 Gig, 2xDHST, CD ROM (1:249/116) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 352 Date: 11-03-93 20:42 + From: Richard Quick + To: Robert Taylor + Subj: 10KVA TESLA COIL +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + RT> Wanted to pass along some reference material that may be of + RT> interest. In addition to the _Tesla, Man Out of Time_ book, + RT> Barnes & Noble also has _The Inventions, Researches, and + RT> Writings of Nikola Tesla_ (edited by Thomas Martin--ISBN + RT> 0-88029-812-X)--I picked this one up from them for about $15 + RT> w/in the last 6-9 months--think they still show it in + RT> their catalog. The book is made up of transcripts of + RT> lectures & demonstrations given by Tesla, & several chapters + RT> are devoted to the coil & what he saw as its practical + RT> applications. Included are alot of technical details of + RT> his construction methods, as well as schematics. + RT> Unfortunately, there is nothing included as to the math that + RT> he used in design. + +Math? Tesla did not use math. Seriously. Oh, he used some +equations to give ballpark figures. But the numbers he was +working with were for the most part taken from machines he had +already constructed and were operating. Most of the math was not +figured out until years and years later. The mathmatical treatise +on extra coil work was not drived until the 1980's, Sloans work +on resonators (mathmatical treatise) was not published until the +1930's. Tesla invented and built, he left the math for others to +clean up later. + + RT> While looking at this thread, I noticed that someone made + RT> mention as to a variety of spark gap designs. Some of this + RT> is covered--including magnetic & compressed air quenching. + +The book is OK, but read it for generalities and direction only, +outside of the schematics (which are his more primitve circuits) +it should not be followed closely. We are in the age of plastics, +and Tesla was in the age of wood, and rubber (carbon rich and a +poor RF insulator). Some of the experiments are interesting, but +I have performed many better ones that do not require $300.00 +(modern prices) custom made tubes. + + RT> I did some fooling around with these designs a few years + RT> ago, but never got it to your level of development. Did not + RT> know the details of the oil-immersion cap at the time so I + RT> built a humongous Lleyden Jar cap for the tank circuit + RT> (after having blown up a ceramic high freq transmitter + RT> cap--not a pretty sight). + +Good capacitance is a must! I too have built many, many, homemade +capacitors and leyden jars. Blew every one! Your not coiling +unless your blowing capacitors! Then when you get things worked +out to where the capacitors stop blowing, you start blowing +transformers. By this time though your usually running well over +a killowatt and are getting (or have seen) some decent spark. +Then you start working with power controllers, and HEAVY RF +choking, next thing you know your in the big leagues. + +The best capacitors for beginners are salt water types. Bottles +are filled with salt water, and placed in a salt water filled +pan. The pan is lined with alum. foil, and a long bolt or some +other conductor is placed in the bottle. The salt water in the +pan is one plate, the salt water in the bottle is another plate, +and the glass bottle is the dielectric. Oil can be poured over +the water to reduce corona loss. Tesla used salt water caps on +the Colorado Springs machine, and I have a friend running 5-8 KVA +with plastic bucket salt water caps. + + RT> However, did discover that a good power supply is a plain + RT> ol' 15 KV neon sign transformer (found some used ones at + RT> local sign shops). + +I recommend beginners start with 9000 volt neons, then move up to +12,000 volt units before jumping into the 15s. The 15KV neons put +too much stress on the capacitors (unless you are using glass +leyden jars, or salt water caps with thick bottles). + + RT> My biggest problem was working out the inductance--never + RT> could get the primary & secondary to sync properly--but it + RT> made one heckuva broad-band spark gap transmitter. + +You just needed to learn the ins and outs of tuning. It takes a +little practice. A lot of balancing is required to get optimum +performance. Coupling, spark gap quenching, terminal capacitance, +as well as the primary/secondary inductance all come into play. +Sounds like you made a good start, to bad you did not take it any +further. Thinking about picking it up again? With modern +materials, a little time and effort, and modern designs, you +would be surprised what you can achieve with coils. + + RT> Still interested in Tesla & his work. Quite a mind there. + +Me too, and I agree. Tesla was a man very far ahead of his time +and technology. + + +-!- + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 430 Rec'd Date: 11-03-93 22:00 + From: Bob Stephenson + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + > GD> Well I have a Jacob's ladder on an old theatre marquis neon + > GD> transformer. Really makes the kitty stop and pay attention. + > GD> Worries people who see it, too. My inner Beavis loves it. + ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +Oh man, I love it....Thank you! + +Bob + +-!- GEcho 1.00 + ! Origin: Rock In A Hard Place - Teaneck, NJ (1:2604/109) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 482 Date: 11-04-93 05:00 + From: George Powell + To: Robert Taylor + Subj: Re: 10KVA TESLA COIL +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +> using neon xformers.. + +Do you have any probs with the xformers heating up after a while? +Using one as a jacobs ladder tends to get it quite hot after a time. +Although after all the years of use/abuse, it's still ticking away +and works fine. Is high temp a normal thing for these neon units? The +temp is uncomfortable to touch.. + + +Gp +-!- Fruity Dog 6.0 + ! Origin: Fruity Dog Support (1:2460/21) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 396 Date: 11-04-93 19:17 + From: Richard Quick + To: Robert Taylor + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +BTW, + +I have read the book you mentioned in the post received here +yesterday. I bought it from Barnes & Nobel last month and have +read it cover to cover twice. + +The books I mentioned earlier, (example _NICKOLA TESLA ON HIS +WORK WITH ALTERNATING CURRENTS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO WIRELESS +TELEGRAPHY, TELEPHONY, AND TRANSMISSION OF POWER_ ISBN 0-9632652- +0-2, from 21st Century Books, P.O. Box 2001, Breckenridge, Colo. +80424) is a much more informative work. + +Tesla did not go public with much after he saw the tide of his +fortunes turning. He kept his more advanced work very close to +his chest. Even his basic experimental circuits used in +developing the Magnifier were not published until the 1970's, the +math not worked out until late in the 1980's, and the systems +actually re-tested (with the exception of Golka's primitive +efforts) until the last two years! Right now work on the +Magnifier is at the point where any serious hobbyist can make a +mark. + +The book above is a candid interview with Tesla's attorneys in +1916 (after Wardenclyff), he talks, submits photographs, +sketches, and schematics; all of which is recorded by +stenographer. All documents submitted by Tesla are reproduced. + +This book really cuts to the core. We see that Tesla used red +herrings, even from the start, to disguise the true nature of his +work. An example is his submission of photos and patent wrappers +of an alternator. The alternator was patented (#447,920 March 10, +1891) as the power supply in a "Method of Operating Arc Lamps". +Yet Tesla goes on to produce schematics showing it as the signal +generator for the first radio, AND shows how the circuit evolved +in a matter of months into a powerful lumped tuned circuit +transmitter. + +He submits schematics of his experimental tank circuit used in +the New York lab prior to leaving for Colorado Springs, complete +with three phase synchronous gaps (never published or patented). +We see photos taken from Wardenclyff powerplant showing huge four +phase high frequency alternators, and text describing the +operation and performance. + +The Colorado Springs notes are another example of Tesla +revelations. Tesla never intended those notes be published, and +we see circuits in there that are meaningless, until you add +perhaps a little note from the book mentioned top. We see the +circuit that Tesla used to create ball lightning in the lab +(Colorado Springs Notes pp 115,162), advancements made on the +three phase gap (but not showing the gaps, just the improvement). + +Then we add information gleaned from the Corums' book _VACUUM +TUBE TESLA COILS_ (ISBN 0-924758-00-7) and we begin to see that +his later claims of particle beam weapons, worldwide power +transmission, robotics, etc. are not based on some "crackpot's +fantasy" (as Guy Daugherty would have some believe). + +He completed all of the basic research, had an operational +worldwide transmitter (Wardenclyff, look at the powerplant +photos) though nobody had receivers yet. He had operational +remote control robots (ISBN 0-9632652-0-2, pp 157 {photo}, patent +613,809 11/8/1898!). + +I guess what I am trying to say is that his lectures, published +explanations, even to some extent his patents are misleading, and +deliberately so. You have to dig into sources that Tesla did not +intend to become public, then you have to build and test these +systems, then you are on the road to his later secrets. But they +all seem to reach back to his 1/4 wave coil systems and the +lectures, for the roots. The problem is that the work he +presented in the lectures is now obsolete, both from a design and +engineering point of view. With exception of some of the +experiments, skip on to the material I have documented. +-!- + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 559 Date: 11-04-93 20:28 + From: Mark Lawton @ 930/20 + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10kva tesla coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>But if everybody thinks I'm wacky, should I stop posting? I don't +RQ>want to waste people's time. I just thought you all were +RQ>interested. + +No! Keep the Tesla info comming. I've been building coils for 25+ +years. Your description of the magnifing coil is the best I've heard. + +Before you burn a hole in the Earth, let me know, I want to get a +picture of it! + +Mark Lawton 71740,2005 + +=== + * WinQwk 1.30 #279 * Bonehead Racing - Off-road ATV Champions + +-!- InterPCB 1.50 + # Origin: Dallas Remote Imaging Group BBS 214-394-7438 +(8:930/20) + ! Origin: Gateway System to/from RBBS-NET (RBBS-PC 1:10/8) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 560 Date: 11-04-93 20:32 + From: Mark Lawton @ 930/20 + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10kva tesla coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> GD> Well I have a Jacob's ladder on an old theatre marquis neon +RQ> GD> transformer. Really makes the kitty stop and pay attention. +RQ> GD> Worries people who see it, too. My inner Beavis loves it. +RQ> +RQ>Yeah, I have some videos of the pole pig settin on the garage +RQ>floor with 3/8" copper pipe rails. Pulls arcs clear to the + +Love it... Pole Pig = Jacob's Ladder + +PS Does anyone need some neon transformers? I've got 3 collecting +dust. (2) 7500V & (1) 15000V + +ML + +=== + * WinQwk 1.30 #279 * Bonehead Racing - Off-road ATV Champions + +-!- InterPCB 1.50 + # Origin: Dallas Remote Imaging Group BBS 214-394-7438 +(8:930/20) + ! Origin: Gateway System to/from RBBS-NET (RBBS-PC 1:10/8) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 437 Date: 11-04-93 22:11 + From: David Tiefenbrunn + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + On 10-30-93 Richard Quick wrote to Guy Daughterty... + + RQ> RQ>THIS POST MAY BE A REPEAT. MY SYSOP INFORMED ME 10/29/93 THAT + I didn't see it before... + + RQ> But if everybody thinks I'm wacky, should I stop posting? I don't + RQ> want to waste people's time. I just thought you all were + RQ> interested. + + I'm interested. On another un-usual experimental topic, + have you ever seen / read about / or heard of a rail gun? + + Dave + +___ + * OFFLINE 1.54 * Hey, is that thing SUPPOSED to smoke like that? + +-!- Maximus 2.01wb + ! Origin: Abbey Road BBS Higganum, Ct. USA (1:320/5967) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 398 Date: 11-05-93 01:25 + From: Richard Quick + To: David Tiefenbrunn + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +Well Dave, + +I talked with the architect again today. Things are firming up +for a real lab. + +The building so far is looking like this: + +50' x 60' with 8' masonry walls and 8' sheet metal walls on top. +This gives a total wall height of 16 feet, with a slope up to the +center of the roof for a 20' peak. + +The half masonry, half sheet metal wall was a compromise for +security, cost, and you'll never guess what else... My testing +shows an all metal walled building will induct, and large +currents will cruise through the structure. So masonry for the +first 8' feet seems a good compromise. + +For electrical service I'm getting 480 volt 3 phase, 400 amps, +and 110/220 single phase 200 amps. + +The building will have 4" x 15' galvinized pipe driven into the +ground before the slab is poured as an RF ground, and I plan to +extend it later. Thought I would drop you a line and let you +know, as I was pretty excited to see some drawings. +-!- + ... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 05 Nov 93 02:22:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +If you are interested in making a high voltage, high current, +power supply, I can tell you how to do it for free.... + +First call the local neon shop(s) and tell them that your working +with Tesla coils. Ask them to hold all of their failed xfrmrs so +you can pick them up. Make sure you talk to the boss or foreman, +and tell them that you want dead units. I have never had a shop +turn me down for free cores. They are happy to get rid of them. + +There are two types of failed neon xfrmrs: warranty units, and +old junk. The local shop must return units that fail within the +two year warranty period back to the distributor for credit. Old +junk (older than two years) you can pick up for free right from +the local shop, but I also scavenge from the distributor. Ask +where the failed warranty units go. + +If you can locate the distributor who sells wholesale, and +handles failed warranty units, you have found a gold mine of high +voltage xfrmrs. The distributor removes the PLATE from the xfrmr +for return to the manufacturer, and throws the unit away. The +manufacturer credits the distributor for the plate, as the +shipping is too expensive. The cores go to the dumpster. + +After locating your source of failed units, be selective. Try to +bring home the high current units. Ratings commonly used are 9 +kv, 12 kv, & 15 kv, with common current ratings of 30 & 60 ma. +Once in awhile you will come across a 120 ma unit. I grab all +of the high current units (60 ma+) I can get in these voltages. + +First test your units. Use wire with a 15 kv rating or better. +This wire can be obtained where you pick up the transformers. +If you ask they will usually cut you off a few feet for free. +I prefer using the solid polyethylene core from RG-213 coax, as +it will withstand the voltage with gobs of extra safety margin. +Draw an arc from the HV bushing to the case, one at a time. + +About 50% of the "failed" units I pick up are just fine and need +nothing other than a clean up. There is nothing wrong with them. +Often shops get these units from signs they have dismantled, and +they just toss them into the junk pile with the rest. The other +50% are bad. Either one, or both, of the HV windings have broken +down. These units can frequently be repaired. + +Remove all hardware, and insulators if possible. Take a hammer +and a chisel and remove the cases by splitting them down the +corners. Break off any stubborn insulators, but try to preserve +the lead wire. You are left with a block of tar. Set the unit +outside when it is very cold, and let it freeze solid overnite. +The next morning, short the high voltage lead wires with a clip +lead, and connect 110 volts across the primary. Since the cores +on these transformers are shunted, they may be shorted without +harm or blowing fuses. Let the unit cook for 15-30 minutes. + +Disconnect your leads, and with the chisel and hammer, chip a +groove around the block. You want to score a groove lengthwise +that will allow the block to cleave in two. Then starting from +one end of the block, chip until you hit the core, then do the +same with the other end. Pry and chip the tar away from the core +until the xfrmr is free. The core may then be disassembled, and +the windings removed and examined. Kerosene and a stiff brush +will clean up the windings and core of any remaining tar. + +The "cold-cook" method is fast, clean, and works very well. Since +the tar is frozen it chips away cleanly. The "cooking" softens up +the tar around the core allowing it to release. The only other +ways I know to free the cores are long soaks in solvent such as +kero or gas, (the nasty waste does make a good crack filler), +or melting out the tar with external heat from a fire or oven. + +Most units fail when the high voltage breaks down the tar insul- +ation. The resulting carbon track shorts the winding. Simply +removing the tar brings them back to life. Other times the coils +break down internally. In this case I discard the winding after +disassembling the core, and replace it with a good winding from +another unit of the same model with the same type failure. + +While the core is apart, you can beef up the current output by +removing a few of the shunting plates between windings. Never +take out more than 2 or 3 of these plates per side, as the +additional power output will burn out the secondaries. Generally +I get about 70-75 ma out of 60 ma units after I have finished. + +Rebuilt units need a little protection from the high voltage +secondary outputs. The first thing I do is solder on a new lead +wire to the high voltage windings. The HV secondaries are wound +with very fine magnet wire, in the 30 ma units the wire is not +much thicker than a coarse hair. Once a good solder connection +is made, bed the connection and the first 1/2 inch or so of lead +wire to the top of the HV winding with hot glue or clear epoxy. +The lead wire need not be anything special, any thin insulated +stranded wire may be used. Heavy wire increases the chances of a +failed connection due to mechanical stress. When setting the unit +up to fire you simply have to route it on insulators. + +The windings themselves are wedged against the core to prevent +vibration. I have seen wood, bakelite, and plastic wedges used +commercially. What I like to do is to soften up some 30 mil +polyethylene plastic sheet in boiling water, and heat the core in +a warm oven. I wrap dry softened plastic around the core and +gently force the windings down on it. Once cooled, the windings +have some insulation from the core, and they will not vibrate. + +The base wire from the HV windings must be grounded to the core. +Use the original grounding point if possible, if not you may +split the core apart slightly with a thin blade and insert the +wire into the gap before you clamp the core back up. If required +you may splice on a small piece of wire for added length. + +Neon sign transformers that have been rebuilt may be fired dry. +The tar used to pot the cores for neon use does not really +insulate well against the RF and kickback from the Tesla Tank. +The units last longer when they are freed of the tar potting. The +only other choice is to sink rebuilt units in mineral or xfrmr +oil which is a very good RF insulator. I choose to fire them +"dry"; it works, and there is no mess. + +Neons may be run in parallel to deliver the current required to +fire medium sized coils, and I have run up to 4000 watts with +banked neon power supplies. The general practice is to run these +banks off of 240 volt feeds controlled through a variac. Neons +with matched outputs are run in pairs in these banks. The +primaries are paired up in series, and the secondaries are all +paralleled to the HV buss. Phasing is important here, and each +transformer must be checked as it is added to the bank to ensure +it is in phase with the other units. If an xfrmr draws an arc +from a lead wire brought to the HV buss, the primary or secondary +connections must be reversed. + +Neons typically have an efficiency of about 50%, in that they +draw twice as much power as they put out. This problem can be +resolved with the use of power factor correction (pfc) capaci- +tance across the line. The pfc capacitors used are the same as +for alternating current motors. The voltage rating should be at +least twice the line current used, and I like a 4x voltage margin +for long life. The formula used to determine ballpark pfc is as +follows: + 9 + 10^ + C = Corrected kVA ------ 2 + 2 f e^ + +This should read C = Corrected kVA times (10 to the ninth power) + over, (2 pi times f times e squared) + +C = required capacitance in microfarads +f = frequency of applied voltage +e = applied voltage + +Corrected kVA is determined by dividing the volt*amps (watts) +output of the neon sign xfrmr by 1000 + +Using a pair of rebuilt 12 kv, 60 ma neons, with 2 shunting +plates removed from the core next to each HV winding, and power +factor correction capacitance, you can get a nice 1.5 KVA Tesla +power supply with over 90% efficiency. Total cost: $5.00 for the +pfc capacitors, and a few hours of time. + +I have unpotted dozens of neon transformers from many different +manufacturers. I have tried to make this as informative as +possible, and have checked it over for mistakes. If I have erred, +or was not clear on something, please let me know. Use common +sense, and don't expect the first attempt to work out. On my +first attempt I managed to destroy a HV winding during the +unpotting, as I did not know where the windings were located on +the core. But once you see one core unpotted, with minor +differences, you have seen them all. + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 441 Date: 11-06-93 19:22 + From: Richard Quick + To: David Tiefenbrunn + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + DT> I'm interested. On another un-usual experimental topic, + DT> have you ever seen / read about / or heard of a rail gun? + +Sure, two different types. + +Steve Hanson runs a particle accelerator rail gun in his +basement. It is small, but it cooks! + +He has extensive vacuum equipment, and the basic setup looks like +this: + +Two copper rods form the rails. They are set up in parallel bar +fashion with the bases mounted in an insulator block. At the base +of the rods, near the insulator, he wraps a tungsten filament +removed from a common light bulb. He places a glass cylinder, +like an elongated bell jar, with a target mounted in the closed +end, over the rails. The jar is sealed at the base and pumped +down to a hard vacuum. + +Two high current lead wires are connected to the rails. They are +epoxied into the insulator base so as to be air tight. He takes a +HVDC power supply and charges a massive capacitor bank. He throws +the switch, and BANG! the tungsten is vaporized. + +The plasma is highly conductive, and maintains a current flow +between the rails. The high current produces electro-magnetic +force which propels the plasma under high acceleration down the +rails and into the target. A regular microscope shows the plasma +impact damage on plate glass targets. It really sinks the +tungsten into the material. + +Steve publishes a journal in which he covers his work. You may +write to him at: 35 Windsor Drive, Amherst, NH. 03031. + +The other type of rail gun uses a monorail system. A "bullet" of +conductive material is loaded onto a single nonconducting rail +surrounded by heavy coils. The coils are energized by a timed +capacitive discharge. A special rotary gap with varied spaced +electrodes may be used, but recent work points to computers to +control to pulses. Timing is most critical. + +The heavy current flow through a coil induces a current in any +conductive material, in this case the projectile. The circulating +currents in the projectile produce a magnetic field, which repels +it from the coil. As it passes the next coil down the rail, the +second coil is pulsed and so on. Since the current and voltage +from the capacitive discharge is high, the forces imparted to the +projectile are great. I believe the speed of sound has been +broken by projectiles from small "hobby" guns. + +I have not had contact with a working monorail gun. I have seen +several photos. Information Unlimited, P.O. Box 716, Amherst, NH. +03031, tel: 603-673-4730 (9-5) may have additional information on +monorail guns of this type. + +Then there is this guy in California with a multi-gigawatt Taser +gun.... + +The commonality of these systems is capacitive discharge, and +power supplies. You must have HV pulse discharging capacitors and +a high current, high voltage, power supply to experiment in these +areas. + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 4 Date: 07 Nov 93 02:03:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: Guy Daugherty + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + GD> I'm curious what your end goal is, if you believe that even + GD> if you can prove Tesla's principles and concepts to have the + GD> validity his proponents trumpet, how could your break into + GD> the lockup current utility companies have over the + GD> conversion and distribution of electrical energy. + +We may never see this one, even if commercial feasibility is +proven. But you are taking a bit of a narrow view, that is all. +My personal goal is not only to prove Tesla's principals and +concepts (which I believe has already done as far as his patents +are concerned), but also for the pure search of knowledge. +Practical applications, something I think may be possible to +achieve, would be perhaps a true "high efficiency" laser. If we +have one, then someone will figure out how to employ it for +profit, maybe in fusion. Me, I am looking to spend money with +this, not make it. + +You must be misunderstanding the breakthrough that the Magnifier +circuit represents. Just because Tesla saw one commercial +application for the circuit in a transmitter does not mean that +this is the only single use, or the only use Tesla saw. This is +definately not the case. The circuit is a very, very, very +efficient RF power supply. It can be set up to provide RF +current, or voltage (or both) depending on the intended app- +lication. As a power supply for large tuned resonate loads there +is nothing equal. In effect the circuit is narrow band RF signal +generator capable of enormous powers. It is relatively cheap and +easy to build, and the design and components are easily modified. + +The Magnifier was not recognized as a high efficiency, narrow +band signal generator until the mid 1980's; 90 years after Tesla +had industrial scale operational units, and a full ten years +after Tesla's Colorado Springs Notes went into print for the +first time. The photos published at the time (early 1900s) +only show, and the only thing people remember, are the sparks. +Yet in the opening pages of the Notes, Tesla clearly stated his +intended goals for the machine, he does not mention sparks. + +In an era with no o'scopes, multimeters, RF detectors, or +stabilized RF generators (other than his); Tesla proceeded to +design, construct, and test, a narrow band RF signal generator +driving a tuned 1/4 wave resonate load to a voltage of 9.5 +Megavolts with RMS currents of 1100 amps. Figure it out Guy, +thats 10.45 Billion watts. He did this with an input power +of 250 kVA, and so named the circuit "The Magnifier". The only +way he could judge the performance of the system was to tune for +spark occasionally. + +The reason the system was so large was because physical size was +the only way to contain the energy in the system without break- +down. He had to keep his charge density low or he lost energy. He +did not have plastic film type pulse discharge capacitors, poly- +ethylene core coax, PVC jacketed wire, or any of the dozens +of other modern materials I use daily. + +When Tesla perfected the circuit, the only 1/4 wave resonator +in existance was the resonate coil. We now have coaxial, tapped +helix coaxial, and pure cavity geometries. Tesla never mentioned +coherant radiation, and now we have lasers and masers. The +Kapitza fusion experiment and the maser are examples of modern +applications of resonate loads. Both are cavity type 1/4 wave +resonators driven by signal generators. + +In my recent research I ran across an article, "Cavity-Coupling +Investigation for the Phermex 50 MHz RF Accelerator", by E.W. +Pogue and F.R. Buskirk, IEEE Trans. on Nuclear Science, Vol. NS- +32, No. 5, October, 1985, pp 2852-2853. + +The boys at Phermex seemed really excited to discover an increase +of performace in the accelerator when run off parallel drivers. +Yet Tesla shows the SAME IDENTICAL CIRCUIT, and at least three +variations, with notes relative to the performance and character- +istics of each in The Colorado Springs Notes in 1899! +See Colorado Springs Notes, pp 153-156, mid August 1899. + +The circuit is precisely identical, the only differences being +the frequency of operation and the geometries of the resonator. +Tesla BTW was running powers an order of MAGNITUDE greater +the the Phermex team. + +The magnifier is a very efficient signal generator, NOT a +transmitter unless you CHOOSE to set it up as one. The entire +purpose behind the magnifier circuit, it's only true function, is +to drive resonators, not to transmit power. + +So lets forget the sparks for a moment, and lets forget global +transmission of power. Why not hook the system to a tuned 1/4 +wave resonator designed as a laser tube? A system 1/10th the +power of Tesla's Colorado Springs oscillator would deliver a +billion watts. With modern materials the size could be reduced +greatly because we can insulate with plastics. In real dollars +the cost is cheaper than Tesla's because we can tap the +industrial surplus markets, transformers he paid thousands for +then, I can buy surplus for a few hundred. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 633 Date: 11-07-93 12:15 + From: Guy Daugherty + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>I talked with the architect again today. Things are firming up +RQ>for a real lab. + +RQ>The building so far is looking like this: + +RQ>50' x 60' with 8' masonry walls and 8' sheet metal walls on top. +RQ>This gives a total wall height of 16 feet, with a slope up to the +RQ>center of the roof for a 20' peak. + + This is geting out of hand, Richard. +-!- + SLMR 2.1a You, you, and you panic. The rest of you, come +with me. + +-!- GEcho 1.00 + ! Origin: The Silhouetter bbs (209)472-0843 USR DS 16.8K +(1:208/216) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 634 Date: 11-07-93 12:48 + From: Guy Daugherty + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> GD> I'm curious what your end goal is, if you believe that even +RQ> GD> if you can prove Tesla's principles and concepts to have the +RQ> GD> validity his proponents trumpet, how could your break into +RQ> GD> the lockup current utility companies have over the +RQ> GD> conversion and distribution of electrical energy. + +RQ>We may never see this one, even if commercial feasibility is +RQ>proven. But you are taking a bit of a narrow view, that is all. + + Narrow view? Me? That'll shock 'em. + +RQ>My personal goal is not only to prove Tesla's principals and +RQ>concepts (which I believe has already done as far as his patents +RQ>are concerned), but also for the pure search of knowledge. +RQ>Practical applications, something I think may be possible to +RQ>achieve, would be perhaps a true "high efficiency" laser. If we +RQ>have one, then someone will figure out how to employ it for +RQ>profit, maybe in fusion. Me, I am looking to spend money with +RQ>this, not make it. + + Well, now you've stumbled onto MY area of expertise. Send me a + signed check and I'll show you some pointers... +-!- + SLMR 2.1a The less you bet, the more you lose when you +win. + +-!- GEcho 1.00 + ! Origin: The Silhouetter bbs (209)472-0843 USR DS 16.8K +(1:208/216) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 07 Nov 93 16:14:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + DH> Hi Richard - again, thanks for the fantastic video! Loaned + DH> it to my dad this morning - he used to teach physics ( still + DH> writes textbooks ) and is a Tesla fan too... + + DH> Anyway, I was wondering how you went about getting your pole + DH> pig - line xfrmr - and how much it set you back... I called + DH> our local City Light and they cannot sell them because of + DH> the EPA regulations. They actually ship them to some company + DH> overseas for salvage... I will try some of the smaller PUD's + DH> and see if they are not so "Politically Correct" + +Well you can try the utilities, I did, with no luck:-( Unless you +are willing to climb the fence into their transfer yard and climb +back out, in the dark, with a 200+ lb. pole pig under your arm, +you will not get one there :-) I bought mine from: + + Larry J. Rebman + The Transformer Bank, Inc. + University Technology Center + 1313 Fifth St. SE + Minneapolis, MN 55415 + + Tel: (612) 379-3958, Fax: (612) 379-5962 + +The transformers they sell are brand new GE surplus, certified +PCB free. GE manufactures at their plant in Hanover, North +Carolina. Unsold units sit in the yard, and on GE's balance +sheet, for 5 years and depreciate. Once GE has depreciated them +to zero, The Transformer Bank buys them for 50 cents a pound. + +The Transformer Bank enters all of the plate information from +these surplus pigs into their database in Minneapolis. They will +fax you the plate specs on any surplus pig in the Hanover yard. +Once you have chosen the xfrmr you want by comparing a few plate +specs, call them for a price, then send them a certified check. +The retail cost is a little over $1.00 a pound, so figure a 230 +pound, 10 KVA xfrmr, will run about $250.00. + +The Transformer Bank has a shipping contract with Consolidated +Freightways. The units are shipped directly from the Hanover +yard. The contractual rate is about 50% the normal retail rate, +and the Transformer Bank passes the entire savings on to the +customer. Figure about $50.00 shipping per 250 pounds. + +My pole pig ran $303.00, including shipping, and was delivered to +me ten days from the date I dropped the certified check in the +mail to Minneapolis. It arrived still strapped on the original +pallet, and it had no dings, dents or chips. The pallet was +heavily weathered as one would expect, but once the pig was +cleaned up, it looked (and is) brand new. + +The unit came with certification papers that match the serial +number on the plate, showing it to be PCB free. Copies of the +certification are on file with GE, so disposal or transfer of +the pig will not be a problem. + +In shopping for a pig, you should be looking for a unit with two +high voltage bushings, no taps, 120/240 primary, and a secondary +voltage of 14,400 volts or higher. Remember! I am accustomed to +running pigs backwards! You will always see me refer to inputs +and outputs in reverse of utility pratcice when I talk about +pigs. Thus my "primary" is the actual secondary, and v.v.. + +The kVA rating on pigs are of course for continous duty. They +will run 24-7 at the plate rating and not warm appreciably. You +may run them at twice the rated kVA output for 5 min or so +without any problem. 10 kVA seems to be a nice size for high +powered Tesla work. The 15 kVA pigs have a substantially larger +core, and require more energy to energize. + +Since the cores on these are shell wound, you will not encounter +appreciable core saturation. These units must be run with a heavy +current limiter or they will pull the entire neighborhood into +your experiment. You should be able to energize them without +dimming the lights. Due the the heavy current limiting required, +your input and output voltage will be lower than your line. My +10 kVA pig has a rated output of 23,890 volts, but with current +limiting, the calulated output is closer to 20,000 volts. + +Both resitive and inductive current limiting may be used. The +inductive delay (about 1 sec.) in the current limiter and variacs +make control pretty jumpy, so it is best to use at least some +resistive ballast to smooth things out, especially if you are not +accustomed to these powers. The smoothest coils use all resistive +ballast, but things get pretty hot. The best combination seems to +be 6 or more paralleled oven elements placed in series with an +inductor. I opted for pure inductance because I hate to waste +energy as heat, but I feel the tug on my variacs through the +control wheel, and Gary has seen some arcing in the variac +brushes when the current limiter finally lets loose. When I add +some resistive ballast these problems are eliminated. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 463 Date: 11-07-93 23:46 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +> CORRECTION! + +I posted a formula for power factor correction capacitance +in magnetic shunted neon sign transformers the other day. As my +word processor was formatting the pages for a DOS text save the +formula apparently got messed up. The ASCII character "pi" was +stripped, and formula was more or less "disassembled". The text +below the formula in the original post reads correctly, and the +formula should look like this: + 9 + 10^ + C = Corrected kVA ------ 2 + 2 f e^ + +That is C = Corrected kVA * (10 to the ninth) + over (2 pi * f * e squared) + +Where C = capacitance required in microfarads + f = frequency of applied voltage + e = the applied voltage +Corrected kVA is the Volt*Amps (watts) output divided by 1000. + +I apologize for any inconvenience! + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 522 Date: 11-08-93 00:07 + From: Richard Quick + To: George Powell + Subj: Re: 10KVA TESLA COIL +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + > using neon xformers.. + + GP> Do you have any probs with the xformers heating up after a + GP> while? Using one as a jacobs ladder tends to get it quite + GP> hot after a time. Although after all the years of use/abuse, + GP> it's still ticking away and works fine. Is high temp a + GP> normal thing for these neon units? The temp is uncomfortable + GP> to touch.. + +No it shouldn't really bother them. Neon sign xfrmrs have a low +power factor due to poor regulation. This condition is purposely +built into the xfrmr so that the current output can be +controlled. This limitation prevents burn-out of the secondary +windings. Consequently, the secondary of a neon sign transformer +can be short-circuited without harm. + +The poor regulation can be traced to the magnetic shunt. The +shunt acts acts to draw the magnetic flux away from the secondary +coil. Transformers of this type are often called "magnetic +leakage xfrmrs". + +As the current in the magnetic leakage xfrmr increases, more and +more of the magnetic lines are bypassed through the shunt. As a +result, fewer magnetic lines reach the secondary windings. +Consequently, as more current is drawn, less voltage is produced. + +Under load, the efficiency of these type xfrmrs is around 50%. +Half of the energy is bypassed through the shunt, and is +converted into heat. These units get hot as a result, but are +normally rated for continous duty. Unless the tar starts bubbling +out (indications of a problem in the primary coil) they should be +just fine. + +I just posted instructions on how to increase the performance of +these xfrmrs from 50% to around 90% by unpotting, removing a +couple of shunt plates from each secondary winding, and using +power correction capacitance on the input line. They not only +put out more power, but the input current is reduced by nearly +50%, and they don't get nearly so hot... + +Yet they are still limited, and may be used for jacobs ladders. + +-!- + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 570 Date: 11-08-93 11:07 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>I talked with the architect again today. Things are firming up + >for a real lab. + +RQ>The building so far is looking like this: + +RQ>50' x 60' with 8' masonry walls and 8' sheet metal walls on top. + >This gives a total wall height of 16 feet, with a slope up to the + >center of the roof for a 20' peak. + +WOW! Do you plan to do shows? You could charge admission. + +Sounds fantastic! + + b QMPro 1.51 b Avoid polysyllabification... + + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0434 + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 599 Date: 11-08-93 11:08 + From: Robert Taylor + To: George Powell + Subj: Re: 10KVA TESLA COIL +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> Quoting George Powell to Robert Taylor <=- + + > using neon xformers.. + + GP> Do you have any probs with the xformers heating up after a while? + +To be honest--has been a while since I've had my xformers to play with. +But as I remember, the Jacob's Ladder hook-up didn't cause any unusual +overheat. You might check the size of your initiating gap at the bottom +of the ladder. If it's too close--it will put extra strain on the +xformer. + +One thought--if your xformer is in a small case, the overheat may be +natural. The ones that I used were fairly big monsters that weighed +in at about 20 lbs. + +If yours is in a case about 5" high by about 10" long--then yours may +be prone to overheating. However, if you have any questions as to +your coil's integrity try using a VOM or continuity tester on both the +secondary & primary & the case to make sure that there are no obvious +shorts. A serious overheat can really test your fire insurance. + +You might also want to hook your VOM up on the primary side & monitor +your current draw (should be some specs on the case as to 120 VAC draw). +If you see way-out draws or if the draw starts up w/ time--then you may +have a problem w/ the windings. + +Hope this helps you out. + +Robert + +... ZZAPP! Another one bites the dust! +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +-!- Maximus/2 2.00 + ! Origin: BLUFF CITY BBS (1:123/70) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2726 Date:11-10-93 12:15 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> SEZ Dave Halliday to Richard Quick 'bout Tesla Video <=- + + RQ> sections of my preliminary Magnifier work, which I encourage + RQ> others to follow up on. If you and your friends decide to + RQ> take on + + DH> That was at the beginning - fascinating because I was + DH> completely un-aware that the other coil was involved - I + DH> just thought it was part of the background because I could + DH> not see any arcs coming from it. + + DH> Very interesting that so much of the energy from it could be + DH> so closely coupled to the second coil... This will be a fun + DH> winter project!!! + +The "extra coil" is completely uncoupled from the driver system. +Current from the driver is being fed into the base of the free +standing "extra" coil by transmission line. While you are not +able to see in the video... The transmission line glows with +corona from the heavy current. + + DH> I was talking with one of the people and they agreed to + DH> start on a smaller coil - I was thinking in the order of 4" + DH> diameter and about 3' long. + +The aspect ratio (height to width ratio) is important. The +planned coil has an aspect ratio of 9:1 (36" long, 4" diam.) +this should be reduced to no more than 5:1 on a 4" diam. coil. +6" coils work best with 4:1 aspect ratio, anything larger 3:1. + + DH> The vacuum gap looked easy enough to build. + +This gap underwent about two weeks of prototyping not shown in +the video, but once it was working, it worked great. It has +trouble at power levels over 5 kVA. After an evening on the big +coil at 8 to 10 kVA I had some pitting and melting of the +electrode faces. This was reduced as I cut back on the number of +electrodes, increased the size (both length and diam.) of the +electrodes, and allowed for a larger gap between electrodes. + + DH> file about building a capacitor also looks pretty + DH> straightforward. I guess the main deal there is just to be + DH> patient and very careful. I have a vacuum pump so getting + DH> all the air bubbles out of it should be pretty + DH> straightforward. + +These homemade capacitors are high Q, reliable, and relatively +easy to build. Pumping them down will really help. + + > please feel free to fire of any questions to me. As + > you can tell, I have some little experience with all of these + > systems, and may be able to help. + + DH> Questions???? Hoooo boy - stand back! + + DH> You talk a bit about the kind of plastic to use for form for + DH> the secondary coil. There is PVC and ABS available readily. + DH> You mention that PVC is better but you also say not to use + DH> Schedule 40 - both kinds of pipe are rated as being Schedule + DH> 40... + +PVC is the worst plastic for use in secondary coils. It is +"lossy" (high RF dissipation factor) and has a low dielectric +strength. But it is commonly used because, as you mentioned, it +is available. Coil forms, regardless of material, should be as +thin as possible. Schedule 40 is thick, and is rated for pressure +use. Try to locate the thinner "drain" pipe or "flume duct" PVC +or other thin wall plastic. If PVC is used, it MUST be dry (baked +is preferred) and well sealed with a low loss sealant like poly- +urethane or two part epoxy. + + DH> How about plexiglass... + +Acrylic and plexiglas is pretty good. Dielectric strength could +be better, but the RF dissipation factor is much lower than PVC. +I have a couple of small acrylic secondaries and I have been +pleased with them. Plexi in large diam. tubes gets expensive. + + DH> What determines a certain plastic being good? Should I look + DH> up the dielectric constants and select for a high number? + +A combination of dielectric strength, and the RF dissipation +factor. PVC fails this test, and requires drying and sealing to +make it suitable. Teflon is the best; good dielectric strength, +and the lowest RF dissipation factor; then comes polyethylene, +polystyrene, and polypropylene, all of which are good. The same +standards are also used to judge capacitor dielectrics and for +general insulation in Tesla work, and the plastics rate in the +same order. + +You asked about power supplies: The pole pig info is on it's way. +See my two part post on obtaining neons for free, and rebuilding +them for high output, high efficiency, Tesla power supplies. +Remember Tesla power supplies must be protected with extensive +RF choking, and safety gaps. This is especially important with +neons, which are much more delicate than pole pigs or potential +xfrmrs. I also use bypass capacitors. For bypass capacitance +across the power supply HV terminals you WANT a dielectric with a +high RF dissipation factor. Barium titanate capacitors with a DC +rating are ideal for this use. Use a 4x voltage safety factor. + + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 588 Date: 11-10-93 12:26 + From: Richard Quick + To: Mark Lawton @ 930/20 + Subj: 10kva tesla coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> SEZ Mark Lawton @ 930/20 to Richard Quick <=- + + RQ>But if everybody thinks I'm wacky, should I stop posting? I + RQ>don't want to waste people's time. I just thought you all + RQ>were interested. + + ML@9> No! Keep the Tesla info comming. I've been building coils + ML@9> for 25+ years. Your description of the magnifing coil is + ML@9> the best I've heard. + +Thanks for the vote of confidence. As for my description of the +Magnifier circuit; it is accurate because I have built, tested, +and documented a couple of prototype systems. Now I need a little +more room to scale up, and a place where a system can remain +standing after I have set it up. Where I fire now, if I were to +leave a system set up for 48 hours others would be inconvienced +with my "hogging" the floor space. + + ML@9> Before you burn a hole in the Earth, let me know, I want + ML@9> to get a picture of it! + +If you write I will send you a glossy photo of a magnifier in +operation. I have a really hot, time exposure, showing the +glowing transmission line, and spots where the coil has struck +the transmission line. Sprays of corona are comming out of +perforations in the insulation. + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 589 Date: 11-10-93 12:32 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> SEZ Dave Halliday to Richard Quick <=- + + RQ>I talked with the architect again today. Things are firming + RQ>up for a real lab. + + RQ>The building so far is looking like this: + + RQ>50' x 60' with 8' masonry walls and 8' sheet metal walls on + RQ>top. This gives a total wall height of 16 feet, with a slope + RQ>up to the center of the roof for a 20' peak. + + DH> WOW! Do you plan to do shows? You could charge admission. + + DH> Sounds fantastic! + +The thought has crossed my mind. The primary use of the structure +would be of course R&D of the Magnifier on a medium scale, but +rest assured it will see other uses as well. With room for +storage, permanent set-ups, etc. Shows would be a snap to do. +Not many people have seen the old Million Volts Through The Body +trick, and it is a thrill to do, as well as to see. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 645 Date: 11-10-93 12:43 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> DH> Hi Richard - again, thanks for the fantastic video! + +RQ> DH> Anyway, I was wondering how you went about getting your pole + > DH> pig - line xfrmr - and how much it set you back... I called + > DH> our local City Light and they cannot sell them because of + > DH> the EPA regulations. They actually ship them to some company + > DH> overseas for salvage... I will try some of the smaller PUD's + > DH> and see if they are not so "Politically Correct" + +RQ>Well you can try the utilities, I did, with no luck:-( Unless you + >are willing to climb the fence into their transfer yard and climb + >back out, in the dark, with a 200+ lb. pole pig under your arm, + >you will not get one there :-) I bought mine from: + +I have tried six of the local PUD's - all with the same result... Some +of the people there seemed genuinely interested in helping but they had +their hands tied with all of the red tape... + +I *do* know where Seattle City Light has their transfer yard (it's +really close to our local warehouse store ( Costco ) but the place is +too well looked after and I think it would be a little hard to build a +Tesla Coil while in jail... :) + + +RQ> Larry J. Rebman + > The Transformer Bank, Inc. + > University Technology Center + > 1313 Fifth St. SE + > Minneapolis, MN 55415 + +RQ> Tel: (612) 379-3958, Fax: (612) 379-5962 + +GREAT!!!!! + + >Once you have chosen the xfrmr you want by comparing a few plate + >specs, call them for a price, then send them a certified check. + >The retail cost is a little over $1.00 a pound, so figure a 230 + >pound, 10 KVA xfrmr, will run about $250.00. + +RQ>The Transformer Bank has a shipping contract with Consolidated + >customer. Figure about $50.00 shipping per 250 pounds. + +RQ>My pole pig ran $303.00, including shipping, and was delivered to + >me ten days from the date I dropped the certified check in the + +RQ>The unit came with certification papers that match the serial + >number on the plate, showing it to be PCB free. Copies of the + +This is exactly the info I have been looking for! + +I also got your postings on neon sign transformers yesterday - the idea +of getting the reject units from a sign company is obvious - should have +thought of that one... ( sound of head hitting desk ) + +RQ>In shopping for a pig, you should be looking for a unit with two + >high voltage bushings, no taps, 120/240 primary, and a secondary + >voltage of 14,400 volts or higher. Remember! I am accustomed to + +Info saved! + +RQ>Since the cores on these are shell wound, you will not encounter + >appreciable core saturation. These units must be run with a heavy + >current limiter or they will pull the entire neighborhood into + >your experiment. You should be able to energize them without + +I was wondering why you put the limiter on the circuit... + +Again, thanks for the info! + +We will be starting out with neon transformers, I had mentioned in an +earlier post that the first one will be about 2 - 3' tall, probably a 4" +form - looking forward to drawing some sparks as well as experimenting +with the magnifier! + +TTYL - Dave ë:-) + b QMPro 1.51 b W-E-H-T-H-U-R: Worst spell of weather in six +months... + + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0434 + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2 Date: 10 Nov 93 21:02:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +>< + + DB> How did you go about winding your coil? What are the specs? + +The first step in winding a coil is to select a coil form. The +coil form should be a low loss material (we are talking RF +losses) like polyethylene, polystyrene, or polypropylene: but the +most common material is PVC plastic drain pipe (thinnest wall is +best) which is high loss. I used a section of PVC thin wall flume +duct. + +Ratios of coil height to width are important. Small coils work +best with aspect ratios (height to width) around 5:1 - 4:1, +larger coils (over 8" diam.) have aspect ratios around 3:1. Now +we are talking about the actual winding length here, so allow an +extra inch or so of coil form on each end. Determine the length +required and cut the ends square. + +The form must be sanded smooth of surface imperfections, dried +thoroughly, and if PVC is used, it must be sealed. A good sealer +is polyurethane, another is two part epoxy paint. By sealing the +surface of the PVC before you wind on wire you can negate the +excessive losses in PVC plastic coil forms. If necessary the coil +form may be sanded again after the sealer had dried. + +The coil should be wound with good quality magnet wire. I use +double Formvar enamel coated magnet wire. Magnet wire gives you +maximum inductance. A coil should have over 900 turns, but not +too much over 1000 turns. There is a little leeway here. Select a +gauge of wire which will allow the aspect ratio and number of +turns to fall within this range. + +I dug that up as it pretty much explains things, and you may have +missed the post. + + DH> What determines a certain plastics being good? + +As I omitted in the other message, the dielectric constant is not +the factor to go by when choosing a coil form. It is really +preferable to use a plastic with the lowest dielectric constant. +The reason for this is you want the distributed capacity of the +coil to be as low as possible. Capacitance in a coil stores +energy, and we want the throughput to be as rapid as possible. +The distributed capacitance in a coil retards the current peak +that follows the VSWR (resonate rise). Coils have enough problems +with distributed capacity from the length of wire, the closeness +of turns, and the number of windings. No need to make things +worse by choosing a plastic with a high dielectric constant. + +What is most important in choosing a coil form material is the +dissipation factor. The dissipation factor of all commercial +plastics has been calculated, and somewhere in this mess I have +those figures. If my memory serves me correctly, the standard +RF dissipation factors are based on a frequency of 1 Mhz, close +enough to judge if the plastic is suitable for coil work. + +The next important factor to look at is the dielectric strength. +This should take second place to dissipation factors if your goal +is to build the most efficient coil possible. Proper con- +struction, more than anything, prevents electrical breakdown. + +Even if the dissipation factor is very low (good efficiency) it +is best to use the thinnest wall coil form possible, even if the +wall thickness is not able to retain a circular cross section +when mechanically stressed. Just treat the coil gently. + +As far as the electrical strength of a coil wound on a very thin +walled plastic tube, it should not break down internally if the +WIRE IS NEVER ALLOWED INSIDE THE COIL FORM. Do not drill holes +or introduce the wire into the coil. A hole anywhere on the coil +sidewall will cause a failure regardless of the dielectric +strength of the coil form plastic. My coils are capped top and +bottom with plexiglass plates that are approximately the same +thickness as the coil form wall. I use two-part epoxy cement, and +I seal them airtight. It is OK to drill one small hole in the +bottom plexiglas plate to equalize air pressure, but I do not. + +The air terminal capacitance is connected by lead wire (I just +use the magnet wire and avoid splicing) from the top of the coil. +The lead wire is "air wound" up to the terminal, with the turns +about the same diameter as the coil, or a little smaller. You +will see me doing this in the video when I set up for a low power +test in the garage. + +The terminal capacitance must have a diameter greater than the +coil form, or spark will break out; either from the top of coil, +or from the air wound turns connecting the coil to the terminal. + +The other construction secret not covered in the video is the +ground connection. Once the coil is wound and sealed I take the +base wire and pull it up out of the sealant until it is free all +the way to the beginning of the first turn. I clip off the excess +wire, leaving about a 2" tail. I lay the tail on a metal block, +and using a small ballpeen hammer, flatten it out as best I can. +A strip of copper sheet about 3/4" by 2" is then cut from stock +and bent slightly to match the curvature of the coil form. Solder +the flattened tail to the back of the copper strip. Position the +strip on the coil form just below the bottom turn of wire, and +scribe a rectangle through the sealant all the way to the coil +form plastic. Remove the sealer from the scribed area, then score +and clean the bared plastic. I then use epoxy to bed the copper +strip. This forms a high current grounding plate without +drilling. Ground wire or strap (preferred) can be held in firm +connection to the plate with tape or a large rubber band. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 898 Date: 11-10-93 22:10 + From: David Tiefenbrunn + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + On 11-05-93 Richard Quick wrote to David Tiefenbrunn... + + RQ> Well Dave, + RQ> + RQ> I talked with the architect again today. Things are firming up + RQ> for a real lab. + RQ> + RQ> The building so far is looking like this: + RQ> + RQ> 50' x 60' with 8' masonry walls and 8' sheet metal walls on top. + RQ> This gives a total wall height of 16 feet, with a slope up to the + RQ> center of the roof for a 20' peak. + + I'm in a similar situation. We recently purchased a + 2.75 acre lot, and are designing our new home and + lab / shop. So far, I'm planning a 26x56 ranch + with full basement 8-9ft clearance, and since I + plan to use trusses for the floor joists, the + basement will be free of support poles. We will + also have a 3 bay garage (2 for cars, 1 for projects), + with switchable heat. Eventually build a shed + for the 45KW generator. + + RQ> The half masonry, half sheet metal wall was a compromise for + RQ> security, cost, and you'll never guess what else... My testing + RQ> shows an all metal walled building will induct, and large + RQ> currents will cruise through the structure. So masonry for the + RQ> first 8' feet seems a good compromise. + + Sounds good to me. I was flipping through a friend's + book about some of Tesla's work, and saw some pictures + of his labs. Apperently he had an opening in the roof + with a long pole & ball sticking out. Must have been + something to see at night. + + RQ> For electrical service I'm getting 480 volt 3 phase, 400 amps, + RQ> and 110/220 single phase 200 amps. + + YIKES! when your'e done with the 10KVA, are you going for 100KVA? + + Iv'e got a video tape & etc. ready to mail out, + just have to get to the post office. + + I put a few minutes of the first run of the 45KW generator + on it, since you were interested and the tape is going + your way anyhow. + + Dave + + +___ + * OFFLINE 1.54 * I love the smell of ozone in the morning. + +-!- Maximus 2.01wb + ! Origin: =Abbey Road BBS= Higganum, Ct. (203)345-7635 +(1:320/5967) + +Ž Area: FIDOElectr +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 910 Date: 11-16-93 15:37 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> -=> SEZ Dave Halliday to Richard Quick <=- + +RQ> RQ> Larry J. Rebman + > > The Transformer Bank, Inc. + +He was out hunting until today - haven't called yet but will, +probably tomorrow - I have these pesky clients who actually +want me to do something for them... :) + +RQ> RQ>My pole pig ran $303.00, including shipping, and was + > >delivered to me ten days from the date I dropped the + > >certified check in the mail. + +RQ>Your shipping rate may be higher since you are all the way cross + >country, and your delivery time will most likely take longer. + >Still, where else are you going to go? + +So true - one of the ( few ) down sides of living out here. Looking +on the bright side though, I could have settled in Nome or Honolulu... + +Actually the interstate trucking is pretty reasonable - I-90 goes +straight into town and that is one of the major East / West +routes. + + >educated me on the EPA requirements. Do not accept a pig, even a + >free one, if it does not have PCB certification papers. Some pigs + +RQ>It is not the PCBs that bother me. The problem occurs if youwant + >to sell or dispose of the unit. With current regulations, and + >lack of certification, you have a legal hot potato that can cause + +Gotcha! That thought occurred to me too - getting one might be easy +but the eventual disposal would be a nightmare... + +RQ>Another type of xfrmr excellent for coil work is the potential + >type xfrmr. These are potted in plastic, not tar, and are not + >shunted like neons. They carry the HV ratings required, and/or + >can be placed in series (two 7500 volt units for a total of + >15KV). Since the cores are NOT shell wound, they will saturate, + +RQ>These xfrmrs are used to step down a kilowatt or two for cooling + >fans, and for line voltage sensors in substations; so they are + >not manufactured in the quantities that pigs are. They are much + +I will have to call on that one - I spoke to the person who handles +surplus disposal for Seattle City Light and he seemed to be enthusiastic +about helping but his hands were tied by EPA regs. They do have a +mechanism for public sale of surplus items so it shouldn't be too +hard. + +RQ>Yeah, neons are not built very solid. The secondaries are + >el'cheapo, as the thinnest wire possible is used. The failure + >rate is pretty high even in their rated service. Since the copper + >content is low, they are not commonly recycled, and the cores + +I guess because they are built by the thousand and considered a field +replaceable unit and not repairable... Just pass the "savings" on to +the sign owner... + + >pile up quickly. The higher the output current rating, the better + >they are built. Once the tar potting is removed, they last much + >longer in Tesla use. Tar is a very poor RF insulator. To a Tesla + >discharge, the tar looks more like an impedance! Pick up dead + +We will go that route - again, I got the neon xformer post so we will +start there! + +RQ>capacitors if you want more than a few hours of heavy duty + >service from a bank of neons. + +I located a good source for 600 volt AC caps in the 1 to 6 mFd +range - I will use the formula ( corrected version ) that you +posted when we get going. Also, will have to send photos - looking +forward to this! + +RQ>As far as RF choking is concerned, the HV filter board I designed + >and built in the video is the best I have ever used. I have not + >had a single xfrmr failure since I built it. Bypass capacitors on + >neon power supplies must be center tap grounded, so I switch + >to using a different capacitor setup. As the secondaries on neons + >are center tap ground, so must the bypass capacitors. I use two + >stacks of caps; each stack has a connection to a HV bushing, and + >to the system ground. + +Great! Like I said, I already have some large ferrite torroids, I'll +use them and the spark gap and get some caps. Another person ( used to +be my tech person 'till they went into business for themselves ) has +built a few - he always complained about transformers blowing up - I'll +have to pass this info on if he is still involved. ALso, he was +building coils a *lot* longer than 1/4 wave - still got some respectable +sparks though... + +Anyway, got to go back and print some more xmass cards - graphic +artist is having us do 500 of them as a trial run - nice design and +we played with some good paper / ink combo. Got to do the insides now. + +TTYL - Dave ë:-) + + +RQ>... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + >___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + + +RQ>--- WM v3.01/93-0100 + > ! Origin: St. Louis Users Group BBS (314) 878-7614 +(1:100/4.0) (1:100/4.0 +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b Reality is a crutch for those who can't handle +homebrew + + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0434 + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2729 Date: 11-10-93 22:16 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +>< + + DB> How did you go about winding your coil? What are the specs? + +The first step in winding a coil is to select a coil form. The +coil form should be a low loss material (we are talking RF +losses) like polyethylene, polystyrene, or polypropylene: but the +most common material is PVC plastic drain pipe (thinnest wall is +best) which is high loss. I used a section of PVC thin wall flume +duct. + +Ratios of coil height to width are important. Small coils work +best with aspect ratios (height to width) around 5:1 - 4:1, +larger coils (over 8" diam.) have aspect ratios around 3:1. Now +we are talking about the actual winding length here, so allow an +extra inch or so of coil form on each end. Determine the length +required and cut the ends square. + +The form must be sanded smooth of surface imperfections, dried +thoroughly, and if PVC is used, it must be sealed. A good sealer +is polyurethane, another is two part epoxy paint. By sealing the +surface of the PVC before you wind on wire you can negate the +excessive losses in PVC plastic coil forms. If necessary the coil +form may be sanded again after the sealer had dried. + +The coil should be wound with good quality magnet wire. I use +double Formvar enamel coated magnet wire. Magnet wire gives you +maximum inductance. A coil should have over 900 turns, but not +too much over 1000 turns. There is a little leeway here. Select a +gauge of wire which will allow the aspect ratio and number of +turns to fall within this range. + +I dug that up as it pretty much explains things, and you may have +missed the post. + + DH> What determines a certain plastics being good? + +As I omitted in the other message, the dielectric constant is not +the factor to go by when choosing a coil form. It is really +preferable to use a plastic with the lowest dielectric constant. +The reason for this is you want the distributed capacity of the +coil to be as low as possible. Capacitance in a coil stores +energy, and we want the throughput to be as rapid as possible. +The distributed capacitance in a coil retards the current peak +that follows the VSWR (resonate rise). Coils have enough problems +with distributed capacity from the length of wire, the closeness +of turns, and the number of windings. No need to make things +worse by choosing a plastic with a high dielectric constant. + +What is most important in choosing a coil form material is the +dissipation factor. The dissipation factor of all commercial +plastics has been calculated, and somewhere in this mess I have +those figures. If my memory serves me correctly, the standard +RF dissipation factors are based on a frequency of 1 Mhz, close +enough to judge if the plastic is suitable for coil work. + +The next important factor to look at is the dielectric strength. +This should take second place to dissipation factors if your goal +is to build the most efficient coil possible. Proper con- +struction, more than anything, prevents electrical breakdown. + +Even if the dissipation factor is very low (good efficiency) it +is best to use the thinnest wall coil form possible. Turns of +wire, coats of sealer, and hard plastic end caps will stiffen the +coil some. Low density polyethylene forms (such as wastebaskets) +give coils with very high "Q" factors (a measure of efficiency) +but are difficult to work with, as this plastic is VERY flexible. + +As far as the electrical strength of a coil wound on a very thin +walled plastic tube, it should not break down internally if THE +WIRE IS NEVER ALLOWED INSIDE THE COIL FORM. Do not drill holes +or introduce the wire into the side of the coil. A hole anywhere +on the coil sidewall will cause a failure regardless of the di- +electric strength of the coil form plastic. My coils are capped +top and bottom with plexiglass plates that are approximately the +same thickness as the coil form wall. I use two-part epoxy cement +and I seal them airtight. It is OK to drill one small hole in the +bottom plexiglas plate to equalize air pressure, but I do not. + +The air terminal capacitance is connected by lead wire (I just +use the magnet wire and avoid splicing) from the top of the coil. +The lead wire is "air wound" up to the terminal, with the turns +about the same diameter as the coil, or a little smaller. You +will see me doing this in the video when I set up for a low power +test in the garage. + +The terminal capacitance must have a diameter greater than the +coil form, or spark will break out; either from the top of coil, +or from the air wound turns connecting the coil to the terminal. + +The other construction secret not covered in the video is the +ground connection. Once the coil is wound and sealed I take the +base wire and pull it up out of the sealant until it is free all +the way to the beginning of the first turn. I clip off the excess +wire, leaving about a 2" tail. I lay the tail on a metal block, +and using a small ballpeen hammer, flatten it out as best I can. +A strip of copper sheet about 3/4" by 2" is then cut from stock +and bent slightly to match the curvature of the coil form. Solder +the flattened tail to the back of the copper strip. Position the +strip on the coil form just below the bottom turn of wire, and +scribe a rectangle through the sealant all the way to the coil +form plastic. Remove the sealer from the scribed area, then score +and clean the bared plastic. I then use epoxy to bed the copper +strip. This forms a high current grounding plate without +drilling. Ground wire or strap (preferred) can be held in firm +connection to the plate with tape or a large rubber band. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2729 Date: 11-10-93 22:16 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + DH> What determines a certain plastics being good? + + (for winding coils) + +As I omitted in the other message, the dielectric constant is not +the factor to go by when choosing a coil form. It is really +preferable to use a plastic with the lowest dielectric constant. +The reason for this is you want the distributed capacity of the +coil to be as low as possible. Capacitance in a coil stores +energy, and we want the throughput to be as rapid as possible. +The distributed capacitance in a coil retards the current peak +that follows the VSWR (resonate rise). Coils have enough problems +with distributed capacity from the length of wire, the closeness +of turns, and the number of windings. No need to make things +worse by choosing a plastic with a high dielectric constant. + +What is most important in choosing a coil form material is the +dissipation factor. The dissipation factor of all commercial +plastics has been calculated, and somewhere in this mess I have +those figures. If my memory serves me correctly, the standard +RF dissipation factors are based on a frequency of 1 Mhz, close +enough to judge if the plastic is suitable for coil work. + +The next important factor to look at is the dielectric strength. +This should take second place to dissipation factors if your goal +is to build the most efficient coil possible. Proper con- +struction, more than anything, prevents electrical breakdown. + +Even if the dissipation factor is very low (good efficiency) it +is best to use the thinnest wall coil form possible. Turns of +wire, coats of sealer, and hard plastic end caps will stiffen the +coil some. Low density polyethylene forms (such as wastebaskets) +give coils with very high "Q" factors (a measure of efficiency) +but are difficult to work with, as this plastic is VERY flexible. + +As far as the electrical strength of a coil wound on a very thin +walled plastic tube, it should not break down internally if THE +WIRE IS NEVER ALLOWED INSIDE THE COIL FORM. Do not drill holes +or introduce the wire into the side of the coil. A hole anywhere +on the coil sidewall will cause a failure regardless of the di- +electric strength of the coil form plastic. My coils are capped +top and bottom with plexiglass plates that are approximately the +same thickness as the coil form wall. I use two-part epoxy cement +and I seal them airtight. It is OK to drill one small hole in the +bottom plexiglas plate to equalize air pressure, but I do not. + +The air terminal capacitance is connected by lead wire (I just +use the magnet wire and avoid splicing) from the top of the coil. +The lead wire is "air wound" up to the terminal, with the turns +about the same diameter as the coil, or a little smaller. You +will see me doing this in the video when I set up for a low power +test in the garage. + +The terminal capacitance must have a diameter greater than the +coil form for high powered work, or spark will break out; either +from the top of coil, or from the air wound turns connecting the +coil to the terminal. + +The other construction secret not covered in the video is the +ground connection. Once the coil is wound and sealed I take the +base wire and pull it up out of the sealant until it is free all +the way to the beginning of the first turn. I clip off the excess +wire, leaving about a 2" tail. I lay the tail on a metal block, +and using a small ballpeen hammer, flatten it out as best I can. +A strip of copper sheet about 3/4" by 2" is then cut from stock +and bent slightly to match the curvature of the coil form. Solder +the flattened tail to the back of the copper strip. Position the +strip on the coil form just below the bottom turn of wire, and +scribe a rectangle through the sealant all the way to the coil +form plastic. Remove the sealer from the scribed area, then score +and clean the bared plastic. I then use epoxy to bed the copper +strip. This forms a high current grounding plate without +drilling. Ground wire or strap (preferred) can be held in firm +connection to the plate with tape or a large rubber band. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + + + ... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 683 Date: 11-11-93 11:05 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Mark Lawton @ 930/20 + Subj: 10kva tesla coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +ML>RQ> GD> Well I have a Jacob's ladder on an old theatre marquis neon + >RQ> GD> transformer. Really makes the kitty stop and pay attention. + >RQ> GD> Worries people who see it, too. My inner Beavis loves it. + >RQ> + >RQ>Yeah, I have some videos of the pole pig settin on the garage + >RQ>floor with 3/8" copper pipe rails. Pulls arcs clear to the + +ML>Love it... Pole Pig = Jacob's Ladder + +ML>PS Does anyone need some neon transformers? I've got 3 collecting +dust. + >(2) 7500V & (1) 15000V + +Hi Mark - I just got a copy of Richards video ( well worth the $10 ) and +the Jacobs ladder is fantastic! He is using 1/2" copper pipe for the +electrodes and getting about a foot-long arc at the end of it. + +Has a wonderful "fat" sound to it too - not the bzzzzzt of a sign +transformer - more of a deep growl... + +I saw in your previous ms. that you also are into coil building. +I built a few a while ago and will be working with two other +people to do a couple of them - small one ( 3' or so ) for now and +maybe a >big< one down the road. + +TTYL - Dave ë:-) + b QMPro 1.51 b (r)bb<——— Š££££££ "Hmm, the force is strong with +this one" + + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0434 + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 672 Date: 11-11-93 16:35 + From: Brian Mcmurry + To: Richard Quick + Subj: Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +On Sun 7-Nov-1993 4:14p, Richard Quick wrote: + +RQ> These units must be run with a heavy +RQ> current limiter or they will pull the entire neighborhood into +RQ> your experiment. You should be able to energize them without +RQ> dimming the lights. + +I've been following all the Tesla threads and wonder what your +monthly electric bill runs. :) + +BTW, keep it coming. + +-!- + ! Origin: *AACHEN* 818-972-9440 Burbank, CA FIDONET +(1:102/844) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2755 Date: 11-11-93 17:08 + From: Richard Quick + To: Robert Taylor + Subj: Re: 10KVA TESLA COIL +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> SEZ Robert Taylor to George Powell <=- + + > using neon xformers.. + + GP> Do you have any probs with the xformers heating up after a + GP> while? + + RT> To be honest--has been a while since I've had my xformers to + RT> play with. But as I remember, the Jacob's Ladder hook-up + RT> didn't cause any unusual overheat. You might check the size + RT> of your initiating gap at the bottom of the ladder. If it's + RT> too close--it will put extra strain on the xformer. + +Nope, it will not make any difference. The gap at the bottom of +the rails can be closed and the xfrmr will not be subject to any +extra strain. If the rails are properly set, the gap will be +pretty close. + + RT> One thought--if your xformer is in a small case, the + RT> overheat may be natural. + +Even in a big case the heating is normal. A bigger case means it +takes longer for the heat to get to the point where you feel it. + + RT> The ones that I used were fairly big monsters that weighed + RT> in at about 20 lbs. If yours is in a case about 5" high by + RT> about 10" long--then yours may be prone to overheating. + +It's not "overheating", it's normal heating. Unless the tar is +melting, or output is diminished, there is no problem. + + RT> However, if you have any questions as to your coil's + RT> integrity try using a VOM or continuity tester on both the + RT> secondary & primary & the case to make sure that there are + RT> no obvious shorts. A serious overheat can really test your + RT> fire insurance. + +Doubtful, the secondaries can be shorted without any harm, and no +overheating will result. Shorts through the tar potting form +carbon tracks which are high in resistance and may not be +detectable with a VOM. And since these xfrmrs are magnetic +leakage shunted in the core, a short in a HV winding will basicly +cut the secondary out of the field flux generated by the primary. + +The best way to test these suckers is to grap some HV rated wire +and draw an arc from each HV bushing to the case. If the arc +sputters, is weak, nonexistant, or intermittent then the core +should be unpotted and the winding replaced or restored. As I +mentioned in another post, about half the time unpotting alone +will cure a carbon track short. + + RT> You might also want to hook your VOM up on the primary side + RT> & monitor your current draw (should be some specs on the + RT> case as to 120 VAC draw). If you see way-out draws or if + RT> the draw starts up w/time--then you may have a problem w/ + RT> the windings. + +If you go by this then every unit tested will show a problem +unless they were power factor corrected at the factory. The +plate specs give the OUTPUT wattage, output voltage, and output +current in miliamps. If you measure the input power vs. the +output specs you will find 50% of your input energy missing. The +unit gets hot.... + +You will lead Mr. Powell to believe there is a problem in the +core when that may not be the case. Due to the design of the core +this is completely normal. Fully one half of the input power is +converted to heat eventually, as energy is bypassed through +the core shunts to limit the output. Unless the xfrmr is getting +hot enough to melt the potting, or the output is markedly +diminished, there is no problem. If tar is melting, then the most +common problem is a shorted primary winding. + +I have unpotted dozens of these transformers, and my experience +covers every major manufacturer. I have seen nearly every problem +that can cause failure, as I only rebuild failed units. I have +experimented with the effects of altering the core shunts for +greater output, and I have experimented with power factor +correcting in these units. I have done testing to measure the +efficiencies, and have developed proceedures to improve these +efficiencies. In other words I know these cores backwards and +forwards. + +Mr. Powell may not have much experience with magnetic leakage +controlled xfrmrs. He is most likely interperting the normal +heat production as a problem. A normal step up xfrmr weighing +10 lbs, with a throughput under a kilowatt, would not get warm. +The normal step up xfrmr is not shunted, and wastes very little +energy. Yet the neon gets quite warm with throughputs of only a +third of a kilowatt. The neon is a different breed, and produces +as much heat as output. + +I hope I have set the record straight. If you doubt my analysis, +please unpott a neon core, and look at the physical placement of +the shunts. You will wonder how any magnetic flux at all can get +to the secondary windings. The shunts are positioned so as to +place a direct magnetic bypass that completely surrounds the +primary. It is in effect, a built in magnetic short circuit. The +field flux passed through these shunts is wasted energy, and the +wasted energy heats the iron core. If you have a 360 watt neon +core, no power factor correction, and no core modifications, you +will get about 360 watts of heat if you put a Jacob' Ladder or +Tesla coil on it. 360 watts of heat will bring the core temp up +quickly and it will stay quite warm to the touch. Yet everything +is working fine, except for your efficiencies. +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2792 Date: 11-12-93 14:56 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> SEZ Dave Halliday to Richard Quick <=- + + DH> Hi Richard - again, thanks for the fantastic video! + + RQ> Larry J. Rebman + > The Transformer Bank, Inc. + > University Technology Center + > 1313 Fifth St. SE + > Minneapolis, MN 55415 + + RQ> Tel: (612) 379-3958, Fax: (612) 379-5962 + + DH> GREAT!!!!! + + >The retail cost is a little over $1.00 a pound, so figure a 230 + >pound, 10 KVA xfrmr, will run about $250.00. + + RQ>The Transformer Bank has a shipping contract with + RQ>Consolidated Frieghtways + + RQ>My pole pig ran $303.00, including shipping, and was + >delivered to me ten days from the date I dropped the + >certified check in the mail. + +Your shipping rate may be higher since you are all the way cross +country, and your delivery time will most likely take longer. +Still, where else are you going to go? + + RQ>The unit came with certification papers that match the serial + >number on the plate, showing it to be PCB free. + + DH> This is exactly the info I have been looking for! + +Having been there I pretty much know the score. I looked for over +a year for a supplier for these units, while the utilities +educated me on the EPA requirements. Do not accept a pig, even a +free one, if it does not have PCB certification papers. Some pigs +I have seen will carry a PCB free cert. number on the plate, and +that too is OK. You can then write the manufacturer and they will +mail the papers if you provide them with the number. + +It is not the PCBs that bother me. The problem occurs if you want +to sell or dispose of the unit. With current regulations, and +lack of certification, you have a legal hot potato that can cause +you problems. I have not seen the letter of the law, but the +utilities have informed me the legal implications are rather +severe, and place serious liablities on the owners of pigs +containing PCB. + +There are a few transfer yards that have clean room holding +facilities. They are expensive to own, maintain, and operate, +but they are licensed to drain the old oil, rinse the cores, and +scrap them. Cores can be purchased for a few bucks ($5-$20). +The problem is that the cores are old, frequently damaged, or +contaminated with water (from sitting in the rain) and won't hold +up unless they are dried, repaired, and resubmerged in xfrmr oil. +Better off to pay a little more and buy a surplus new unit. + +Another type of xfrmr excellent for coil work is the potential +type xfrmr. These are potted in plastic, not tar, and are not +shunted like neons. They carry the HV ratings required, and/or +can be placed in series (two 7500 volt units for a total of +15KV). Since the cores are NOT shell wound, they will saturate, +and so they are safer and require little or no current limiting. +These xfrmrs may be obtained from utilities without the problem +of EPA regs. The normal ratings on potential xfrmrs runs from +about 1-3 KVA, and so are ideal for the middle area between neons +and pole pigs. The surplus cost on these runs from $25.00 - +$50.00 each, but they will be used, not new, surplus. + +These xfrmrs are used to step down a kilowatt or two for cooling +fans, and for line voltage sensors in substations; so they are +not manufactured in the quantities that pigs are. They are much +harder to find in the surplus market, but definately worth +grabbing if you come across one. If you developed any contacts at +the local utilities while searching for a pig, you might call +them back and ask them about potential transformers. + + DH> I also got your postings on neon sign transformers yesterday + DH> - the idea of getting the reject units from a sign company + DH> is obvious - should have thought of that one... + DH> ( sound of head hitting desk ) + +Yeah, neons are not built very solid. The secondaries are +el'cheapo, as the thinnest wire possible is used. The failure +rate is pretty high even in their rated service. Since the copper +content is low, they are not commonly recycled, and the cores +pile up quickly. The higher the output current rating, the better +they are built. Once the tar potting is removed, they last much +longer in Tesla use. Tar is a very poor RF insulator. To a Tesla +discharge, the tar looks more like an impedance! Pick up dead +units for nothing, remove the tar, modify the core slightly, and +use pfc capacitance; then they will serve cheaply and effi- +ciently. You must use heavy RF choking, safety gaps, and bypass +capacitors if you want more than a few hours of heavy duty +service from a bank of neons. + +As far as RF choking is concerned, the HV filter board I designed +and built in the video is the best I have ever used. I have not +had a single xfrmr failure since I built it. Bypass capacitors on +neon power supplies must be center tap grounded, so I switch +to using a different capacitor setup. As the secondaries on neons +are center tap ground, so must the bypass capacitors. I use two +stacks of caps; each stack has a connection to a HV bushing, and +to the system ground. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 654 Date: 11-12-93 16:57 + From: Richard Quick + To: Guy Daugherty + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + RQ>a real lab. + + RQ>The building so far is looking like this: + + RQ>50' x 60' with 8' masonry walls and 8' sheet metal walls on + RQ>top. This gives a total wall height of 16 feet, with a slope + RQ>up to the center of the roof for a 20' peak. + + GD> This is geting out of hand, Richard. + +Well Guy, I need a place to put all of my stuff where it won't +get rained on. Any other bright ideas? + +I have about $5000.00 worth of Tesla equip. ($15,000 replacement +cost), about $5000.00 worth of chemistry equip, not to mention +boxes of homemade pyrotechinics equipment (ball mill, star +presses, rocket ramming table, drying racks, rolls of paper and +tubing, mixing containers, sieves, etc.) I also buy, sell, and +build/rebuild/repair Vespa scooters; own three now, plus parts of +a forth, plus a workbench of special tools for engines, frames, +wheels, etc. + +I would like to mess around with some hard vacuum equipment, +and do some bulb blowing/tube bending... and I need a place to +put my shop tools (band saw, drill press, belt sander, table saw, +air compressor, etc.) + +Then I need an office (some place other than my bedroom), where I +can put my $5000.00 worth of computer equipt., desk, and library, +and what do I do with my 55 gallon fish tank? The AV equipment? + +Where do you suggest I go with all of my toys? I would like to +house everything somewhere where I don't disturb people, I can +work day or night at will; blow things up, burn things out, and +set up and fire some big coils, and all will be safe. + +... Do you need a roomate? Is it OK if I experiment nextdoor? + +My "eccentricities" core my very being. I have a temporary "block +house" out in the back drive where I mill powders, but I worry +about vandals having their tables turned on them, or some +innocent kids investigating the grinding noise and accidently +blowing themselves off the property. I retained a shipping/ +receiving agent some years ago, and he will tell you that I get +the most bizzare packages he has ever seen... + +BTW I don't think I require professional advice on how to spend +money, I learned just fine, and I know exactly why I get up and +go to work every day. My priorities are different than most +people, and so are my needs. This building is not an extra- +vagance. It is already filled, and I will probably have to add an +additional storage building within the first couple of years or +so, then I imagine I will have to add another building to move +out my shop equipment to keep the floor space clear in the main +lab area. What would you do? + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 12 Nov 93 22:49:34 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + * Originally By: Richard Quick + * Originally To: Guy Daugherty + * Originally Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil + * Original Area: FIDOElectr + * Forwarded by : Blue Wave v2.12 + + RQ>a real lab. + + RQ>The building so far is looking like this: + + RQ>50' x 60' with 8' masonry walls and 8' sheet metal walls on + RQ>top. This gives a total wall height of 16 feet, with a slope + RQ>up to the center of the roof for a 20' peak. + + GD> This is geting out of hand, Richard. + +Well Guy, I need a place to put all of my stuff where it won't +get rained on. Any other bright ideas? + +I have about $5000.00 worth of Tesla equip. ($15,000 replacement +cost), about $5000.00 worth of chemistry equip, not to mention +boxes of homemade pyrotechinics equipment (ball mill, star +presses, rocket ramming table, drying racks, rolls of paper and +tubing, mixing containers, sieves, etc.) I also buy, sell, and +build/rebuild/repair Vespa scooters; own three now, plus parts of +a forth, plus a workbench of special tools for engines, frames, +wheels, etc. + +I would like to mess around with some hard vacuum equipment, +and do some bulb blowing/tube bending... and I need a place to +put my shop tools (band saw, drill press, belt sander, table saw, +air compressor, etc.) + +Then I need an office (some place other than my bedroom), where I +can put my $5000.00 worth of computer equipt., desk, and library, +and what do I do with my 55 gallon fish tank? The AV equipment? + +Where do you suggest I go with all of my toys? I would like to +house everything somewhere where I don't disturb people, I can +work day or night at will; blow things up, burn things out, and +set up and fire some big coils, and all will be safe. + +... Do you need a roomate? Is it OK if I experiment nextdoor? + +My "eccentricities" core my very being. I have a temporary "block +house" out in the back drive where I mill powders, but I worry +about vandals having their tables turned on them, or some +innocent kids investigating the grinding noise and accidently +blowing themselves off the property. I retained a shipping/ +receiving agent some years ago, and he will tell you that I get +the most bizzare packages he has ever seen... + +BTW I don't think I require professional advice on how to spend +money, I learned just fine, and I know exactly why I get up and +go to work every day. My priorities are different than most +people, and so are my needs. This building is not an extra- +vagance. It is already filled, and I will probably have to add an +additional storage building within the first couple of years or +so, then I imagine I will have to add another building to move +out my shop equipment to keep the floor space clear in the main +lab area. What would you do? + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 13 Nov 93 00:42:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Looking over my last post, I can anticipate a few questions. +I described a very poor grounding system. What then makes a +good RF ground? + +Well a small coil can fire off a radiating counterpoise (insul- +ated metal plate) a few feet square. But when you overload a +counterpoise, you get a really wicked corona display, and the +coil will produce no additional spark. Having set up various +experiments to study this effect, including tracing the ground +current, and using a current transformer to measure the RMS amps +coming from the base of a Tesla secondary, I can tell you this. + +There is no such thing as a RF "system" ground that is too heavy. + + Not in Tesla coils. + +This is another thing that Tesla went on and on about. But my +follow up experiments in this area, which have been quite +extensive, show that he knew what he was talking about. + +I got extremely lucky in that we have a hydraulic car lift in our +back driveway. There is a 5' steel cylinder that is 14" in diam.. +In addition to the giant piston, there are buried oil and air +tanks with all of the associated plumbing. The lift controls are +sunk right where the house foundation drains, and it is in the +lowest spot in rear of the house. There are no electrical +connections made to this lift, air being supplied when needed by +a hose. This is my Tesla ground. + +A good Tesla RF ground is usually developed, not happened upon. +It will require some digging and post driving. It needs to be +kept moist. Drive deep with copper pipe, or copper clad rod, and +keep adding to it. Metal culverts, metal sewer drain pipe should +be connected if available. Spread out! Do not drive rod or pipe +close together. Four or five 8' rods driven in a long row, 8' +apart will work. A ground that you are absolutely sure will +ground a bolt of natural lightning, will be heavy enough to +ground most coils. DON'T CHINCH! + +People have asked me if I get complaints about RFI. The answer is +no. The reason is that I isolate my coil (system) ground from the +copper water pipe and from the utility ground (which in my house +are the same). Here is a basic list of things that you DO NOT +CONNECT to the system RF ground: WATER PIPE, GAS PIPE, UTILITY +GROUND, ANYTHING THAT STICKS UP IN THE AIR (fences, gutters, +downspouts) TELEPHONE GROUNDS, & CABLE GROUNDS. Most anything +else is fair game, but use common sense. + +You build or find a heavy ground and you ground your coil system +to it. The connections made to this RF ground are as follows: +SECONDARY COIL, SAFETY GAP, STEP UP XFRMR CORE, BYPASS CAPACITORS +(if using a center tap grnd xfrmr), SPARK GAP MOTOR HOUSINGS, +SPARK SHIELDS, AND ANY OBJECT SUBJECT TO BE STRUCK WITH DISCHARGE + +I don't usually use my caps lock, but this is important. This +technique prevents RFI complaints, and will save valuable +electronic equipment in your area from destruction. It may save +you from the last shock of your life. + +You ground your variac housing to your neutral wire. All other +coil controls, relay housings, control xfrmr cores, line RFI +filters (run backwards) are grounded to the variac housing. Strap +is taken from the variac housing to a well grounded water pipe. +This protects the coil operator and the control circuits from +kickback that may come down the line from the step up xfrmr. + +Two 60 cycle cables are run from the variac, through reversed +line filters, out to the step up xfrmr. No ground connection is +made anywhere between the 60 cycle cabinet ground and the RF +system ground. Hot wires only are given to the primary of the +step up xfrmr, as well as any gap motors or other utility for the +coil tank circuit. + +This is called the "two ground system" and it is highly recom- +mended. The idea of the two ground system is to send all of the +RF to a dedicated ground, and prevent bleedover into your house +wiring, control cabinet and/or water pipe. It also protects the +operator with two low potential grounds from the lethal possi- +bilities of a coil misfire or similar "incident". + +People have told me I am crazy for messing with all of this HV. +I take NO CHANCES with my ground. The ground strap is literally +the "bottom line" in coil safety or any other HV apparatus. If an +accident occurs; a core shorts out, a capacitor blows, or the +secondary decides to dump a 10' spark back to the tank circuit; +I know my safety gap - RF ground will handle the load. My 60 +cycle cabinet ground is my backup. With tank circuit energies in +the megawatt range you can't afford to have a weak point. + +Keep the physical distance between the base of the secondary coil +and the system RF ground as short as possible. I try never to go +further than 20 feet for low power stuff, and 15' or less for the +high powered work. Use the heaviest strap possible. I run two +heavy straps; one from the base of the secondary directly to +system ground, the second snakes around and grounds everything +else. This is a high Q Tesla grounding system. It gives the best +coil performance, the most safety for the coil operator, +and guess what? + +People in my house, and the neighbors next door, can watch TV or +listen to the radio, with no snow or static! Even during high +power operation! I never get spark from my coil controls. All of +the RF currents that are not expended in spark are directly, +positively, grounded through a high Q ground path to a high Q +ground that is electrically isolated from all other equipment. + +-!- + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2932 Date: 11-13-93 10:43 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> RQ>The building so far is looking like this: +RQ> RQ>50' x 60' with 8' masonry walls and 8' sheet metal wallson + > RQ>top. This gives a total wall height of 16 feet, with a slope + +RQ> DH> WOW! Do you plan to do shows? You could charge admission. +RQ> DH> Sounds fantastic! + +RQ>The thought has crossed my mind. The primary use of the structure + >would be of course R&D of the Magnifier on a medium scale, but + >rest assured it will see other uses as well. With room for + >storage, permanent set-ups, etc. Shows would be a snap to do. + >Not many people have seen the old Million Volts Through The Body + >trick, and it is a thrill to do, as well as to see. + +I grew up in Pittsburgh PA and the local Planetarium there had a coil +that they gave public demos on - I do not know any of the actual data on +it save that it was about 7-10 feet tall, large solenoid primary of +about 10 turns with a tap on it and that it really caught my attention +every time it was set off + +Anyway, I just got a bunch of material from you so I will print it out +and read through it. I did get your post on Neon Sign transformers and +the other people are also interested in starting small but I also got +the info about that place that sells GE surplus pole pigs too so we +should be ready for that too! + +Thanks for the clarification re: the Schedule 40 pipe - I had always +looked at it as being heavier so therefore "better" - never thought of +the actual material as being a liability. What about ABS - is there any +difference with that? + +Anyway, we will probably do a couple capacitors in the next week or so. +Like I said, I have an OK vacuum pump ( I do graphic arts and printing +) +and can pump it out so that should improve things. + +Anyway, many many thanks for your time and help! + +TTYL - Dave ë:-) + b QMPro 1.51 b "Oxymoron": A really, really, dumb baby ox... + + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0434 + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 852 Date: 11-13-93 12:34 + From: Guy Daugherty + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> RQ>50' x 60' with 8' masonry walls and 8' sheet metal walls on + +RQ> GD> This is geting out of hand, Richard. + +RQ>Well Guy, I need a place to put all of my stuff where it won't +RQ>get rained on. Any other bright ideas? + + Yeah, but the perpetual motion thing with the generator driving + the motor driving the generator isn't working the way I thought it + would. + +RQ>I have about $5000.00 worth of Tesla equip. ($15,000 replacement +RQ>cost), about $5000.00 worth of chemistry equip, not to mention +RQ>boxes of homemade pyrotechinics equipment (ball mill, star +RQ>presses, rocket ramming table, drying racks, rolls of paper and +RQ>tubing, mixing containers, sieves, etc.) I also buy, sell, and + + No. Richard, you're NOT building fireworks, too? STOP IT!! + +RQ>build/rebuild/repair Vespa scooters; own three now, plus parts of +RQ>a forth, plus a workbench of special tools for engines, frames, +RQ>wheels, etc. + + Not much surprise there, really..... + +RQ>I would like to mess around with some hard vacuum equipment, +RQ>and do some bulb blowing/tube bending... and I need a place to +RQ>put my shop tools (band saw, drill press, belt sander, table saw, +RQ>air compressor, etc.) + +RQ>Then I need an office (some place other than my bedroom), where I +RQ>can put my $5000.00 worth of computer equipt., desk, and library, +RQ>and what do I do with my 55 gallon fish tank? The AV equipment? + +RQ>Where do you suggest I go with all of my toys? I would like to + + Oh, no, Richard. Don't EVER leave the door open like that. + +RQ>house everything somewhere where I don't disturb people, I can + + I'm kinda worried about how you're disturbing yourself.... + +RQ>work day or night at will; blow things up, burn things out, and +RQ>set up and fire some big coils, and all will be safe. + + You need a concrete-lined pit. + +RQ>My "eccentricities" core my very being. I have a temporary "block + + Not me. Completely nnnnormal, here. Honest. My neighbor's dog + will attest to this in court. + +RQ>house" out in the back drive where I mill powders, but I worry +RQ>about vandals having their tables turned on them, or some +RQ>innocent kids investigating the grinding noise and accidently +RQ>blowing themselves off the property. I retained a shipping/ + + Just desserts. + +RQ>receiving agent some years ago, and he will tell you that I get +RQ>the most bizzare packages he has ever seen... + + We take your word for it..... + +RQ>BTW I don't think I require professional advice on how to spend + + Oh, I'm just amateur. Haven't made a cent at it, yet.... + +RQ>money, I learned just fine, and I know exactly why I get up and +RQ>go to work every day. My priorities are different than most +RQ>people, and so are my needs. This building is not an extra- +RQ>vagance. It is already filled, and I will probably have to add an +RQ>additional storage building within the first couple of years or +RQ>so, then I imagine I will have to add another building to move +RQ>out my shop equipment to keep the floor space clear in the main +RQ>lab area. What would you do? + + Ummm.... place a palm against each temple and repeat "Oh, no!" a + dozen times? + +-!- + SLMR 2.1a But when the first shot hit the dock, I started +runnin' + +-!- GEcho 1.00 + ! Origin: The Silhouetter bbs (209)472-0843 USR DS 16.8K +(1:208/216) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2826 Date: 11-13-93 13:26 + From: Richard Quick + To: Brian Mcmurry + Subj: Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + BM> On Sun 7-Nov-1993 4:14p, Richard Quick wrote: + + RQ> These units must be run with a heavy current limiter or they + RQ> will pull the entire neighborhood into your experiment. You + RQ> should be able to energize them without dimming the lights. + + BM> I've been following all the Tesla threads and wonder what + BM> your monthly electric bill runs. :) + + BM> BTW, keep it coming. + +Thanks, another vote of confidence. Much appreciated. + +Well it's not as bad as it sounds. Tesla had one god: EFFICIENCY! + +If you follow his work, you will find that efficiency is what +makes his systems beautiful, they don't waste much. + +At one time I hooked a standard electric company wattmeter up to +the 240 V 100 A single phase supply circuit that I am using at +this time. Over a period of a month or so I used about $20.00 +worth of electricity to actually fire coils. + +There are other circuits that I tap to provide utilities to the +coils. Some of my spark gaps use compressed air to quench, others +use 240 volt vacuum motors, yet another uses muffin fans, I also +run a rotary gap motor in combination with a static gap on all my +bigger stuff for better efficiency and performance. These +utilities might use 25% of the energy I put into the coil, so add +another $5.00. I would feel comfortable saying $25-$30 a month. + +Even when I run a big coil at 8-10 KVA I don't leave it running +all night. Five or six runs of between 3-8 minutes each is enough +to satisfy me, give me the data I need to improve, and get some +good video. + +I don't fire every night. It is much more fun to have company +over and have a friend video tape the coils in action. The big +stuff has to be fired outdoors since I don't have the ceiling +height or floor space to fire anything bigger than an 8" coil +indoors. Outdoor firing is weather and neighbor dependant. I have +had some bad luck firing coils in windy conditions, and the +neighbors have threaten to get their torches and burn me out +if I fire too late at night (spark gaps sound like unmuffled +chainsaws at this power level). + +The pole pigs used in heavy work are over 95% efficient, but +current limiting, depending on type, can waste 50% of your input +energy in the form of heat. In every area of my work I have +pushed the edges of my efficiencies, just as Tesla would have. +I use efficient step up power supplies to drive the oscillators, +with efficient: current limiters, tank circuits, capacitors, +spark gaps, etc.. With neons power factor correction helps a lot. + +The goal in 1/4 wave coils is to turn every watt possible into +discharge, and waste as little as possible between the wall and +the discharge terminal. I am very good at it, and I believe I am +holding record spark lengths for input powers. If I do not hold +records, then I am very very close, but I have not seen any +system outperform mine up to 10KVA. And there is still room to do +better with my 1/4 wave coils. + +To give you an idea, my power processing efficiencies range from +460 to 1100 watts (power drawn from the wall), per foot of spark +generated on my large coil. These figures are not linear, as I am +not using a sychronous rotary spark gap. The average strike from +the coil will reach anywhere from nine to eleven feet at 5-8 KVA. +But have seen more than a few 15' strikes at powers under 10 KVA. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2933 Date: 11-13-93 15:17 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: tesla coils +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Hi Richard - I have had time to go through and read the stuff you +posted - thanks again for the time you are spending here - this info +will be not only a great help but also a great motivator. + +I had thought about getting back into Tesla coils for some time and +it took seeing what some one else out there was doing it to get me +started + + DH> Very interesting that so much of the energy from it could be + DH> so closely coupled to the second coil... This will be a fun + DH> winter project!!! + +The "extra coil" is completely uncoupled from the driver system. +Current from the driver is being fed into the base of the free +standing "extra" coil by transmission line. While you are not +able to see in the video... The transmission line glows with +corona from the heavy current. + +I figured that it was not part of the primary / secondary circuit +but got it's power through the wire off of the Tesla secondary. + +Amazing stuff and definitely the next thing to try after building the +first coil. + + DH> I was talking with one of the people and they agreed to + DH> start on a smaller coil - I was thinking in the order of 4" + DH> diameter and about 3' long. + +The aspect ratio (height to width ratio) is important. The +planned coil has an aspect ratio of 9:1 (36" long, 4" diam.) +this should be reduced to no more than 5:1 on a 4" diam. coil. +6" coils work best with 4:1 aspect ratio, anything larger 3:1. + +******(cut from another part of a post)******* +The coil should be wound with good quality magnet wire. I use +double Formvar enamel coated magnet wire. Magnet wire gives you +maximum inductance. A coil should have over 900 turns, but not +too much over 1000 turns. There is a little leeway here. Select a +gauge of wire which will allow the aspect ratio and number of +turns to fall within this range. +********************************************** + + +OK - I made an "editorial decision" today to go for a 6" diameter form +and make it 24" long. I just was out running errands and got 1,500' +of 22 gauge Heavy Formvar insulated magnet wire so with a diameter of +0.0253, this works out to 948 turns - right in the ballpark that you +suggested in another part of this post. + +I think the other people were thinking in the realm of the normal +misconception of Tesla coils as being long and skinny but I guess that +would make them longer than 1/4 wave... + +We'll see what happens! + + +Vacuum Spark Gap +the video, but once it was working, it worked great. It has +trouble at power levels over 5 kVA. After an evening on the big +coil at 8 to 10 kVA I had some pitting and melting of the +electrode faces. This was reduced as I cut back on the number of +electrodes, increased the size (both length and diam.) of the +electrodes, and allowed for a larger gap between electrodes. + +OK - I wonder if it would be feasible to make it with continuously +variable gap size - something with threaded plastic rods... + +I think that since we are starting with neon sign x-formers, we can +just use the standard 6" PVC gap you showed - aren't going to be +running too much power through it + +These homemade capacitors are high Q, reliable, and relatively +easy to build. Pumping them down will really help. + +As I said - I do printing as well as the electronics and computers and +every piece of equipment here ( almost ) has some kind of vacuum pump +associated with it. These are all rotary-vane types so not really +high Torr but should be OK for "potting" the caps in oil. + + DH> You mention that PVC is better but you also say not to use + DH> Schedule 40 - both kinds of pipe are rated as being Schedule + +PVC is the worst plastic for use in secondary coils. It is +"lossy" (high RF dissipation factor) and has a low dielectric +strength. But it is commonly used because, as you mentioned, it +is available. Coil forms, regardless of material, should be as +thin as possible. Schedule 40 is thick, and is rated for pressure +use. Try to locate the thinner "drain" pipe or "flume duct" PVC +or other thin wall plastic. If PVC is used, it MUST be dry (baked +is preferred) and well sealed with a low loss sealant like poly- +urethane or two part epoxy. + +OK - there is some pretty thin wall stuff in our local "Home Center" +store - I was worried about mechanical strength though - I can deflect +this pipe with just moderate pressure - I will have to stop into the +Cadillac Plastics store and see what they have in their cut-off's +bin... Also, I have a small South Bend lathe and could probably get +Schedule 40 and then turn off a bunch of it until it got too thin... + +Baking it and then sealing it is a good idea - I will probably use the +slow speed on the lathe to wind the coil so I could also turn it +slowly while I was applying the sealer - keep it drip-free... + +A combination of dielectric strength, and the RF dissipation +factor. PVC fails this test, and requires drying and sealing to +make it suitable. Teflon is the best; good dielectric strength, +and the lowest RF dissipation factor; then comes polyethylene, +polystyrene, and polypropylene, all of which are good. The same + +When I was getting the wire, I made the mistake of pricing teflon +insulated wire. That would be a coil that shocks people twice. + + +You spent ??HOW?? much... + +You asked about power supplies: The pole pig info is on it's way. +See my two part post on obtaining neons for free, and rebuilding +them for high output, high efficiency, Tesla power supplies. + +I got both sets of info - the guy you recommended was out hunting but +will be back on this Monday - they knew about Tesla coils though and +recognized your name... + +Remember Tesla power supplies must be protected with extensive +RF choking, and safety gaps. This is especially important with +neons, which are much more delicate than pole pigs or potential +xfrmrs. I also use bypass capacitors. For bypass capacitance +across the power supply HV terminals you WANT a dielectric with a +high RF dissipation factor. Barium titanate capacitors with a DC +rating are ideal for this use. Use a 4x voltage safety factor. + +Got it - the insulation of the neon is only meant to handle 15 KV, not +whatever the coil is putting out... I have a bunch of largish ferrite +torrids so I'll use them and a spark gap. + +The other construction secret not covered in the video is the +ground connection. Once the coil is wound and sealed I take the +base wire and pull it up out of the sealant until it is free all +the way to the beginning of the first turn. I clip off the excess +wire, leaving about a 2" tail. I lay the tail on a metal block, + +Great idea - high current, low impedance and quick connection. + +Anyway, this message is kind of chopped up, I saved your posts and +then just went in with Q Edit and edited and added replies but you +should follow who is talking... + +Again - thanks for your time and info - I'll have to send you copies +of the pictures once we start building this puppy! + +TTYL - Dave ë:-) + b QMPro 1.51 b True Multitasking - 3 PC's and a chair with +wheels... + + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0434 + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 13 Nov 93 19:17:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Tesla "Q" Factors + +Since some people are saving these posts to disk, and at least +one other person (Dave Halliday) is going to embark on some coil +building. I thought I would take a moment and discuss some Tesla +theory that directly relates to coil efficiencies. The subject +is the "Q" factor. + +Q is literally the "Quality" factor. There is no real way to +calculate Q in a subassembly, assembly, connection, or component +in a Tesla coil. But Q exists. Q in a secondary coil can be calc- +ulated from the physical coil data after it is wound, but with +most coil parts it is more like a "god". Some people dedicate +their lives in search of god, coilers dedicate their lives in +search of higher Qs. + +The Q factor of any Tesla component is a combination of material, +design, and construction. A coiler never reaches near theoretical +Q factors. We don't wind our coils out of high temperature super- +conductors and fire them submerged in liquid nitrogen. Indeed +people hardly ever submerge their coils in oil like in good old +days. Oil submersion is probably the single greatest thing you +can do to raise the overall Q factor in any Tesla coil system. In +the old days they almost had to submerge the coils in oil to +regain Q that was lost in the use of "classic" materials such as +wood or cardboard coil forms, rubber or tar insulators, silk or +cotton covered wire. These "classic" construction materials are +inherently low Q and result in designs and construction techni- +ques that are also low Q. Builders tolerated oil leaking wooden +boxes and greasy cabinets in many cases to get a good spark. + +We live in an age of high Q materials and construction techni- +ques. I have mentioned some of the most commonly used materials +in several posts, but I will list a few again. Teflon, polyethy- +lene, polystyrene, polypropylene, acrylics, epoxy, hot glue, +enamel and polyurethane sealers. As well as the all time classic +high Q corona suppressant, mineral oil. + +Modern coils had to be redesigned in order to take advantage of +these new materials. These modern designs differ in many ways +from a coil using "classic" low Q materials. Secondary coils can +be close wound with magnet wire rather than space wound with +insulated wire. Primary coils can be tighter, placing higher +inductance into a smaller area. Coupling can be increased +dramatically, even in 1/4 wave systems, by using corona sup- +pressing sealers and toroid discharge terminals. The coils get +smaller, more powerful, and more efficient. + +Building high Q systems means we can live without things like oil +submersion, and still get better spark. With these higher Q +systems it is more economical to put additional capacitance and +heavier power supplies on line to increase spark than it is to +struggle getting the system Q closer to ultimate theoretical. +Theoretical Q can go to infinity. + +So when you are designing, hunting materials, and building; +always keep an eye on the Q factor. Attention paid to many little +areas adds up to substantially higher overall system Q. A solid +ground, tight clean connections, close wound and sealed +secondary, primary coil of high Q material wound on a high Q +plastic form, well aligned gaps that quench, plastic film HV +pulse discharging capacitance, and toroid dischargers are some of +the major factors in the overall system Q. + +Experiments in a variety of Tesla systems shows that the overall +Q of the system is limited by the lowest Q component used. The +old expression "The chain is as strong as its' weakest link" +applies. + +One area that is frequently neglected by Tesla coilers is the Q +of the system RF ground and the ground path. Since coil systems +are built from the "ground" up, this is the first thing a good +coiler will look at when he goes to set up and fire a coil. I +know a guy in New York who fires at about the same power levels +as I do. My coil systems are much higher Q and I get much better +spark using less energy with a smaller coil. When I took a close +look at his coil setup, I noticed he was grounding his coil +system to the neutral wire in the breaker box. Walking outside, I +traced the ground path to a single 3' copper plated rod driven in +by the utility company to ground the supply xfrmr to the +building. This is completely inadequate for high powered Tesla +work, and is quite unsafe. + +I also noticed that this guy had a newly constructed all wood +power control cabinet. Now there is nothing wrong with that as +long as it is well wired with ground strap, which it wasn't. But +out back I could see a nice metal control cabinet that had been +recently gutted. When I inquired, he stated he had to switch to +an ungrounded, wooden, control cabinet because he was drawing +sparks to fingers when he touched the controls... + +The paced distance from the base of his secondary to the 3' +copper clad ground rod was slightly over 75'. Most of the +distance was traversed with #10 wire. No wonder when he grounded +the cabinet and touched to controls he drew spark, his ground +path had a high RF impedance, and was backing up like a clogged +toilet. I tactfully offered some advice, which was refused. +Obviously he had spent a lot of effort compounding his mistakes, +and had no desire to let someone else point them out. + +Don't make the same mistake. Be efficient and safe. Ground +properly from the very start. Think Q! + +-!- + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 839 Date: 11-14-93 20:22 + From: Joseph Worthington + To: Guy Daugherty + Subj: 10kva Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +The thread on the Tesla project is very interesting! +If you are the moderator, please let it go on for a while. +Joseph +-!- + ! Origin: The Bunker---Eugene, OR (503) 345-2429 (1:152/11) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 886 Date: 11-15-93 22:45 + From: David Tiefenbrunn + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Hello, Richard. + + I have sent you a video tape. I hope the + offer is still good. I included a few + minutes of the first run of the 45KW generator. + + The new lab sounds great. + + Of course, you will probably get the tape before + this message. :) + + Dave + +___ + * OFFLINE 1.54 * I love the smell of ozone in the morning. + +-!- Maximus 2.01wb + ! Origin: =Abbey Road BBS= Higganum, Ct. (203)345-7635 +(1:320/5967) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 15 Nov 93 22:51:20 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Spark Gap Technology + +I recently explained the definition of "Q", and the requirements +and functions of high Q grounding systems in Tesla coils. Another +area that needs attention is spark gap technologies. + +Spark gaps are the "brain" of the Tesla Coil. They are high the +voltage switches that allow the tank circuit capacitance to +charge and discharge. As performance of the spark gap switch is +improved, peak powers in the tank circuit grow without requiring +additional input power. When a good coiler sets up and fires a +system, the first thing he looks at is his ground. The second +thing he looks at is his spark gap system. + +Before I cover the main points on spark gaps, I want to talk for +a moment about their more modern replacements, the vacuum tube, +and the solid state transistor (FET etc.). Both modern day +replacements can be made to function in Tesla type oscillators +in several modes. A single resonating coil may be base fed RF +current from solid state and tube drivers, or primary coils may +be driven with amplifier circuits. Class C amplifiers are +preferred. Both of these modes work well within the power +handling abilities of the switch (tube or solid state device), +but when it comes to handling raw power, nothing delivers the +megawatts like the old fashion spark gap. The spark gap gives +the biggest bang for the buck. + +No discussion of spark gaps is complete without at least a rough +definition of "quenching". This term is commonly thrown around +when talking about spark gaps. When I began coiling, I saw the +term frequently, but never could find a good definition. + +Quenching refers, more than anything else, to the art of extin- +guishing an established arc in the gap. The term points to the +fact that it is much easier to start a gap firing than it is to +put one out. In Tesla coils, putting out the arc is imperative to +good tank circuit performance. + +A cold, non-firing, spark gap is "clean". It contains no plasma, +or hot ions. On applying voltage to the gap, a tension is esta- +blished, and electromagnetic lines of force form. The physical +shape of the electrodes determines to a large degree the shape of +the field, or lines of force, and the resultant breakdown voltage +of the gap at any given distance. In other words, electrodes of +different shapes will break down at different voltages, even with +identical distances between them. + +Once the voltage punctures the air (or other dielectric gas) +the gap resistance drops. The breakdown ionizes the gas between +electrodes, and the arc begins to ablate and ionize the metal +electrodes themselves. This mixture of ions forms a highly cond- +uctive plasma between the gap electrodes. Without this highly +conductive channel through the gap, efficient tank circuit +oscillation would be impossible. But the plasma also shorts the +gap out. A gap choked with hot ions does not want to open and +allow the capacitors to recharge for the next pulse. The gap is +gets "dirty" with hot ionized gases, and must be quenched. + +Quenching typically relies on one or more techniques. The most +common method used is expending the arc out over a series of +gaps. Gaps of this type are know as "series static gaps". +"Static" in this use refers to the fact that the gap is not +actively quenched. The plasma is formed in several locations, +and the voltage at each gap is lowered as more electrodes are +placed in series. Heat, hot ions, and voltage are distributed. As +the tank circuit loses energy to the secondary coil, the voltage +and current in the tank circuit, and likewise across the series +of gaps, drops to the point where the arc is no longer self +sustaining. The arc breaks, and the capacitors are allowed to +recharge for the next pulse. + +The second type of quenching technique involves using an air +blast. A high speed air stream is introduced into one or more +gaps. The air stream does not alter the magnetic lines of force +that cause a dielectric breakdown in the gap, so gap distance +remains unchanged. But once an arc is established, the air stream +removes hot ions from between electrodes and physically disrupts +the established arc. The gap is swept clean of hot ions, the arc +breaks, and the capacitors are allowed to recharge. + +A third type of quenching used is the magnetically quenched gap. +A strong magnetic field is placed between the electrodes. Since +this field alters the field formed by the high voltage prior to +breakdown of the dielectric in the gap, it may affect the break- +down voltage of a given set of electrodes. Once the gap breaks +down however, the field shape changes. The high current flowing +through the gap generates a field shape associated with the +current. By placing a strong magnetic field in right angles to +the current flow, the arc is disrupted. This disruption tears at +the magnetic lines of force formed by the high current channel +flowing through the gap. The arc is twisted, and broken, without +having to remove ions. + +Another type of spark gap called the "quench gap" is used on +coils designed for CW output. This gap was discussed in a +previous post and will not be covered here. + +The next stage employed in spark gap technologies is placing a +rotary gap in the circuit. The rotary gap is a mechanical spark +gap usually consisting of revolving disk with electrodes mounted +on the rim. The rotor is spun and the electrodes move in relation +to a set of stationary electrodes nearby. As a moving electrode +comes near a stationary electrode, the gap fires. As is moves +away the arc is stretched and broken. The rotary gap offers the +sophisticated coiler the opportunity to control the pulse in the +tank circuit. A properly designed rotary gap can control the +break rate (bps) and the dwell time. + +Rotary gaps are run in two modes, synchronous and asynchronous. +A synchronous gap runs at a fixed speed and is constructed so +that the gap fires in direct relation to the 60 cycle waveform of +the line feed to the capacitors. The point in the waveform where +the gaps are closest can be changed by rotating the synchronous +motor housing or by altering the disk position on the motor +shaft. By carefully matching the output of the supply transformer +to the value of capacitance in the tank circuit, then running +a properly set up synchronous gap, it is possible to have the gap +fire only at the voltage peaks of the 60 cycle input current. + +This technique allows the tank circuit to fire only on the +maximum voltage peaks and delivers the pulse from a fully charged +capacitor each time the gap fires. If properly engineered, +synchronous spark gap systems will deliver the largest EMFs to +the secondary coil. They are however, the most finicky, and +difficult to engineer of any spark gap, and require sophisticated +test equipment to set up. + +Asynchronous gaps are more common. They work quite well and are +much easier to run. Fixed or variable speed motors may be used, +though variable speed gaps give the builder the most experimental +leeway. Break rates need to be in excess of 400 bps, and I have +found that breaks rates around 450-480 bps give the best +discharge. Since the gap is firing more often than the 60 cycle +waveform switches polarity, more power can be fed into the tank +circuit, as the capacitors can be charged and discharged more +rapidly. Though this system will increase the amount of spark +from the secondary, sparks are generally not as long as with +synchronous gaps. + +At higher powers (over 5 kVA) even a rotary gap will not deliver +the quench times required for excellent performance unless it is +very large. If the arc in the spark gap hangs too long (NOT +quenched), it leaves the tank circuit electrically closed. With +the gap still firing energy will backflow from the secondary into +the primary and create continued oscillation in the tank circuit. +The secondary is then suppling energy to maintain the arc in the +spark gap. As power levels build, so does the pressure on the +spark gap. Engineering more sophisticated gap systems is the only +solution in large 1/4 wave coils and Magnifiers. + +The easiest solution at 5 kVA is to add a static gap in series +with the rotary. By messing with the gap settings it is not +difficult to develop a gap system that fires smoothly and +quenches well. As power levels increase though static gaps will +be overwhelmed. More sophisticated gaps are required to replace +the static series gaps. Magnetic or airblast gaps must be used in +conjunction with the rotary gap to remove the strain on the +rotary and get the quench times back down. + +Somewhere in here I need to cover the Q of spark gaps. Not all +spark gaps have the same Q. I have found that using large series +static gaps with lots of electrodes; the Q of the gap system +decreases as the quench time decreases! Try to avoid static gap +designs with more than 6 - 8 electrodes in series. + +As my power levels went up, and my spark gap Qs went down, I +experimented with options to regain performance. I found that by +running static gaps in a combination of series/parallel gave me +good quench times and I regained some lost Q from the arc having +to make so many series jumps. The idea was to split the arc down +into two or three equal paths, reducing the current traveling +each set of series gaps. In this fashion I was able to achieve +excellent quench times with a small rotary running around 5 kVA. + +The lesson learned was too many gaps in series kills the Q of a +spark gap. By adding gaps in parallel, and reducing the number of +gaps in series, some Q was regained while power levels increased. +This is a valuable hint in spark gap designs. + +Another factor that should be brought into this discussion is the +effects of cooling the electrodes. To start with, I have never +run even a simple static gap without some airflow. My first few +really good static gaps were constructed inside of PVC pipe +sections with a 5" muffin fan on top. The fan did not supply +sufficient air to disrupt the arc, but did assist in removing hot +ions, and cooling the electrodes down. This allows for longer run +times. As my work progressed I realized that reducing the +electrode temperature, while not actually quenching the gap, +reduces the amount of metal ions introduced into the arc, and +makes the gap easier to quench with an airblast or magnets. + +I am going to cut this off here. I feel I have covered most of +the basics, and thrown a few ideas out into the cyberspace. I +would be more than happy to expand on spark gap technologies at +any time should somebody have any specific questions, comments, +problems, or corrections. Remember, armchair debate is no +substitute for actually going out an experimenting with a few +live systems, and I am always hoping someone will tell me a +better way to do it! + +One final safety note. Spark gaps are loud, and emit a lot +of hard UV radiation. Wear hearing protection as required, and +never stare at an operating spark gap without welding goggles. +To examine the arc on large coils, a sun observation filter +on a small telescope will tell you if your gaps are quenching. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 773 Date: 11-15-93 22:57 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +Rotary gaps are run in two modes, synchronous and asynchronous. +A synchronous gap runs at a fixed speed and is constructed so +that the gap fires in direct relation to the 60 cycle waveform of +the line feed to the capacitors. The point in the waveform where +the gaps are closest can be changed by rotating the synchronous +motor housing or by altering the disk position on the motor +shaft. By carefully matching the output of the supply transformer +to the value of capacitance in the tank circuit, then running +a properly set up synchronous gap, it is possible to have the gap +fire only at the voltage peaks of the 60 cycle input current. + +This technique allows the tank circuit to fire only on the +maximum voltage peaks and delivers the pulse from a fully charged +capacitor each time the gap fires. If properly engineered, +synchronous spark gap systems will deliver the largest EMFs to +the secondary coil. They are however, the most finicky, and +difficult to engineer of any spark gap, and require sophisticated +test equipment to set up. + +Asynchronous gaps are more common. They work quite well and are +much easier to run. Fixed or variable speed motors may be used, +though variable speed gaps give the builder the most experimental +leeway. Break rates need to be in excess of 400 bps, and I have +found that breaks rates around 450-480 bps give the best +discharge. Since the gap is firing more often than the 60 cycle +waveform switches polarity, more power can be fed into the tank +circuit, as the capacitors can be charged and discharged more +rapidly. Though this system will increase the amount of spark +from the secondary, sparks are generally not as long as with +synchronous gaps. + +At higher powers (over 5 kVA) even a rotary gap will not deliver +the quench times required for excellent performance unless it is +very large. If the arc in the spark gap hangs too long (NOT +quenched), it leaves the tank circuit electrically closed. With +the gap still firing energy will backflow from the secondary into +the primary and create continued oscillation in the tank circuit. +The secondary is then suppling energy to maintain the arc in the +spark gap. As power levels build, so does the pressure on the +spark gap. Engineering more sophisticated gap systems is the only +solution in large 1/4 wave coils and Magnifiers. + +The easiest solution at 5 kVA is to add a static gap in series +with the rotary. By messing with the gap settings it is not +difficult to develop a gap system that fires smoothly and +quenches well. As power levels increase though static gaps will +be overwhelmed. More sophisticated gaps are required to replace +the static series gaps. Magnetic or airblast gaps must be used in +conjunction with the rotary gap to remove the strain on the +rotary and get the quench times back down. + +Somewhere in here I need to cover the Q of spark gaps. Not all +spark gaps have the same Q. I have found that using large series +static gaps with lots of electrodes; the Q of the gap system +decreases as the quench time decreases! Try to avoid static gap +designs with more than 6 - 8 electrodes in series. + +As my power levels went up, and my spark gap Qs went down, I +experimented with options to regain performance. I found that by +running static gaps in a combination of series/parallel gave me +good quench times and I regained some lost Q from the arc having +to make so many series jumps. The idea was to split the arc down +into two or three equal paths, reducing the current traveling +each set of series gaps. In this fashion I was able to achieve +excellent quench times with a small rotary running around 5 kVA. + +The lesson learned was too many gaps in series kills the Q of a +spark gap. By adding gaps in parallel, and reducing the number of +gaps in series, some Q was regained while power levels increased. +This is a valuable hint in spark gap designs. + +Another factor that should be brought into this discussion is the +effects of cooling the electrodes. To start with, I have never +run even a simple static gap without some airflow. My first few +really good static gaps were constructed inside of PVC pipe +sections with a 5" muffin fan on top. The fan did not supply +sufficient air to disrupt the arc, but did assist in removing hot +ions, and cooling the electrodes down. This allows for longer run +times. As my work progressed I realized that reducing the +electrode temperature, while not actually quenching the gap, +reduces the amount of metal ions introduced into the arc, and +makes the gap easier to quench with an airblast or magnets. + +I am going to cut this off here. I feel I have covered most of +the basics, and thrown a few ideas out into the cyberspace. I +would be more than happy to expand on spark gap technologies at +any time should somebody have any specific questions, comments, +problems, or corrections. Remember, armchair debate is no +substitute for actually going out an experimenting with a few +live systems, and I am always hoping someone will tell me a +better way to do it! + +One final safety note. Spark gaps are loud, and emit a lot +of hard UV radiation. Wear hearing protection as required, and +never stare at an operating spark gap without welding goggles. +To examine the arc on large coils, a sun observation filter +on a small telescope will tell you if your gaps are quenching. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 774 Date: 11-16-93 02:40 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +I hope you find some of the information that I posted on spark +gaps useful. In the TESLA.ZIP file that I included with the copy +of the video tape there are GIF files that I made up showing +two of the spark gaps designs that I use, with related text files +on each. My airblast gap design on that disk is down and dirty +simple, ultra high Q, and gives incredible quench times. If you +are running neons up to 4 kVA and want to squeeze every inch of +spark out of the coil, this is a gap you might want to look at. + +The air can be supplied cheaply with an old diaphragm type com- +pressor. I have seen reconditioned compressors of this type for +around $40-$50 in the surplus catalogs (Surplus Center 1-800-488- +3407). What I did to obtain a long blast to quench the gap was +get an old propane tank and install a ball valve in the line to +the gap. It takes about 5 min to charge the tank with the +diaphragm type compressor, and you get about 90 seconds of +quenching. I used a RV trailer type tank, but you can gang them +up, or use a larger stationary type tank for longer run times. + +You will see the same basic gap shown in the video (stripped of +the air injection nozzle) as the safety gap for the pole pig. +I have two extra electrodes that I machined that are identical +to the two shown in the video. If you are interested I will let +you have them for $10.00. The material is machine grade brass, +and the electrodes weigh 1/4 lb. each, so they sink a lot of +heat. Run with the air blast they don't even warm up. + +-!- + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2937 Date: 11-16-93 10:49 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + DH> Thanks for the clarification re: the Schedule 40 pipe - I + DH> had always looked at it as being heavier so therefore + DH> "better" - never thought of the actual material as being a + DH> liability. What about ABS - is there any difference with + DH> that? + +I don't have any experience with ABS plastic secondaries. I have +seen some, but had nothing that I could compare to. Look up the +RF dissipation factor and that should give you some idea. Off the +top of my head, I would GUESS that ABS would work better than +PVC; not because I think ABS is any better, but because I know +PVC just couldn't be much worse. If I were using ABS I would dry +and seal the plastic like PVC. + + DH> Anyway, we will probably do a couple capacitors in the next + DH> week or so. Like I said, I have an OK vacuum pump ( I do + DH> graphic arts and printing ) and can pump it out so that + DH> should improve things. + +Good luck on the rolled caps, and look for some different +capacitor designs in the next few days. + + DH> Anyway, many many thanks for your time and help! + +No problem, glad to be of assistance. + + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 799 Date: 11-16-93 14:05 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + DH> I was talking with one of the people and they agreed to + DH> start on a smaller coil - I was thinking in the order of 4" + DH> diameter and about 3' long. + +The aspect ratio (height to width ratio) is important. The +planned coil has an aspect ratio of 9:1 (36" long, 4" diam.) +this should be reduced to no more than 5:1 on a 4" diam. coil. +6" coils work best with 4:1 aspect ratio, anything larger 3:1. + +******(cut from another part of a post)******* +The coil should be wound with good quality magnet wire. I use +double Formvar enamel coated magnet wire. Magnet wire gives you +maximum inductance. A coil should have over 900 turns, but not +too much over 1000 turns. There is a little leeway here. Select a +gauge of wire which will allow the aspect ratio and number of +turns to fall within this range. +********************************************** + + DH> OK - I made an "editorial decision" today to go for a 6" + DH> diameter form and make it 24" long. I just was out running + DH> errands and got 1,500' of 22 gauge Heavy Formvar insulated + DH> magnet wire so with a diameter of 0.0253, this works out to + DH> 948 turns - right in the ballpark that you suggested in + DH> another part of this post. + +Perfect! + + DH> I think the other people were thinking in the realm of the + DH> normal misconception of Tesla coils as being long and skinny + DH> but I guess that would make them longer than 1/4 wave... + +Long skinny coils do not couple well with the primary. What ends +up happening is that the primary excites only the bottom half of +the secondary, and the top half of the windings are just pushed +along by the bottom turns. Long skinny coils get hot at the base, +a sign of poor Q. Also they are more subject to splitting and +breakdown. By keeping the secondary coil within the given specs, +you get a nice low frequency coil, and the field flux from the +primary will sweep the entire secondary coil from the bottom turn +to the top turn. This way the energy exchange to the secondary is +distributed through the entire length of the wire, not just +forced into the bottom 300 or so turns. Your decision to go to a +slightly larger diam. coil form, and keep the aspect ratio within +the specs I recommend, is a good one. Use a large primary coil. + +BTW 1/4 wave resonate frequency is much more dependant on the +length of wire than the dimensions of the coil form. A form that +is long & skinny, or short and fat, makes no difference to the +1/4 wavelength of wire. But it makes all of the difference in the +world when that wire is intended to be a high Q Tesla coil. Long +skinny coils have lower Q, higher corona loss, lower breakdown +voltage, and poor coupling coefficients; but will have about the +same 1/4 wave frequency as the same length of wire wound on a +shorter, fatter coil form. The coil form with aspect ratios and +number of turns that fall into the design specs I gave are +reliably better performers. + + DH> OK - I wonder if it would be feasible to make it with + DK> continuously variable gap size - something with threaded + DK> plastic rods... + +Experiment away, and get some photos or video if you can. I would +be happy to trade tapes or photos even (one for one), and see +something new. As much as I do, I never tire of seeing more. + + DH> I think that since we are starting with neon sign x-formers, + DH> we can just use the standard 6" PVC gap you showed - aren't + DH> going to be running too much power through it + +All of the gaps that I showed, and use, are good ones. The +cylinder static gap is a solid performer. I sent along a GIF +diagram of this gap showing the internal construction, and a +related text file. This project can be built in a few hours with +a minimum of shop equipment for around $30.00 if you buy all the +parts new. Set the gaps between electrodes at about .035 of an +inch, or a little more, for 12 kv neons power supplies. The one +disadvantage of this gap is that the electrodes are fixed and +cannot be adjusted once bedded in epoxy, but you can jump to any +terminal on the gap with ease, changing the number of gaps used +in the circuit. Properly constructed, I have gotten 5' discharges +from a coil powered with neons using just a single cylinder +static gap unit, and the gap electrodes did not melt or pit. + +Coil forms, regardless of material, should be as thin as +possible. Schedule 40 is thick, and is rated for pressure +use. Try to locate the thinner "drain" pipe or "flume duct" PVC +or other thin wall plastic. If PVC is used, it MUST be dry (baked +is preferred) and well sealed with a low loss sealant like poly- +urethane or two part epoxy. (RQ previous post) + + DH> OK - there is some pretty thin wall stuff in our local "Home + DH> Center" store - I was worried about mechanical strength + DH> though - I can deflect it with little pressure. + +You'll have to trust me on this one. Handle the secondary with +some care, just don't drop or sit on it. . If it is built +properly with stiff plastic end caps, tightly wound, and well +sealed, it will be plenty strong enough to handle casually. + +Couple of other notes. I have a lathe too. After spending hours +setting up wire guides and tensioners, I decided it is much +easier and faster to wind coils by hand. The coils turn out +better too. It may take a little practice, but it is well worth +the time sitting in front of the coil form and laying down the +turns by hand, even with thin wire. I can wind a 6" coil in about +45 minutes or less. A first time winder should figure no more +than a couple hours. You will spend about the same amount of time +figuring out wire guides and tensioners for the lathe set up, and +the coil won't be any better quality. + +DO use the lathe to apply sealer. I set up a couple of heat lamps +and a small fan to speed up the dry time, and can get 8 coats +down in four hours. By constantly rotating the coil form you get +a nice smooth finish that looks and works great! + +My first "performing" coil was built to nearly the exact specs +for the 6" coil you described as being on the drawing board. The +coil has held up and still holds a key place in my arsenal. It +has survived massive overloads, been used in transmission +experiments, as an end resonator on the magnifier, and as a pick +up coil to detect RF currents in my house wiring while +experimenting with Tesla grounds. You can't hardly go wrong with +one, or even two, coils like this. + +You also mentioned you priced teflon covered wire. This stuff +makes killer secondaries, but like you said, "You paid HOW +MUCH???". Shop local HAMfests, this wire shows up by the spool at +greatly reduced prices in these flea markets. + +And again, if you have any problems, questions, or need +additional advice, feel free to ask. I look forward to hearing +about your progress and results. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 800 Date: 11-16-93 14:56 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Last week I posted on recovering and unpotting "dead" neon +transformer cores for use in high voltage power supplies. + +It ocurred to me that those people in warmer parts of the country +will not have days cold enough to freeze the tar potting solid +enough to chip away cleanly. The tar has to be at least 20 +degrees F or colder to chip cleanly and separate away from the +warmed core. + +I hope you thought of the obvious solution if the weather does +not cooperate in your area. Put the tar block in the freezer +overnight, then proceed with unpotting. + +Also I tracked down the problem with my system as far as the +ASCII characters in the pfc capacitance formula is concerned. +My PKZIP is repeatedly stripping out selective ASCII characters +when I test it. The divisor of that particular formula is +supposed to contain the greek letter pi in it. If you have saved +the post, and the formula has the letter pi stripped from the +divisor (which I believe is the case) please make a note of it. +Without pi in this formula the capacitance given by the equation +gets rather large... I sent up a correction, and the problem was +repeated. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 912 Date: 11-16-93 15:54 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> Tesla "Q" Factors + +RQ>Since some people are saving these posts to disk, and at least + >one other person (Dave Halliday) is going to embark on some coil + >building. I thought I would take a moment and discuss some Tesla + >theory that directly relates to coil efficiencies. The subject + >is the "Q" factor. + +Thanks again for the info! + + >recently gutted. When I inquired, he stated he had to switch to + >an ungrounded, wooden, control cabinet because he was drawing + >sparks to fingers when he touched the controls... + +I also recall stories about ham radio shacks having this problem. + +Used to work for the public aquarium in Boston and we had grounding +problems like you wouldn't believe - I was responsible for all of the +non-living exhibits ( PA and AV stuff ) and the ground at every single +outlet was at a different potential than any other outlet. I once found +50 volts difference between two located 20' apart... A guide was +setting up a temporary exhibit and used both outlets for their +equipment. They got a bit of a rude awakening that day + +TTYL - Dave ë:-) + b QMPro 1.51 b Every time I ATDT her, she ATH0's on me... + + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0434 + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 913 Date: 11-16-93 17:08 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> GD> This is geting out of hand, Richard. + +RQ>Well Guy, I need a place to put all of my stuff where it won't + >get rained on. Any other bright ideas? + +RQ>I have about $5000.00 worth of Tesla equip. ($15,000 +replacement + >cost), about $5000.00 worth of chemistry equip, not to mention + >boxes of homemade pyrotechinics equipment (ball mill, star + >presses, rocket ramming table, drying racks, rolls of paper and + >tubing, mixing containers, sieves, etc.) I also buy, sell, and + >build/rebuild/repair Vespa scooters; own three now, plus parts of + >a forth, plus a workbench of special tools for engines, frames, + >wheels, etc. + +RQ>I would like to mess around with some hard vacuum equipment, + >and do some bulb blowing/tube bending... and I need a place to + >put my shop tools (band saw, drill press, belt sander, table saw, + >air compressor, etc.) + +Geeez Richard - and I thought *I* had too much going on at once what +with my boat, woodworking shop, metal shop ( lathe, wirewelder and +torches ), music studio, homebrewing, BBS, computers and printing... + +This takes the cake + + b QMPro 1.51 b Tagline Lite: Not funny, but better for you... + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0434 + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +< CONTINUE HERE - KU > + + +111983 1438 +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 927 Date: 11-19-93 14:38 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Toroid Discharge Terminals + +Another feature of the "classic" Tesla coil design is the sphere +or ball discharge terminal. Tesla clearly was using spheres while +he was developing the Colorado Springs oscillator, but during his +work there he made the discovery of toroids. Photographs of the +Colorado Springs machine clearly shows a brass toroid as part of +the antenna mast to prevent corona leakage and premature breakout +from the top of the extra coil. + +As we examine photos of the Wardenclyff machine he built on Long +Island, it is clear that the entire tower was constructed to +carry the giant toroid terminal. I do not have verifiable infor- +mation as to the exact size of this terminal, but it is easily +over 50' in diameter. Probably closer to 75-100'. Toroids perform +several functions as discharge terminals on Tesla coils. + +They provide a large top capacitance. This top capacitance helps +"cancel" the high inductance in the secondary coil, and increase +throughput in the system. + +They break down at much higher voltages than other shapes. The +donut shaped field distributes the charge density. Higher +voltages must reached before electrical breakdown occurs. To the +coiler this means longer, higher voltage spark. For those of you +that have my video, you can see a 30% increase in spark lenghts +with no change to input power, the only thing I did was add a +larger toroid and retune the system. + +Toroids sever the coupling. This may be a controversial statement +on my part. But from what I have seen, appears to be true. A +sphere discharge terminal does not want to separate from the +field flux interactions between the primary and secondary. The +primary field flux wants to couple the sphere discharger into the +system as if it were another turn of the secondary. The spark +from the discharger will frequently follow these lines of force, +and seek to strike back to the primary. The spark discharge bends +back down, and aligns itself with the magnetic lines of force. + +While this may be useful if you wish to visualize the size and +shape of the field, it does nothing to increase your spark +lengths. A large toroid on the other hand will establish a field +identity that interacts destructively with the primary/secondary +field interaction. Since this destructive interaction occurs +above the top turns of the secondary is does not affect the coil +performance or ability to process energy. It does however allow +the spark to leave the system unaffected by the primary/secondary +lines of force. This has the effect of allowing a clean getaway +for the discharge and promotes those long strikes to the ground +or other more distant objects. + +Toriods also have the beneficial effect of lowering the frequency +of the secondary coil dramatically. By loading a large toriod on +a relatively small coil, a very low secondary frequency is +reached. Low frequency in Tesla systems means long spark. This +way a small coil can give big coil performance. Because of this +ability of the toriod to drop the frequency of the secondary to +such low frequencies, it is important to have a very large +primary available that can be tapped out to over 10-12 turns in +order to regain the system tune. Larger capacitors may be added, +but my experience shows that no additional power or capacitance +is required to get big increases in spark production. + +Clearly the toriod is the ultimate in high Q dischargers and +radiators in Tesla systems. Now go out and buy one. I can hear +Dave Halliday now..... "You Paid _HOW MUCH?_"!!! +Yup, spun aluminum toroids are available commercially, and they +run hundreds, even thousands of dollars each. My 20" wide by 5" +high commercial toriod ran me over 350 clams. My ten inch +secondary needs a toroid at least twice as big to achieve optimum +performance, and as commercial toroids get larger, the price +increases exponentially. I priced a 40" toroid for my coil at +$2000.00 not including shipping, and they gave me a six month +deliverly time... + +So I built one for $35.00, and it works GREAT! I will never spend +another penny on commercial spun aluminum toroids. Here are the +brief instructions: + +I buy the 4" or 6" diam. polyproplyene flexible black plastic +drain piping. This is made out of ridged plastic, so it does not +have a smooth surface, but it easy to bend to form circles of +varying diameters. + +I cut the flange off with a sharp knife, match the ends, and tape +them together with wide plastic tape. Once a large ring is +formed, I cover the entire surface with wide plastic tape to +smooth out the ridges in the material. The goal is to have an +even, smooth, surface. The tape choice helps with this con- +struction, Mylar and other tapes have no stretch, and are +difficult to work with as they wrinkle. I shopped several stores +before I found a stretchy material similar to electrical tape. +Tape is applied in overlapping strips, or bands, around the drain +pipe 4" or 6" cross section. Some surface irregularities are OK. + +Once the ring is smoothed with a layer of plastic tape, I retape +the entire ring with aluminum plumbers tape. This tape comes in +two standard widths, I bought a large roll of each. Apply strips +of plumbers tape over the prepared surface, make sure the entire +surface is covered, and press out any wrinkles with a fingernail +or tool. You should now have an aluminized ring. Cut out a circle +of thin masonite, wood paneling, or thin plastic so that it will +friction fit in the center of the alumunized ring. Place some +blocks up under this panel, set the ring in place, and tape the +edges all around on both sides with aluminum tape to hold it in +place. Spray adhesive and heavy duty foil are used to cover both +sides if the center plate. Roll out all wrinkles with a socket or +a wood dowel. Works great, about 1/100th the cost. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2 Date: 16 Nov 93 20:33:44 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Well, lets see; I covered basic spark gaps yesterday, next on +the list would have to be pulse capacitance. I posted a two part +message last month sometime detailing construction of a rolled +type pulse discharge capacitor. Since the detail of this partic- +ular unit was pretty well covered, I will focus on other homemade +types; the flat stacked plate type capacitor, a little on the +salt water cap, and a little on capacitor theory as it applies to +Tesla coils. + +I have seen several types of homemade stacked plate capacitors. +The two types differ as to the orientation of the plate stacks. +Some are stacked vertically, others are stacked horizontally. +Before I go into construction details I should cover some of the +advantages of flat stacked plate caps for use in Tesla coils and +other high voltage applications. + +Flat plate caps have no inductance. Rolled caps contain two or +more plates which are tightly rolled up. Rolled plates exhibit +some properties of coils, they contain a certain degree of self +inductance. This limits the size of the rolled cap in Tesla +applications. As plates grow in size, the self inductance grows, +and the caps exhibit self-resonance that will interfere destruct- +ively with the oscillation of the Tesla tank circuit. The rolled +cap that I posted about previously, is about as large as you can +get in a single unit without having self-resonance drop below 1 +megahertz. + +Flat plate caps are better adapted for pulse applications. Rolled +caps have to discharge a long plate. The further away the free +end of the plate is from the high current terminal, the longer it +takes for the cap to discharge. In essence this distance is also +an extension of the tank circuit wiring, as the plate gets longer +losses increase. Again the rolled capacitor I posted previously +is pushing the design limits of efficiency in this area. As the +rolled cap gets larger, efficiency of pulsing drops off. + +Flat plate caps can be constructed to handle higher voltages. +Rolled caps have efficiency limits in individual units as to the +breakdown voltage. A single dielectric is used per plate. If +dielectrics are made thicker, efficiency drops off, if made +thinner efficiency increases, but they break down. Using standard +materials, the rolled cap I posted about is at the edge of this +design limit as well. + +Flat plate caps can be built for larger capacitance. The rolled +cap, because of the design constraints listed above, won't give +you much additional capacitance without increases in losses, +problems with self-resonance, and lowering of the capacitor Q. + +The rolled cap that I posted is a good unit. I have built nearly +20 of these caps, and I use them a lot. But do not look to expand +much on this design. It has passed through several improvements +and I really think it is pushing the design limits in all of the +important areas. Next we need to look at the flat plate cap, as +there is much to be done yet, but first look at the dielectric. + +The best Tesla capacitor dielectric is low density polyethylene +plastic. Whether you build rolled, stacked plate, or salt water +caps you should look hard at this plastic before settling on +anything else. It has an extraordinarily low RF dissipation +factor for the cost. The actual "in use" dielectric constant on +homemade caps using this plastic is right around 2. This is a +little lower than the book value, but homemade applications of +this dielectric rarely have the close plate bonding that are +achieved commercially with clean room vacuum presses. + +This dielectric melts at 100 deg. C. But because of the very low +dissipation factor the plastic is subject to very little in- +ductive heating. There is little loss, therefore little heating. +When using this plastic however, it is imperative to cover in +mineral oil to distribute any heat that is formed, suppress +corona and displace air. Plastic caps not covered in oil are +guaranteed to fail in seconds. Plates, dielectric, and oil MUST +BE CLEAN!... BTW The cheapest and most common plate material is +aluminum. In the rolled cap, aluminum flashing is available +precut in a perfect plate width, and there are other widths +available. Flat plate caps can use flashing, but it is frequently +more cost effective to use foil. + +Now that we have established a few basics, lets talk plate cap +design. The first type of flat stacked plate requires the cap be +pumped down to a pretty hard vacuum to remove air. This is the +horizontal stacked plate capacitor. Typically these are built in +a Tupperware type storage box. Plastic, plate, plastic, plate +etc. are stacked one atop the other to build up the value. The +breakdown voltage is directly related to the dielectric thick- +ness used. 60 mil poly sheet is recommended and will have a +breakdown voltage in the Tesla tank circuit between 11-17 kv +rms input voltage depending on the quality of material, and the +cleanliness of the construction. + +Once the box is filled, and all parallel plate connections are +made, high current busses are brought through the lid of the +container and sealed airtight with hot glue. Then the lid is +snapped on, and it too is sealed with a bead of hot glue around +the edges. The next part is important: A single hole is made in +the lid for the vacuum connection. A fitting is hot glued into +the hole and a hose is attached to the vacuum pump. The cap is +pumped down, then the hose is clamped off and disconnected with- +out allowing air back into the cap. Submerge the hose in a bucket +of clean mineral oil and release the clamp. This allows the oil +to backfill the capacitor, and displaces the air that was +removed. Once backfilled to normal pressure, I pump them down a +second time, and repeat the procedure to make sure that all +trapped air between the plates is removed. Air bubbles will form +corona hot spots that will cause dielectric failure. + +The vertical stacked plate capacitor is much like the cap I just +covered. But the vertical cap does not require pumpdown. A tank +is used to hold the veritcally stacked plates and dielectrics. +The unit I examined was built in a glass fishtank that employed +no metal in construction. Foam padding was layed in the bottom of +the tank, and wedged in around the sides of the vertical +capacitor stack to cushion it and wedge it in place. The foam +padding also reduced the mineral oil required to cover the stack. +The reason these caps do not require pumpdown is that eventually +the oil will displace the air trapped in the unit. A break in +period of low voltage operation assists the removal of trapped +air, as the pulsing of the cap vibrates the plates and agitates +the air bubbles. The disadvantage of the unit I examined was the +glass fishtank. I have seen plastic waste cans that could be cut +down for use as a tank in this construction. + +Higher Qs, higher voltage, and additional capacitance in stacked +plate capacitors can be easily obtained. The trick is to use +thinner dielectric. + +Now the dielectric strength of polyethylene is given as +1000 volts per mil, but this is not the case in Tesla coils. +The standard breakdown voltages of a dielectric are calculated +using DC voltage. When you run AC across the dielectric, the +breakdown voltage must be divided by two. Then you must figure +that the peak voltage from a AC sine wave is higher than the +rms voltage most people go by. You meter won't see it, but your +dielectric will. Then you have resonate rise in the Tesla tank +circuit. To give you an idea of resonate rise in a tank, think +about the tidal forces that can be created with timed pushes in a +bathtub. It don't take much energy to push water over the side. +The same principal operates in the tank circuit in a coil, +especially with a synchronous gap system. The current pulsing +back and forth from capacitor plate to capacitor plate causes a +voltage rise that appears on the dielectric in the capacitors. +The standard 60 mil poly is supposed to hold up to 60,000 volts +per the book. I have blown holes through 60 mil poly with a 12 kv +neon sign xfrmr in a Tesla tank circuit and my gap wide open. My +pinky finger fit inside the hole. + +One of the neatest homemade stack plate caps I have seen was +built by Bill Richards of T.C.B.O.R., the cost was pretty low, +the materials came from his laundry room, the grocery store, and +the drugstore. The only thing required was 56 hours of time in +arranging the plates according to Bill. But he did end up with +.03 uf 15 kv pulse capacitor in a five gallon bucket. It was +quite a performer on his coil at 3600 watts! + +He shopped around for one gallon ziplock freezer bags with a 3 +mil thickness. With a sharp scissors he cut the ziplocks off of +the tops of the bags. Then he cut aluminum foil squares that fit +inside the bag leaving a 1/2" of space around all four sides of +the plate. So the plate had dielectric borders 1/2" on all sides. + +When two bags were stacked on top of one another, there were two +layers of dielectric, for a total of 6 mils. Being practical, +Bill figured correctly that the stacked bags would hold up to at +least 1000 volts rms input in the Tesla tank. He built up stacks +that had a value of about .45 uf each, with each stack rated at +1000 volts. Then he wired stacks in series. + +By squeezing fifteen stacks vertically into a bucket, and +covering the whole thing in about three gallons of mineral oil, +he got the required capacitance at the required voltage. Since +the electrical forces are so well distributed among hundreds of +dielectrics, he had plenty of breakdown safety margin. He gave +the unit a couple of days to rest after construction, topping it +up with oil as required, and gave her the works at 15 kv on a big +coil. The heavy buss wiring never even got warm, and even though +it bubbled out enough air to displace a few more pints of oil, it +did not break down. + +It turns out that this is a homemade version of commercial pulse +discharging capacitors. Stacked capacitor sections of very high +value are placed in series until the proper voltage requirement +is met. The cap has a very high Q because all of the plates are +very close together, with a minimum of connections and bussing +required. They deliver a very sharp pulse discharge. + +Bill's cap was pretty cramped in the bucket. Because of the +square shape of the bags, a rectangular tank would have made +things easier to fit and wire. But he ran his buss bars through +the side of the bucket (sealed with hot glue) and by snapping on +the lid, he could pick it up by the handle and move it around +with ease. + +The novice coiler should think about the capacitor requirements +and experiment some before beginning large scale homemade caps. +Shop for materials; frequently a wholesaler can be found where +bulk products (like mineral oil in 5 gallon pails) can be +purchased for a fraction of the retail cost. But just because +you don't have some big bang pulse caps on line does not mean +that you should wait to begin firing a small coil. Nearly every +beginner gets hir feet wet in salt water capacitors. + +Tesla used salt water tanks in Colorado Springs. A tribute to the +genius of the man was his ability to develop his huge peak +powers using low Q saltwater/glass caps. I do not recommend glass +as a dielectric for coiling work. The dielectric constant is much +better than plastic, but the RF dissipation factor is so great +that they can rupture from dielectric heating (even in salt water +the trapped water under the bottles does not circulate) and they +always give a spindly, violet colored spark. Polyethylene again +is the material of choice, and bottles and buckets can be +assembled in a couple of hours that will fire small stuff. I +mentioned he before that I have a friend who is firing 5 kVA +coils, and still using banks of salt water caps to keep his +investment down. As with any homemade capacitor, the salt water +must be covered in oil to suppress surface corona. But the +quality of oil need not be high, and the capacitors need not be +exceptionally clean. A saturated solution of rock salt is all +that is needed for the plates. + +I think I have accomplished what I intended to say on this +subject. As always, I am happy to respond on any unclear areas, +the need for additional information, or to note corrections. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 864 Date: 11-16-93 20:41 + From: Mark Lawton + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>I have about $5000.00 worth of Tesla equip. ($15,000 replacement +RQ>cost), about $5000.00 worth of chemistry equip, not to mention +RQ>boxes of homemade pyrotechinics equipment (ball mill, star +RQ>presses, rocket ramming table, drying racks, rolls of paper and +RQ>tubing, mixing containers, sieves, etc.) I also buy, sell, and +RQ>build/rebuild/repair Vespa scooters; own three now, plus parts of +RQ>a forth, plus a workbench of special tools for engines, frames, +RQ>wheels, etc. + +Sounds just like my stuff! Change the Vespas to dirt bikes and +you've got it. I haven't built a coil in a few years, but I'd +like to send you a blank VHS to get a copy of your work. Write +me back with detailson where to send the tape and the dough. + +ML, San Diego Fireworks Pyro + + WinQwk 1.30 #279 + + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0250 + ! Origin: Dragnet BBS Oceanside,CA. 619-940-1985 (1:202/401) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 973 Date: 11-17-93 23:52 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>never stare at an operating spark gap without welding goggles. + >To examine the arc on large coils, a sun observation filter + >on a small telescope will tell you if your gaps are quenching. + + +RQ>... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + >___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +I got your whole post on Spark Gaps - Once again - Thanks! + +I had an experience with hard UV light - purchased a small Lincoln Wire +Welder and proceeded to ignore the instructions about covering all parts +of the body - I was thinking about metal splatters but I never thought +about the UV light - wearing sandals at the time and got a bad sunburn +on my feet... + + + +Status report: + +Got the wire for the secondary as well as the basic design. + +I got the 50' of AL flashing for the capacitor as well as all of the PVC +pipe and already had the nuts and bolts... + +Also, found a *wonderful* three terminal plus ground RF filter for +240 volt @ 60 Hz rated at 60 amps! $20 - couldn't resist! I will be +able to keep the rest of the electronics in my house ( as well as the +neighbors houses ) somewhat happy :) + +Still looking for a source of the form for the secondary - will be +checking prices at local plastics stores when I go to get the +60 mil. Polyethylene sheet - if not, I will use thin-wall PVC but the +stuff I saw at a local Home Depot was poorly out of round... +Maybe some plexiglass disks glued inside to maintain shape. + +The local Boeing Aircraft Co. has an interesting "surplus" store +that is a little toooo well known but might have something there. + +Have a bunch of 3/8" refrigeration tubing that I can use for the +primary - also into home brewing and this stuff comes in handy... + +Still need to get the step-up transformer - already have a 12kV 30mA +neon but the "potential" transformers you mentioned that were used in +power substations sound very good too - will check locally. + +Pole pig will probably be somewhat later although the demonstration you +did on your video - using it - were pretty impressive - the simple +Jacobs Ladder was way beyond what a 15kV neon can do - had a really nice +sound to it! + + +Anyway - work progresses - I will be busy during this "holiday" season, +also the people that were interested in working with me are still very +very much interested - showed the primary person your video and their +jaw dropped + + + +p.s. - an idea for the gap - you could have a rotary system that also +had a valving plate ( circular plate with holes drilled into it ) where +the output of the valves could be forced over the spark gaps - pulsed +air quenching of a rotary gap - I have a small metal lathe and +this might be something to do... + + +As always - Dave + b QMPro 1.51 b Klein Bottle for sale - enquire within... + + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0434 + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 3090 Date: 11-18-93 00:19 + From: Brian Carling + To: All + Subj: Mega-list parts & kit 1/ +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Names and addresses of companies that supply parts and kits for +amateur radio construction: (Updated 17 November, 1993) + +Here it is folks, the incredible new MEGA-LIST! + +"624 Kits" No phone listed +171 Springlake Drive +Spartanburg, SC 29302 (QRP kits & accessories) + + +A & A Engineering (714) 952-2114 +2521 W. La Palma #K +Anaheim, CA 92801 Battery charger kits etc. + + +Active Electronics (800) 677-8899 FAX: (514) 697-8112 +11 Cummings Park (INT.) (514) 630-7410 +Woburn, MA 01801 New electronic parts + +ADI Co. (800) 233-6261 +180 Michael Drive +Syosset, NY 11791 Power supplies, batteries etc. + + +Advanced Computer Products Inc. (800) FONE-ACP FAX: (714) +558-8849 +1310 E. Edinger (714) 558-8813 Voice Sales +Santa Ana, CA 92705 Chips, semiconductors + + +All Electronics (800) 826-5432 (orders) FAX: (818) +781-2653 +P.O. Box 567 Voice: (818) 904-0524 INFO +Van Nuys, CA 91408 Misc. surplus parts etc. catalog + + +Alltronics (408) 943-9773 +2300 Zanker Road +San Jose, CA 95131 Components, grab bags etc. Min $15 + + +American Science and Surplus (formerly JerryCo) +P.O. Box 48838 +Niles IL 60714-0838 ### New address. ++1-708-475-8440 ++1-708-864-1589 FAX +Surplus. *The* surplus place. Lots and lots of surplus. WWII +gun cameras, velcro, laser disk chassis, 6 volt VW wipers motors, +LEDs, rubber brains, you name it, they've had it. Catalogs are a +really good time. $12.50 minimum order (which includes the $4 shipping +charge). + +Amidon Associates (213) 763-5770 +12033 Otsego Street +North Hollywood, CA 91607 (toroid cores, ferrite beads etc.) + + +Antennas West (800) 926-7373 +Box 50062S +Provo, UT 84605 Wide variety of antenna kits, loops etc. + + +Antique Audio (512) 467-0304 +5555 N. Lamar, Bldg. H-105 +Austin, TX 78751 Tubes, parts, books, kits + + +Antique Electronic Supply Co. (602) 820-5411 +6221 S. Maple Avenue +Tempe, AZ 85283 (Tubes & other components) + + +Antique Radio Classified (508) 371-0512 Write for free +sample. +P.O. Box 802 Magazine. You'll find almost ANYTHING here +Carlisle, MA 01741 for older radios, obscure parts, +tubes etc. + + +Appleseed Electronics Inc. (219) 489-9802 +P.O. Box 8228 +Fort Wayne, IN 46898 Parts + + +ARE Communications Ltd. 44-081-997-4476 +6 Royal Parade +Hanger Lane, Ealing HF kit for ICOM R-7100 to 200 kHz ! +London W5A 1ET & SSB kits for Icom R-100 and R1. + + +Arrow Electronics Inc. (800) 93-ARROW +1860 Smithtown Avenue Catalogs C/O 25 Hub Drive +Ronkonkoma, NY 11779 Melville, NY 11747 +Minimum $25.00 Components distributor. + + +ARRL +225 Main Stret +Newington, CT 06111 (QRP Books, QST Magazine etc.) + + +BCD Electro (214) 343-1770 +P.O. Box 830119 +Richardson, TX 75083 Catalog, parts, etc. + + +Bigelow Electronics No number listed +P.O. Box 125 +Bluffton, OH 45817 Parts, Catalog $2. Flyer 1 stamp + + +Brigar Electronics (607) 723-3111 FAX: (607) 723-5202 +7-9 Alice Street +Binghampton, NY 13904 Parts, gadgets $30 min. + + +C & N Electronics (800) 421-9397 / (612) 429-9397 +6104 Egg Lake Road FAX # (612) 429-0292 +Hugo, MN 55038 Buy & sell tubes + + +C & S Electronics (203) 866-3208 +P.O. Box 2142 +Norwalk, CT 06852-2142 Specialty RF chips etc. + + +CeCo Communications (212) 646-6300 +2115 Avenue X +Brooklyn, NY 11235 (Vacuum tubes) + + +Circuit Board Specialists June 1993 Mailed returned, no forwarding +address +P.O. Box 969 +Pueblo, CO 81002 (Various kits & projects, P.C. boards) + + +Circuit Specialists Inc. (800) 528-1417 +Box 3047 +Scottsdale, AZ 85271 Electronic components incl. RF +parts + + +Circuitwerkes Co. (904) 331-5999 +No address FAX: (904) 331-6999 + DTMF decoders etc. + + +>>> Continued to next message + + + + >> Message length exceeded, split by WILDMAIL! v3.01 +<< + >> Continued in next message << + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 3005 Date: 11-18-93 11:45 + From: Richard Quick + To: Mark Lawton + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + ML> Sounds just like my stuff! Change the Vespas to dirt bikes + ML> and you've got it. I haven't built a coil in a few years, + ML> but I'd like to send you a blank VHS to get a copy of your + ML> work. Write me back with details on where to send the tape + ML> and the dough. + +Richard T. Quick II +10028 Manchester Rd. +Suite 253 +Glendale, MO 63122 + +Send a two hour blank VHS high quality tape. $10.00 and a self +addressed postage pre-paid mailer. The tape will be return mailed +the morning after I get your package. I have sent out three in +the last three weeks, so don't worry about me getting rich off +this. + +BTW I will trade video even, tape for tape, for coil, rail gun, +high powered laser, and other high voltage stuff. My tapes are +one off masters, recorded on SP for highest quality, and a full +two hours long. +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 867 Date: 11-18-93 15:06 + From: Richard Quick + To: Joseph Worthington + Subj: 10kva Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + JW> The thread on the Tesla project is very interesting! + JW> If you are the moderator, please let it go on for a while. + JW> Joseph + +Now don't you worry about my friend Guy attempting to snuff my +feed. The votes are 100% in my favor, request for the video keep +comming in, and even Guy enjoys reading about and thinking up +sarcasitc comments (probably jealous with too much time on his +hands). Guy gets a little upitty by nature, but he doesn't mean +any harm, and if you don't let him get under your skin he can be +quite funny at times. + +And if he does get under your skin, he can take it as well as +dish it out. I kind of (almost) look forward to his replies. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 3004 Date: 11-18-93 15:22 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Primary coils + +In order to move towards a complete presentation we need to talk +primary coils. This will take me one step closer to coverage of +of the major componets in the basic 1/4 wave oscillator. + +The primary coil is a low resistance, heavy coil, through which +the currents produced by the pulse capacitance travel. In +discussing primaries we need to cover the "skin effect". Both +high voltage and high frequency currents exhibit a property +called skin effect. Skin effect describes a situation where the +current does not penetrate the conductor, but instead flows on +the surface of the conductor. This effect is very pronounced in +Tesla tank circuits where both high voltage and high frequency +are componets of the capacitor pulse. + +Studies of the Tesla tank circuit current show that the RF +current ringing through the tank has very little penetration of +the tank circuit conductors. This should be reflected in the +choice of the conductors used to wire the tank circuit, and to +wind the primary coil. + +I have had very good luck with conductors that offer a lot of +surface area, as opposed to a large solid cross section. The +preferred material for winding primary coils is thin wall soft +copper water pipe or refrigerator tubing, wide sheet copper +strap, or heavy braided copper ground strap. These matrials offer +a low RF impedance, high Q, and large radiating surface areas. + +For wiring the Tesla tank circuit, such areas as buss connectors +to capacitors, tap leads, and spak gap connectors, any of the +materials above may be used, but I prefer heavy DC transmission +wire. The DC transmission wire (like battery cable or welding +cable) offers flexibility and a high grade insulation which helps +prevent breakdown. The cables and connections should be carefully +examined for areas where Q can be gained. Sharp edges or points +should be removed to prevent corona losses, connections should be +tight to reduce impedance, and sharp turns should be eliminated +to reduce "off axis" inductance. The tank circuit wiring should +be as short and straight as possible. + +The primary coil itself should be wound on a high Q insulator. +For a coil form or coil supports, high density poly, plexiglas, +lexan, acrylic, or other high Q hard plastic is ideal. The +primary coil should be large. I have seen lots of holdovers from +the classic age of coil building who insist on 2-3 turn primaries +and HUGE capacitors to achieve the proper frequency of operation +in the tank circuit. + +This is wrong. + +A tank circuit with a small capacitor, and a large primary +inductance, will reach down to the same frequencies of operation. +A tank circuit of this design will use less power, and therefore +require a smaller step up xfrmr. The capacitor will be smaller, +which further reduces the cost of the system. + +A large primary coil offers a much greater surface area for +radiation and distributed energy transfer to the secondary. It +couples better with a properly designed secondary. Due to these +design advantages, an equal or greater amount of power is +actually delivered to the secondary, despite the much smaller +capacitance and input power. Using a large primary will allow you +to reduce the value of your capacitor and your input power by 50% +or more (frequently much more) without a reduction in output. + +Primaries designed to be operated with 9-15 turns will obtain +power processing energies that are at least 50% greater than 2-3 +turn primaries, provided that the secondaries are constructed to +take advantage of the design. Secondary coils with the aspect +ratios and numbers of turns that I have recommended here before, +work best with large primaries tapped at 9-15 turns. + +So to give some advice to my friend Dave Halliday, who is +building a 6" secondary coil sometime in the near future, +plan on winding a primary coil from a conductor material that I +have listed above, and use a conductor length of around 75 feet. +Your primary should end up about as wide as, or wider, than your +secondary is tall. + +This way the secondary will nest in the large primary. The field +flux from the primary will couple the entire length of the +secondary winding for a distributed, high efficiency, energy +transfer. More energy can be forced into the secondary, with +lower input power, and reduced chance of breakdown and loss. + +Primary coils take several forms depending on the type secondary +used with them. Modern secondaries, with high inductance and low +aspect ratios, need primaries that are flat pancakes, or "saucer" +(rising upwards as the turns move out) shaped spirals. Because +this design is so efficient in energy transfers, critical +coupling coefficients are achieved without using the old fashion +vertical helix type primary coil. + +When designing primary coils, it is generally a good idea to test +a particular coil shape before committing to a time consuming and +expensive permanent coil. This is especially true for those who +have not had much experience with primary coils of different +shapes and sizes. Some cheap low Q wire can be picked up and used +to make a temporary primary coil for testing. I set the secondary +up on an insulated platform equipped with a good ground, then +wind the test primary. To achieve the desired shape I use tire +tubes (to build up "saucers") plastic wedges, tape, etc. + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 869 Date: 11-18-93 21:18 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Tiefenbrunn + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +Dave! + +Got your tape out this morning. Let me know that you got it and +what you think of the spark. I was checking the tape for a minute +as it was recording... Even I forget sometimes how awesome a 10" +secondary looks with a proper discharger and 10 KVA pumped +cleanly through it. I think you will agree, get back with me. + + +-!- + ... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 19 Nov 93 14:38:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Toroid Discharge Terminals + +Another feature of the "classic" Tesla coil design is the sphere +or ball discharge terminal. Tesla clearly was using spheres while +he was developing the Colorado Springs oscillator, but during his +work there he made the discovery of toroids. Photographs of the +Colorado Springs machine clearly shows a brass toroid as part of +the antenna mast to prevent corona leakage and premature breakout +from the top of the extra coil. + +As we examine photos of the Wardenclyff machine he built on Long +Island, it is clear that the entire tower was constructed to +carry the giant toroid terminal. I do not have verifiable infor- +mation as to the exact size of this terminal, but it is easily +over 50' in diameter. Probably closer to 75-100'. Toroids perform +several functions as discharge terminals on Tesla coils. + +They provide a large top capacitance. This top capacitance helps +"cancel" the high inductance in the secondary coil, and increase +throughput in the system. + +They break down at much higher voltages than other shapes. The +donut shaped field distributes the charge density. Higher +voltages must reached before electrical breakdown occurs. To the +coiler this means longer, higher voltage spark. For those of you +that have my video, you can see a 30% increase in spark lenghts +with no change to input power, the only thing I did was add a +larger toroid and retune the system. + +Toroids sever the coupling. This may be a controversial statement +on my part. But from what I have seen, appears to be true. A +sphere discharge terminal does not want to separate from the +field flux interactions between the primary and secondary. The +primary field flux wants to couple the sphere discharger into the +system as if it were another turn of the secondary. The spark +from the discharger will frequently follow these lines of force, +and seek to strike back to the primary. The spark discharge bends +back down, and aligns itself with the magnetic lines of force. + +While this may be useful if you wish to visualize the size and +shape of the field, it does nothing to increase your spark +lengths. A large toroid on the other hand will establish a field +identity that interacts destructively with the primary/secondary +field interaction. Since this destructive interaction occurs +above the top turns of the secondary is does not affect the coil +performance or ability to process energy. It does however allow +the spark to leave the system unaffected by the primary/secondary +lines of force. This has the effect of allowing a clean getaway +for the discharge and promotes those long strikes to the ground +or other more distant objects. + +Toriods also have the beneficial effect of lowering the frequency +of the secondary coil dramatically. By loading a large toriod on +a relatively small coil, a very low secondary frequency is +reached. Low frequency in Tesla systems means long spark. This +way a small coil can give big coil performance. Because of this +ability of the toriod to drop the frequency of the secondary to +such low frequencies, it is important to have a very large +primary available that can be tapped out to over 10-12 turns in +order to regain the system tune. Larger capacitors may be added, +but my experience shows that no additional power or capacitance +is required to get big increases in spark production. + +Clearly the toriod is the ultimate in high Q dischargers and +radiators in Tesla systems. Now go out and buy one. I can hear +Dave Halliday now..... "You Paid _HOW MUCH?_"!!! +Yup, spun aluminum toroids are available commercially, and they +run hundreds, even thousands of dollars each. My 20" wide by 5" +high commercial toriod ran me over 350 clams. My ten inch +secondary needs a toroid at least twice as big to achieve optimum +performance, and as commercial toroids get larger, the price +increases exponentially. I priced a 40" toroid for my coil at +$2000.00 not including shipping, and they gave me a six month +deliverly time... + +So I built one for $35.00, and it works GREAT! I will never spend +another penny on commercial spun aluminum toroids. Here are the +brief instructions: + +I buy the 4" or 6" diam. polyproplyene flexible black plastic +drain piping. This is made out of ridged plastic, so it does not +have a smooth surface, but it easy to bend to form circles of +varying diameters. + +I cut the flange off with a sharp knife, match the ends, and tape +them together with wide plastic tape. Once a large ring is +formed, I cover the entire surface with wide plastic tape to +smooth out the ridges in the material. The goal is to have an +even, smooth, surface. The tape choice helps with this con- +struction, Mylar and other tapes have no stretch, and are +difficult to work with as they wrinkle. I shopped several stores +before I found a stretchy material similar to electrical tape. +Tape is applied in overlapping strips, or bands, around the drain +pipe 4" or 6" cross section. Some surface irregularities are OK. + +Once the ring is smoothed with a layer of plastic tape, I retape +the entire ring with aluminum plumbers tape. This tape comes in +two standard widths, I bought a large roll of each. Apply strips +of plumbers tape over the prepared surface, make sure the entire +surface is covered, and press out any wrinkles with a fingernail +or tool. You should now have an aluminized ring. Cut out a circle +of thin masonite, wood paneling, or thin plastic so that it will +friction fit in the center of the alumunized ring. Place some +blocks up under this panel, set the ring in place, and tape the +edges all around on both sides with aluminum tape to hold it in +place. Spray adhesive and heavy duty foil are used to cover both +sides if the center plate. Roll out all wrinkles with a socket or +a wood dowel. Works great, about 1/100th the cost. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 3066 Date: 11-19-93 14:38 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Toroid Discharge Terminals + +Another feature of the "classic" Tesla coil design is the sphere +or ball discharge terminal. Tesla clearly was using spheres while +he was developing the Colorado Springs oscillator, but during his +work there he made the discovery of toroids. Photographs of the +Colorado Springs machine clearly shows a brass toroid as part of +the antenna mast to prevent corona leakage and premature breakout +from the top of the extra coil. + +As we examine photos of the Wardenclyff machine he built on Long +Island, it is clear that the entire tower was constructed to +carry the giant toroid terminal. I do not have verifiable infor- +mation as to the exact size of this terminal, but it is easily +over 50' in diameter. Probably closer to 75-100'. Toroids perform +several functions as discharge terminals on Tesla coils. + +They provide a large top capacitance. This top capacitance helps +"cancel" the high inductance in the secondary coil, and increase +throughput in the system. + +They break down at much higher voltages than other shapes. The +donut shaped field distributes the charge density. Higher +voltages must reached before electrical breakdown occurs. To the +coiler this means longer, higher voltage spark. For those of you +that have my video, you can see a 30% increase in spark lenghts +with no change to input power, the only thing I did was add a +larger toroid and retune the system. + +Toroids sever the coupling. This may be a controversial statement +on my part. But from what I have seen, appears to be true. A +sphere discharge terminal does not want to separate from the +field flux interactions between the primary and secondary. The +primary field flux wants to couple the sphere discharger into the +system as if it were another turn of the secondary. The spark +from the discharger will frequently follow these lines of force, +and seek to strike back to the primary. The spark discharge bends +back down, and aligns itself with the magnetic lines of force. + +While this may be useful if you wish to visualize the size and +shape of the field, it does nothing to increase your spark +lengths. A large toroid on the other hand will establish a field +identity that interacts destructively with the primary/secondary +field interaction. Since this destructive interaction occurs +above the top turns of the secondary is does not affect the coil +performance or ability to process energy. It does however allow +the spark to leave the system unaffected by the primary/secondary +lines of force. This has the effect of allowing a clean getaway +for the discharge and promotes those long strikes to the ground +or other more distant objects. + +Toriods also have the beneficial effect of lowering the frequency +of the secondary coil dramatically. By loading a large toriod on +a relatively small coil, a very low secondary frequency is +reached. Low frequency in Tesla systems means long spark. This +way a small coil can give big coil performance. Because of this +ability of the toriod to drop the frequency of the secondary to +such low frequencies, it is important to have a very large +primary available that can be tapped out to over 10-12 turns in +order to regain the system tune. Larger capacitors may be added, +but my experience shows that no additional power or capacitance +is required to get big increases in spark production. + +Clearly the toriod is the ultimate in high Q dischargers and +radiators in Tesla systems. Now go out and buy one. I can hear +Dave Halliday now..... "You Paid _HOW MUCH?_"!!! +Yup, spun aluminum toroids are available commercially, and they +run hundreds, even thousands of dollars each. My 20" wide by 5" +high commercial toriod ran me over 350 clams. My ten inch +secondary needs a toroid at least twice as big to achieve optimum +performance, and as commercial toroids get larger, the price +increases exponentially. I priced a 40" toroid for my coil at +$2000.00 not including shipping, and they gave me a six month +deliverly time... + +So I built one for $35.00, and it works GREAT! I will never spend +another penny on commercial spun aluminum toroids. Here are the +brief instructions: + +I buy the 4" or 6" diam. polyproplyene flexible black plastic +drain piping. This is made out of ridged plastic, so it does not +have a smooth surface, but it easy to bend to form circles of +varying diameters. + +I cut the flange off with a sharp knife, match the ends, and tape +them together with wide plastic tape. Once a large ring is +formed, I cover the entire surface with wide plastic tape to +smooth out the ridges in the material. The goal is to have an +even, smooth, surface. The tape choice helps with this con- +struction, Mylar and other tapes have no stretch, and are +difficult to work with as they wrinkle. I shopped several stores +before I found a stretchy material similar to electrical tape. +Tape is applied in overlapping strips, or bands, around the drain +pipe 4" or 6" cross section. Some surface irregularities are OK. + +Once the ring is smoothed with a layer of plastic tape, I retape +the entire ring with aluminum plumbers tape. This tape comes in +two standard widths, I bought a large roll of each. Apply strips +of plumbers tape over the prepared surface, make sure the entire +surface is covered, and press out any wrinkles with a fingernail +or tool. You should now have an aluminized ring. Cut out a circle +of thin masonite, wood paneling, or thin plastic so that it will +friction fit in the center of the alumunized ring. Place some +blocks up under this panel, set the ring in place, and tape the +edges all around on both sides with aluminum tape to hold it in +place. Spray adhesive and heavy duty foil are used to cover both +sides if the center plate. Roll out all wrinkles with a socket or +a wood dowel. Works great, about 1/100th the cost. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 928 Date: 11-19-93 16:31 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + DH> Geeez Richard - and I thought *I* had too much going on at + DH> once what with my boat, woodworking shop, metal shop ( + DH> lathe, wirewelder and torches ), music studio, homebrewing, + DH> BBS, computers and printing... + + DH> This takes the cake + +Isn't it funny how intelligence and imagination breeds havoc? + +Mark Lawton (spel) sent me a post about all of his concurrent +projects too. It seems we landed in a nice spot to exchange a few +ideas and interests. This conference is not too crowded, yet +several people end up with similar sets of hobbies and interests. + +BTW to keep somewhat on topic, I really hope your coiling efforts +are moving along. I have tried to dump as much as possible in the +last few days, and have spent several hours per day in organizing +my thoughts and getting them out. + +Between the video tape and the posts you should have sufficient +information to be able to build a really hot coil system or two. +I wish you the best of luck, and if you need any clarification, +further explaination, or any such, drop me a post. +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 929 Date: 11-19-93 16:49 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + >recently gutted. When I inquired, he stated he had to switch to + >an ungrounded, wooden, control cabinet because he was drawing + >sparks to fingers when he touched the controls... + + DH> I also recall stories about ham radio shacks having this + DH> problem. + + DH> Used to work for the public aquarium in Boston and we had + DH> grounding problems like you wouldn't believe - I was + DH> responsible for all of the non-living exhibits ( PA and AV + DH> stuff ) and the ground at every single outlet was at a + DH> different potential than any other outlet. I once found 50 + DH> volts difference between two located 20' apart... A guide + DH> was setting up a temporary exhibit and used both outlets for + DH> their equipment. They got a bit of a rude awakening that + DH> day + +A few months back when our local sysop first added this +conference, there was an thread on grounds and grounding that you +just would not believe (well maybe you would), anyway, the +misunderstandings and misconceptions about grounds and grounding, +and the bizzare things that happen when equipment and systems are +not properly grounded... + +I have threatened to write a book on the subject and post it +chapter by chapter! + +Tesla was the first person to apply ground to a tuned circuit. +His studies of grounds, and grounding practices was extremely +extensive, but unfortunately little was documented or survived. + +By reading the Colorado Springs Notes it is quite clear that +Tesla struggled to get a good ground on site for his system and +cited the local geology (sand & rock) as the source of his +problem. He eventually had to run water 24 hours a day over his +ground. + +He used a two ground system in his CS lab, and documents the +resistance, and electrical distance between the two. The system +ground was a 3' square copper plate dropped in the bottom of a +12' hole with a couple of wheelbarrows of coke dumped on top. +The hole was backfilled and watered as I mentioned. + +His control, or line frequency, ground was the water pipe. Tesla +was capable of producing serious ground currents from the +machine. Some of the effects were reported many miles away; +sparks comming off the the shoes of horses which caused the +animals to spook, clouds of insects covered in St.Elmos fire, +in addition to the locals getting sparks from their water taps. + +When he went on to Wardenclyff, he spent half of the tower +construction cost on the well with 18" copper plated steel pipe +driven into bedrock 50' below the water table. He did not intend +to mess around. +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +111993 1704 +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 930 Date: 11-19-93 17:04 + From: Richard Quick + To: David Tiefenbrunn + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + DT> I have sent you a video tape. I hope the + DT> offer is still good. I included a few + DT> minutes of the first run of the 45KW generator. + + DT> The new lab sounds great. + + DT> Of course, you will probably get the tape before + DT> this message. :) + +Yeah I did! And you will probably get the tape back before you +get this message. It went out yesterday. Yes the offer is still +good, and so is the tape. You will really enjoy watching it. + +New lab so far is looking good. Expensive, contractor wants +$32.50 per square foot. + +Read my letter in with the tape about the generator video. I am +still kicking myself (I recorded over it before I read your +letter) + +BTW I will trade tapes happily if anyone has goodies I would be +interested in. Video tape is an excellent way to archive our +little projects; not only are they useful as a personal +reference, but they are amazingly effective teaching tools. +Nothing explains something like a coil project as well as the +designer/operator pointing to, and talking about, the operational +working equipment. +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 930 Date: 11-19-93 17:04 + From: Richard Quick + To: David Tiefenbrunn + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + DT> I have sent you a video tape. I hope the + DT> offer is still good. I included a few + DT> minutes of the first run of the 45KW generator. + + DT> The new lab sounds great. + + DT> Of course, you will probably get the tape before + DT> this message. :) + +Yeah I did! And you will probably get the tape back before you +get this message. It went out yesterday. Yes the offer is still +good, and so is the tape. You will really enjoy watching it. + +New lab so far is looking good. Expensive, contractor wants +$32.50 per square foot. + +Read my letter in with the tape about the generator video. I am +still kicking myself (I recorded over it before I read your +letter) + +BTW I will trade tapes happily if anyone has goodies I would be +interested in. Video tape is an excellent way to archive our +little projects; not only are they useful as a personal +reference, but they are amazingly effective teaching tools. +Nothing explains something like a coil project as well as the +designer/operator pointing to, and talking about, the operational +working equipment. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 931 Date: 11-20-93 00:42 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + Tesla Coil Builders Association + +I posted this address a few months back, but many people dropped +in recently so I will post it back up again. The organization is +called TCBA for short and is run by one, Harry Goldman, retired +high school science teacher. He publishes a quarterly news letter +called _NEWS_ + +The news letter has articles submitted by members on a regular +basis, new coil designs, sparks gaps (my first submission was +published here), spark photos, articles on "classic" coils +gleened from age old science magazines, questions and answers +sections, as well as a "trading post" buy and sell section for +new and used HV caps, xfrmrs, coils, coil forms, etc., and a list +of the best commercial parts suppliers. + +Subscriptions and membership is $24.00 U.S., $30 CAN., and +includes a framable certificate. + +Harry has been publishing the NEWS since 1982 and all back issues +are available as well a a comprehensive index of all articles in +those back issues. If you are interested write to: + + Harry Goldman + TCBA + 3 Amy Lane + Queensbury, NY 12804 + Tel: (518) 792-1003 + +Tell him I sent you!!! + +-!- + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1339 Date: 11-20-93 18:24 + From: Joseph Freivald + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +For those of us who are wanna bees, What's a tesla coil, and why +does it get at least 10 posts per day? + + Just trying to catch up, + Joe + + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1040 Date: 11-21-93 22:40 + From: David Tiefenbrunn + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + On 11-18-93 Richard Quick wrote to Dave Tiefenbrunn... + + RQ> Got your tape out this morning. Let me know that you got it and + +Tape recieved 11-20-93. As was the post quoted herein. + + RQ> what you think of the spark. I was checking the tape for a minute + RQ> as it was recording... Even I forget sometimes how awesome a 10" + RQ> secondary looks with a proper discharger and 10 KVA pumped + RQ> cleanly through it. I think you will agree, get back with me. + +*Quite* awsome... Previously the largest Tesla coil +I had seen was in a science museum in Boston, MA. +It's spark was maybe 1/2 of the >small< coil in your +video. I *used* to think it was a big one. + +At what power level does it become dangerous to +draw spark with the pole? + +The one I built when I was in college (over 10 years +ago) had 230W input, but I didn't have all the details +of how to optimize / tune it. It still threw sparks +a few inches long. It also had a nasty static charge +that would build up while it was running, and while +I drew sparks (with a rod) the static charge would +pop and I'd get a jolt. Your coils never displayed +that particular problem in the video, just nice +clean HV RF. I'm going to show a few friends +your tape. One of them has a small (by your standards) +coil. His coil's primary is wound like a regular coil, +not flat like yours (or for that matter, the others +I've seen. I will have to check with him to find out +why. I think he is useing flat glass / foil caps. +With a little luck & timing maybe I can get video +of it when we do the generator tape deal. (see other +post) I have been saving all of the "how to" stuff for +future reference. + +TTYL, +Dave + + + + +___ + * OFFLINE 1.54 * I love the smell of ozone in the morning. + +-!- Maximus 2.01wb + ! Origin: =Abbey Road BBS= Higganum, Ct. (203)345-7635 +(1:320/5967) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1102 Date: 11-21-93 23:01 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> Primary coils + +RQ>In order to move towards a complete presentation we need to + >talk primary coils. This will take me one step closer to + >coverage of of the major componets in the basic 1/4 wave + >oscillator. + + +Once again - THANKS! + +Also, just had a bit of a "conceptual" breakthrough - was trying +to see why 1/4 wave was best and then saw that this is 1/4 wave +reflected over a ground plane... + +Makes a lot of sense ( arcs too ) + +Again, this has been saved, will be printed tomorrow. + +::Status report:: + +Got some PVC pipe - flimsy stuff but I will use wooden braces to +hold it circular while I wind it. Actually, will probably cut +out some plexi circles and glue them in... Got a bunch from some +old signs + +Still have yet to get to the plastics store to get the material +for the capacitors but looking at this week - also probably +"have" to make a run to one of our distributors located near the +Boeing surplus store - check for teflon wire as well as "exotic" +6" tubes... + +Question - there are some very cheap cutting boards available +made out of a high-density polyethylene plastic - was thinking of +using them for the "breadboard" for the transformer protection +stuff as well as the base of the coil - do you have any feedback +on the Q of this material + +Thank you for your post on Primary coils - haven't read it +completely but I got the idea that the diameter was critical - +will check and get large tubing if that is true... + +Again - TTYL - Dave + + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 3181 Date: 11-21-93 23:11 + From: David Tiefenbrunn + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 45KVA generator +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Hello, Richard. + +I know what you mean about the "wonderful" day. Send me a tape. +I have approximatly 30 minutes of cranking the generator for the +first run. Obviously, being the first attempt, I had no idea +how long or what it would take to get it running. After working +the crankshaft back & forth by "hand", and getting the starters +to turn the thing over, I found it had no compresion. So I took +the head off, and did a valve job. 2 new valves, and 5 springs. +Almost needed seats but there was enough left of them. I will +edit that down to a reasonable length, depending on the length of +the tape you send. I can also do a "tour" of the unit, if you +like. + + +And, for that matter, some of the other somewhat less than common +stuff / equiptment I have collected or constructed. I have some +shots of the internal parts of the engine, as after getting it +started, I discovered it needed an oil ring on cylinder #1. +I use an S-VHS camcorder, and make dubs to VHS HI-FI. The +sharpness of the picture w/S-VHS is a huge improvement over VHS. +It is very close to laser disc quality, so the dubs come out as +good as an original (not a copy) VHS tape would be. + +I will let my sysop know about the double echos, and that I +apparently have been loosing replys. I am beginning to think +about setting up my own BBS, also. + +Post a message about what to tape, and or send your blank, and I +will get it back ASAP. + +TTYL, +Dave + + * OFFLINE 1.54 * I love the smell of ozone in the morning. + + Origin: =Abbey Road BBS= Higganum, Ct. (203)345-7635 +(1:320/5967) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1008 Date: 11-22-93 03:18 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + DH> Status report: + + DH> Got the wire for the secondary as well as the basic design. + +OK, I got some soft figures for you. Given the specs of the +planned coil you gave me here's what your looking at: + +Bare secondary frequency around ~260 kHz +Secondary top loaded with 18" diam, 4" cross section toriod will +resonate around ~180 kHz + +Using the rolled capacitor as per my specs you should get .02 uf +capacitance, so to tune this secondary in on the tank circuit, +your tank will have to be: Saucer shaped sprial wound primary. +Angle of inclination from first turn to last turn will be right +around 30 degrees slope; this should give pretty close to critcal +coupling with this secondary. Diameter of the first turn (inside +diameter) will need to be ~9" giving you 1-1/2" space between the +coils. With the toroid discharge terminal on the secondary coil, +the tank should tune in when the primary is tapped right around 9 +turns. + +These numbers are going to off a little, but I tuned a guys coil +once over the telephone when he was six states away. I was +throwing stuff off the top of my head and set the coil up in my +mind from his verbal description. He claimed I had the coil in +it's best tune the first time he turned it on, said every time he +altered anything the spark decreased. It COULD have been dumb +luck... But I checked the numbers you gave me against my programs +and my documented systems in this size. You'll need at least 9 +turns on a saucer primary to get that coil to fire with that cap. + + DH> I got the 50' of AL flashing for the capacitor as well as + DH> all of the PVC pipe and already had the nuts and bolts... + +Your looking good here. + + DH> Also, found a *wonderful* three terminal plus ground RF + DH> filter for 240 volt @ 60 Hz rated at 60 amps! $20 - + DH> couldn't resist! + +I would have picked it up too. This is looking good, be sure to +run the filter backwards. If your using only one filter, place it +between in the supply line before the variac. Ground the case to +your 60 cycle neutral. + + DH> Still looking for a source of the form for the secondary - + DH> the stuff I saw at a local Home Depot was poorly out of + DH> round... + DH> Maybe some plexiglass disks glued inside to maintain shape. + +I would avoid using baffels inside the coil form, they tend to +reduce the Q of the coil. Find a different supplier for some +rounder pipe before you go this route. + + DH> Have a bunch of 3/8" refrigeration tubing that I can use for + DH> the primary - + +Just fine for this sized primary coil, make sure it is long +enough, though you can braze in a splice for added length. + + DH> Still need to get the step-up transformer - already have a + DH> 12kV 30mA neon but the "potential" transformers you + DH> mentioned that were used in power substations sound very + DH> good too - will check locally. + +If you use 12 kv neons you will need about 120 ma total to drive +this coil to good spark. That's four 12,30s. + + DH> Pole pig will probably be somewhat later although the + DH> demonstration you did on your video - using it - were + DH> pretty impressive - the simple Jacobs Ladder was way beyond + DH> what a 15kV neon can do - had a really nice sound to it! + +I should hope so!!! I run the Jacobs Ladder between 5-7 kVA with +a rail voltage of 20,000 volts. + + DH> Anyway - work progresses - I will be busy during this + DH> "holiday" season, also the people that were interested in + DH> working with me are still very very much interested - showed + DH> the primary person your video and their jaw dropped + +His was not the first, and won't be the last!!! You should have +seen the look on MY face while I was running it! I was 20' away +and under cover and the sparks looked like they were going to +wipe my nose for me. + + DH> p.s. - an idea for the gap - you could have a rotary system + DH> that also had a valving plate ( circular plate with holes + DH> drilled into it ) where the output of the valves could be + DH> forced over the spark gaps - pulsed air quenching of a + DH> rotary gap - I have a small metal lathe and this might be + DH> something to do... + +I think I understand the idea, may be a good one. I can give you +specs for basic systems that will give excellent performance. But +for ideas like this, I encourage people to develop as far as +profitable. + +-!- + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1034 Date: 11-22-93 18:53 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Tuning The Tesla Tank Circuit + +Once a Tesla coil is set up and ready to fire, certain steps +should be taken before power is applied. Don't expect to throw +the works on a newly built or newly re-arranged system. If you do +you may have to go back to the drawing board. The coil must be +brought into tune, and up to power gradually. + +The use of a variac autotransformer is highly recommended for +controlling power on a system, even if the coil is eventually to +be used in on/off applications. Never throw full power to a coil +until you are sure the system is in proper tune. + +Set the tank circuit up first. Double check all of your +connections. Run your grounds and double check those, never take +a solid connection for granted. Set the secondary into the +primary and ground it. Use a small discharge terminal at first if +available. The smaller terminal will break down and produce spark +at a lower voltage than a larger terminal, and new setups are not +the place to stress the secondary. + +CLOSE YOUR SPARK GAPS DOWN! This is the numero uno step in +bringing a coil into tune, don't run a lot of gap. I set up a +static test with the power supply and no capacitors. Close down +the safety gap until it has reached the point where the +transformer will jump the gap 50% of the time when full voltage +is applied in the test. Measure this gap distance and record it. +When tuning a coil you will reduce this safety gap distance by +50% to provide kickback protection. It is a good idea to run a +static test on the main system spark gap and close it down by 75% +But on some gap systems this may not be practical, as series gaps +behave much differently that a single gap. These differences are +caused by the opposing lines of force in the single gap used for +the safety. + +Apply a bit of power until the tank circuit fires. If no spark +breakout is seen from the discharge terminal don't worry. Use a +florescent bulb as an indicator. As the coil is closer to tune, +the farther and brighter the bulb will glow. Turn off the coil +and move the tap connection on the primary coil a half turn and +check the bulb brightness, then move it a full turn in the +opposite direction and note the brightness of the bulb again. +This way you can determine the direction the tap needs to be +moved to locate the tune spot. + +Open the main and safety gaps up in steps. Apply the same voltage +input (low power) and check for discharge. Once spark has begun +to break out of the discharge terminal use it as a visual +indicator of tune as long as full power is not applied. With full +power into a system the spark frequently gets so wild and +distracting you cannot judge accurately. I have found that +recording the tuning on video, and watching the tape provides a +way to look at the system objectively. + +A system in proper tune should not break down the safety gap. The +safety gap set at the full static test setting should not be too +acitive. Once the coil is in good tune the safety gap electrodes +may be opened to the point where the gap only fires perhaps once +every three or four seconds weakly. + +Tuning is an art, and it takes a little practice. I recently came +across some information that will be quite helpful for the novice +(and even an expert on high powered systems) obtain better +tuning. Use an arc meter. + +The arc meter is made by suspending a series of gaps on +monofiliment fishing line. One end of the arc meter is connected +to the toroid, the other end of the meter is strung across the +room and grounded. + +By placing a series of air gaps on an insulated line, the arc +strength and voltage may be accurately gaged with the eye. +Discharge will follow the gap path (it looks like a ray gun +firing) and gaps may be counted as a reference. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1333 Date: 11-23-93 10:28 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> DH> Geeez Richard - and I thought *I* had too much going on + > DH> at once what with my boat, woodworking shop, metal shop ( + > DH> lathe, wirewelder and torches ), music studio, + > DH> homebrewing, BBS, computers and printing... + +RQ> DH> This takes the cake + +RQ>Isn't it funny how intelligence and imagination breeds havoc? + +Havoc... Now *that's* a polite term for it + + +RQ>Mark Lawton (spel) sent me a post about all of his concurrent + >projects too. It seems we landed in a nice spot to exchange a + >few ideas and interests. This conference is not too crowded, + >yet several people end up with similar sets of hobbies and + >interests. + +Great! I am looking to connect to a local source for FIDO just +for this conference... + +RQ>BTW to keep somewhat on topic, I really hope your coiling + >efforts are moving along. I have tried to dump as much as + >possible in the last few days, and have spent several hours + >per day in organizing my thoughts and getting them out. + +I sent you a status report a couple days ago - just getting stuff +together right now. I will be going to the Boeing surplus place +today and will see if they have anything of interest - they are +closed on Monday - they put all the new stuff out then so Tuesday +is the primo day to go there... + +TTYL - Dave ë:-) + + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1334 Date: 11-23-93 10:36 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> DH> Used to work for the public aquarium in Boston and we had + > DH> grounding problems like you wouldn't believe - I was + +RQ>A few months back when our local sysop first added this + >conference, there was an thread on grounds and grounding that + >you just would not believe (well maybe you would), anyway, the + >misunderstandings and misconceptions about grounds and + >grounding, and the bizzare things that happen when equipment + >and systems are not properly grounded... + +I can well imagine - I also did PA systems for bands for a while +and some of the perceptions about power and signal grounds were +amazing. + +Not so much for their blind ignorance and lack of common sense +but for the fact that some of them were still alive + +RQ>By reading the Colorado Springs Notes it is quite clear that + >Tesla struggled to get a good ground on site for his system + >and cited the local geology (sand & rock) as the source of his + >problem. He eventually had to run water 24 hours a day over + >his ground. + +Interesting - the water table there is probably pretty low so +that would be a problem. In Seattle, the reverse is true - where +I live is fairly close to Lake Washington and the ground is +pretty wet all year round. + +I will probably drive a couple lengths of coper pipe into the +earth for the coil ground - the ground for the house is a 6' +copper rod but from what you say, the more the merrier! + + +RQ>His control, or line frequency, ground was the water pipe. + >Teslawas capable of producing serious ground currents from the + >machine. Some of the effects were reported many miles away; + >sparks comming off the the shoes of horses which caused the + >animals to spook, clouds of insects covered in St.Elmos fire, + >in addition to the locals getting sparks from their water + >taps. + +Must have been fun to live near there + +RQ>When he went on to Wardenclyff, he spent half of the tower + >construction cost on the well with 18" copper plated steel + >pipe driven into bedrock 50' below the water table. He did not + >intend to mess around. + +Jeeezzz! I guess not!!! That is getting a bit serious! + + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1335 Date: 11-23-93 10:38 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> Harry Goldman + > TCBA + > 3 Amy Lane + > Queensbury, NY 12804 + > Tel: (518) 792-1003 + +RQ>Tell him I sent you!!! + +Thanks! Will do + + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1337 Date: 11-23-93 11:16 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> Primary coils + +Me again... This is exactly the info I need! I was wondering +what would work best. + + >primary coil should be large. I have seen lots of holdovers + >from the classic age of coil building who insist on 2-3 turn + >primaries and HUGE capacitors to achieve the proper frequency + >of operation in the tank circuit. + +RQ>This is wrong. + +RQ>A tank circuit with a small capacitor, and a large primary + >inductance, will reach down to the same frequencies of + >operation. A tank circuit of this design will use less power, + >and therefore require a smaller step up xfrmr. The capacitor + >will be smaller, which further reduces the cost of the system. + +Makes a lot of sense! Also, because of the losses in the +capacitor, using a lower value will result in less loss... + +RQ>So to give some advice to my friend Dave Halliday, who is + >building a 6" secondary coil sometime in the near future, + >plan on winding a primary coil from a conductor material that + >I have listed above, and use a conductor length of around 75 + >feet. Your primary should end up about as wide as, or wider, + >than your secondary is tall. + +Got it! I was thinking of using some 3/8ths refrigeration tubing +but since the surface area is important, I'll probably get a reel +of 3/4ths or 1/2" tubing ( gotta check on pricing first ) + +Also, I wasn't thinking about the length of the primary and I +only have about 20' of the small tubing. + +I'll be going to Boeing today so they might have something there +too. + +Again - many thanks for the info - I have a pretty good handle on +what is needed - like I said, probably building the capacitor +over the Thanksgiving weekend - I'll be closing the store then... + +Trade some videos / photos once I get something to show. + + b QMPro 1.51 b Neurotoxin Lite! Tastes great... Less drooling... + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 3185 Date: 11-23-93 15:21 + From: Richard Quick + To: David Tiefenbrunn + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + DT> Tape recieved 11-20-93. As was the post quoted herein. + + RQ> what you think of the spark. I was checking the tape for a + RQ> minute as it was recording... Even I forget sometimes how + RQ> awesome a 10" secondary looks with a proper discharger and + RQ> 10 KVA pumped cleanly through it. I think you will agree, + + DT> *Quite* awesome... Previously the largest Tesla coil + DT> I had seen was in a science museum in Boston, MA. + DT> It's spark was maybe 1/2 of the >small< coil in your + DT> video. I *used* to think it was a big one. + +Yup, we have one in our science muesum too. Small system putting +out about 2' of spark. I decided I could do a little better if I +put my mind to it. + + DT> At what power level does it become dangerous to + DT> draw spark with the pole? + +This is a very good question. Very good. I routinely pull spark +off of my coils with a key, pipe, or other conductor. It is not +the power level of the spark that makes a difference, it is the +quality of insulation you are standing on and the distance you +place yourself from ground. I have had sparks coming off of my +shoes over a foot long while in direct contact with voltages of +at least a million volts. I can light 40 watt bulbs from the +CURRENT heating the filament, and my body in series with the +circuit. + +Power arcs leaving the body and hitting the ground are very +dangerious, especially for those who are more shock sensitive +than myself. I do not experience "shocks" in these instances, but +do feel the RF burns. I have also had a few RF burns from change, +keys, etc. on my person, as well as having lost all the magnetic +strips on my bank and credit cards. My brother lost a nice +digital watch once. + +But, if you know what you are doing, and the system is well set +up in proper tune, it is OK to take up to 5 kVA output through a +conductor to your person. But this is not recommended for +amateurs. + +There IS a danger with certain tank circuits. I never ground the +tank circuit or the primary coil, nor do I connect the secondary +anywhere to the tank circuit or the primary. Coils with the +primary and secondary connected, or both grounded to system +ground can be LETHAL!!!! This allows an open pathway for deadly +60 cycle from the step up xformer to appear in the spark +discharge. I avoid this problem by never using these circuits. My +tank circuits and primary coils float ungrounded. Remember tank +circuits are always deadly. A person with a conductor in hir hand +and approaching a Tesla coil had better know the circuit, and +have a cool head. Accidental contact with a primary coil or tank +circuit has thought provoking possibilities. + +Like I stated in my original post when offering video: I cannot +be responsible for people attempting to reproduce any of the +experiments that I perform on the tape. I know what I am doing. + + DT> The one I built when I was in college (over 10 years + DT> ago) had 230W input, but I didn't have all the details + DT> of how to optimize / tune it. + +You do now! + + DT> It still threw sparks a few inches long. It also had a + DT> nasty static charge that would build up while it was + DT> running, and while I drew sparks (with a rod) the static + DT> charge would pop and I'd get a jolt. Your coils never + DT> displayed that particular problem in the video, just nice + DT> clean HV RF. + +Yup, they do run clean. Very little RFI, high output, and +efficient. Even my little temporary test setups perform better +than most peoples end product. Having seen a lot of coils, and +talking with people that build them, I feel qualified to post +to "ALL". Nobody here has said any different. I know the circuits +and systems to the point where I literally dream about them +sometimes. I have set up and fired systems in my dreams several +times, and I find the data I get from there is as valid as +anything I do while awake. + + DT> I'm going to show a few friends your tape. + +Please do. All I ask is that you do not make copies without my +permission. + + DT> One of them has a small (by your standards) coil. His + DT> coil's primary is wound like a regular coil, not flat like + DT> yours (or for that matter, the others I've seen. I will have + DT> to check with him to find out why. + +Most likely his plan or design hails back to the "classic" era of +coil building where a vertical helix primnary (all primary turns +equally spaced from the secondary) was common. This type primary +is used to couple energy into systems using the "classic" style, +space wound or low inductance secondary coil. The design I +promote has been completely modernized and takes full advantage +of modern high Q construction materials. The very high inductance +secondary is so much more efficient that you have to reduce the +aspect ratio of the primary coil or it will force a breakdown of +the secondary from overloading. Then I use toroids to balance the +secondary right to the load limit. The result of this work on my +10" coil has yielded sparks to the strike rail protecting the +primary that are as fat as my leg, and up to 15' full current +strikes. The spark is fully five times the length of the +secondary winding which is only 32" high. + + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1340 Date: 11-23-93 17:49 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Joseph Freivald + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +JF>For those of us who are wanna bees, What's a tesla coil, and + >why does it get at least 10 posts per day? + +JF> Just trying to catch up, + > Joe + + +Hi Joe - the Tesla coil is basically a high-frequency resonant +air transformer - oscillator system. It was developed by a +wonderful genius / wildman Nikola Tesla ( 1856-1943 ) as a means +of generating very high voltage as well as power transmission. + +Richard has a great two hour video tape of his work which he will +send to you for the following: ten bucks, a blank good quality +tape, and a postage paid mailer. + +It is well worth it! His "big" coil is about 4' tall and fires +continuous bolts of lightning from nine to fifteen feet! This is +a point-to-point measure too so add in about 30% for the twists +of the arc! + +I used to be into them when I was a teenager and had always +thought about getting back into it but the stuff he is working on +has convinced me! I will be working with a couple friends ( +sharing work 'n money ) and we are starting work on parts of it +this thanksgiving holiday. + +It is interesting too because the "classical" design for a tesla +coil is quite different from the actual best design. The +classical design goes for long thin coils ( maybe 30" by 3" dia ) +and just two or three turns of wire for the primary whereas the +actual best design calls for much shorter / fatter coils and lots +of primary turns ( 10 - 15 ) + +My friends and I have arrived on a basic design - 6" diameter and +30" long, fixed spark gap, 12kV neon sign transformer and +homemade capacitor. Richard mentioned that he once built one +just like this and he was able to get 5' bolts! + +Anyway, the posts are well worth saving, send away for the video +tape too - it makes for fantastic viewing! + + b WOW!! *Nice* spark, Nick! Nick? NIKOLAI, WAKE UP!! + + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1126 Date: 11-23-93 23:43 + From: David Tiefenbrunn + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + On 11-19-93 Richard Quick wrote to David Tiefenbrunn... + + RQ> New lab so far is looking good. Expensive, contractor wants + RQ> $32.50 per square foot. + +Have you "shopped" the local contractors much? +I would thing you could get a pretty good deal +with the terrible resession were in.:) In CT +things are still slow, anyway. + + RQ> BTW I will trade tapes happily if anyone has goodies I would + RQ>be interested in. Video tape is an excellent way to archive + RQ>our little projects; + +I agree. I still sometimes forget to get the dang thing before +"throwing the switch" though. + + RQ> not only are they useful as a personal reference, but they + RQ> are amazingly effective teaching tools. Nothing explains + RQ> something like a coil project as well as the designer/ + RQ> operator pointing to, and talking about, the operational + RQ> working equipment. + +Of course, most of my projects haven't been as striking as the +10KVA Tesla coil, but it is nice to have them on record. + +BTW, is that Tesla Coil Builders Association sticker on the big +control panel for real? I never in 1K years would have thought +there was such a thing. + +Dave + + ! Origin: =Abbey Road BBS= Higganum, Ct. (203)345-7635 +(1:320/5967) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1143 Date: 11-24-93 01:29 + From: George Powell + To: Richard Quick + Subj: Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +I bet tesla was a fun person to live by..made the locals life +real interesting.. + +;) + + ! Origin: Fruity Dog Support (1:2460/21) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1125 Date: 11-25-93 11:59 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 1,000,000KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + DH> Once again - THANKS! + +No problem + + DH> Also, just had a bit of a "conceptual" breakthrough - was + DH> trying to see why 1/4 wave was best and then saw that this + DH> is 1/4 wave reflected over a ground plane... + + DH> Makes a lot of sense ( arcs too ) + +Yeah, It took me a few minutes of looking at sine, then a 1/4 +wave antenna before I realized what was going on and was able to +conceptualize in my mind. Only then did Tesla's repeated use of +the terms "fundamental note" and "harmonic" make sense. + +The length of wire vibrates electrically and is more or less the +perfect analogy of a musical string. When the length of wire is +wound to form a coil, it is simply compressed into a smaller +volume where it can be efficiently excited. + +Now you can force that length of wire to accept SOME energy at +any frequency, but the wire has a natural "hot spot" of +resonance, just like a musical string has it's natural note. + +A function of the coil, and it's natural resonance, is such that +it offers low impedance at the base for currents that match it's +natural resonate frequency. So if the coil has a natural +resonance of say 250 kHz, and current at 250 kHz is fed into the +base, the coil will take it up. Current will flow. Current of any +other frequency sees a very high impedance. + +But at the top of the resonating coil you do not see current. The +coil "converts" the base current into a voltage at the other end. +Since this voltage rises as you go higher and higher up the coil, +and reaches it's peak at the top; Tesla was able to determine the +voltage at the top of the coil is the first 1/4 wave voltage peak +of the RF current fed into the bottom. + +A good term to introduce here is VSWR, for Voltage Standing Wave +Ratio. The coil at resonance establishes a standing wave of the +resonate frequency. The bottom of the wave is a low potential, +such as your RF ground. From this low potential base, the +standing wave is established, and voltage increases as we move +higher up to the top of the coil. + +In order to get a handle on the true resonate frequency of a coil +I use a signal generator, o'scope, and a frequency counter. The +signal generator produces about a 2 volt signal that can be +varied in frequency. I place a 1K resistor between the signal +generator output and the o'scope input. Now the o'scope measures +voltage. The higher the wave on the scope, the higher the voltage +present in the signal generator output. + +The output of the frequency generator is fed to the base wire of +the coil, and the frequency of the output is varied while +watching the o'scope. When the frequency of the signal generator +matches that of the coil, the coil takes up the current. Because +current flows into the base of the coil at resonance, there is a +voltage drop in the signal generator output line. This voltage +drop is measured by the o'scope (across the 1K resistor) and is +know as a "grid dip". The wave on the scope drops to nearly a +flat line. When I see a grid dip I know I have matched the signal +generator output to the coils natural resonate frequency. By also +running a frequency counter connected to the signal generator, I +can tell precisely the frequency of the input current. + +So in this little example, with a coil resonating at 250 kHz; the +coil is resonating at 250 kHz and accepts 250 kHz current at the +base. The current flow is high, the base impedance is low. As you +measure voltage up the coil, the voltage rises until you get to +the top of the coil. At the top of the coil you find the maximum +voltage peak. This is the first voltage peak of the RF current +fed into the base, and represents the 1/4 wave point of the +input frequency current. So you have a 250 kHz coil, with a 1/4 +wave voltage output. 250 kHz input, 1/4 wave voltage output, +helical resonator; or 250 kHz 1/4 wave Tesla coil. + +We know the coil does not require current fed to the base to +become excited. Oscillating magnetic field flux at the resonate +frequency will highly excite the coil. The coil also having the +property of inductance. So the coil can become highly excited by +placing it in close proximity to a high powered oscillator, which +is the Tesla tank circuit. Excitation by field flux produces +equal engery output from both ends of the coil. Current from the +bottom, and voltage from the top. It becomes clear now why such +heavy RF grounds are required for Tesla coil work, and why the RF +ground must be isolated from all other equipment. + + DH> ::Status report:: + + DH> Got some PVC pipe - flimsy stuff but I will use wooden + DH> braces to hold it circular while I wind it. Actually, will + DH> probably cut out some plexi circles and glue them in... + +Plug the ends of the coil form with something to hold it round +while it is wound. Once wound, the wire will stiffen the coil +form and hold the shape. When you glue the endcaps on the form, +it will be plenty sturdy. + + DH> Question - there are some very cheap cutting boards + DH> available made out of a high-density polyethylene plastic - + DH> was thinking of using them for the "breadboard" for the + DH> transformer protection stuff as well as the base of the coil + DH> - do you have any feedback on the Q of this material? + +Pretty good choice of material for for a filter board. + + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1244 Date: 11-26-93 01:00 + From: Guy Daugherty + To: George Powell + Subj: Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +GP>I bet tesla was a fun person to live by..made the locals life +GP>real interesting.. + +GP>;) + + You might say it brightened up their lives. Brought a little + spark into them, so to speak. + + ! Origin: The Silhouetter bbs (209)472-0843 USR DS V32terbo +(1:208/216) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1209 Date: 11-26-93 23:28 + From: David Tiefenbrunn + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + On 11-23-93 Richard Quick wrote to David Tiefenbrunn... + + RQ> DT> *Quite* awesome... Previously the largest Tesla coil + RQ> DT> I had seen was in a science museum in Boston, MA. + RQ> DT> It's spark was maybe 1/2 of the >small< coil in your + RQ> DT> video. I *used* to think it was a big one. + RQ> + RQ> Yup, we have one in our science muesum too. Small system + RQ> putting out about 2' of spark. I decided I could do a little + RQ> better if I put my mind to it. + +You shure did. :) + + RQ> DT> At what power level does it become dangerous to + RQ> DT> draw spark with the pole? + RQ> + RQ> This is a very good question. Very good. I routinely pull + RQ> spark off of my coils with a key, pipe, or other conductor. +... + RQ> Power arcs leaving the body and hitting the ground are very + RQ> dangerious, especially for those who are more shock + RQ> sensitive than myself. I do not experience "shocks" in these + RQ> instances, but do feel the RF burns. I have also had a few + RQ> F burns from change, keys, etc. on my person, as well as + RQ> having lost all the magnetic strips on my bank and credit + RQ> cards. My brother lost a nice digital watch once. + RQ> + RQ> But, if you know what you are doing, and the system is well + RQ> set up in proper tune, it is OK to take up to 5 kVA output + RQ> through a conductor to your person. But this is not + R RQ> recommended for amateurs. + +Reminds me of one of my dad's T shirts: +I am a professional. DON'T try this at home. +You should get one :) + +It would seem that the important thing is to not allow a spark to +jump directly to or from the body. + +The first coil I made (back in grade school days) only threw a +spark about 1/2 inch long. But I could let it jump directly to a +finger with no shock or burn. Not enough power to do damage. + +I do feel shocks (and burns), so I would hesitate before trying +that with a large coil. + + RQ> DT> I'm going to show a few friends your tape. + RQ> + RQ> Please do. All I ask is that you do not make copies without + RQ> my permission. + + O.K. + + ! Origin: =Abbey Road BBS= Higganum, Ct. (203)345-7635 +(1:320/5967) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1150 Date: 11-27-93 00:52 + From: Richard Quick + To: David Tiefenbrunn + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + DT> On 11-19-93 Richard Quick wrote to David Tiefenbrunn... + + RQ> New lab so far is looking good. Expensive, contractor wants + RQ> $32.50 per square foot. + + DT> Have you "shopped" the local contractors much? + DT> I would thing you could get a pretty good deal + DT> with the terrible resession were in.:) In CT + DT> things are still slow, anyway. + +Yeah, I'm going to go "shopping" as soon as I can get motivated +to spend 100G. Right now I am catching my breath from the sticker +shock. The building should go up fast, and I don't plan to start +until spring or early summer. This will give me a chance to shop +around. + + DT> BTW, is that Tesla Coil Builders Association sticker + DT> on the big control panel for real? I never in 1K years + DT> would have thought there was such a thing. + +Yup It's for real. + +Tesla Coil Builders Association +Harry Goldman +#3 Amy Lane +Queensbury, NY 12804 + + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1151 Date: 11-27-93 01:26 + From: Richard Quick + To: George Powell + Subj: Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + GP> I bet Tesla was a fun person to live by..made the locals + GP> life real interesting.. + +There are several good (and true) stories about the local +disturbances Tesla created. + +One of the best concerns an electromechanical steam powered +oscillator he constructed. Now the oscillator was built to +provide a constant frequency field current for a RF alternator +in his radio work. But he played around with the thing. + +In New York he had a lab in the loft of a building for awhile, I +don't have the exact address, but I can easily reference it if +required. The building had a heavy iron center post in the +construction. The post came up through the center of the loft and +supported the roof peak. The base of the post was sunk into +bedrock, and carried a considerable portion of the building load. + +Tesla bolted the oscillator output shaft to the post and fired it +up. As steam pressure in the boiler increased, so did the +frequency of oscillation. He sat in a chair and observed the +effects of the mechanical vibrations on objects at hand. Each +object having a resonate frequency would begin to vibrate and +move as the frequency of the oscillator matched it. + +After about 30-40 minutes Tesla began to notice the building +itself begin to sway, and saw beams unseat. He went to shut down +the machine. To his dismay he found that his jury rigged steam +line was too hot to approach, and/or the valve was seized. He +looked around the lab for a minute or two and finally attacked +the problem with an axe, severing the steam line and blowing +clouds of live steam into the building. + +As the steam cleared, he heard a knock at the door. Two of New +York's finest stood in the doorway. Now Tesla was apparently no +stranger to dealing with the authorities. He explained to the +cops that they had arrived too late for the demonstration, and +that an unfortunate problem prevented him from reproducing the +test while they waited. He invited them back later in the day, +and showed them out. + +It seems the police had received frantic calls from people in a +radius of several blocks reporting an earthquake. Walls, +sidewalks, and foundations cracked, windows shattered, street +lamps tilted askew, and stuff was falling out of cabinets and +shelves. The police realized that the station itself was only +subjected to a slight tremor, but officers reporting to the scene +of the calls found the intensity increased as the drew near +Tesla's lab. It did not take them long to figure out where the +commotion was comming from. As I mentioned, Tesla was no stranger +in dealing with local authorities. + + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1266 Date: 11-30-93 12:15 + From: Richard Quick + To: David Tiefenbrunn + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + RQ> DT> At what power level does it become dangerous to + RQ> DT> draw spark with the pole? + + RQ> This is a very good question. Very good. I routinely pull + RQ> spark off of my coils with a key, pipe, or other conductor. + DT> ... + RQ> Power arcs leaving the body and hitting the ground are very + RQ> dangerious, especially for those who are more shock + RQ> sensitive than myself. I do not experience "shocks" in these + RQ> instances, but do feel the RF burns. I have also had a few + RQ> RF burns from change, keys, etc. on my person, as well as + RQ> having lost all the magnetic strips on my bank and credit + RQ> cards. My brother lost a nice digital watch once. + + RQ> But, if you know what you are doing, and the system is well + RQ> set up in proper tune, it is OK to take up to 5 kVA output + RQ> through a conductor to your person. But this is not + RQ> recommended for amateurs. + + DT> Reminds me of one of my dad's T shirts: + DT> I am a professional. DON'T try this at home. + DT> You should get one :) + + DT> It would seem that the important thing is to not + DT> allow a spark to jump directly to or from the body. + +Yes I would tend to agree with this, especially at higher powers. +The charge density and amount of power alone can be dangerious, +despite the output of the coil being clean RF. I don't know if +the resolution on the tape is good enough to see but in the shot +where I am pulling a few feet of spark off the coil with a copper +pipe, there are some 6" - 8" sparks comming off my feet. Since I +am standing on an insulated platform, and my shoes socks are +sweaty, I only get a tingling sensation. + +Another thing to caution about is being in series with a power +arc from the discharge terminal, even if the actual arc leaves a +conductor such as a pipe or what not. Again the charge density is +just too high on a big coil to make this safe. I have been placed +in an uncomfortable position or two where this has happened, and +the operator of the coil needs to have a cool head and be very +familiar with the controls. I wish I had these incidents recorded +on video tape. + +When doing the million volts through the body trick, or other HV +RF experiments when in physical contact to the output, discharge +must be radiated or arced through the air, not to ground. Power +arcs to ground while in series with the circuit is "eye opening" +to say the least, and can make your fillings really sing. +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2224 Date: 12-01-93 00:01 + From: Dave Lyle + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 1,000,000Kva Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>coil "converts" the base current into a voltage at the other +RQ>end. Since this voltage rises as you go higher and higher up +RQ>the coil, and reaches it's peak at the top; Tesla was able to +RQ>determine the voltage at the top of the coil is the first 1/4 +RQ>wave voltage peak of the RF current fed into the bottom. + +Richard, GREAT series of articles here. Just a quick question +here. First, I understand what is happening as far as the 1/4 +wave length is concerned. I relate this to transmission line +theory, where the VSWR is approaching infinity. My question +though, is..how does the coil excite at other odd multiples of +1/4 wave, i.e. 3/4, 5/4 wave? I suspect it would be more lossy, +but what, if any, benefits might be derived by operating at the +higher frequency? + +Dave + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1390 Date: 12-01-93 12:37 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> DH> Status report: + +RQ> DH> Got the wire for the secondary as well as the basic +RQ> DH> design. + +RQ>OK, I got some soft figures for you. Given the specs of the + >planned coil you gave me here's what your looking at: + +RQ>Bare secondary frequency around ~260 kHz + >Secondary top loaded with 18" diam, 4" cross section toriod + >will resonate around ~180 kHz + +Great! I will be using a torrid so I will make it this size. + +RQ>These numbers are going to off a little, but I tuned a guys + >coil once over the telephone when he was six states away. I + >was throwing stuff off the top of my head. + +Stuff like that is so much fun when it happens I am +called to do computer diagnoses over the phone a lot and it +amazes people that I can just listen to them for a few minutes +and then rattle off a list of keys to hit... + + +RQ> DH> Also, found a *wonderful* three terminal plus ground RF + > DH> filter for 240 volt @ 60 Hz rated at 60 amps! $20 - + > DH> couldn't resist! + +RQ>I would have picked it up too. This is looking good, be sure + >to run the filter backwards. If your using only one filter, + >place it between in the supply line before the variac. Ground + >the case to your 60 cycle neutral. + +Great! I didn't think about hooking it up "backwards" but that +makes perfect sense! I will be just using that one filter so that +is where it will be connected. + +RQ> DH> Still looking for a source of the form for the secondary + > DH> the stuff I saw at a local Home Depot was poorly out of + > DH> round... + > DH> Maybe some plexiglass disks glued inside to maintain + > DH> shape. + +RQ>I would avoid using baffels inside the coil form, they tend to + >reduce the Q of the coil. Find a different supplier for some + >rounder pipe before you go this route. + +That was my opinion too - it would give an electrical "bump" in +the tube, not something to have in a tuned system. + +RQ> DH> Have a bunch of 3/8" refrigeration tubing that I can use + > DH> for the primary - + +RQ>Just fine for this sized primary coil, make sure it is long + >enough, though you can braze in a splice for added length. + +OK - I mentioned in another post that I just have about 30' of +it. I'll measure what the primary will take and then get some +more. Got an Oxy / Acetylene torch so brazing pieces together is +not a problem. + +RQ> DH> Still need to get the step-up transformer - already have + > DH> a 12kV 30mA neon but the "potential" transformers you + +RQ>If you use 12 kv neons you will need about 120 ma total to + >drive this coil to good spark. That's four 12,30s. + +I will be checking with some neon sign places in the next day for +a couple more transformers. There is one fairly close by me that +does a lot of "art" signs and stuff. + +RQ> DH> Anyway - work progresses - I will be busy during this + > DH> "holiday" season, also the people that were interested in + > DH> working with me are still very very much interested - + > DH> showed the primary person your video and their jaw + > DH> dropped + +RQ>His was not the first, and won't be the last!!! You should + >have seen the look on MY face while I was running it! I was + >20' away and under cover and the sparks looked like they were + >going to wipe my nose for me. + +I can well imagine! There is a local park that is situated on +Lake Washington near where I live, I have been toying with the +idea of firing the coil off there, maybe out on one of the boat +docks. Drop a bunch of Aluminum flashing over into the water for +the ground. + +Could be kind of fun! + +Anyway, I will talk with you later. Dave + b Did you put the cat out? I didn't know it was burning. + + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1398 Date: 12-02-93 08:04 + From: Brian Carling + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +DH>My friends and I have arrived on a basic design - 6" diameter +DH>and 30" long, fixed spark gap, 12kV neon sign transformer and +DH>homemade capacitor. Richard mentioned that he once built one +DH>just like this and he was able to get 5' bolts! + +DH>Anyway, the posts are well worth saving, send away for the +DH>video tape too - it makes for fantastic viewing! + +What is his address? ANy chance I could get the design details on +your smaller unit? + + ! Origin: _The_Attic_ [301-428-1970] 14.4K v.32b - (1:109/423) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1420 Date: 12-03-93 08:25 + From: James Woodruff + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> Quoting Dave Halliday to Richard Quick <=- + + DH> I can well imagine - I also did PA systems for bands for a while and + DH> some of the perceptions about power and signal grounds were amazing. + + DH> Not so much for their blind ignorance and lack of common sense but +for + DH> the fact that some of them were still alive + + My church does not ground their amps. Is this to prevent ground + loops, save the expense of an extra wire,or blind ignorance? This + Is on their mobile equipment that they clip onto the service entry + panel.They also hook their stage lights to the same ungrounded + circuit. p r e t t y scary uh? + + Please reply,so I can help them out. THANX + +... A penny saved is ridiculous....... +-!- GEcho/386 1.01+ + ! Origin: Trinity ]I[ BBS -=[ Oklahoma City ]=- (405)691-2377 +(1:147/2777) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1575 Date: 12-04-93 15:52 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Brian Carling + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +BC>DH>My friends and I have arrived on a basic design - 6" diameter + >and 30" long, fixed spark gap, 12kV neon sign transformer and + >homemade + +BC>DH>Anyway, the posts are well worth saving, send away for the video +tape + >DH>too - it makes for fantastic viewing! + +BC>What is his address? ANy chance I could get the design details on your + >smaller unit? + +OK - here is his address excerpted from a message: + + >a two hour video tape in exchange for: One blank (high quality) + >VHS tape, a postage pre-paid return mailer, $10.00 to pay for my + >time and effort in seeing that you get a high quality, two hour, + >recording of my work. Note this offer is not made on my behalf to + >make any money, and I am not resposible for anybody's safety + >should they decide to replicate any of the experiments I perform. + >I will send a glossy print for $1.00 and a SASE. + +RQ>Richard T. Quick II, 10028 Manchester Rd., Suite 253, Glendale, + >Missouri, 63122, USA + + +You could scale down the design but I feel that the amount of time and +money involved would be about the same regardless of what size coil you +are building so why not go for a bigger one. + +The one I am building is 6" diameter, 30" tall and is powered by a bank +of four neon sign transformers. + +Richard says that a coil like this will be capable of consistent five +foot long arcs. + +Down the road, I would like to experiment with a "pocket" coil or a +tabletop model but you do need a very very good ground regardless of the +size so this isn't something that you could take somewhere and casually +set it up and expect to get good results. + +Anyway, keep tuned to this conference and I will be letting people know +how things are progressing! + +TTYL - Dave ë:-) + b QMPro 1.51 b Never Wear Battery-Powered Clothing to a Formal Event. + + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0434 + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2318 Date: 12-06-93 11:17 + From: Richard Quick + To: Joseph Freivald + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + JF> For those of us who are wanna bees, What's a tesla coil, and + JF> why does it get at least 10 posts per day? + +A Tesla Coil is an air core, RF resonate, transformer. It is a +very efficient source of very high voltage RF energy. If it +weren't for the problem I am having with my ASCII character set I +would give you a wiring diagram. + +Basically you take a high voltage pulse discharging capacitor and +connect it to a large heavy coil. The cap is charged with a high +voltage power supply (neon sign xfrmr, potential xfrmr, or power +distribution xfrmr run backwards). The circuit consisting of the +cap and coil is excited by discharging the cap through a spark +gap. This way current of hundreds of amps at thousands of volts +oscillate through the coil. Frequency of oscillation is dependant +on the number of turns in the coil and the size of the cap. +This is the basis of the Tesla Tank circuit. + +The secondary coil or "Tesla coil" is a hollow form with several +hundred turns of wire. This coil has a natural RF resonate +frequency based primarily on the length of wire used in the +winding. The tank circuit frequency is made to match the +secondary natural frequency by tuning, changing the number of +turns in the heavy primary coil or changing the value of the +pulse discharging capacitor. When the tank circuit frequency is +matched to the secondary frequency, and the coils are placed in +close proximity, energy is exchanged and transformed. + +RF voltages in the megavolts can be achieved with very high +efficiency. The tank circuit literally converts line current into +a series of rapid pulse dicharges with peak powers in the +megawatt range. A simple coil setup is capable of producing more +or less continous spark discharges several feet in length, or +longer. + +I cannot say why there are so many posts on the subject, except +that the topic is interesting and I have had more than a few +requests for information on these systems. I have sent out a few +video tapes with some of the work I have done, and it has greatly +accelerated the interest. My video features a coil system I built +operating with 10,000 watts input power, generating peak powers +of 22 megawatts, with a discharge voltage of between 3-5 +megavolts (or more). The system is able to produce arcs of +synthetic lightning that strike out up to 15 feet. + +I hope this answers your question. If you need any additional +information, or have other questions, please feel free to post on +this topic. +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2319 Date: 12-06-93 11:33 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + RQ>A tank circuit with a small capacitor, and a large primary + >inductance, will reach down to the lower frequencies of + >operation. A tank circuit of this design will use less power, + >and therefore require a smaller step up xfrmr. The capacitor + >will be smaller, which further reduces the cost of the + >system. + + DH> Makes a lot of sense! + +Efficiency, efficiency... Put every watt into the discharge! + + RQ>So to give some advice to my friend Dave Halliday, who is + >building a 6" secondary coil sometime in the near future, + >plan on winding a primary coil from a conductor material that + >I have listed above, and use a conductor length of around 75 + >feet. Your primary should end up about as wide as, or wider, + >than your secondary is tall. + + DH> Got it! I was thinking of using some 3/8ths refrigeration + >tubing but since the surface area is important, I'll probably + >get a reel of 3/4ths or 1/2" tubing ( gotta check on pricing + >first ) + +With a 6" secondary coil that is 24" high, 3/8" soft copper water +pipe is perfect. My big coil uses 1/2" pipe and only gets +slightly warm on the first and second turns after a five minute +full power run. Balance the diameter of the pipe to the length of +the primary conductor. 50' conductor use 1/4" pipe, 75' conductor +use 3/8" pipe, 100' conductor use 1/2" pipe. When is doubt use +the next size up. + + DH> Trade some videos / photos once I get something to show. + +COOL! + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 4 Date: 06 Dec 93 12:45:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + DH> There is a local park that is situated on Lake Washington + DH> near where I live, I have been toying with the idea of + DH> firing the coil off there, maybe out on one of the boat + DH> docks. Drop a bunch of Aluminum flashing over into the water + DH> for the ground. + + DH> Could be kind of fun! + +I have fired and grounded off of water grounds exactly as you are +thinking. They work great! + +Good Luck! I hope to see a spark shot or two soon. Bring the +camcorder, and a 35 mm, and a few friends. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2323 Date: 12-06-93 13:11 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +OK, People who are interested in the TESLA VIDEO have not, are +not, and will not be dissapointed. + +I will send a full 2 hour SP recorded, one off master, VHS tape +with sections showing my big coil literally burning up the back +driveway and striking everything within 11 feet (arcs as big +around as my leg on some strikes). + +You must send $10.00, a self addressed postage pre-paid return +mailer, and a blank, high quality VHS tape. + + Richard T. Quick II + 10028 Manchester Rd. + Suite 253 + Glendale, MO 63122 USA + +Tapes are sent out within 48 hours from receipt of your package, +there is no monkey business. The video is instructive: it shows +several coil systems in operation, details on the power control +cabinet, wiring, tuning and firing as well as sections on spark +gaps, RF filter chokes, etc. I also fire my "pole pig" utility +power distribution transformer in a Jacob's Ladder at 8000 watts +with 20,000 volts across the rails. + +This tape is my cutting edge 1/4 wave Tesla work, and involves +lots of high voltage set ups and demonstrations. Due to the +nature of the work covered on the video: I CANNOT BE RESPONSIBLE +FOR THE SAFETY OF ANYONE ATTEMPTING TO REPRODUCE ANY OF THE +SYSTEMS OR EXPERIMENTS FEATURED ON THE VIDEO!!!! + +I am more than happy to answer any questions or respond to +comments in this area on anything covered on the video. +I will also trade tapes even with people who are engaged in +similar or other work of interest: Tesla coils or other high +voltage equipment in action, rail guns, laser setups, taser guns, +particle accelerators, capacitive discharge machines, etc. + + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2320 Date: 12-06-93 13:12 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Lyle + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + DL> Richard, + DL> GREAT series of articles here. + +Thanks! Another vote of confidence! + + DL> Just a quick question here. First, I understand what is + DL> happening as far as the 1/4 wave length is concerned. I + DL> relate this to transmission line theory, where the VSWR is + DL> approaching infinity. + +You are correct in this relation. Transmission line theory does +apply to Tesla secondaries. + + DL> My question though, is.. how does the coil excite at other + DL> odd multiples of 1/4 wave, i.e. 3/4, 5/4 wave? I suspect it + DL> would be more lossy., but what, if any, benefits might be + DL> derived by operating at the higher frequency? + +Coils that are excited or driven to higher harmonics (over 1/4 +wave) break down prior to the top turns. For instance a coil +driven to 3/4 wave resonance would still break down at the 1/4 +wave point of the winding. This problem is commonly seen on coils +that are overdriven or overcoupled, and I cannot imagine any way +to insulate against this breakdown. Higher harmonics CAN be +reached by using two or more coils driven from the same tank +circuit or by placing the primary in the center of a single coil. +For instance a 1/2 wave system could be built using two coils, or +driving one coil from the center producing two 1/4 wave peaks, +one at either end. + +The trick to efficiency is to excite at a LOWER harmonic (below +1/4 wave), ie: 1/8th wave, 1/16 wave, or 1/32 wave. These lower +harmonics are high in current, and lower in voltage. Loss is +reduced because the lower voltage leaks less, and the energy of +the wave is a product of both current and voltage. The 1/8th wave +harmonic appears to be the most efficient. + +Now remember that we have not changed the frequency. The system +frequency may remain the same, we are simply tapping the energy +further back in the wave form. Tesla was able to force the +secondary into these lower harmonics by the addition of the extra +coil to the system, then reducing the number of turns in the +secondary until it was 1/8th wave resonate. Current and voltage +were then fed to the base of the extra coil resonator. + +The advantages of using the extra coil, and tapping the secondary +energy at a lower harmonic are many: Coupling between primary and +secondary may be tightend up considerably, driving more energy +through the system; the 1/8th wave output of the secondary +contains 70% of the wave energy as opposed to the 50% obtained in +1/4 wave output; there is much less voltage stress on the +secondary which reduces the incident of breakdown and "splitting" +(parasitic 1/4 wave peaks); current is removed from the secondary +by transmission line to the extra coil, unloading the secondary +for more input (allows higher break rates in the gap = greater +throughput) and placing the main system VSWR in the uncoupled end +resonator (extra coil); impedance, resistance, and distributed +capacitance are also reduced with proper design and construction. + +This production of a lower harmonic from the secondary by adding +the extra coil to the system is a true breakthrough in Tesla +power processing. This is the three coil Tesla Magnifier as Tesla +developed to industrial porportions in Colorado Springs, and may +be scaled back for very efficient "basement" systems. I have seen +Magnifiers producing 100"+ arcs at 4100 watts input power, and +have myself hit 72" with inputs around 2500 watts. I see a real +gain of 40% in spark length for input power with this system. + +Thank you for your input on transmission line theory and your +question. I hope I have given a resonable and satisfactory +response. If you have any other questions or coments I would be +more than happy to reply to them. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2324 Date: 12-06-93 13:25 + From: Richard Quick + To: Brian Carling + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> SEZ Brian Carling to Richard Quick <=- + + BC> Richard - what is your address please? + BC> I'd like details on sending for your $10 video about Tesla + BC> generators. Thanks - Brian C. + +You mispelled my name so this request did not come up in my +personal mail scan. See my post of today to "ALL" for details of +the Tesla Video. + +As I have said before, and several regulars in the conference +will attest to, the video is first rate. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1471 Date: 12-06-93 13:26 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + DH> Hi Richard - little note here - I don't know if you get a + DH> British magazine called "Electronics World + Wireless World" + DH> ( it used to be just Wireless World ) but the current issue + DH> - November 1993 - arrived today and it is one to look at. + + RQ>Yes, since you offered, please copy the article and send it + >to me. I would be in your debt. This looks like an + >interesting system. + + DH> In the mail this afternoon! + +Thanks a lot. I just got back from a weekend in Chicago with my +new girlfriend (NICE!) and look forward to seeing it! + + +... 9 out of 10 men who try Camels prefer women +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1655 Date: 12-07-93 11:29 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Brian Carling + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +BC>DH>RQ> DH> Have a bunch of 3/8" refrigeration tubing that I + >DH> > DH> can use for the primary - + +BC>DH>RQ>Just fine for this sized primary coil, make sure it is long + >DH> >enough, though you can braze in a splice for added length. + +BC>DH>RQ>His was not the first, and won't be the last!!! You should have + >DH> >seen the look on MY face while I was running it! I was 20' away + >DH> >and under cover and the sparks looked like they were going to + >DH> >wipe my nose for me. + +BC>I am a rank beginner, but have some good background education in + >electronics/electricity... Can you help me get started? + >I want to build a large Tesla coil. I'm also interested in Van de +Graaf + >generators etc. I don't want to build something puny! I like the idea + >of building with refrigeration coil type copper tubing - that sounds + >like serious high power. I've built my own linear amplifier before + >(not a kit!!) I'm watching the posts from you and Richard with great + >interest! + + +Hi Brian - best thing to do would be to jump right in! I hadn't touched +the stuff myself since high school but Richard's info is really clear and +his video tape is well worth getting. + +The 6" dia / 30" long coil that my friends and I are building should be +capable of a 5' arc so although this doesn't quite qualify as "large" it +should be enough to make the neighbors *really* start to wonder about me +( not that they don't already ) + +There is a basic "learning curve" that needs to be accomplished and I +think that it would be best to do this on a medium sized coil such as +the one we are building - then progress to a monster + +Also, the really large coils need a really large source of high voltage +to power them ( power company distribution transformer ) and they are +very very loud - I think that Richard's 10" dia coil is about the upper +limit to home built coils ( it throws 10 to 15 foot arcs ) + +I was also into Van de Graaf generators too in high school - used cake +pans for the dome and was able to get 4" sparks on a dry day. Didn't +have access to the tools to make a spun aluminum dome so the rolled +edges of the pans were the upper limiting factor for voltage. +Anyway, save all of the posts and send away for the video, get some +thin-wall PVC tubing and a couple thousand feet of magnet wire, some +neon-sign transformers, make one of the capacitors detailed in an +earlier post and fire away! + +TTYL - Dave + + b QMPro 1.51 b "Bother", said Pooh, and deleted his message +base... + + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0434 + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1654 Date: 12-07-93 11:36 + From: Dave Halliday + To: James Woodruff + Subj: Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +JW> DH> I can well imagine - I also did PA systems for bands for a + >while and some of the perceptions about power and signal + >grounds were amazing. + +JW> DH> Not so much for their blind ignorance and lack of common + > DH> sense but for the fact that some of them were still alive + +JW> My church does not ground their amps. Is this to prevent ground + > loops, save the expense of an extra wire,or blind ignorance? This + > Is on their mobile equipment that they clip onto the service +entry + > panel.They also hook hook their stage lights to the same ungroun- +ded + > circuit. p r e t t y scary uh? + +Actually, if they are making a three wire connection directly to the +service panel, they should be OK. You might want to get an outlet +tester from your local radio shack or hardware store and verify a proper +connection. These testers are three-prong plugs with three lights in +them. The way the lights light up show how the socket is wired. + +If they are just using two wires to power a mobile electronic setup, +they could be letting themselves in for quite a liability suit when a +performer touches something in contact with the earth at the same time +they are in contact with a metal part of the sound system. + +A band I used to do sound for had such a bad wiring setup that the +guitar player could not get close to the microphone for fear of getting +shocked. They took it with a grain of salt but we are dealing with +a potentially lethal situation here. The first thing I did was to get +their electrical system in order - no more shocks! + +It would be a very good idea to look into this - good luck! Dave + + b QMPro 1.51 b "Call waiting", great if you HAVE two friends... + + +-!- WM v3.10/92-0434 + ! Origin: Advanced Software Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 +(1:109/546) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 07 Dec 93 17:20:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Lyle + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +I thought I would take a minute and expand a little more on the +subject of harmonics in Tesla systems. This should give you a +better idea of how these harmonics can be used, and help me to +better organize my thoughts on this very interesting subject. + +I talked yesterday about theory. Today I would like to discuss a +little more practical application. Let me look at a system that I +have actually built and fired. + +I have a normal Tesla secondary that resonates at about 200 kHz +with a discharge ternminal. When this coil is placed in a primary +and critically coupled, it will fire when the tank circuit is +tuned to 200 kHz. No problems here, this is a normal 1/4 wave +system. The tank circuit oscillates at 200 kHz, the secondary +coil with discharger resonates at 200 kHz, and the output from +the system is the 1/4 wave peak of a 200 kHz signal. + +Now we remove the secondary from the primary and replace the +secondary with a coil that is 1/4 wave resonate at 400 kHz. +Take a heavy wire or pipe from the top of the 400 kHz coil and +make a connection to the bottom of the 200 kHz coil, now placed +some distance away. Leave the tank circuit alone. + +When we fire the system, the secondary (or "driver" coil) is +still excited by, and resonating at, 200 kHz. The frequency of +the system has not changed. What has changed is the output of the +driver coil: It is no longer a 1/4 wave peak at 200 kHz, nor is +it a 1/4 wave peak at 400 kHz (the natural 1/4 wave resonate +freq. of this coil) it is 1/8 wave CURRENT at 200 kHz which +contains significant voltage. The frequency of the system has not +changed, nor has the natural frequency of any coil in the system. + +What we have done is forced a shift in a 400 kHz 1/4 wave output +coil to a lower harmonic. In this case the coil is quite able to +resonate for 1/8th wave current output at 200 kHz. The natural +frequency of the coil does not change, nor does the tuned fre- +quency of the system change. The 200 kHz 1/4 wave coil at the end +of the system recieves high current 1/8th wave signal at 200 kHz. + +Now we have set up a system that opens up many opportunities for +specialization and improvement. First thing that will be noticed +is that the transmission line is highly energized but runs at a +fairly low voltage by Tesla standards. We have removed the high +voltage 1/4 wave peak from the secondary in the system, and the +1/4 wave peak is now located on the discharge terminal of the end +resonator (the 200 kHz 1/4 wave "extra" coil). + +Simply removing the 1/4 wave peak from the top of the secondary +has really reduced the stress on the system and allows for +substantial increases in throughput. One of the most important +factors here is that the 1/4 wave resonator (the extra coil) is +allowed unrestricted VSWR. In a normal 1/4 wave system, with the +1/4 wave peak located on top of the secondary, the VSWR in the +1/4 wave coil is restricted by the field flux interaction between +the primary and secondary. This field flux damps some of the VSWR +resonance. Now the resonator is able to "ring" freely, without +magnetic interferance. + +The secondary in the system (driver coil) is still damped by +field flux, but we are no longer looking to this coil to perform +substantial VSWR voltage gains. What we want from this coil is +heavy 1/8th wave current. We are more than happy to get a simple +ratio of turns transformation from this coil, but as it turns out +we do get a significant VSWR voltage rise even on a coil forced +into 1/8th wave resonance. However since we want current and not +high voltage, we can couple this coil much much tighter to the +primary. Increases in coupling coefficients by a factor of four +may not be out of line in primary/secondary drivers fired under +oil. Even in air, coupling coefficients may be doubled or even +tripled. We may also use much heavier wire for higher Qs. + +As coupling coefficients (magnetic interaction between coils) are +increased, energy transfer is increased. All of the sudden you +can squeeze in nearly twice as much power, without drawing a +single additional watt. In a normal 1/4 wave system, increasing +the coupling would force a destructive breakdown of the 1/4 wave +secondary, as all energy must be processed by the single +resonator. But, with an extra coil, and an 1/8th wave driver, +stress in the system is greatly reduced. The driver hands off +current to the extra coil as fast as energy is pumped in from the +primary, there is no high voltage 1/4 wave "pressure point" on +top of the driver coil to stress the windings, and the VSWR is +divided between two coils, not burdened on a single secondary. + +Another gain is realized by the fact that the output of the 1/8 +wave resonating driver contains 20% greater energies than a 1/4 +wave output. Why? Well the total energy in a wave form at any +given point is a product of current and voltage. The 1/4 wave +output has voltage, but theoretically has 0 current, as it is a +peak on the wave form. The 1/8 wave harmonic however has voltage +and current both, and both are porportionally at their highest +value. In other words the 1/8 wave point is the location of the +greatest energy available anywhere on the wave form. Here you +find the highest value of voltage * current. It works out to 70% +of the wave energy as opposed to 50% available at the 1/4 wave +peak. + +So lets look again at what we have gained. Greater coupling +between the primary and secondary for more efficent throughput. +Higher VSWR in the 1/4 wave resonator (extra coil) by removing +this coil from the damping effects of the magnetic field flux. +Higher energy transfer between the driver and extra coil by using +1/8th wave current in the transmission line. These gains are +easily realized before specific modifications are made to the +tank circuit and coils to take advantage of the setup. Improve- +ments can include higher break rates for more frequent excit- +ation; heavier wire, higher Q coils; higher input voltages; +and balanced capacitor tank circuits. +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1649 Date: 12-07-93 21:50 + From: Terry Smith + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + RQ> the drugstore. The only thing required was 56 hours of time in + RQ> arranging the plates according to Bill. But he did end up with + RQ> .03 uf 15 kv pulse capacitor in a five gallon bucket. It was + RQ> quite a performer on his coil at 3600 watts! + + RQ> The novice coiler should think about the capacitor requirements + RQ> and experiment some before beginning large scale homemade caps. + +Why not use a G3 mica or, for more current, a vacuum cap? With the +time value and instability of what you're describing, it sounds like +a couple hundred $$$ for a readily available commercial cap would be +a good comparative value. + +What is the design ESR goal? + +Terry + + +-!- Maximus 2.01wb + ! Origin: Methylene Chloride: Melts your CPU, & your hand! +(1:141/1275) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1701 Date: 12-08-93 07:46 + From: Brian Carling + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +DH>BC>DH>My friends and I have arrived on a basic design - 6" diameter +DH> >DH>and 30" long, fixed spark gap, 12kV neon sign transformer and +DH> >DH>homemade + +DH>RQ>Richard T. Quick II, 10028 Manchester Rd., Suite 253, Glendale, +DH> >Missouri, 63122, USA + +thanks for the info. I am going to see what I can find at the +local library also. + +DH>You could scale down the design but I feel that the amount of time and +DH>money involved would be about the same regardless of what size coil +you +DH>are building so why not go for a bigger one. + +No, I want to build the BIG one! + +DH>The one I am building is 6" diameter, 30" tall and is powered by a +bank +DH>of four neon sign transformers. + +That doesn't sound too huge to construct... + +Do you connect the neon sign transformers in series or what? + +DH>Richard says that a coil like this will be capable of consistent five +DH>foot long arcs. + +Cool! + +DH>Down the road, I would like to experiment with a "pocket" coil or a +DH>tabletop model but you do need a very very good ground regardless of +the +DH>size so this isn't something that you could take somewhere and +casually +DH>set it up and expect to get good results. + +Why can't the one you describe be a "table-top" model? +6" around by 30" tall would fit on most tables! + +DH>Anyway, keep tuned to this conference and I will be letting people +know +DH>how things are progressing! + +I'll watch eagerly! + + +DH>--- WM v3.10/92-0434 +DH> ! Origin: Advanced Software +Concepts-WC3.90P-15.8,301-794-6496 (1:109/546) + + * SLMR 2.1a * Environmental activists: Green on the outside/RED +inside! + +-!- Maximus/2 2.01wb + ! Origin: _The_Attic_ [301-428-1970] 14.4K v.32b - (1:109/423) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2418 Date: 12-08-93 16:34 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Thank you Dave for sending the magazine with the article on the +spark gap transmitters. It was interesting, but full of mis- +crediting. The author chose in many instances to detail the worst +systems of the era. + +Research, patents, articles, legal trials, and public demonstra- +tions produced by Nikola Tesla show conclusively that he was much +more advanced in wireless transmission, yet the article reads +"Marconi this... Marconi that... Marconi's work showed..." + +The circuits, schematics, and techniques shown in the article are +quite primitive when compared to the circuits Tesla was using +two, even three, years earlier. Processing efficiencies of energy +in the circuits detailed in the article could only be considered +poor at best. + +Tesla shows circuits published in 1891 that produce continuous +wave undamped oscillations. The circuits are efficient, powerful, +and frequency stable (no damping, drifting, or beating). Tesla's +spark gap transmitters of a few years later were ranged by the +U.S. Navy at over 1500 miles with 2.5 kVA input. His maritime +transmitter design was commercialized by Fritz Lowenstein (I +believe), and was a full head and shoulders above the units +designed by people like Thompson and Marconi. + +The photos of the damped wave trains were very interesting. The +author mentioned that the photos were made with reproduction +equipment that resembled units of the era as closely as posible. +I just find it galling that he would go through such efforts in +accuracy this area and would only mention Tesla's name once. + +It was also interesting to note that the large 300 kVa Marconi +transmitter discussed in the article was retrofitted once, and +decommissioned early because the output was so highly damped. +Looking at the material I can only imagine the nightmare of +maintaining a sharp tune in the system, and the related problems +with frequency drift and efficiency. Many of these problems are +related to the poor gap design and lack of primary inductance. +The gaps would not quench well at these power levels, and the +short primary conductor does not provide sharp tune, good +coupling coefficients or energy transfers. Tesla's systems of +this era were much much more advanced. + +It has been documented in the U.S. Supreme court that Marconi +stole a number of patents from Tesla relating to Tesla's early +wireless work. The two men were in contact for nearly a year +prior to 1890, during which time Marconi had substantial access +to Tesla's ideas. When Tesla realized the theft of his unper- +fected systems was becomming prevalent, he came to despise +Marconi and cut him off of any new information. Afterwards +Marconi was stuck for a number of years in his efforts to develop +a powerful working transmitter, at least until he was able to +steal Tesla's published patents for the coupled secondary/ +antenna. Tesla by this time had raced ahead by leaps and bounds +to the prototype development of the Magnifing Transmitter in the +mid 1890s, while Marconi was still using primitive gaps and +poorly coupled, short primaries for years. Tesla's Magnifing +Transmitter was remarkably frequency stable, narrow band, +continuous wave, and extremely powerful and efficient. Yet he, +and credit for his work, has all but been deleted from main +stream history. + +I can go on and on. Tesla was using high frequency alternators +running 20,000 hz or more for his power supplies (patented) in +his transmitters of this era, yet the article details the use of +500 hz alternators by Marconi. The result: Marconi's damped wave +transmitter ran maximum synchronous break rates around 1000 BPS, +(breaks per second) while Tesla went asynchronous to 40,000 or +even 50,000 BPS and was able to achieve nearly undamped CW +output. Marconi's machines were plagued with a heavily damped +signal, short range, reception problems, high input powers, and +very poor efficiency. The article noted that later; others went +to high speed asynchronous breaks, but they lacked the oscillator +circuits Tesla was running, and the sophisticated 1/8th wave +driver system (Magnifing Transmitter) to utilize these extremely +high break rates. When others tried running asynchronous breaks +with extremely high BPS on 1/4 wave drivers, the performance fell +off to near zero, and they called Tesla a liar. Indeed, Tesla was +so far ahead with the system that NOBODY EVEN UNDERSTOOD THE +CIRCUITS HE WAS USING UNTIL THE MID 1980s!!!! + That is over 90 years later, not a mistype. + +Credit given to his less creative competition, men like Edison +and Marconi, is wrongful, and not based in historic fact. Both +Edison and Marconi advocated systems that failed the test of time +and practicality, to be replaced with systems invented by the +master, Nickola Tesla. Tesla's most advanced systems went +unutilized completely, unless they have been incorporated into +classified SDI projects for particle beam devices. I have seen +this over and over. In Chicago last weekend at the Museum of +Science and Industry; Edison gets a full sectional display, +complete with an orignal model DC generator. DC power generation +and transmission on industrial scales is dead in all but highly +specific applications. Yet Tesla, the inventor of the modern AC +industrial power grid gets not a word. The only mention of +Tesla's name I could find was on a single "classic" coil on loan +from the University of Chicago. + +BTW, the section in the article on the Wien quench gap manu- +factured and used in transmitters by Telefunken, exactly +corresponds to my post of over a month ago in this conference. +Tesla was paid royalty by Telefunken on every transmitter +produced until the start of WWI. These transmitters were on board +every German U-boat, and Tesla's system was used on large land +based transmitters used by the German command. Tesla offered +these patents to the U.S. military several times, but was turned +down. Needing money he sold them to the highest bidder, and the +Germans praised them highly. + +The U.S. Navy bought Tesla transmitters prior to WWI from an +intermediary company run by Fritz Lowenstein. Herr Lowenstein was +a highly praised assistant to Tesla in New York and Colorado +Springs. The patents as I have said were owned by German +nationals, but Mr. Lowenstein had the technical expertise to see +that they were properly manufactured and tuned. Tesla, as I have +mentioned before, was notorious for not detailing important +"tricks of the trade" in his patent applications; especially +after his experience with Marconi and others. Having worked +closely with Tesla, Lowenstein sought commercial applications +from systems he felt were sufficiently perfected, though Tesla +saw the Magnifier as the system to bring to industrial power +levels. + +I want to thank you for sending the article. I enjoyed readng it +nearly as much as I enjoyed tearing it to pieces. If you run +across similar material please post me. + +I have copied my archives from this thread, including much +material you may have missed, onto the disk you sent me. I am +also going to copy the article from the magizine you sent, and I +will return both shortly. I have had a very busy week, what with +a weekend to Chicago, and a new girlfriend, so I am running a +little behind. I still have not unpacked my suitcase. + +You should get your material returned around the time you get +this post or shortly after. + +Thank you again for thinking of me. + + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1692 Date: 12-09-93 08:42 + From: Terry Smith + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + RQ> By reading the Colorado Springs Notes it is quite clear that + RQ> Tesla struggled to get a good ground on site for his system and + RQ> cited the local geology (sand & rock) as the source of his + RQ> problem. He eventually had to run water 24 hours a day over his + RQ> ground. + + RQ> He used a two ground system in his CS lab, and documents the + RQ> resistance, and electrical distance between the two. The system + RQ> ground was a 3' square copper plate dropped in the bottom of a + RQ> 12' hole with a couple of wheelbarrows of coke dumped on top. + RQ> The hole was backfilled and watered as I mentioned. + +You'll find that some broadcasters in areas with problem soil use +multiple 30' long 'salt' paste filled chemical ground devices near +a tower base. In Florida, where serious lightning strikes are a +problem, I've heard reports of the sand being melted, forming an +insulating layer over such devices. + +An AM antenna system may have 2 to 20 miles of #10 bare copper wire, +plus a large quantity of 4" strap, and expanded mesh copper screens, +for grounding. + +That's several hundred pounds of Cu for a small system, and several +thousand for a large one, aver an area of acres. This is done even +on a wet site. + +Terry + + +-!- Maximus 2.01wb + ! Origin: Methylene Chloride: Melts your CPU, & your hand! +(1:141/1275) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1599 Date: 12-09-93 11:03 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +I have spent a few hours and archived all of the posts from this +thread. I have had several people ask repeat questions, and +others inform me that feed problems have caused them to miss some +material. + +If you are interested in getting a complete and up to date +archive of all of this material, please mail me a floppy and a +SASE. I will be happy to send you my archives free of charge. + +Richard T. Quick II +10028 Manchester Rd. +Suite 253 +Glendale, MO 63122 +USA +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1600 Date: 12-09-93 15:01 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +Dave, + +I shot the magazine back to you in the mail today after I made +copies. I returned the disk you sent with it. On the disk I +copied my archives from this thread, and you will find a personal +letter. + +I am sorry that the archives are a little disorganized, but the +posts were saved from two machines, and so there is some +duplication. Everything of importance from about 10/5/93 is on +the disk, though it may be scattered among several files. + +Everything including your letter are in standard DOS text. + +Look forward to seeing some video/photos of your coiling work +soon. BTW did you really decide to lengthen the 6" coil form from +24" to 30" in height? I would think this would require more than +the 1500' of magnet wire you had earmarked for this project. + +I was just curious. + +Also, I am seeing posts that you have quoted from others, but I +am not seeing the original posts here.... + +This looks to be a network problem, unless these people are +posting to you locally.... I wonder what is going on. + +I sent you a post last week mentioning that I saw you had made a +local logon here to the SLUG BBS, we narrowly missed a chat. How +long have you been calling locally? If you get the chance since +it appears you have a high speed modem you can grab the thread +here if you have any network problems. This board has nearly all +of my original posts in this conference still available. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2509 Date: 12-10-93 16:15 + From: Richard Quick + To: Terry Smith + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> SEZ Terry Smith to Richard Quick <=- + + RQ> the drugstore. The only thing required was 56 hours of time + RQ> in arranging the plates according to Bill. But he did end up + RQ> with .03 uf 15 kv pulse capacitor in a five gallon bucket. + RQ> It was quite a performer on his coil at 3600 watts! + + RQ> The novice coiler should think about the capacitor + RQ> requirements and experiment some before beginning large + RQ> scale homemade caps. + + TS> Why not use a G3 mica or, for more current, a vacuum cap? + +Mica is not as good for homemade caps as poly, they are lossy, +and they get hot. Poly has a lower RF dissapation factor, is +cheaper, and easier to obtain. Commerical mica caps that are +found surplus may be used, but they are not as high Q as poly. + +Not many amateurs are running the vacuum systems or have the +equipment and design skills to produce homemade vacuum caps. I +have priced commercial units surplus, and would not find much use +for a vacuum cap unless it was perhaps employed as a tuning cap +on a small magnifier. + + TS> With the time value and instability of what you're + TS> describing, it sounds like a couple hundred $$$ for a + TS> readily available commercial cap would be a good comparative + TS> value. + +Not for a simple hobbiest. Most coilers are looking for cost +effective and flexible designs. They would rather put in the time +stacking or rolling to build a cap cheaply, than send a check to +the cap company for a custom commercial unit. After you have a +few coils under your belt, and you can design systems that you +know are going to require such and such values, you then start to +look to a commercial unit to reduce size, increase efficiency, +and reduce costs. This is more often true than not in large +systems that grow from the work done with homemade or salvaged +caps. + +60% of the capacitance in my lab is homemade. Now if I added the +total value of this capacitance against the cost of a single +commercial unit, a commercial unit would be more cost effective, +and this does not even include the time invested. But my homemade +caps consist of 14 individual units. The number of units gives me +voltage and value flexibility not available in one or two +commercial units. To reproduce my homemade array in 14 commercial +units would not be cost effective. + +Since I started small, I went homemade. As my work grew, so did +my homemade capacitors. I already had most of the materials, had +aquired the design and construction skills, and could increase my +power levels with a couple days work building a few more caps. +When I decided to go to the pole pig, I shopped for commercial +caps to drive the system. I knew exactly the voltage rating that +would be required, and the value I was going to need. Not paper +values mind you: I had set the system up with homemade caps and +juggled the system around to find the tune spots I wanted to hit. +The bill on my two .05 uf 45kvac pulse caps came to $600.00, and +I had to wait nearly two months for deliverly once I knew exactly +what I needed. + +The bottom line on homemade caps is that they are cheap, built +out of readily available materials, and offer high Qs. The +instabilities are 90% resultant of poor techniques in +construction or operation, such as dirty plates and dielectrics, +trapped air, improper break-in of a newly constructed unit, or +running with the gaps set to wide. Every failure I have +experienced resulted from one of the above. Since the unit was +homemade, I was able to repair the cap and return it to service. +Built with cleanliness and durability in mind, homemade caps will +work quite hard for a long time. It has been nearly a year since +I have had any problems with a homemade unit. The designs I have +mentioned work, give great spark, and are not too expensive to +make for the beginner. If you want to pay $$$ for commercial +units to experiment with, please feel free, the commerical units +are quite good. + +Down the road a bit I will post the addresses of a couple of +commerical manufacturers I have dealt with. Both of these +companies have a $150.00 minimum order with a 6-8 week delivery +wait. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2628 Date: 12-10-93 23:51 + From: Dave Lyle + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10Kva Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> I have a normal Tesla secondary that resonates at about 200 +RQ> kHz with a discharge ternminal. When this coil is placed in a +RQ> primary and critically coupled, it will fire when the tank +RQ> circuit is tuned to 200 kHz. No problems here, this is a +RQ> normal 1/4 wave system. The tank circuit oscillates at 200 +RQ> kHz, the secondary coil with discharger resonates at 200 kHz, +RQ> and the output from the system is the 1/4 wave peak of a 200 +RQ> kHz signal. + +RQ> Now we remove the secondary from the primary and replace the +RQ> secondary with a coil that is 1/4 wave resonate at 400 kHz. + +Hi Richard, + +I was actually wondering what would be the effect of going the +opposite way. + +What if you removed the _primary_ and replaced it with one that +resonated at 600 Khz. Now the secondary would be resonate +at 3/4 wave, and the voltage/current distribution would be: + +At the base.........................Current peak, Voltage null +At the 1/4 wave point + (1/3 of the way up the coil).....Voltage peak, Current null +At the 1/2 wave point + (2/3 of the way up the coil).....Current peak, Voltage null +At the 3/4 wave point + (Top of coil)...................Voltage peak, Current null + +I suppose you would have trouble preventing a breakdown at the +1/4 wave (1/3 of coil) point, but would there be any advantages +to the higher frequency operation? + + Origin: The County Line BBS Node1 414-476-8468 (1:154/100) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 11 Dec 93 01:16:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: Terry Smith + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +BTW, + +I have several commercial micas that I have experimented with. +The discharge from a coil using commercial micas tends toward a +spindly, violet discharge with very little current behind it. +The run times with these micas is very short, and I have damaged +a commercial mica cap from overheating with very short runs times +at fairly low voltage. The problem with commercial micas is +really a combination of high RF dissipation factors, and the +inability of most commercial micas to effectively pulse +discharge. + +The homemade polyethylene caps give much superior performance. +They don't get hot. In fact I have never even gotten a homemade +cap warm. The reason for this is that poly has a very low RF +dissipation factor, and when mineral oil is used as a coolant/ +corona supressant there is very low loss, very little dielectric +heating, and what heat does form is sunk to the oil. The spark +from a coil run with poly caps is blue-white, thick, and violent +with a hefty current peak behind it. Nearly all of the modern +commercial caps designed for RF pulse discharging are plastic +film types covered in oil. + +The difference between the two capacitor types is vast. Plastic +film caps are much better performers in the Tesla tank circuit. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2035 Date: 12-11-93 18:37 + From: Brian Carling + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +DH>Anyway, save all of the posts and send away for the video, get some +DH>thin-wall PVC tubing and a couple thousand feet of magnet wire, some +DH>neon-sign transformers, make one of the capacitors detailed in an +DH>earlier post and fire away! + +Yes, unfortunately I missed many of the earlier posts... what is +the capacitor for? What is it like? + + * SLMR 2.1a * The "World Series" _ISN'T_ !! + +-!- Maximus/2 2.01wb + ! Origin: _The_Attic_ [301-428-1970] 14.4K v.32b - (1:109/423) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2647 Date:12-12-93 12:12 + From: Robert Taylor + To: Richard Quick + Subj: Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Wanted to drop you a line & see if you got my post about a month +ago on the book that Barnes&Noble has out called *The Inventions, +Research, and Writings of Nikola Tesla*. + +Got a new catalog from them the other day & saw that their price +had gone down to about $10. Good book w/ alot of the heavier +technical stuff (including original schematics). + +Definately worth a look. + + ! Origin: BLUFF CITY BBS (1:123/70) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1733 Date: 12-12-93 14:19 + From: Richard Quick + To: Brian Carling + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + DH>My friends and I have arrived on a basic design - 6" diameter + DH>and 30" long, fixed spark gap, 12kV neon sign transformer. + + BC> thanks for the info. I am going to see what I can find at + BC> the local library also. + +Don't believe everything you read there, that is if you find +anything at all. Detailed instructions on even the "classical" +design Tesla Coils are as scarce as hens teeth. + + DH>You could scale down the design but I feel that the amount of + DH>time and money involved would be about the same regardless of + DH>what size coil you are building so why not go for a bigger + DH>one. + + BC> No, I want to build the BIG one! + + DH>The one I am building is 6" diameter, 30" tall and is powered + DH>by a bank of four neon sign transformers. + + BC> That doesn't sound too huge to construct... + +This (as far as I am concerned) is still a small coil. But as I +have said it is just about right for a beginner. + + BC> Do you connect the neon sign transformers in series or what? + +Neon sign transformers have center tap grounded secondaries +inside the case. You cannot run the seconmdaries in series for +this reason. The secondaries are run in parallel for increased +current output, while the voltage always remains the same. For +instance, four 12 kv, 30 ma neon sign xfrmrs are wired to give 12 +kv, 120 ma output. + +The primaries may be run in parallel as well, depending on your +line power supply and variac. If you are limited to 120 volts +input then you must run the primaries in parallel for 120 volts. +If you have access to 240 volts lines, then it is best to get a +240 volt variac, and pair up the neon signs xfrmrs by placing two +primaries in series so that 120 volts appears across each primary +winding. + +Power factor correction capacitors are especially important if +you are running neons at 120 volts. The amp requirements of four +xfrmrs run at 120 volts without power factor correction can +stress a normal household circuit. + +-!- + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1734 Date: 12-12-93 14:45 + From: Richard Quick + To: Terry Smith + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +TS> You'll find that some broadcasters in areas with problem soil +TS> use multiple 30' long 'salt' paste filled chemical ground +TS> devices near a tower base. In Florida, where serious +TS> lightning strikes are a problem, I've heard reports of the +TS> sand being melted, forming an insulating layer over such +TS> devices. + +TS> An AM antenna system may have 2 to 20 miles of #10 bare +TS> copper wire, plus a large quantity of 4" strap, and expanded +TS> mesh copper screens, for grounding. That's several hundred +TS> pounds of Cu for a small system, and several thousnd for a +TS> large one, aver an area of acres. This is done even on a wet +TS> site. + +I would concur with the practice of using such heavy RF and +lightning grounds. My experience with Tesla systems shows that +there really is no such thing as a grounding system that is too +large. That profession radio systems are using such heavy grounds +does not surprise me. The system needs to have a solid zero +voltage point capable of grounding heavy current in order to +establish a a powerful signal, not to mention protection from +lightning, and for safety of the HV outputs in the transmitter +itself. + +Tesla was the first person to have applied ground to a tuned +circuit. He was the first to realize the advantages of heavy +grounding, and the construction of extensive grounding systems. +What is really surprising is the number of people who do not, or +refuse to, appreciate ground requirements for high powered Tesla +and radio equipment. + +My large coil featured in the video has equal energy output from +both ends of the coil. While the discharge terminal produces +visible output in 1/4 wave spark with energies of many megawatts +at more than a couple of megavolts; the base wire is literally +flooded with current. I have measured RF currents of over 60 amps +rms with a current transformer in the base wire of this +particular system, and despite the wave theory of zero voltage at +this point, there is considerable voltage. If there is ANY +resistance to this RF current problems begin. The only way to +remove this current and still maintain low potential in the +ground is to use heavier and larger grounding systems. + +I have seen heavy coronas, arcing and sparking, intense RFI, and +highly RF energized control circuits in Tesla systems using +inadequate grounds and/or ground paths. This not only affects +coil performance, efficiency, and throughput of the system, it is +also unsafe and unneighborly. + +A grounding system as you described would be ideal for high +energy Tesla work. + + +-!- + ... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 14 Dec 93 12:19:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Lyle + Subj: 10Kva Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + RQ>Now we remove the secondary from the primary and replace the + RQ>secondary with a coil that is 1/4 wave resonate at 400 kHz. + + DL> I was actually wondering what would be the effect of going + DL> the opposite way. + + DL> What if you removed the _primary_ and replaced it with one + DL> that resonated at 600 Khz. Now the secondary would be + DL> resonate at 3/4 wave, and the voltage/current distribution + DL> would be: + +> At the base.........................Current peak, Voltage null +> At the 1/4 wave point +> (1/3 of the way up the coil).....Voltage peak, Current null +> At the 1/2 wave point +> (2/3 of the way up the coil).....Current peak, Voltage null +> At the 3/4 wave point +> (Top of coil)...................Voltage peak, Current null + + DL> I suppose you would have trouble preventing a breakdown at + DL> the 1/4 wave (1/3 of coil) point, + +Trouble would be a mild word for it. The 1/4 wave voltage peak +appearing in the windings would destroy the coil in short order. +RF voltages in these frequencies just don't understand what +"insulation" is. I have not found any practical material or +construction technique that would contain the voltage of a solid +1/4 wave voltage peak that appears in the coil windings. Plate +glass, 1/4" thick polyethylene, etc. are invisible to this +discharge, and the energy passes right through it virually +unimpeded. Mineral oil is the best insulator for this particular +energy, but there is insufficient space between turns on the coil +for sufficient breakdown protection. Even if there was enough +room between turns, then you have problems with the coil form +breaking down. + +I have done experiments with coils in which the same basic end +result was achieved by bottom feeding an extra coil with current +that resulted in higher harmonic resonances of the extra coil +(such as the 3/4 wave harmonic you charted above). When the coil +was fired, sparks and corona came flying out of about a dozen +turns in the coil. Those turns where spark and corona appeared +corresponded to the 1/4 wave peak. But there was no way to +contain it. The sparks broke down the windings, scored, then +carbonized the coil form . The coil suffered irrepairable damage +and had to be scrapped. Similar incidents with other systems +where energy densities were high resulted with the spark from 1/4 +wave peaks in the winding blowing holes through the coil form. +Again the coil was a complete loss and had to be scrapped. + +In addition to the breakdown, the remaining turns further up the +coil had no energy at all to speak of. Why? All the energy in the +system was lost to spark and corona leakage at the 1/4 wave +breakdown point, insufficient energy remained in the coil +windings above the breakdown to do anything. + + DL> would there be any advantages to the higher frequency + DL> operation? + +None that I can think of. This model represents a very high loss +situation. 1/4 wave voltage peaks represent the final output +point in a coil system. There is no way to process the energy in +wire to any point above 1/4 wave in a single coil without +tremendious losses. + +However when you go to two or more coils, where you are working +with more than one output terminal, it is possible to achieve 3/4 +wave signal processing. This requires a pair of 1/8 wave driver +coils, two primaries run in series off the same tank ciruit, and +two extra coils. Your outputs from the extra coils are still 1/4 +wave with the peaks on the terminals, but taken as a whole the +system does efficiently process a 3/4 wave signal. This system +would be adding up lower harmonics (two 1/8th wave outputs, with +two 1/4 wave outputs) to get to efficient 3/4 wave signal +processing. This system would be unique in that it may not +require a ground, as the two tuned sets of coils could "beat" off +of each other; in other words the nul voltage current output from +the base of one 1/8 wave driver coil could be fed into the base +wire of the second driver. This system would require that the +series run primaries, and the drivers and extra coils be wound in +opposite directions to achieve phase differential. The base wire +current output of one coil becomes added input to the base of +another. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2 Date: 14 Dec 93 12:33:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: Robert Taylor + Subj: Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> SEZ Robert Taylor to Richard Quick <=- + + RT> Wanted to drop you a line & see if you got my post about a + RT> month ago on the book that Barnes&Noble has out called *The + RT> Inventions, Research, and Writings of Nikola Tesla*. + +Yes I did. I take it then you missed my reply. + +I own a copy, and a copy of nearly everything else worthy of note +on the subject. I have posted a bibliography for source material +on his more advanced work. + +The book you mention is drawn from his public lectures and other +"public domain" material. Things really start getting good when +you access sources of material he produced that were never +intended to become public. This private material, when combined +with his patents and patent applications, reveals much larger +plans. + +Thank for checking up, and the book does make very interesting +reading. It covers some of his early work in good detail. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1811 Date: 12-14-93 13:55 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> DH> There is a local park that is situated on Lake Washington + > DH> near where I live, I have been toying with the idea of + > DH> firing the coil off there, maybe out on one of the boat + > DH> docks. Drop a bunch of Aluminum flashing over into the water + > DH> for the ground. + +RQ> DH> Could be kind of fun! + +RQ>I have fired and grounded off of water grounds exactly as you are + >thinking. They work great! + +Great to hear! + + +RQ>Good Luck! I hope to see a spark shot or two soon. Bring the + >camcorder, and a 35 mm, and a few friends. + +I am going out of town for fifteen days over the holidays but I should +have something in a month or so after that. Have a lot of the raw +materials - stuff for the capacitor. Need to get the neon transformers +and actually wind the coil and build the base to hold the primary. + +Things have been extremely busy at the store so I haven't had too much +"spare time" but January has always been pretty slow. + +Anyway, I am now getting the feed directly from SLUG-BBS so there +should be no missing messages. + +TTYL - Dave ë:-) +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b The Disk Crash BBS - now with 360K Online + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1812 Date: 12-14-93 13:56 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +RQ> DH> In the mail this afternoon! + +RQ>Thanks a lot. I just got back from a weekend in Chicago with my + >new girlfriend (NICE!) and look forward to seeing it! + +Sounds good! Gotta get me one of those sometime... Maybe after +the coil is built... + +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b Work: the worst thing you can do for your health. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1813 Date: 12-14-93 14:08 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>Thank you Dave for sending the magazine with the article on the + >spark gap transmitters. It was interesting, but full of mis- + >crediting. The author chose in many instances to detail the worst + >systems of the era. + +I thought you would get a kick out of it. I had intended you to keep +the magazine - that was why there was just the return mailer for the +disk. If you want, I can pop it in the mail again. + +Anyway - I figured you would have some fun with the article. I +have not made any major study of Tesla's life but what I have seen +( Man out of Time by Cheny (sp?) plus a couple other articles ) makes +me realize that he is very much an un-sung hero of electronics. + +RQ>The photos of the damped wave trains were very interesting. The + >author mentioned that the photos were made with reproduction + >equipment that resembled units of the era as closely as posible. + >I just find it galling that he would go through such efforts in + >accuracy this area and would only mention Tesla's name once. + +Yeah - it is like he is just copying the "party line" of the people +who claimed to "develop" the equipment without doing any research on +his part... + + >The gaps would not quench well at these power levels, and the + >short primary conductor does not provide sharp tune, good + >coupling coefficients or energy transfers. Tesla's systems of + >this era were much much more advanced. + +The three turn primary also caught my eye. Plus the capacitance +was probably huge and lossy - oil filled wooden boxes... + + +RQ>BTW, the section in the article on the Wien quench gap manu- + >factured and used in transmitters by Telefunken, exactly + >corresponds to my post of over a month ago in this conference. + >Tesla was paid royalty by Telefunken on every transmitter + >produced until the start of WWI. These transmitters were on board + >every German U-boat, and Tesla's system was used on large land + >based transmitters used by the German command. Tesla offered + >these patents to the U.S. military several times, but was turned + +Now *that* is interesting! + +Anyway, on to the next message - TTYL - Dave +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b New Resturant on the Moon. Good food but no +atmosphere... + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1814 Date: 12-14-93 14:10 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>I have copied my archives from this thread, including much + >material you may have missed, onto the disk you sent me. I am + >also going to copy the article from the magizine you sent, and I + >will return both shortly. I have had a very busy week, what with + >a weekend to Chicago, and a new girlfriend, so I am running a + >little behind. I still have not unpacked my suitcase. + +Great! I got the disk - Thanks! + +I also went and got the entire thread from SLUG-BBS so I will +have everything in continuous order. + +TTYL - Dave ë:-) +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b Live long and phosphor... + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2666 Date: 12-14-93 14:23 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>Look forward to seeing some video/photos of your coiling work + >soon. BTW did you really decide to lengthen the 6" coil form + >from 24" to 30" in height? I would think this would require + >more than the 1500' of magnet wire you had earmarked for this + >project. + +I was thinking of 30" all along. That stays within the 1:5 +aspect ratio limit. The thickness of the wire that I got will +allow for 940 or so turns in 30" of length which works out right +at 1500' feet of wire. + +RQ>Also, I am seeing posts that you have quoted from others, but + >I am not seeing the original posts here.... + +RQ>This looks to be a network problem, unless these people are + >posting to you locally.... I wonder what is going on. + +I had been using another BBS for the FIDO messages and they were +having some problems with missing messages. I will be using +SLUG-BBS from now on until I get my Planet Connect dish up and +running. It is sitting in the store right now but I need to get +on the roof and cut a hole through the ceiling for the feed- +through and of course ( being Seattle ) it is raining pretty much +continuously... Maybe August if I am lucky + +Anyway, when the dish gets set up, I will start my own FIDO feed +to my BBS. + +RQ>I sent you a post last week mentioning that I saw you had made + >a local logon here to the SLUG BBS, we narrowly missed a chat. + >How long have you been calling locally? If you get the chance + >since it appears you have a high speed modem you can grab the + >thread here if you have any network problems. This board has + >nearly all of my original posts in this conference still + >available. + +I already grabbed them - I had called a few times from home but +the modem I am using there is an older one and it sometimes +hangs. I will be calling from the store now. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2667 Date: 12-14-93 14:30 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Brian Carling + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +BC>thanks for the info. I am going to see what I can find at the + >local library also. + +Although I have not really researched Tesla's life all that much, +from what I gather, he kept critical stuff from his patent +applications because he had been screwed by Marconi and others. +You need to read between the lines. + + +DH> You could scale down the design but I feel that the amount of +DH> time and money involved would be about the same regardless of +DH> what size coil you are building so why not go for a bigger +DH> one. + +BC> No, I want to build the BIG one! + +How big? + +DH> The one I am building is 6" diameter, 30" tall and is powered +DH> by a bank of four neon sign transformers. + +BC> That doesn't sound too huge to construct... + +It struck me as a nice size - large enough to produce nice 5' +arcs but small enough as not to overwhelm my workshop or my +budget. + +BC> Do you connect the neon sign transformers in series or what? + +A combination - the transformers are 12kV at 30mA so I will get +24kV at 60mA by using four of them. + + +DH> Down the road, I would like to experiment with a "pocket" +DH> coil or a tabletop model but you do need a very very good +DH> ground regardless of the size so this isn't something that +DH> you could take somewhere and casually set it up and expect to +DH> get good results. + +BC> Why can't the one you describe be a "table-top" model? + > 6" around by 30" tall would fit on most tables! + +Yeah but I was thinking about one that was maybe 3" dia and 12" +tall. + +That would be impressive if it threw out foot-long arcs and from +what all of the other designs of this type do, the arcs are +several times longer than the length of the primary. + +Imagine something sitting on the table, a foot tall and two feet +or so in diameter ( the flat primary coil ) throwing off two foot +long arcs! + +DH> Anyway, keep tuned to this conference and I will be letting +DH> people know how things are progressing! + +BC> I'll watch eagerly! + +Hey - start planing something! Get some neon transformers, some +stuff to make the capacitors and a bunch of magnet wire and start +building! + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1900 Date: 12-15-93 00:13 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>You should also make sure to run any HV power supply off a + >variable autotransformer (variac). This way output voltage to + >the experiment may be controlled smoothly. + + DH> I already have a nice 5-amp which I am sure could take + DH> momentary overloads. + +I'm afraid this won't serve except for the smallest test coil. +>>Sniff, Sniff, is that smoke I smell????<< >>Sniff<< + + DH> There was a beautiful dual 240 volt Variac at Boeing + DH> Surplus but it was part of larger DC power supply and they + DH> wanted $700 for the whole thing. It was a good 15" in + DH> diameter! Didn't catch the current rating - too dark to see + DH> inside the case. + +Most likely you were looking at a 29 amp+ rated Powerstat, these +are just the ticket. + + DH> I am seriously thinking of going back there and offering + DH> them $100 cash just for the Variac and seeing if they will + DH> take it... + +Like I said, these are just the ticket. Powerstats made by +Superior Electric are top of the line and are the most common +industrial units I have seen. Glom on this puppy if you can, and +if you can't, keep looking for another one. Powerstats are +gangable, and they are common surplus. If you get one, odds are +down the line you will come across another that will match the +first and you can bolt the housings together and parallel wire +them for pole pig operation. + +A nice variac or two are about the only thing that you must plunk +down $$$ for if you are serious about coiling. I paid $150.00 +each for mine, and never looked back. If I see another you can be +sure I will plunk $150-$200 again without batting an eye. The +price for new Powerstats would curl your hair and loosen teeth. + +Now do you want to be sick? I was out in Richmond Virgina last +summer visiting some coiling friends. They have a scrap yard +there that would... well I can't use that language here. Anyway, +Alex drives out in his van and picks up this cabinet loaded with +meters, a plastic potted 5 kVA HV xfrmr, and a ganged array of +six 45 amp Powerstats in NEW condition, complete with remote +drive (geared, motor driven common shaft with remote unit)... +Price... + +$45.00 for the whole load, and the springs on his van were +sagging badly. They guys out there said that the yard takes them, +uses a cutter to cut the copper off of them, cut the toroid cores +up, and scrap them valued around $5.00 each. I priced his array +new at over $4500.00 + + DH> Also, I just sent the application off to Harry Goldman for + DH> the TCBA membership. + +Welcome aboard! If you told him I sent you then I get a free +issue of the NEWS at no cost to either of us!!! Thanks! + +-!- + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1901 Date: 12-15-93 01:33 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>Thank you Dave for sending the magazine with the article on + >the spark gap transmitters. I copied everything that I wanted. + + DH> Sometime in the next month or so, I will have to go through + DH> and copy some other issues. They do an occasional + DH> "History of Electronics" article. Fun stuff! + +I would be interested in seeing more stuff like this if it +catches your eye. + +Referring to Tesla: + + RQ>He was THE electrical genius of his time. + + DH> I also think C. P. Steinmetz was an interesting character + DH> but Tesla was way ahead of everyone. + +Steinmetz was by no means a slacker. He gave us a lot in his area +of expertise. But when it came to bulk technique, research, and +knowledge; Tesla was a head and shoulders above the crowd. +(literally and figuratively) + +Tesla's genius spanned an important era in mankinds history. His +foresight ranks with Da Vinci, and his technical abilities were +second to none. He intellect was broad, where others were very +narrow and focused. + +Tesla was a mechanical engineer, an electrical engineer, a radio +engineer, and a visionary. I have seen credits that he was a +graduate of the Univeristy of Prague, but research done there by +others show that he was never even enrolled, though it is +possible he audited classes. Indeed he did not have access to +funds to pay for a higher education. Yet he handed (hand drawn) +plans for the first AC induction motor to a shop foreman for +construction. The motor worked perfectly without modification or +adjustments, and the exact same design is still used today. +Without missing a step he went on to design three, then four, +then six phase motors. Along the way he designed the power grid +to supply them. + +He did this not once in one area, but hundreds and hundreds of +times in numerous areas during his working career. Steam powered +electro-mechanical oscillators, high frequency alternators, +bladeless turbines and pumps, viscosity speedometers, electrical +oscillators, X-Ray machines, CW transmitters, wave guides, the +list goes on, and on, and on. + +The work that he documented, patented, and/or published covers +but a small but significant fraction of the discoveries and +research he did. Most times he was moving so fast that he did not +have time to write things down. + +A good example is the Colorado Springs work. He did incredible +things with the large coils that are only appreciated today, long +past the time his name has been dropped from the mainstream +history books. In an interview after his return to New York (from +Colorado Springs) Tesla made the headlines by stating he had +detected wireless transmission from Mars. He stated he tuned the +machine to the detected frequencies and made a reply. At the time +he was of course thought to be wacko (as Guy Daugherty would put +it). Marconi had not yet managed to send a reliable signal. + +Tesla had already set his large coils up, and experimeted with +them connected to a relay type tone receiever (no superhets +yets). His tuning and amplification circuits (unpublished +designs) were so sensitive that in an era of "stone knives and +bear skins" (remember the automobile was nearing invention in a +few years) he was able to listen to pulsars through a telephone +handset. Thus, using his coil setup exactly as pictured in the +famous photos, he changed a few connections, and had successfully +built and operated the first radio telescope. + +I will forgive him that his overactive imagination led him to +believe he was recieving signals from mars, especially since the +nearest pulsar is many light years further away, the signal is +exceedingly weak, and radio had not been invented yet (by +Marconi). + +The same coils operated X-Ray tubes of his design that took X-Ray +photos at 100 feet. They also were able to cavity resonate the +earth at frequencies under 30 kHz. In addition (using the same +coils) he was the first (and last until 1988) to produce +synthetic ball lightning. + +I could go on. The bottom line is the other famous names of the +era were good, but they were narrow and clumsy compared to the +light that Tesla threw. + +Someone mentioned a book from Barnes and Nobel: The Inventions +Writings, and Research of Nickola Tesla. In the lectures +published in the book, Tesla demonstrates a single terminal bulb +with a brush discharge (1891). The book shows photos of this and +several similar bulbs. Tesla clearly states that he sees a +potential for this effect as an amplifier and detector. + +The "brush discharge" in this demonstration is a directed +electron beam from the center terminal of the bulb to the glass. +What he is demonstrating is the principal behind the electron +microscope. Yet at the same time (within months) he patents a +number of tuned circuits that still form the basis of radio +today. It was a question of time, money, and resources. Electron +microscopes or radio? Tesla must have figured radio was a +priority (he patented), and threw hints out to the crowded +lecture hall about electron microscopes (public domain) where +they were not understood or followed up on. + +-!- + ... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2714 Date: 12-15-93 11:04 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + RQ>Good Luck! I hope to see a spark shot or two soon. Bring the + >camcorder, and a 35 mm, and a few friends. + + DH> I am going out of town for fifteen days over the holidays + DH> but I should have something in a month or so after that. + DH> Have a lot of the raw materials - stuff for the capacitor. + DH> Need to get the neon transformers and actually wind the coil + DH> and build the base to hold the primary. Things have been + DH> extremely busy at the store so I haven't had too much + DH> "spare time" but January has always been pretty slow. + +Great, then at least you are are in the planning stage and are +organizing yourself for the various constructions. + + DH> Anyway, I am now getting the feed directly from SLUG-BBS so + DH> there should be no missing messages. + +And no delay!!! + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2715 Date: 12-15-93 12:11 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> SEZ Dave Halliday to Richard Quick <=- + + RQ>Thank you Dave for sending the magazine with the article on + >the spark gap transmitters. It was interesting, but full of + >miscrediting. The author chose in many instances to detail + >the worst systems of the era. + + DH> I thought you would get a kick out of it. I had intended + DH> you to keep the magazine - that was why there was just the + DH> return mailer for the disk. If you want, I can pop it in + DH> the mail again. + +No need. I copied everything that I wanted. + + DH> Anyway - I figured you would have some fun with the article. + DH> I have not made any major study of Tesla's life but what I + DH> have seen ( Man out of Time by Cheny (sp?) plus a couple + DH> other articles ) makes me realize that he is very much an + DH> un-sung hero of electronics. + +He was THE electrical genius of his time. + + >I just find it galling that he would go through such efforts in + >accuracy this area and would only mention Tesla's name once. + + DH> Yeah - it is like he is just copying the "party line" of the + DH> people who claimed to "develop" the equipment without doing + DH> any research on his part... + +Exactly. Tesla developed and experimented with every type system +mentioned in the article before the people credited for these +systems. + + >The gaps would not quench well at these power levels, and the + >short primary conductor does not provide sharp tune, good + >coupling coefficients or energy transfers. Tesla's systems of + >this era were much much more advanced. + + DH> The three turn primary also caught my eye. Plus the + DH> capacitance was probably huge and lossy - oil filled wooden + DH> boxes... + +Yeah, the signal generated by this system would have been highly +eratic. The pulses would have been very intense due to the +capacitor size, but the output had to be a far cry from being a +"smooth" powerful signal. Tesla on the other hand was using a +tiny capacitance in a "balanced" tank circuit with very close +coupling, and extremely fast quenching, ultra high speed gaps. + +He processed only 250 kVA (50 kVA less input power than the large +Marconi xmittr) in Colorado Springs, but his output was CW, +frequency stable, beat free, RF signal. His power processing +efficiency was over 70% from the supply line to the antenna mast. +His antenna current was a modest 1100 rms amps, with a peak power +in excess of 10 gigawatts. Not bad for a guy in 1900 with a +shoestring budget and salt water/glass caps. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2716 Date: 12-15-93 13:28 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> SEZ Dave Halliday to Brian Carling <=- + + BC>Do you connect the neon sign transformers in series or what? + + DH> A combination - the transformers are 12kV at 30mA so I will + DH> get 24kV at 60mA by using four of them. + +Nope, won't work. Each secondary coil in the neon xfrmr is +grounded to the core. This setup will not allow the secondaries +to be placed in series. Other type xfrmrs may be placed in +series, such as plate, potential, and pig xfrmrs, but not neons. + +The secondaries may be placed in parallel for higher currents, +but you are voltage limited. This is OK really because you will +have trouble making or finding caps that will hold up to 24 +kvac pulse. + +The primaries on neons are not grounded. The primaries may be +run in parallel, so you may gang up as many as you want at 120 +volts as long as your circuit will stand up to the load (which +may be surprisingly high if you don't use pfc capacitance). + +However for anything larger than 1.5 kVA you will most likely be +looking hard at 240 volt operation to reduce the current load. In +this case you may take two neons of the same rating, place the +primaries in series, and throw 240 across the two units. The +secondaries are all parallel wired to the high voltage buss, +regardless of the arrangement of the primaries. This way really +large power supplies may be built up slowly, by simply adding +pairs of neons to the bank. I have run up to 12 neons (6 pairs +wired for 240 volt operation) for power supplies in excess of 4 +kVA for medium sized coil systems. + +Phasing is important in running banks of neons. Not all neons are +wired in the same direction. If the primary or secondary coils +are reverse wired on some units, they will cancel out other +units. A little time may be required to make sure that all of the +neons are wired in phase. Nothing special is required to do this, +just identify the out of phase unit, and reverse the line power +connections, or reverse the secondary connection to the HV buss. + +You should also make sure to run any HV power supply off a +variable autotransformer (variac). This way output voltage to the +experiment may be controlled smoothly. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1867 Date: 12-15-93 14:38 + From: Richard Quick + To: Scott Hoffman + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> SEZ Scott Hoffman to All <=- + + SH> Anybody know where i can get really, really, really, really, + SH> really, really, BIG, BIG, Capacitors, that can handle + SH> massive currents, and voltages. I need them for my laser + SH> project. The caps I had have blown and I learned that the + SH> manufacturer is out of business. I'm not talking Radio Shack + SH> special order caps. either. The ones I have are the size of + SH> car batteries. I wont bother giving the specs. ( I know some + SH> of you geniuses can't do anything without specs. and + SH> schematics, but I no longer have the documentation.) The + SH> "really BIG" x 6 comment should give you an indication of + SH> what i'm talking about. Uh...Some of you might ask what i + SH> need a power supply this big for, for an ordinary laser. + SH> well....it's no helium-neon. It's a 8 foot nitrogen laser. + SH> And requires a pulse of current of massive proportions to + SH> excite the atoms. Hope someone can help!!! + +This is the thread you need to be addressing if you are into high +energy devices. You missed a number of very good posts here in +regarding these giant type HV pulse discharging capacitors. + +Please be specific, I can supply any information you need on this +subject as I have a lot of experience designing, constructing, +and buying caps of this type. If your BBS carries any archives +you should download about the last months worth of posts in this +conference and scan this thread for an idea of what I am talking +about. + +Post the value you need, and the voltage requirements. I work +with Tesla Tank circuits that generally require at least 10 KVAC +pulse discharging caps. In a DC application you can push a +homemade cap of this type to 30-35 KVDC without a problem. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1869 Date: 12-15-93 17:15 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +RQ> RQ>Good Luck! I hope to see a spark shot or two soon. Bring the + > >camcorder, and a 35 mm, and a few friends. + +RQ> DH> I am going out of town for fifteen days over the holidays + > DH> but I should have something in a month or so after that. + > DH> Have a lot of the raw materials - stuff for the capacitor. + +RQ>Great, then at least you are are in the planning stage and are + >organizing yourself for the various constructions. + +Yeah - I have a really good idea as to what goes into the +construction so any time I see something that would be useful, +I stockpile it. + +I plan to continue building after this first one. My friend who is +working with me is curious about building a small one. + +We were talking about something a foot tall, 3" diameter. Judging from +the other coils, it might be good for two foot arcs. + +RQ> DH> Anyway, I am now getting the feed directly from SLUG-BBS so + > DH> there should be no missing messages. + +RQ>And no delay!!! + +Yeah - the other BBS was really lax about mail runs. I went and +got all of the FIDO - Electronics messages and have been going through +and making a text file of the dialogue. + +TTYL - Dave ë:-) +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b 15 of every stamp is for storage... + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1871 Date: 12-15-93 17:28 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> BC>Do you connect the neon sign transformers in series or what? + +RQ> DH> A combination - the transformers are 12kV at 30mA so I will + > DH> get 24kV at 60mA by using four of them. + +RQ>Nope, won't work. Each secondary coil in the neon xfrmr is + >grounded to the core. This setup will not allow the secondaries + >to be placed in series. Other type xfrmrs may be placed in + >series, such as plate, potential, and pig xfrmrs, but not neons. + +Whoops... Shows what I know I thought the multiple +transformers were for both current and voltage increase. + +RQ>The secondaries may be placed in parallel for higher currents, + >but you are voltage limited. This is OK really because you will + >have trouble making or finding caps that will hold up to 24 + >kvac pulse. + +Makes sense! + +RQ>However for anything larger than 1.5 kVA you will most likely be + >looking hard at 240 volt operation to reduce the current load. In + >this case you may take two neons of the same rating, place the + >primaries in series, and throw 240 across the two units. The + >secondaries are all parallel wired to the high voltage buss, + >regardless of the arrangement of the primaries. This way really + >large power supplies may be built up slowly, by simply adding + >pairs of neons to the bank. I have run up to 12 neons (6 pairs + >wired for 240 volt operation) for power supplies in excess of + >4 kVA for medium sized coil systems. + +OK - I see where I got off the track - you were referring to pairs of +transformers, I thought they were running in a series-secondary mode... + +RQ>You should also make sure to run any HV power supply off a + >variable autotransformer (variac). This way output voltage to the + >experiment may be controlled smoothly. + +I already have a nice 5-amp which I am sure could take momentary +overloads. There was a beautiful dual 240 volt Variac at Boeing +Surplus but it was part of larger DC power supply and they wanted +$700 for the whole thing. It was a good 15" in diameter! Didn't +catch the current rating - too dark to see inside the case. + +I am seriously thinking of going back there and offering them +$100 cash just for the Variac and seeing if they will take it... + +Also, I just sent the application off to Harry Goldman for the +TCBA membership. + +TTYL - Dave ë:-) +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b In New Guinea: cargo cults. In the U.S.: +vaporware. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1870 Date: 12-15-93 17:29 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> RQ>Thank you Dave for sending the magazine with the article on + > >the spark gap transmitters. It was interesting, but full of + +RQ> DH> I thought you would get a kick out of it. I had intended + > DH> you to keep the magazine - that was why there was just the + +RQ>No need. I copied everything that I wanted. + +OK - I'll keep it here then. Sometime in the next month or so, I +will have to go through and copy some other issues. They do an +occasional "History of Electronics" article. Fun stuff! + + > DH> I have not made any major study of Tesla's life but what I + > DH> have seen ( Man out of Time by Cheny (sp?) plus a couple + > DH> other articles ) makes me realize that he is very much an + > DH> un-sung hero of electronics. + +RQ>He was THE electrical genius of his time. + +I also think C. P. Steinmetz was an interesting character but +Tesla was way ahead of everyone. + +Anyway, TTYL - Dave +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b I need a cordless extension cord, please + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2797 Date: 12-16-93 09:05 + From: Tom Moeller + To: Scott Hoffman + Subj: Re: Big Caps. +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + SH> Anybody know where i can get really, really, really, + SH> really, really, really, BIG, BIG, Capacitors, that can + SH> handle massive currents, and voltages. I need them for my + SH> laser project. The caps. I had have blown and i learned + SH> that the manufacturer is out of business. + +GE Capacitors in Fort Edward, NY makes some "large" capacitors... +will 1.1uF at 62.5kV do? Their 30F1400 series goes from 5kV to 62.5kV, +in sizes from 8x4x5.5 inches up to 13.5x6x16.5 inches. The information +book I have here doesn't list any specs (oops! Sorry!) for the Effective +Series Resistance (ESR) so you might check with their applications +department before sending them your VISA number. + + SH> The ones I have are the size of car batteries. I wont + SH> bother giving the specs. ( I know some of you geniuses can't + SH> do anything without specs. and schematics, but I no longer + SH> have the documentation.) + +Oh, sorry, you're right. I guess all the "geniuses" here shouldn't +answer your plea for help. |-} + + SH> Some of you might ask what + SH> i need a power supply this big for, for an ordinary laser. + SH> well....it's no helium-neon. It's a 8 foot nitrogen laser. + SH> And requires a pulse of current of massive proportions to + SH> excite the atoms. + +I know an engineer (oops, another genius!) who worked on a laser drilling +system - high accuracy pinholes thru titanium. He says his capacitor bank + +was made out of similar sized capacitors, with inductors in series along +the way. By changing the connections and ratios of capacitance and +inductance, they could change the pulse duration of the laser blast. +Theirs was a flash-excited CO2 laser, though, instead of nitrogen. + + + - Tom + +-!- EZPoint V2.1 + ! Origin: Encore Electronics (1:267/14.42) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1903 Date: 12-16-93 10:55 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>RQ>You should also make sure to run any HV power supply off a + > >variable autotransformer (variac). This way output voltage to + > >the experiment may be controlled smoothly. + +RQ> DH> I already have a nice 5-amp which I am sure could take + > DH> momentary overloads. + +RQ>I'm afraid this won't serve except for the smallest test coil. + >>>Sniff, Sniff, is that smoke I smell????<< >>Sniff<< + +Drat... I'll just keep it on my service bench then... + +RQ> DH> There was a beautiful dual 240 volt Variac at Boeing + +RQ>Most likely you were looking at a 29 amp+ rated Powerstat, these + >are just the ticket. + +RQ>Like I said, these are just the ticket. Powerstats made by + >Superior Electric are top of the line and are the most common + >industrial units I have seen. Glom on this puppy if you can, and + >if you can't, keep looking for another one. Powerstats are + >gangable, and they are common surplus. If you get one, odds are + +This one was a dual unit. I will try an offer - see what they say. The +unit has been there for a few months so they might be tempted. The +console that the Variac is mounted in is similar to your power control +console - about 5 feet tall, the top third is sloped. I might just +offer them $100 cash for that part of it. The DC supply that it +connects to is in a 55 gallon drum. + +RQ>A nice variac or two are about the only thing that you must plunk + >down $$$ for if you are serious about coiling. I paid $150.00 + >each for mine, and never looked back. If I see another you can be + >sure I will plunk $150-$200 again without batting an eye. The + >price for new Powerstats would curl your hair and loosen teeth. + +I looked at the price for a 15 Amp unit and my hair curled at +that... + +RQ>Now do you want to be sick? I was out in Richmond Virgina last + >summer visiting some coiling friends. They have a scrap yard + >there that would... well I can't use that language here. Anyway, + + >six 45 amp Powerstats in NEW condition, complete with remote + >drive (geared, motor driven common shaft with remote unit)... + >Price... + +RQ>$45.00 for the whole load, and the springs on his van were + +Hey Richard... Thanks a *lot* Just what I wanted to hear... + +There are a couple of technological junk yards here too but the people +running them have an inflated idea of what the stuff is worth. Three of +them have gone out of business in the last few years so maybe they are +willing to listen to reason... ( They will check a current catalog +price and then sell the surplus goods for 50% of that cost... Gimme a +break! ) + +RQ> DH> Also, I just sent the application off to Harry Goldman for + > DH> the TCBA membership. + +RQ>Welcome aboard! If you told him I sent you then I get a free + >issue of the NEWS at no cost to either of us!!! Thanks! + +I sure did! Anyway, I will talk with you later - Dave +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b Windows 3.1 - The colorful clown suit for DOS... + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1904 Date: 12-16-93 11:13 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil 1/2 +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> DH> Sometime in the next month or so, I will have to go through + > DH> and copy some other issues. They do an occasional + > DH> "History of Electronics" article. Fun stuff! + +RQ>I would be interested in seeing more stuff like this if it + >catches your eye. + +I will do that - I keep some of the back issues. + +RQ>Referring to Tesla: + +RQ> RQ>He was THE electrical genius of his time. + +RQ> DH> I also think C. P. Steinmetz was an interesting character + > DH> but Tesla was way ahead of everyone. + +RQ>Steinmetz was by no means a slacker. He gave us a lot in his area + >of expertise. But when it came to bulk technique, research, and + >knowledge; Tesla was a head and shoulders above the crowd. + >(literally and figuratively) + +This is true! My favorite Stienmetz story was that he could +never get the hang of driving. He was always running the car up +onto peoples lawns, into other cars, etc... He had a car customized +with a second set of controls in the trunk and he had someone +sitting there, looking through a periscope and doing the actual +driving while he would serenely cruise through the neighborhood, +hand on the wheel, smoking a cigar... + +Fun stuff... + +RQ>Tesla's genius spanned an important era in mankinds history. His + >foresight ranks with Da Vinci, and his technical abilities were + >second to none. He intellect was broad, where others were very + >narrow and focused. + +This is what I gathered too - I also heard about the remote control +vehicles he built - the submersible boat ( no antennas either ) + +RQ>Tesla was a mechanical engineer, an electrical engineer, a radio + >engineer, and a visionary. I have seen credits that he was a + + >funds to pay for a higher education. Yet he handed (hand drawn) + >plans for the first AC induction motor to a shop foreman for + >construction. The motor worked perfectly without modification or + >adjustments, and the exact same design is still used today. + >Without missing a step he went on to design three, then four, + >then six phase motors. Along the way he designed the power grid + >to supply them. + +Yeah - I heard that he was sitting on a bench somewhere and the motor +came into his head completely formed. Just sitting there in his +imagination, running smoothly... + +RQ>He did this not once in one area, but hundreds and hundreds of + + >bladeless turbines and pumps, viscosity speedometers, electrical + +I know about the turbines - a flat disk, no cups or anything - +high speed and very efficient... + +RQ>I will forgive him that his overactive imagination led him to + >believe he was recieving signals from mars, especially since the + >nearest pulsar is many light years further away, the signal is + >exceedingly weak, and radio had not been invented yet (by + >Marconi). + +Interesting - kinda pre-dates Janssky ( sp? ) by a few years... + + +RQ>I could go on. The bottom line is the other famous names of the + >era were good, but they were narrow and clumsy compared to the + >light that Tesla threw. + +RQ>Someone mentioned a book from Barnes and Nobel: The Inventions + >Writings, and Research of Nickola Tesla. In the lectures + >published in the book, Tesla demonstrates a single terminal bulb + >with a brush discharge (1891). The book shows photos of this and + +Interesting - I'll have to look for it. I just picked up a copy +of a 1904 reprint: Experiments with Alternate Currents of High +Potential and High Frequency - the text of a lecture he gave at the +Institution of Electrical Engineers in London. + +There is also an appendix: Transmission of Electric Energy +without Wires. + +The book is published by Angriff Press, P.O. Box 2726, Hollywood, +CA 90078 ISBN# 913022-25-X + +The book details a lot of the electrical discharge lights. From the +text of the book it sounds like he was quite an energetic lecturer too.. + +I know where *I* want to set the time machine! + +Anyway, I will be going away for two weeks, getting back on the +first. + +If I do not talk with you before then, have a great holiday! + +TTYL - Dave ë:-) +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b Money has proved the most dangerous of hallucinogens. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 16 Dec 93 17:35:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Again referring to Tesla: + + DH> Yeah - I heard that he was sitting on a bench somewhere and + DH> the motor came into his head completely formed. Just + DH> sitting there in his imagination, running smoothly... + +This is apparently true, Tesla told the story on more than one +occasion. Many other notables of genius status have said their +greatest ideas came in similar fashion, or in dreams; but few +were as prolific as Tesla. + +It seems that ideas like this came to him very frequently over a +number of years. He complained more than once that it was simply +impossible for him to act on all of them. Tesla read Edison's +quip that invention was "1% inspriation and 99% perspiration" and +remarked that the inverse was in fact the truth. He stated that +he was able to operate sophisticated mechanical and electrical +devices in his head to determine feasibility prior to drawing or +constructing the actual device. He followed this statement up by +saying that he never built a device that did not operate as +anticipated. + +In his later years, after failing to fund the Wardenclyff +transmitter to completion, he was unable to maintain a +laboratory. He did not stop inventing however. He set his MIND to +work building, testing, and operating equipment. The result of +his purely mental efforts were designs for such devices as +particle beam weapons. This mental work came into tangible +existence in the form of drawings for such components as the open +ended vacuum tube (one end open to STP) for generating high +energy particle beams. + +It is one of the true crimes against humanity that he was so +misunderstood that even a small lab could not be furnished to +allow him practical creative outlets, though much blame may be +laid to him for his ignorance of financial affairs, and his +refusal to retain a business manager to see to those affairs. +He spent money like water, money having no real value to him. He +allowed people to purchase valuable patents outright instead of +insisting on long term royalty agreements in addition to the lump +sum payments, which would have insured some future income. Had he +been monetarily wiser, he would not have died penniless, and many +more ideas could have seen commercial application; even if the +final marketing was done by others. + +Have a good vacation, I look foward to hearing from you upon your +return. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2006 Date: 12-17-93 20:35 + From: Ron Lawrence + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + > BC>Do you connect the neon sign transformers in series or what? + > + > A combination - the transformers are 12kV at 30mA so I will + > get 24kV at + > 60mA by using four of them. + +I'd be REALLY cautious about paralleling ANY non-precision transformers, +and on neon light transformers, watch out for there being an internal, +tied to case, center tap - lots of 'em are built that way. I about +fried myself in junior high school due that grounded center tap! +(When ya stack two in series for more volts, you can, and often do, get a +massive flash-over to the AC input, and that 600v insulation just isn't +adequate to keep it from further jumps!) + + ...RON... + +-!- Opus-CBCS 1.73a + ! Origin: C C I B B S (509)663-8397 (1:344/58.0) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1947 Date: 12-18-93 01:15 + From: Richard Quick + To: Patrick Kirol + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + PK> Richard I have been following your coiling discussions here + PK> for some time and would like to get a copy of the video tape + PK> you have and a copy of the Tesla coil information you posted + PK> on this echo. I would also like to get your advice on which + PK> coiling program you would recommend. I have noticed that + PK> there are a couple different ones out there. I am mailing + PK> out a tape and disk (and check) today. + +You will love the tape if you are the slightest bit interested in +coiling or other high voltage equipment. I run some hot stuff +here. I will get your copy out within 48 hours of receipt of your +package, but please allow a few extra days due to the holiday +mails. + +As for the coiling program I would recommend you purchase THE +TESLA COIL DESIGNER by Walt Noon. This software is sold through +several publishers and book dealers, but I can't find a catalog +handy. However Walt would love to hear from you, and please tell +him I provided you with his address (I owe him a letter). + + Walt Noon + 3283 Belvedere + Riverside, CA 92507 + +The software is pretty good but I really only use it for one +purpose: it enables me to determine within tollerable limits the +inductance and resonate frequency of the secondary coil, and the +tank circuit frequency. Used intelligently this menu driven +software will take simple U.S. physical measurements from a +planned design and give you real working numbers as to +operational frequency of the system, rough tuning, number of +primary turns required, and the size of the capacitance and power +supply needed. This will cut the hours and hours of time required +with a calculator and book of tables and formulas... down to +seconds. All of the required tables such as dielectric constants, +line frequencies, toroid capacitances, etc. are already in the +software. It is really just a matter of plug and chug. + +The functions it covers includes nearly every major componet of +the 1/4 wave Tesla coil; having calculators built in for +capacitors, power supplies, tank circuit frequencies, discharge +terminals, etc.. The only thing I will have to fault is the spark +length calulator that the program uses, I frequently blow the +programs estimated maximum disharge length away on my real +systems. Walt tells me it is not the program, but the coiler (me) +who is at fault. + +Combined with the practical information presented on the video +tape, copies of this thread, and some of my spark gap designs I +will include on the disk, you will have a wealth of accurate +coiling information. As always, I am available here to answer +questions, offer advice, and can trouble shoot any problems you +may encounter. Good Luck!!! + + +-!- + ... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2000 Date: 12-18-93 23:44 + From: Robert Holtz + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Well, + +After reading whats been going on in the conference between yourself +and the other members I'm pleased to see a dialog develop. Thank +for letting me know it was productive >;-) + +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b From small chips to big breasts, silicone is the best + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2145 Date: 12-19-93 11:08 + From: Robert Taylor + To: Richard Quick + Subj: Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> Quoting Richard Quick to Robert Taylor <=- + + RQ> Yes I did. I take it then you missed my reply. + +Looks like you're right. I think the BBS that I picked you up on +was having some problems around that time, so end of mystery. + + RQ> I own a copy, and a copy of nearly everything else worthy of + RQ> note on the subject. + +Guess I shoulda known better on that one! You must have one +heckuva Tesla library. + + RQ> intended to become public. This private material, when + RQ> combined with his patents and patent applications, reveals + RQ> much larger plans. + +I can only imagine how interesting some of this material must be. +I was aware of some Hungarian translation of his private papers +was out there, but have never seen a copy of same. + +Just out of curiosity, are you familiar with anything regarding +Tesla's connection with the "project invisibility" & the U.S.S. +Eldridge? Ran across something that connected him with the +project, but everything that I've seen is vague. An impression +was left that he may have had something to do with the building +of the alleged field-generator. + +BTW--did catch your reply on my post about Ken Strickfadden. His +work always amazed me. + +Seasons Greetings & Happy Holidays. + +... C:\\DOS C:\\DOS\\RUN RUN\\DOS\\RUN WATCH\\DOS\\CRASH + + ! Origin: BLUFF CITY BBS (1:123/70) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2 Date: 20 Dec 93 01:30:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: Brian Carling + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + BC> Yes, unfortunately I missed many of the earlier posts... + BC> what is the capacitor for? What is it like? + +Capacitance is required in the tank circuit to convert line +frequency power into RF (radio frequency) pulses. It works like +this: + +A capacitor designed to discharge in a pulse, and able to +withstand high voltage, is charged with the power supply xfrmr. +The power supply xfrmr usually puts out a high voltage (6-20kv). +Since you are stepping up your line voltage (120/240) with a +transformer, your output current gets smaller as the output +voltage gets higher. So if you are using neon sign xfrmrs, say +12,000 volt 30 millamp output units, your input current is high, +say 3 amps (if the transformer is power factor corrected). Your +output is a measly .03 amps. + +Not much power here, only 360 watts. But if you take that .03 +amps (@12kv) and charge up a capacitor with it, how many watts +will you get if you discharge the capacitor? That will depend on +how fast you drain the cap. Lets say you short the cap out and +pulse discharge it. Currents in the order of a few dozen amps are +easily obtained this way. + +Now if you match the size of the capacitor to the amount of +energy produced by the HV power supply in 1/2 of a 60 cycle wave +(the + polarity, then the - polarity) you will be able to fully +charge the cap in 1/2 cycle. In the common case with a power +supply at 60 cycle, then you can fully charge the cap 120 times +per second. + +Instead of just shorting the cap out with a wire or buss bar, +let's discharge the cap through a heavy, low impedance coil. In +order to properly time the discharge so that the cap fires only +when fully charged, we need some type of high voltage switch. +The switch commonly used is an air gap, or spark gap. When the +capacitor is charging it is receiving energy, as it recieves +energy there is current flow from the power supply. The more +cuurent flowing, the more depressed the circuit voltage becomes. +This is voltage drop, the input energy is limited, the current is +high, so the voltage must be low. As the capacitor charges the +voltage rises, until there is no more current flow. When current +stops flowing into the cap (fully charged), the voltage peaks, +and the spark jumps the gap. + +This spark (arc actually) discharges the capacitor very quickly. +Once the energy of the discharge is used, the spark gap opens up, +and the capacitor is free again to recharge from the power +supply. + +One interesting property of capacitive discharge through a +conductor is oscillation. During the discharging of a capacitor +in a circuit such as this the pulse of energy actually swings +back and forth from one capacitor plate to another until the +energy is consumed. The frequency of oscillation changes +according to the size of the capacitor, and the length of the +conductor. Large capacitors slow the frequency of oscillation, as +due long conductors. The frequency of a typical Tesla tank +circuit (capacitor & heavy coil) typically range from 1 mHz on +the high end to say 20-30 kHz on the low end. + +The peak currents and voltage seen in the heavy primary coil are +a function of the capacitor and power supply. The circuit is +designed to deliver a maximum of voltage and current over a very +short period of time. Peak powers in this circuit may reach many +megawatts with relative ease, due to the capacitve discharge. + +-!- + ... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2102 Date: 12-20-93 01:42 + From: Richard Quick + To: Patrick Kirol + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +Patrick, + +I got your Tesla video tape request in the mail today. The +archives, GIF schematics, and many pages of notes are on the +disk. The tape is full up. I will return mail the tape and disk +first thing tomorrow. Good luck, and if you get a coil up and +running please tell us about it. + +As I have stated here before: if you have any questions or +comments about the video, please feel free to post here. I would +love to hear from you. + + +-!- + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2103 Date: 12-20-93 03:24 + From: Richard Quick + To: Ron Lawrence + Subj: Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + > BC>Do you connect the neon sign transformers in series or + > what? + + > A combination - the transformers are 12kV at 30mA so I will + > get 24kV at 60mA by using four of them. + + RL> I'd be REALLY cautious about paralleling ANY non-precision + RL> transformers. + +Running these xfrmrs in parallel is really no problem at all. I +do it all the time on really LARGE banked power supplies (over 4 +killowatts from 360 watt neons) and have never had a problem. +Good high voltage technique requires some bypassing caps, and a +safety spark gap with center tap ground to protect the power +supply from kickback, flashover, burnout, etc.. With a little +technique a parallel bank will hold up quite a while without +failure. Even without much protection beyond a safety gap, they +will still hold up for hours of high voltage fun. + +The ease in paralleling these particular type xfrmrs is from the +magnetic leakage core shunts. The internal shunting is very +forgiving to load imbalances. + +I posted both Dave and Brian about attempting to run these units +with the secondaries in series. This could be a bad scene if one +of the secondaries were to open, and the case and core were to +pick up 6 kv or so. + +-!- + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2101 Date: 12-20-93 09:30 + From: Robert Holtz + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +-> As our local co-sysop, and an eyewitness to both some of my +-> working systems, and the video records, would you care to state +-> an opinion? I know you too have shown some of the video to +-> others. Any comments? + +A far as stating an opinion goes I'd say it's impressive to say the +least. Since I have only seen one machine spewing forth 15 foot +lightning bolts is hard to do a comparison. + +When showing the tape to other people it's hard to convince them that +someone is actully doing this in their basement somewhere in the +suburbs. :-) + +cya + + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2148 Date: 12-21-93 14:03 + From: Richard Quick + To: Robert Taylor + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Regarding: The Inventions, Writing, and Research of Nickola Tesla +available from Barnes & Noble Booksellers + + RQ> I own a copy, and a copy of nearly everything else worthy of + RQ> note on the subject. + + RT> Guess I shoulda known better on that one! You must have one + RT> heckuva Tesla library. + +Over 200 separate covers at this time. A lot of the material I +have read two, three, even four times looking for clues. + + RT> I can only imagine how interesting some of this material + RT> must be. I was aware of some Hungarian translation of his + RT> private papers was out there, but have never seen a copy of + RT> same. + +I believe the book you are referring to is the Colorado Springs +Notes, which were hand written in english in 1899-1900. These +papers and many others were processed by the Office of Alien +Affairs at the time of Telsa's death (though he was a full +citizen...). Telsa had no relatives in this country. Before his +death the Yugoslavian government had declared him a national hero +(while we were busy starving him). When the Yugoslavs found that +he was completely destitute, they set up a trust fund to see that +he received a monthly check to cover his food and rent. It was +all he had when he died. Since the Yugoslavian government was +taking responsibility for his care, the U.S. government declared +Yugoslavia the next of kin. The personal effects found in his +hotel room were pilfered (many valuable items were stolen), and +what remained were sent to Belgrade where they were placed in a +museum. + +In the mid 1970's the curator of the Telsa Museum in Belgrade +cataloged all of the papers written by Tesla in Colorado Springs. +About this time "pilgrams" such as Robert Golka began showing up +at the museum to read the originals. The curator decided to +publish through NOLIT of Belgrade, and copies were made available +in the U.S. for around $45.00 for a beautiful gold leaf, leather +bound edition. Today my copy is worth over $100.00. The book has +reprints of most of the surviving photos Tesla took of the lab, +it's contents, and some of the experiments performed there. + +It should be noted that Tesla was very proud of his U.S. +Citizenship. He spoke five languages fluently, but english was +his mother tongue. All of his patents, articles, and interviews +were conducted in english, and all of his notes were in english. + + RT> Just out of curiosity, are you familiar with anything + RT> regarding Tesla's connection with the "project invisibility" + RT> & the U.S.S. Eldridge? Ran across something that connected + RT> him with the project, but everything that I've seen is + RT> vague. An impression was left that he may have had something + RT> to do with the building of the alleged field-generator. + +This area would most definately fall under the protection of +National Security interests, and as such would be highly +classified if the project did in fact take place. I have never +seen any concrete proof of this project or Tesla's involvement. + +But that does not stop the stories and conspiracy theorys. I have +heard more than a few. I cannot say if any of this is worthy of +believing or not, as I base my information on facts not hearsay. +Nobody to my knowledge has presented verifiable facts on this. + +But it is a fact that to this day the U.S. government has a Top +Secret classified archive in Washington D.C. which contains the +bulk of papers Tesla wrote in his later years. Some of these +papers are believed to have orginated from his hotel room, but +the bulk of these papers (many boxes) were removed by the Office +of Alien Affairs from his rented storage room. They were not +turned over to the Yugoslavian government because they were not +considered to be "personal effects". It is my understanding that +these papers concern Tesla's particle beam weapon plans, and more +likely than not the field generator plans if they do exist. + +As I have stated, the existence of the archive has been +established, as well as the fact that many unpublished documents +written by Tesla reside there. The exact catalog of documents is +a mystery. It is interesting to note that 50 years after Tesla's +death, the U.S. government still considers these documents to be +of the gravest concern to national security. + +Related filings under the Freedom of Information act has revealed +clues on some of these documents. It is a known fact that the +powerhead design for a coil driven particle beam weapon resides +there. This powerhead was a vacuum tube open to the air at one +end. Vacuum was maintained at one end of the tube by using a +vortex of compressed air, so the tube geometries are similar to +an aspirator pump. The tube contained a standard capacitive +discharge rail gun at the low pressure end which produced and +accelerated metal plasma. The main system energy was given to the +plasma from a large Magnifier system (believed) which provided +voltage to further accelerate the plasma to near light speeds +over a very short distance. I have seen reproductions of original +unpublished sketches that Tesla made of this powerhead that were +included with his papers sent to Belgrade, and brought to light +by one of the "pilgrams" returning in the late 1970's. I have no +doubt as to the the authenticity of the information I saw, as +there was a representive of the museum in attendance when the +sketches were viewed and discussed, and the reproduction bore the +identical museum authenticity stamp that my published copy +of the Colorado Springs Notes bears. + +Back to your subject of "project invisiblity", I have heard +nothing but rumors. I heard a guy a couple of years back who +claimed to have seen Tesla at White Sands early in the war +working on a classified military project. This story could not be +verified, and the teller offered no proof. Good story though. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2431 Date: 12-28-93 05:56 + From: Patrick Kirol + To: Richard Quick + Subj: Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> Quoting Richard Quick to Patrick Kirol <=- + + RQ> In case you missed my post yesterday that included +information on the coiling software that you inquired about + +earlier here is a brief recap: + + RQ> Tesla Book Company, P.O. Box 121873, Chula Vista, CA. + RQ> 91912. They have a 1-800-398-2056 information, catalog, and + + RQ> ordering service. + + Richard, I received your tape and disk today in the mail,... +WOW that thing packs a wallop! Makes me want to go out and get +to work on building a couple of your caps and getting things +cracking! You could work out the rough edges and turn it into a +"how to" film or maby a "school demonstration" film for +HS/College level physics classes. Have you received any requests +for coils to power other devices, lasers etc.? I realy think you +should package the tape and some instructions into a how to thing +for beginners. I was wondering about the shape/path that the +sparks take esp the ground strikes. Are they in some way an +expression of the way the charge is stacked up on the secondary? +When you run the coil outside does wind have any effect on where +the coil strikes? + + I realize from your discussion that my coil lacked so many +things, notably a regulated power input, adequate tank circut, +grounding, dimensions I had about 70 ft #10 coper wire as a +primary, 1500 feet of secondary on a 2.5 inch pipe (that stood +too tall from the primary). I had no way to measure if I was +getting anything off the secondary, the neon lights were a good +idea. I will read through your disk files and try again. Thanks +for your time. My dad would have loved your garage setup. Don't +melt any nails! + +Pat Kirol (also on the net Patrick Kirol@lambada.oit.unc.edu) + ` +-!- Blue Wave/Max v2.12 + ! Origin: The Federal Post -{*}- Spring-Lake, NC (1:3634/2) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 28 Dec 93 12:51:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Well I hope everyone had a happy holiday. I am now recovered +enough to post some more specific info on Magnifier construction +and operation. I have covered some general material on this +revolutionary Tesla coil system, but will now endeavor to throw +out some specific pointers for those of you who have an interest +in this much more efficient RF power processor. + +As I have mentioned the Magnifier is a three coil system. The +primary is excited from a Tesla tank circuit, the secondary coil +is inductively coupled to the primary, and the extra coil is top +loaded on the secondary in such a fashion as to be uncoupled +completely from the primary/secondary "driver" coils. The extra +coil is base fed by transmission line, which can be anything from +Litz wire, copper pipe, or heavy DC transmission wire. + +The keys to getting an efficient Magnifier setup in operation can +be listed fairly easily: Close coupling between primary and +secondary, good gap quenching, and proper impedances in the +secondary driver and the extra coil. + +Coupling in Tesla magnifiers must be tight. Classic style +vertical helix primaries are very practical for use in Magnifier +systems, but heavy insulation between the coils must be used to +prevent flashover. The close coupling reduces somewhat the VSWR +in the driver secondary, and the 1/8th wave output contains +substantially less voltage than a normal 1/4 wave Tesla system, +but the close physical proximity between coils means flashover +will be a problem. Use several layers of polyethylene plastic +around the secondary, and insulate the top primary turns with +heavy vinyl hose. It has come to my attention that tapping the +primary coil from the bottom turns, and heavily insulating the +top turns, reduces flashover. (now gee, why didn't I think of +that?) + +Good gap quenching is a must. Because the coupling is so much +tighter in Magnifier systems, more strain is put on the main +system spark gap. If ever there was a need for exotic spark gap +systems this is it. Quench times must be low, low, low, in order +to trap the maximum energy into the secondary driver. An un- +quenched (closed) gap will allow energy in the secondary back +into the primary/tank circuit. This must be prevented. In +Colorado Springs, Tesla used a pair of air blast gaps in series +with a massive rotary. He kept pushing his line frequency higher +(he had a massive, variable speed alternator in the lab), +increased his break rate (up to 50,000 bps) and kept the energy +delivered per pulse down to a minimum. The reason he strove to +keep the energy per break down was to prevent overloading his +gaps. As energy per break (voltage * current) increases, quench +times decrease and efficiency in the Magnifier drop off. The +increase in the number of breaks per second allowed the total +energy processed to climb to unheard of levels, with unheard of +performance and efficiency. + +The next key point to building and operating a small to medium +Tesla Magnifier is proper coil impedances in the secondary driver +and extra coil. The extra coil must have a higher impedance than +the secondary driver. The extra coil must be lower in resonate +frequency. + +I have mentioned here that the 1/8th harmonic output of the +secondary driver coil matching the natural 1/4 wave resonate +frequency of the extra coil is the most efficient mode of +Magnifier operation. This is true, but don't get bogged down with +it. This system will work and fire (within reasonable limits) +with any extra coil that has a higher impedance and inductance +that the driver secondary. Let me give some tips. + +I have found that most high performance 1/4 wave secondary coils +make lousy driver secondary coils in the Tesla Magnifier. The +reason is the impedance and inductance are too high, and the 1/4 +wave coil is not designed or constructed to handle high current +outputs. 1/4 wave coils built per my instructions (posted here +several times) are designed to produce excellent 1/4 wave voltage +peaks, not 1/8th wave current. Your best bet is to wind a special +coil for use as a driver. With this in mind what type of coil +design would work best? Well my first decent driver coil was +built for use as a 1/4 wave resonator, but it dropped into the +role of a Magnifier driver without complaint; it had a a nice low +aspect ratio, and it was wound with heavy stranded wire... + +A good general purpose Magnifier secondary has a very low aspect +ratio for good tight coupling over the entire winding length (say +about 1.5:1). It is wound with heavy stranded insulated wire (say +#18 or larger) to help carry heavy RF currents with lower losses. +The frequency of the coil should not be too low, say in the area +of 400 kHz for most medium systems. + +For the extra coil you want to pack a lot of inductance into a +small unit volume, but not too much. You will end up with an +amazingly short resonating coil if this is done properly. Use a +6" or 8" coil form with an aspect ratio a little over 2:1. For +winding the coil use say #20 -#24 double Formvar magnet wire. The +extra coil must be heavily top loaded with toroid discharger in +order to produce really killer performance, as is the case when +pumping a lot of energy through any magnet wire coil. The +impedance in the bare extra coil must be higher than the driver +coil by some margin, and the frequency of the extra coil should +be brought down around 200 kHz by top loading the coil with +discharger. The impedance of the driver must be low (heavy +stranded wire spaced by insulation) while the impedance of the +extra coil must be high (thin magnet wire, close wound turns) + +The tank circuit of the Magnifier must be tuned to the same +frequency as the extra coil with discharger. Set the driver +secondary inside the primary and run a transmission line some 6- +8' to the extra coil. The extra coil must be away from any +field damping effects such as ground, large metal objects, other +coils etc. It must be allowed to resonate as freely as possible. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2 Date: 30 Dec 93 11:08:24 + From: Richard Quick + To: Patrick Kirol + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + PK> Richard, I received your tape and disk today in the mail,... + PK> WOW that thing packs a wallop! + +Nobody who has seen the video will argue with you. Peak powers of +22 megawatts in a spark discharge look VERY impressive. Nobody +who has sent for the tape has asked for their $10.00 back either. + + + PK> Makes me want to go out and get to work on building a couple + PK> of your caps and getting things cracking! + +Go for it! + + PK> Have you received any requests for coils to power other + PK> devices, lasers etc.? + +Very few people out there believe it can be done, and even fewer +are doing ANY research at all into these areas. One of the +problems with the standard 1/4 wave systems featured on your copy +of the video is that the impedance of the output is too high for +powering lasers etc. directly. However the Tesla Magnifier +circuit offers the means to increase the processing efficiency, +decrease the impedance, and generate still greater peak powers. +This is the direction the research must go. + + PK> I realy think you should package the tape and some + PK> instructions into a how to thing for beginners. + +I have thought about it, but as of yet have not done anything in +this direction. The tape clearly shows it CAN be done, and I have +been surprised with the number of respondents who built coils but +could not get spark. With the information on the tape, the +archives from this thread, and my availability here to answer +questions, it should be possible to get a foot up into this very +interesting (and neglected) area of RF power processing. + + PK> I was wondering about the shape/path that the sparks take + PK> esp the ground strikes. Are they in some way an + PK> expression of the way the charge is stacked up on the + PK> secondary? + +I assume you are talking about strikes from the discharge +terminal to the strike rail protecting the primary coil. The +frequency of strikes to the grounded rail was partly my fault. +The toroid discharge terminal needs to be lifted higher off the +secondary as the diameter of the toroid grows. The last few runs +show the coil operating with the toroid at less than optimium +height. Had it been set higher the spark would tend to strike the +ground rail less. The spark is caught up in the field flux +interaction between primary and secondary and is following the +lines of magnetic force in this field. Once they get away from +the field however I assume they are pretty much random, hitting +everything within striking distance, which is at least 11 feet in +this instance. + + PK> When you run the coil outside does wind have any effect on + PK> where the coil strikes? + +Most definately. Weather conditions outside bear a lot on the +coil performance. Wind will blow sparks all over, and will cause +the system tune to vary. A corona cloud forms around the toroid +as a result of the megavoltages present. With discharge present +you cannot see this with the naked eye or on video, but time +still photography will show the cloud clearly present. The effect +is very pronounced when using small toriods at high power. This +corona cloud affects the system by acting as a larger discharger, +increasing the capacity of the toroid, and lowering the resonate +frequency of the secondary. When wind blows it removes the ions, +and the secondary tune seems to jump up and down with the gusts. +I have had circuit failures that I believe were caused by this +wild, wind induced, frequency changes, but my eyes never saw +anything like the spark writhing around in the wind. + + PK> I realize from your discussion that my coil lacked so many + PK> things, notably a regulated power input, adequate tank + PK> circut, grounding, dimensions I had about 70 ft #10 coper + PK> wire as a primary, 1500 feet of secondary on a 2.5 inch pipe + PK> (that stood too tall from the primary). I had no way to + PK> measure if I was getting anything off the secondary, the + PK> neon lights were a good idea. I will read through your disk + PK> files and try again. Thanks for your time. My dad would + PK> have loved your garage setup. Don't melt any nails! + +Well it should be pretty clear now, and you have the most up to +date and comprehensive information on 1/4 wave Telsa coils +available anywhere to the best of my knowledge. Take your time +and look over all of the text files I sent, look at the spark gap +schematics, look at the video. I have hidden nothing; it's all +there. If you have any questions or comments just post me, I will +be more than happy to answer. + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 30 Dec 93 16:41:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: All + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +For the beginner: + +The best sized coil system for those of you who are interested in +building your first really "hot" Tesla coil is based on a 6" +diameter secondary coil. A coil this size runs very well at 1500 +watts and can be driven to 2000 watts without much problem. Spark +lengths of 55-60" can be easily obtained with such a coil. + +The parts for a unit like this can typically be accumulated for +around $150.00 as I have posted before. Figure your designing and +construction time will run from 40 to 80 hours depending on the +shop facilities available. + +Most people who build a coil do not go on to design and build a +second unit. The reason for this being that the first effort more +often than not fails to work as the designer/builder had hoped, +and the project gets relegated to a dusty corner somewhere. + +I lay blame for this on coil plans and designs advertized, +published, or sold in the last 20 years that were based on plans +and designs popularized in the 1920s and 30s. These plans made +use of what I call "classic" coil componets, which includes: long +skinny secondary coils with space wound or insulated wire +windings, plate glass capacitors, solid copper wire primaries, +needle type spark gaps, and small sphere or knob type +dischargers. "Classic" coils of this type are miserable +performers frequently using unsafe tank circuits and grounding +techniques. The prevalence of these coil designs persists to the +present day and are responsible for many a budding coiler to quit +in disgust after getting nothing but a nasty shock or two from +what was advertized as a clean RF spark output from the +secondary. That is if they got even that. + +My first coil was a huge effort to build while I was in high +school. The plans for the coil came mail order from a company +that advertized in the back of Popular Science some years back, +and was plagued with every possible design fault I listed above. +I never was able to get a single spark from the discharge +terminal. I thought "performance" Tesla coils were nothing but a +myth, and felt I had been taken in by a dream. + +Years later I bought another set of plans, and had similar +results. But I associated myself with a group of people who were +intent on bringing the 1/4 wave Tesla coil and the Tesla +Magnifier out of the pages of history and into current practice. +As a result of many many hours winding coils, building +capacitors, and researching Tesla's original notes, I am happy to +report sucess in bringing the Tesla coil into the 1990s. It is +efficient, inexpensive, and capable of enormous peak powers off +the discharge terminal. The modern design "reinvented" by trial +and error is a very worthwhile project for anyone interested in +high voltage or high energy RF. + +Since October I have been posting information and answering +questions regarding coiling, and the modern designs that we have +evolved from Tesla's original work. I have recieved many positive +responses from regulars in this conference regarding my work, and +have done my best to "set the record straight" regarding Nickola +Tesla and his place in history. Much of the information regarding +the coils themselves has appeared in print here for the first +time, and my posts have added up to over 100 pages on this +subject. + +So I guess what I am saying is: If you have built a coil, or you +are thinking about building a coil, grab the archives from this +thread. If you can't build a really hot coil system from the +information that has been released here, you never will. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 3 Date: 03 Jan 94 13:31:24 + From: Richard Quick + To: Damian Wright + Subj: Re: big magnetic pulse +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + JA> I'd like some ideas on generating a LARGE magnetic pulse or + JA> field. + + DW> This'll create a magnetic pulse, don't know how big though, + DW> it's a Tesla coil, (with lots of copper wire), it's not too + DW> dangerous, it only kicks out about 40000Volts, but at a + DW> pretty low A of course, if you're interested drop me a line + DW> and I'll post the article I read on it up here on this net. + +I have been posting on high powered Tesla systems in this +conference for some time. + +The Tesla Tank circuit is the pulse field generator. It uses a +spark gap switch to pulse discharge a HV cap through a large +coil. The EMFs produced are incredible as peak powers in this +circuit can easily reach many megawatts. My largest Tesla system +has peak powers of 22+ megawatts and will light florescent bulbs +at 50-60' without any wire connections to the tube. It will erase +bank and credit card magnetic strips at a few yards, and is +lethal to digital circuits (watches, calulators, etc.) at a +similar range. + +You do not need a secondary resonating coil (Tesla coil) +inductively coupled to the tank circuit, the tank circuit is +actually more effective alone than when coupled to the secondary +resonator. + +I have a two hour video tape that shows the basic setup and +operation of several of these systems. The video has shots +showing gas discharge bulbs lighting at several feet away from +systems that were tuned to produce sparks, not pulse fields. +Modification to a system such as you desire would be very +minimal. + +These systems BTW are designed and built for continous duty +operation. Even though the caps are pulse discharged, and the +peak powers are very high, the system produces more or less a +continous field. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 4 Date: 03 Jan 94 13:49:37 + From: Richard Quick + To: Damian Wright + Subj: Re: big magnetic pulse +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + JA> I'd like some ideas on generating a LARGE magnetic pulse or + JA> field. + + DW> This'll create a magnetic pulse, don't know how big though, + DW> it's a Tesla coil, (with lots of copper wire), it's not too + DW> dangerous, it only kicks out about 40000Volts, but at a + DW> pretty low A of course, if you're interested drop me a line + DW> and I'll post the article I read on it up here on this net. + +I'd beg to differ on a point or two. + +First you are correct in pointing to Tesla systems as a potent +source of EMFs. The primary coil/tank circuit produce the EM +fields in question. + +But the HV producing secondary would not be required, or even +desired, if maximum field strength are all that is wanted. In +addition, the secondary coils are quite capable of producing +voltages in the megavolt range even with coils as small as 6" +diameter and 2' tall. My larger 10" diameter, 32" high secondary +produces between 3-5 megavolts with ease and is capable of 11' +discharges (common) with recorded discharges up to (and even +exceeding) 15' in length. + +Low amps? NOT! These bolts come off as thick as the average mans +leg. Running the large system with 10 kVA 60 cycle input I get +peak powers of 22 megawatts average; with an output voltage of 5 +megas this works out to over 4 amps current at the discharge +terminal. While this may seem low, the system was designed to +produce a null current 1/4 wave voltage peak on the discharger, +and my figures are all conservative. Should I choose to alter the +design parameters and shoot for a higher current output I see no +reason why lower voltages at currents in excess of 1000 amps +could not be produced. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2581 Date: 01-03-94 13:53 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Hi Richard - just got back a couple days ago. Great trip! + +Anyway, I'll be starting the actual construction of the capacitors +and the coil in the next week and will keep you posted! + +I am going to be near Boeing Surplus tomorrow and if the high-voltage +DC supply with the nice 39 Amp Powerstats is still there I'll +offer 'em a hundred bucks for it and see what happens! + +ANyway, I will keep you posted as to what is happening and will +be keeping the tape rolling all throughout the testing process. + +TTYL - Dave +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b Live long and phosphor... + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2577 Date: 01-03-94 13:59 + From: Richard Quick + To: Jim Arconati + Subj: big magnetic pulse +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + JA> I'd like some ideas on generating a LARGE magnetic pulse or + JA> field. + + DW> This'll create a magnetic pulse, don't know how big though, + DW> it's a Tesla coil, (with lots of copper wire), it's not too + DW> dangerous, it only kicks out about 40000Volts, but at a + DW> pretty low A of course, if you're interested drop me a line + DW> and I'll post the article I read on it up here on this net. + +I have been posting on high powered Tesla systems in this +conference for some time. See the thread: 10KVA Tesla Coil + +The Tesla Tank circuit is the pulse field generator. It uses a +spark gap switch to pulse discharge a HV cap through a large +coil. The EMFs produced are incredible as peak powers in this +circuit can easily reach many megawatts. My largest Tesla system +has peak powers of 22+ megawatts and will light florescent bulbs +at 50-60' without any wire connections to the tube. It will erase +bank and credit card magnetic strips at a few yards, and is +lethal to digital circuits (watches, calulators, etc.) at a +similar range. + +You do not need a secondary resonating coil (Tesla coil) +inductively coupled to the tank circuit, the tank circuit is +actually more effective alone than when coupled to the secondary +resonator. + +I have a two hour video tape that shows the basic setup and +operation of several of these systems. The video has shots +showing gas discharge bulbs lighting at several feet away from +systems that were tuned to produce sparks, not pulse fields. +Modification to a system such as you desire would be very +minimal. + +These systems BTW are designed and built for continous duty +operation. Even though the caps are pulse discharged, and the +peak powers are very high, the system produces more or less a +continous field. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2584 Date: 01-03-94 15:39 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Jim Arconati + Subj: Big Magnetic Pulse +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +JA>I'd like some ideas on generating a LARGE magnetic pulse or field. + >Yeah, I know... "just set off a low-yield nuclear weapon," etc, etc... + +JA>Save the bandwidth -- I want practical ideas (or non-nutcase theory) + >on generating strong magnetic fields. How Big? Well how big can + >I make one (without the nuclear device)? What's the strongest magnetic + >field, and/or biggest magnetic pulse I could make without esoteric + >devices (super-cooled superconductors are included in my definition + >of esoteric.) + +You can make a really large magnetic field but how large of an +area do you want this field to be in... That is where you get into +hideous amounts of input power. + +Your best bet would be to have a large capacitor bank, charge it +up to a couple tens of KV and then use some kind of flash discharge to +connect it to your magnetic coil. + +Only problem would be the highly lethal voltage and current - not +something to get into casually. + +TTYL - Dave +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b Multitasking = screwing up several things at once. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2579 Date: 01-03-94 17:07 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +Dave, + +I saw a post of yours up on the net today and thought I would +drop you a line. How was your vacation? + +I am interested is following up on your coiling activities, and +wanted to tell you that another conference regular has received a +copy of my tape and is going to be jumping back into coils after +problems with his first unit (failed to produce the promised +results). I sent him all of my notes, the plans for the spark +gaps and the thread archives. I know with this information he +will get the results he is looking for, but it will probably take +a week for him to read through all of the material I have sent. + +On another note I have seen a post from Jim Arconati wanting +information on strong EM field generators. I tried to drop the +hint that the Tesla Tank circuit is the only way to go if you +want maximum peak powers. No other circuit I have seen or worked +with can produce rapid, megawatt range, pulses. + +I hope you can find the time to get your cap, coil, and tank +circuit together in the next couple of months. I really am +looking forward to getting some video and/or photos of your work +in the near future. + +Good luck, and remember to "Tune for Maximum Smoke!" + + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2580 Date: 01-03-94 17:21 + From: Richard Quick + To: Damian Wright + Subj: Re: big magnetic pulse +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + DW> This'll create a magnetic pulse, don't know how big though, + DW> it's a Tesla coil, (with lots of copper wire), it's not too + DW> dangerous, it only kicks out about 40000Volts, but at a + DW> pretty low A of course, if you're interested drop me a line + DW> and I'll post the article I read on it up here on this net. + +P.S. + +I am interested in seeing the article if it would not be too much +trouble to peck it out. The 10KVA Tesla Coil thread has more than +a few followers who would also appreciate seeing the material. + +I will apologize in advance for critiquing the material (and your +reply earlier) but I have seen too much misinformation published +and repeated on this subject. I have built more than a few high +power Tesla systems, and have many many hours of hands on +experience with coils, HV pulse caps, spark excited tank circuits +etc. to let misunderstandings go unchallenged. + +If I come on a little strong it is only because I run very high +power equipment and designed and hand built nearly all of it. + + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2589 Date: 01-03-94 17:31 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +RQ>Dave, + +RQ>I saw a post of yours up on the net today and thought I would + >drop you a line. How was your vacation? + +Hi Richard - just got back a few days ago. Vacation was fantastic! +I was on a small ( 150 foot ) cruise ship with 50 passengers, 30 +crew and 8 scientists nosing around the islands in the Sea of Cortez +(between Baha and Mexico ) for 12 days. + +Seattle's cold and rainy and I wanna go back!!!!! + +RQ>I am interested is following up on your coiling activities, and + >wanted to tell you that another conference regular has received a + >copy of my tape and is going to be jumping back into coils after + >problems with his first unit (failed to produce the promised + >results). I sent him all of my notes, the plans for the spark + +Great! It is really reassuring to know that it *can* be done. +Especially since the time I tried in high school, I built the basic +"classic" coil and was not concerned with ground or anything like that. + +Got a few inches of wispy discharge that was barely visible in daylight +and the coil got promptly broken down and the 15KV neon sign xformer +got turned into a jacobs ladder for a local coffee house I was +working in at the time. + +I left you another note mentioning that I will be starting up some +serious coil building in the next couple weeks. I still need to make +the capacitors and to wind the secondary and build the support for the +primary. I will be calling local plastics places to find the best price +on the polyethylene and some plexi scraps. + +I have some 3/4" bronze rod in my boat junk drawer and I'll turn the +transformer protection gap out of that. I was wondering about some of +the magnetically quenched gaps and was thinking of experimenting with +embedding some cobalt-samarium magnets just under the gap faces. +Maybe later... + +Anyway, needless to say, I will be keeping the tape rolling during the +smoke test. My neighbors already think I am weird, this will cinch it. + + +RQ>On another note I have seen a post from Jim Arconati wanting + >information on strong EM field generators. I tried to drop the + >hint that the Tesla Tank circuit is the only way to go if you + >want maximum peak powers. No other circuit I have seen or worked + >with can produce rapid, megawatt range, pulses. + +I did see someone asking about creating EMP, forgot the name but I +replied mentioning using a capacitor and inductor triggered by a spark +gap. I didn't know if they were just into individual pulses or a +continuous oscillation. I'll keep an eye out. + +RQ>I hope you can find the time to get your cap, coil, and tank + >circuit together in the next couple of months. I really am + >looking forward to getting some video and/or photos of your work + >in the near future. + +I am looking at about two months max to have everything working. My +garage ( shop area ) is at the bottom of a driveway and I was thinking +of just sinking a couple 10' sections of copper water pipe for the +ground. I have a rotohammer and can punch through the cement drive. I +was thinking of putting a valve on one end and running water through it +while I was driving it into the ground. Should make it a bit easier. + +Also, I forgot if I had mentioned it but I picked up about 40' of really +heavy 1" copper braid at Boeing Surplus as well as a big spool of #22 +stranded teflon insulated wire. The wire is kind of fat - 25 turns / +inch but it should be wonderful for a larger coil and also a magnifier. + +The total cost for both plus some office litter was under $60 - +definitely a good deal! + + +RQ>Good luck, and remember to "Tune for Maximum Smoke!" + +Thanks! and I will keep you posted! TTYL - Dave +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b We have enough scientists; we need more hunchbacks, Igor. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2590 Date: 01-03-94 17:37 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Jim Arconati + Subj: big magnetic pulse +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ> JA> I'd like some ideas on generating a LARGE magnetic pulse or + > JA> field. + +RQ>The Tesla Tank circuit is the pulse field generator. It uses a + >spark gap switch to pulse discharge a HV cap through a large + >coil. The EMFs produced are incredible as peak powers in this + >circuit can easily reach many megawatts. My largest Tesla system + +RQ>I have a two hour video tape that shows the basic setup and + >operation of several of these systems. The video has shots + >showing gas discharge bulbs lighting at several feet away from + >systems that were tuned to produce sparks, not pulse fields. + >Modification to a system such as you desire would be very + >minimal. + +Hi Jim - butting in here. I have been in correspondence with +Richard for some time and I sent away for his tape. It is fantastic! + +Also, from your initial post, I thought that you wanted just a single +pulse and not a continuous field. That is why I suggested what is +essentially just a single shot tesla primary. + +If you can use a continuous field, then a straight Tesla Coil setup is +definitely the way to go! + +Check with your local BBS to see back postings of the Tesla +thread. + +Good luck! Dave +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b The Electric Chair and the Clapper Switch. A +great combo + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 04 Jan 94 16:55:00 + From: Richard Quick + To: Jim Arconati + Subj: BIG magnetic pulse +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Okay Jim, here we go: + +You set up your huge bank of HV pulse discharging capacitors and +charge them from a heavily protected HVDC power supply. The caps +are discharged through a coil of any desired dimension. + +The pulse is switched and controlled by placing two quenched +spark gaps in series with the inductance. By adjusting the gaps +you will be able to achieve a non-oscillating pulse through the +coil. + +Since the pulse is not oscillatory, your capacitance may be as +large as you desire without having to worry about frequency +changes (or power limits) as the circuit is scaled up or down +according to needs. This means that the pulse can become +extremely powerful as the capacitor bank value can be increased +virtually without limit. + +The key to successful operation of this circuit are the quenched +spark gaps used in series with the inductance. They must quench +extremely fast at very high power and they must be very high Q to +produce a nice sharp pulse. + +This type experiment is something I have never exactally +performed intentionally, but my Tesla work parallels these +circuit designs very very closely. As I have mentioned, a slight +modification to any of my present tank circuits would result with +a spark excited EMP generator of exceptional power. + +If you are really serious in exploring this further I can offer +specific help. I have designs on file (GIF) for a very high Q, +air blast (quenching) spark gap designed for these high powers. +I also have several files concerning the HV pulse discharging +capacitors. I have archived the 10KVA Tesla Coil thread since +10/5/93 and the file contains over 100 pages of posts with +specific and related information on these type systems and sub- +systems. + +If you are interested in obtaining these text and GIF files send +me a 3.5, 1.44 blank formatted disk and a SASE and I will send +those to you post haste; there is no charge for the information. + +The video tape is also recommended for those interested in very +high power spark gap oscillators, it details things like: HV +power supplies, control circuitry, HV RF choking and 60 cycle +filters for the power supply and control circuits, spark gaps, +coils, Jacob's Ladder (20 kv @ 8 kVA), etc.. The tape shows +everything in operation, complete with the monster discharges +from my big coil. I charge $10.00 for a 2 hr SP recorded one-off +master. You must send me a blank (high quality) VHS tape, and a +self addressed first class postage pre-paid mailer. I mail the +tapes out within 48 hours from receipt of your package and I will +guarantee you will be glued to the TV for the entire tape. + +Every time I offer this tape I must make the following +disclaimer: I cannot be responsible for the safety of anyone who +replicates or attempts to replicate any of the systems or +experiments featured on my video. The tape features nothing but +high voltage, high energy systems any of which are quite capable +of killing a person instantly or damaging valuable equipment. + +My address is: Richard T. Quick II + 10028 Manchester Rd. + Suite 253 + Glendale, MO 63122 + USA + +I am available in this conference to answer any questions or +comments you may have regarding the contents of the video should +you choose to pop for a copy but the thread archives offer +detailed text explainations for much of the contents of the video +as I have already sent out several tapes to some of the regulars +here. I have had no complaints regarding the quality of the +presentation. + +Good luck, and as always... + + +... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2736 Date: 01-05-94 09:58 + From: Robert Taylor + To: Richard Quick + Subj: Re: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> Quoting Richard Quick to Robert Taylor <=- + + RQ> When serious research is done with any Tesla patented system or + RQ> device it becomes all too clear that Telsa's world was based on + RQ> well thought out and workable systems. + +Bingo! Couldn't have put it better myself. The guy was definately a +genius & at least 100 years before his time. The shame is that most +people don't remember him for much past polyphase AC, high freq +transmission, & synchronous motors when there was a ton of useful +stuff beyond that. + +Later... + +... ...and in a strange turn of events, the cat was electrocuted. +-!- Blue Wave/Max v2.12 [NR] + ! Origin: BLUFF CITY BBS - Under OS/2 - Memphis, TN (901) 763-3784 +(1:123/70) + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2675 Date: 01-05-94 10:57 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +RQ>Hey Dave! + +RQ>Glad to have you back, and glad you had a good vacation. I wonder + >how you fanangled such a trip??? + +I finagled it the old fashioned way, called up the tour agent and +charged it. I like to get as far away from the telephone at +least once a year wether I need it or not. Keeps me sane ( relatively ) + +RQ>Good Luck at Boeing with getting the heavy variacs, sounds like + +RQ>You made some good choices on picking up the heavy 1" strap and + >teflon wire. Building up supplies took me months before I got to + >the point that I did not have to run out every 15 min. looking + >for such and such as I expanded my coiling. + +I will be going to Boeing today ( office person was also out of town and +her plane did not get in on time yesterday ) They have a really funny +pricing on stuff, some things are absurdly low, other things are way +over what they should be. The good thing is that if you catch someone in +a good mood, they will be open to any offer just to move the item. I am +keeping my fingers crossed on this one! + +Also, re: running out every 15 minutes... I know that feeling. +I get to the point where I think that I have a good parts collection and +then my next project needs something that I never even heard of... + +My basement is getting to the point where space *is* the final +frontier... + +RQ>Your ground idea sounds great. Space the pipes about 5' min + >distance apart and wire them together with the 1" strap using + >soldered connections. Water pumped into the pipes is an excellent + +OK - the garage is in the basement and the driveway slopes down to it. +It is only 12 feet wide, I was thinking of spacing them closer than +that. Another idea is that since the garage is on one edge of the +house, I could just run pipes along that edge and bring the strap in +through a window. My power panel is also in the garage so I could use +it for the house ground as well... + + >idea. If you are going through the effort of pressure water + >injection into the ground site go a step further and drill a few + >small holes into the pipe sidewalls and get as much surface area + >wet as possible. Salt added to the water (or poured into the pipe + +Very good idea! Seattle is kinda wet most of the time but we do have a +couple weeks in the summer when it gets dry. You can see the locals +running around with spray bottles misting down the mildew and moss on +the houses... + + >before it is pressurized) will increase the local conductivity + +The salt is also a really good idea! I could pack the pipes with sea +salt or make an "injector" out of some large diameter PVC with a hose +fitting on each end. I have a nice garden ( yet another #$%^&* hobby ) +but that edge of the house is nowhere near it so there would not be any +damage to plants. + + >and improve your ground. A larger pipe or tin can may be set + >around the grounding pipe where it enters the earth and may be + >filled with water to trickle down around the ground. Use your + >imagination. + +Just thinking that there is a gutter runoff is on that side too - divert +the water from that... + +RQ>Constructing a good ground is very hard work, but essential to + >performance coiling. You are wise to choose this often neglected + +It does make sense - I was into ham radio a while ago and know a little +bit about antennas and can appreciate what a good ground plane can do. +I shudder to see some boats with fiberglass superstructures and see that +people have mounted ground-plane whip antennas on them and they then +gripe about how poor their radio is, can't get a good signal out of +it... Also cars where the antenna is mounted on one corner of the +roof - nice omnidirectional radiation pattern there... + + >area as your starting point, and your neighbors will be thankful + >(it really does limit the RFI). Nothing ruins a guys day like the + >neighbors showing up at the door with torches in their hands + > a la Frankenstein... + +Actually, considering the neighborhood, that's a fun image! The area I +am in was built in the 50's and has a lot of the original owners in +there. I can see my next door neighbors in particular. They are really +good people but the guy retired about 20 years ago ( Boeing engineer ) +and does not have any real hobbies except snooping into what I am doing. + +I'll have the garage door open and be working on something and he will +totter over and talk for a long time, grousing about the state of the +world in general. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2679 Date: 01-05-94 16:40 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: Tesla goodies +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Hi Richard - just got back from Boeing Surplus. I took a good look at +the high voltage supply. Made by HiPot, rated for 60KV at about 100-200 +milliamps. It would have been really nice to get but it was *huge*. +The main transformer tank stands about four feet tall and then there is +the control unit, an eight foot tall enclosed rack. + +But the good news is that I also saw a triple-gang, motorized 50 Amp +Powerstat unit there, priced at $300. I offered $100 and we settled on +$150. Since it is motor controlled, I will just put it right near my +main breaker panel and then run a conduit out to where I will be running +the coil. This will be really nice too in that my control box can be +smaller. For safeties sake, I will probably have a relay to disconnect +the Powerstat and have a pushbutton switch on it that needs to be pushed +every time I want to fire the coil. That way, if I have a small +hand-held control box, I will not have the chance of it firing up +accidentally. + +Also, going through the back mail from when I was away, I got the +January issue of the TCBA News and my membership certificate. Looks +really well written, I will send away for some back issues. + +I will keep you posted - Dave +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b Wench: What you use to turn the head of a dolt... + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2680 Date: 01-05-94 17:25 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +RQ>We are talking about placement and construction of a heavy RF + >ground using two 10' lengths of copper water pipe... + +RQ> DH> OK - the garage is in the basement and the driveway slopes + > DH> down to it. It is only 12 feet wide, I was thinking of + > DH> spacing them closer than that <5' apart>. + +RQ>Your ground will have lower resistance to heavy RF current + >(higher Q) if you space the pipes out about half of their length. + >If the placement does not allow separation you are better off + >just using one pipe. The reason for this is closely placed + >grounding points will effectively act as a single point. The more + >you space, the bigger the electrical ground produced. + + +OK - got that. Thanks for the info. I will probably put the ground on +the outside wall of the house alongside where the garage is. There is +a +property line there so I have a good long run to play with. I will need +to get some more of that braiding but Boeing seems to always have a lot +of it on hand. They charge $1.50 / pound. + + +RQ> DH> My power panel is also in the garage so I could use + > DH> it for the house ground as well... + +RQ>Don't make permanent connections from the coil (RF) ground to the + >house ground. This will allow RF bleedover and RFI problems. You + >may make connections here when coils are not being fired, but + >keep the control cabinet and the house ground at lower potential + >than the RF ground. In other words when the RF ground is in use + >grounding a coil it is "powered up" and full of RF current and + >hash (RFI). If you connect your power cabinet to it then RF will + >bleed into the house through the power cabinet 60 cycle ground + >connection. Isolate the RF ground from other equipment. + +Got it! That makes a lot of sense - even though there is a good ground, +there is still a *lot* of current flowing into it and there could be +some problems with bleedover. + +Nothing like being able to draw a three foot long arc from my +refrigerator. It would be a great hit at parties... + +I will just keep the electrical panel just as it is and make the Tesla +ground completely separate. I am also thinking of this summer, renting +a generator and setting up a coil at the pier near Lake Washington and +using a couple foot square aluminum sheet in the lake for the ground. +The park I live by is used a lot for picnickers and such so it might get +a bit of attention... A Seattle man was arrested today for... + +TTYL for now - Dave + +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b Proofread carefully to see if you any words out. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2678 Date: 01-05-94 17:29 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +We are talking about placement and construction of a heavy RF +ground using two 10' lengths of copper water pipe... + + DH> OK - the garage is in the basement and the driveway slopes + DH> down to it. It is only 12 feet wide, I was thinking of + DH> spacing them closer than that <5' apart>. + +Your ground will have lower resistance to heavy RF current +(higher Q) if you space the pipes out about half of their length. +If the placement does not allow separation you are better off +just using one pipe. The reason for this is closely placed +grounding points will effectively act as a single point. The more +you space, the bigger the electrical ground produced. + + DH> My power panel is also in the garage so I could use + DH> it for the house ground as well... + +Don't make permanent connections from the coil (RF) ground to the +house ground. This will allow RF bleedover and RFI problems. You +may make connections here when coils are not being fired, but +keep the control cabinet and the house ground at lower potential +than the RF ground. In other words when the RF ground is in use +grounding a coil it is "powered up" and full of RF current and +hash (RFI). If you connect your power cabinet to it then RF will +bleed into the house through the power cabinet 60 cycle ground +connection. Isolate the RF ground from other equipment. + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 06 Jan 94 12:34:30 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + + DH> But the good news is that I also saw a triple-gang, + DH> motorized 50 Amp Powerstat unit there, priced at $300. I + DH> offered $100 and we settled on $150. Since it is motor + DH> controlled, I will just put it right near my main breaker + DH> panel and then run a conduit out to where I will be + DH> running the coil. This will be really nice too in that my + DH> control box can be smaller. For safeties sake, I will + DH> probably have a relay to disconnect the Powerstat and have a + DH> pushbutton switch on it that needs to be pushed every time I + DH> want to fire the coil. That way, if I have a small hand- + DH> held control box, I will not have the chance of it firing up + DH> accidentally. + +Your looking good. You should have no problems with current +overload with these units even running a pole pig. Powerstats are +commercial cont. duty rated and will handle a run at twice the +plate rating for 5 min. or more before they warm up. If required +you can use a cooling fan for real high current experiments. Good +job on hunting down the right componet for the job. + +Power relay safety interlocks are a very very good idea. I run +two in my power cabinet, one before the variac and one after the +variac. The first power relay interlock is tripped by key switch +to prevent unauthorized powerup of the cabinet, the second +interlock is switched with a toggle (cont. operation) and push +button (manual pulse operation). Be sure to ground the variacs to +the breaker box with #6 copper min. and to the water pipe with +some more of that 1" strap. I use a separate 240 v breaker box +with plug-in replaceable breakers (60 amps currently) on the feed +to my cabinet/variacs. + + DH> Also, going through the back mail from when I was away, I + DH> got the January issue of the TCBA News and my membership + DH> certificate. Looks really well written, I will send away + DH> for some back issues. + +Collecting back issues of the news is a good idea. I have issues +dating back to 1988 and pop for another years worth of back +issues every time I renew. I have seen some dynamite articles (I +have been published here as well) and some really excellent coil +projects... One issue had a guy's coil powered by a 455 Olds +engine running a three phase 480 volt generator. The coil design +was unfortunately "classic" in origin though modern construction +and materials were used, but the article published the complete +schematic for the generator/control circuits. You will find some +really interesting stuff here. + +Back on that ground for just a second. Make sure the pipes are +driven in away from basement foundation walls by at least 5'. +If you are putting the pipe in near a garage (built on a slab +with no basement foundation) it will be no problem to place +ground pipe right near the structure. The reason for this of +course is that a basement foundation wall only contacts earth on +one side, and grounding rod or pipe driven here will only conduct +180 degrees of a circle instead of all 360. + +Keep up the good work! + + +... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2712 Date: 01-06-94 15:37 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: tesla stuff... +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Hi Richard - I was wondering if you had Walt Noon's address. You had +mentioned that he had a design program and I just saw that the Tesla +Bookstore in Chula Vista, CA carries it. + +I would rather get it directly from him because he probably wholesales +it to the bookstore and I would rather have him get the money. + +I got the PowerStat temporarily hooked up and it runs fine! The +motor takes about 30 seconds to go from one end to the other. I didn't +really throw a load on it, just a 500 watt quartz-halide floodlamp but +it seems to be in like-new condition. + +Thanks again for all the info - I will be keeping you posted - Dave +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b Bureaucrats are the meat loaf of humanity. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2713 Date: 01-06-94 15:47 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: tesla +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ +Hi Richard - forgot to mention in the last message but I just realized +that two days from now we will have the 50th anniversary of Tesla's +death. ( 7 Jan 1943 ) + +Maybe coilers around the world should power up for a minute in +commemoration... + +Dave +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b In New Guinea: cargo cults. In the U.S.: vaporware. + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2714 Date: 01-06-94 17:47 + From: Dave Halliday + To: Richard Quick + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +RQ> DH> But the good news is that I also saw a triple-gang, + > DH> motorized 50 Amp Powerstat unit there, priced at $300. I + > DH> offered $100 and we settled on $150. Since it is motor + +RQ>Your looking good. You should have no problems with current + >overload with these units even running a pole pig. Powerstats are + >commercial cont. duty rated and will handle a run at twice the + >plate rating for 5 min. or more before they warm up. If required + >you can use a cooling fan for real high current experiments. Good + >job on hunting down the right componet for the job. + +I kinda figured they would do the trick when I saw them. I'll have to +include a shot of them when I send you the video. They are *huge* + +The whole assembly must weigh at least 250 pounds! + +RQ>Power relay safety interlocks are a very very good idea. I run + >two in my power cabinet, one before the variac and one after the + >variac. The first power relay interlock is tripped by key switch + >to prevent unauthorized powerup of the cabinet, the second + >interlock is switched with a toggle (cont. operation) and push + +I think so too. I have had some near misses because I *knew* that +everything was turned off and safe... I am very cautious. When +changing the blade on my table saw, I will un-plug it from the wall and +drape the cord over the saw table so I can look at it while changing the +blade... There is no one else at the house ( except for two shepherds ) +but something could fall on the switch or I could trip and put a hand +out on the wrong thing... + +The key switch is one idea I hadn't thought of and the idea has just +been swiped! I can imagine my leaving the garage door open some +day and having a neighborhood kid walk in out of curiosity... + +The idea with the relay was that whenever the coil was powered down, the +relay would drop out and I would have to walk over to the PowerStat and +hit a button to reset it. That way, if I have a hand-held remote, there +would be no way I could fire it from the remote without first engaging +the relay. The same relay would also be connected to the kill button on +the remote. + +I have also been thinking that since I use the little five-amp Variac on +my test bench at the store but I do most of my home-brew electronics at +the house, I could also run a line from the PowerStat to my workbench +for testing electronics stuff. Kill two birds with one stone - blow +things up with the coil and then fix them on the bench... + + >button (manual pulse operation). Be sure to ground the variacs to + >the breaker box with #6 copper min. and to the water pipe with + >some more of that 1" strap. I use a separate 240 v breaker box + >with plug-in replaceable breakers (60 amps currently) on the feed + >to my cabinet/variacs. + +Yeah - I was thinking of putting a 60 amp breaker in the main box, then +coming off of that to a smaller box ( maybe with a couple of 60 amp +fast-blow fuses ) and using that box to connect to the PowerStat. + +I would then have a commercial ( Industrial grade ) electronics box +conduited to it holding the relays and the control electronics. I was +also thinking of picking up two current shunts so I could instrument the +puppy a bit. + +RQ> DH> Also, going through the back mail from when I was away, I + > DH> got the January issue of the TCBA News and my membership + +RQ>Collecting back issues of the news is a good idea. I have issues + >dating back to 1988 and pop for another years worth of back + >issues every time I renew. I have seen some dynamite articles (I + >have been published here as well) and some really excellent coil + +I noticed that the quality of writing was really good. Much better than +Boarderlands or any of the "fringe" types. Actual legible circuit +diagrams... Stuff like that... + + >projects... One issue had a guy's coil powered by a 455 Olds + >engine running a three phase 480 volt generator. The coil design + >was unfortunately "classic" in origin though modern construction + >and materials were used, but the article published the complete + >schematic for the generator/control circuits. You will find some + >really interesting stuff here. + +That would be something to see! + +RQ>Back on that ground for just a second. Make sure the pipes are + >driven in away from basement foundation walls by at least 5'. + >If you are putting the pipe in near a garage (built on a slab + >with no basement foundation) it will be no problem to place + >ground pipe right near the structure. The reason for this of + >course is that a basement foundation wall only contacts earth on + >one side, and grounding rod or pipe driven here will only conduct + >180 degrees of a circle instead of all 360. + +I was thinking of that. My initial plan was to run them down the side +of the house but taking a walk out there made me realize that I would be +loosing half of the ground. The property line is about 8 feet away so +I +will run it there. That particular line is the one I share with my +grumpy neighbor so it should be a fun time putting them in. + +Your'e doing what??? For *what*??? What's a "Tesla Coil" anyway??? + +RQ>Keep up the good work! + +Thanks for the info/advice/help! + +TTYL - Dave +-!- + b QMPro 1.51 b <<< Tagline deleted by Natl Endowment for the Arts >>> + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 1 Date: 06 Jan 94 22:14:20 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: tesla stuff... +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + DH> Hi Richard - I was wondering if you had Walt Noon's address. + DH> You had mentioned that he had a design program and I just + DH> saw that the Tesla Bookstore in Chula Vista, CA carries it. + +Walt and I are good friends. I have helped him debug, add +features, and made other suggestions that he incorporated into +the software. It works. + +Please do write to him and let him know I am recommending his +software in the conference. I owe him a letter still, so send my +regards and tell him the halloween photos were appreciated. + + Walt Noon III + 3283 Belvedere + Riverside, CA. 92507 + + + DH> I got the PowerStat temporarily hooked up and it runs fine! + DH> it seems to be in like-new condition. + +Cool dude, you be entering the world of high voltage soon. + +-!- + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 2 Date: 06 Jan 94 22:20:57 + From: Richard Quick + To: Robert Taylor + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + -=> Quoting Richard Quick to Robert Taylor <=- + + RQ> When serious research is done with any Tesla patented system + RQ> or device it becomes all too clear that Telsa's world was + RQ> based on well thought out and workable systems. + + RT> Bingo! Couldn't have put it better myself. The guy was + RT> definately a genius & at least 100 years before his time. + RT> The shame is that most people don't remember him for much + RT> past polyphase AC, high freq transmission, & synchronous + RT> motors when there was a ton of useful stuff beyond that. + RT> Later... + +The shame is that most people don't remember Tesla at all :-( +-!- + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it + +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + Msg#: 3 Date: 06 Jan 94 22:32:13 + From: Richard Quick + To: Dave Halliday + Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ + +Just read your other posts. The ground seems to be well planned +and thought out. Go with it, it will work great and will be +expandable when you go to put a bigger coil on it. + +Your safety and protection system ideas sound level headed, and +should work fine. Just don't forget to wire them in for those +first few test runs. + +The aniversity of Tesla's death should be celebrated with +everyone switching off the electrical mains into their houses, +then maybe people would begin to appreciate what he gave to +mankind.... + + That HE was the one that brought power to the world!!! +-!- + ... If all else fails... Put another megavolt through it. + +====================================================================== +===== +Date: 07-01-94 (11:18) Number: 2504 +From: DAVE HALLIDAY Refer#: NONE + To: RICHARD QUICK Recvd: NO +Subj: 10KVA TESLA COIL Conf: (218) Electronic +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +----- +RQ>Just read your other posts. The ground seems to be well planned + >and thought out. Go with it, it will work great and will be + >expandable when you go to put a bigger coil on it. + +I was a ham for a while and also worked on some FM stations when I was +in college and I can appreciate the value of a good ground. I am also +into overbuilding anything that I can get my hands on. Takes more time +at the beginning but it never breaks later... + + +RQ>Your safety and protection system ideas sound level headed, and + >should work fine. Just don't forget to wire them in for those + >first few test runs. + +This is a very astute comment. Patience has never been one of my +virtues and I have to force myself to complete some of the things I work +on instead of just running with them when they get to a certain level... + +Rest assured though that I fully appreciate the dangers of the high +voltages involved here... I have been "bit" a few times with tube +equipment and have no desire for that to happen again! + +RQ>The aniversity of Tesla's death should be celebrated with + >everyone switching off the electrical mains into their houses, + >then maybe people would begin to appreciate what he gave to + >mankind.... + +RQ> That HE was the one that brought power to the world!!! + +This is so true! That would be something to do - turn off the main +breaker for ten minutes. The more and more I read about his work, the +more I realize just how much everyone *else* derived from his ideas! + +Anyway, TTYL - Dave + + b QMPro 1.51 b Hey, don't pick up that dogW‚.™ … D NO TERRIER + + +--- WM v3.10/93-0100 + * Origin: St. Louis Users Group BBS (314) 878-7614 (1:100/4.0) +(1:100/4) + +====================================================================== +===== + BBS: WELCOM BBS +Date: 21-02-94 (10:57) Number: 3295 +From: RICHARD QUICK Refer#: NONE + To: BRIAN CARLING Recvd: NO +Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil Conf: (111) ELECTRONIC +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +----- + L1 T1 + 뀎Ž‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹ŽŽŽŽ‚ + + £‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹ŽŽŽŽŽ¨ + 3 L2 3 + 3 3 + G1 O 3 + O 3 + 3 C1 3 + ~AŽŽŽŽŽŽ' ~AŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ' + 3 3 + 3 3 + 3 3 + …‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹— + X1 ¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡ŽŽŽŽŽë + £ŽŽŽŽ‹‹‹‹‹‹‹‹ŽŽŽŽ¨ + 3 3 + 3 3 + 60 Hz Line In + + +L1 = Tesla secondary coil. +T1 = Discharge Terminal +L2 = Tank Circuit Primary Coil +G1 = Tank Circuit Spark Gap +C1 = High Voltage, Pulse Discharging Capacitor +X1 = High Voltage Step Up Transformer + + +Power to drive the circuit is normally 60 Cycle 120/240 fed to a +step up transformer (Neon sign, potential, power distribution, or +plate type). The step up xfrmr charges capacitor C1 in the Tank +Circuit. When C1 is fully charged, the voltage breaks down the +air at the main system sparkgap , which sets the Tank Circuit +into a high frequency oscillation. The specific frequency of +oscillation is determined by the value of C1, and the inductance +(# of turns) in the primary coil L2. + +L1 is grounded at the base, as is the case and core of X1. +L1 is fitted with a conductive discharge terminal on the +ungrounded (air) end of the coil. + +This is among the simplest circuits that Tesla patented, and is a +good start for a beginner. A typical Tesla secondary in this +circuit (L1) may be constructed by close winding about 1500 feet +of #22 double Formvar coated magnet wire on a 6" diameter section +of dried PVC thin wall drain pipe that has been well sealed with +polyurethane or two part epoxy paint. The coil should be around +24" high (no more than 30") and tightly, evenly wound with a +single layer of wire. Leave about an inch of coil form above and +below the windings. The coil is capped top and bottom with 1/4" +plexiglas plates glued on with expoy. No holes are drilled into +the sides of the PVC coil form. Once the coil is wound, it is +again sealed with polyurethane or two part epoxy paint to prevent +breakdown. + +L2, the Primary Coil, is wound from 60-75 feet of 3/8" OD soft +copper water pipe or refrigerator tubing. Wind the coil in a +flat, pancake, spiral on some plastic insulating supports. The +inside turn should be about 9-10 inches in diameter, with turns +spaced about 1/4" apart. The finished coil should be about as +wide as coil L1 is long, or a little wider. + +C1 has typical values around .009 - .02 uf (microfarads) with a +voltage rating between 10 - 20 killovolts AC. For best +performance the capacitor should be pulse rated for rapid +discharge. + +T1 is the secondary coil discharger. A beginner might throw a 4-5 +inch diameter spherical aluminum flag pole top on the coil for a +discharger. A Toriod (donut shaped) discharger will give higher +breakdown voltages, and longer sparks. + +G1 is the main system spark gap. Two solid brass utility door +knobs from the hardware section at Walmart may be mounted on an +insulating support. With the smooth knobs facing one another, and +at least one knob made movable for adjustment, they will serve +well for low power coiling for a beginner. + +X1 for most beginners is the common Neon Sign xfrmr. The higher +voltage units are best, but you must not exceed the voltage +rating of your capacitor C1. To increase the current to charge +the capacitor you may run several neon sign xfrmrs in parallel. + ... And if all else fails... Put another megavolt through it +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + + +--- WM v3.10/93-0100 + * Origin: St. Louis Users Group BBS (314) 878-7614 (1:100/4.0) +(1:100/4) + +====================================================================== +===== + BBS: WELCOM BBS +Date: 27-04-94 (20:00) Number: 5940 +From: RICHARD QUICK Refer#: NONE + To: DAVE HALLIDAY Recvd: NO +Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil Conf: (111) ELECTRONIC +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +----- +Dave, + +I thought I would take a minute to cover some aspects of RF +choking on the feed lines to the Tesla Tank circuit. I will refer +you to vol. 13, #2, page 6 of the Tesla Coil Builders Association +publication NEWS for a start. Since others will be reading this, +and will not have access to this publication, I will reproduce +the circuit diagram below. + + PC1 X1 RFC 1A RFC 2A +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽƒŽŽŽŽŽŽ¨§£ŽŽŽŽŽŽ‹‹‹‹‹ŽŽŽƒŽŽŽŽ‹‹‹‹‹ŽŽŽ> TO TESLA TANK + Ž Ž )§( 3 + ŽƒŽ )§( 3 + 3 )§( O + .€ŽŽŽ' )§( .€ŽŽŽŽo SAFETY GAP + 3 )§( O + Ž Ž )§( 3 + ŽƒŽ )§( 3 +ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ ŽŽŽŽŽŽ—§…ŽŽŽŽŽŽUUUUUŽŽŽ ŽŽŽŽŽUUUUUŽŽŽ> TO TESLA TANK + PC2 RFC 1B RFC 2B + +"Radio Frequency Chokes RFC 1A and 1B are wound with about 70 +turns on a 1" cylinder (PVC, plastic, etc.). RFC 2A and 2B are +wound with around 20 turns on a similar form. The size of the +wire is not critical as long as the wire is capable of carrying +the rated current." + +"Protective Capacitors PC1 and PC2 are not critical and can be +rated in the vicinity of .5 to 2 microfarads. Use a voltage +rating as high as possible. The usual 400-600 volt capacitors +will not withstand kickbacks for very long. I prefer capacitors +with ratings of from 2500 to 5000 (or higher) volts" + +The above is quoted from the article, X1 is of course the high +voltage step up transformer that supplies the Tesla Tank. I will +note that this circuit is the bare minimum protection required, +and that this is only adequate for small (6") coils running under +1.5 KVA. + +Even the author, Harry Goldman, admits that this RF protection +circuit does not eliminate, but only reduces the RF and kickback +problem. Note his statement that the low voltage line PC +(Protective Capacitors) capacitors (PC1 & PC2) need a rating of +2500 volts or higher. These capacitors are across the 120 or 240 +volt 60 cycle line!!!! Imagine what voltage spikes are appearing +in the house or shop supply line if 400-600 protective capacitors +are routinely failing. Obviously the problem needs some more +attention. + +Please note the modifications to the above circuit in my +recommended circuit below. + + £------¨ + | | X1 RFC 1A +ŽŽ|ŽŽŽŽŽŽ|ŽŽŽŽŽ¨§£ŽŽŽŽŽŽƒŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽƒŽŽŽŽ‹‹‹‹‹ŽŽŽ> TO TESLA TANK + | | )§( 3 3 + | | )§( 3 3 + | | )§( BC1 Ž Ž O + | LF1 ~AŽ. )§( ŽƒŽ oŽŽ. SAFETY GAP + | | )§( 3 O + | | )§( 3 3 + | | )§( 3 3 +ŽŽ|ŽŽŽŽŽŽ|ŽŽŽŽŽ—§…ŽŽŽŽŽŽ ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ ŽŽŽŽŽUUUUUŽŽŽ> TO TESLA TANK + | | 3 RFC 1B + …------— ¡‹¡ + grnd + +LF1 is a commercial heavy duty line filter wired in reverse. +Where current throughputs are high I use several in parallel. +Quality commercial line filters employ iron powder chokes, as +well as the "PC" capacitors of the circuit at the top of this +post. The Line Filters I use also have RF choke coils in the +ground path; the ground wire can be run reversed (it is neutral) +and can be used to trap stray RF, preventing ground path +contamination to the 60 cycle breaker box. I should note that I +use a minimum of two independent grounds. The core of X1, and +everything to the right of X1 in this diagram, is grounded +separately to a heavy, dedicated, RF ground. This heavy RF ground +is also used to ground the base of the Tesla secondary. + +Note that the core of X1 is grounded in this diagram, where the +top diagram shows the core floating ungrounded. I believe this +was an oversight of Mr. Goldman's. + +BC1 is a Bypass Capacitor. I use high voltage barium titanate +doorknobs, with stacks of four or more in series. A typical +rating for a single cap would be .003 microfarad @ 30 KVDC, and +using four of these caps in series I get .0007 microfarads at 120 +KVDC. Since the AC rating is about half the DC rating on these +type capacitors, figure a series stack of four will withstand a +kickback of 50-60 KVAC in this use. + +Where center tap ground type xfrmrs are used for X1 (such as neon +sign cores) BC1 must be divided into two units, and the center of +the stack must be grounded with the xfrmr core (see the arrange- +ment of PC1 and PC2 in the top most diagram). Use no more than +.0008 or so microfarads per side, as too large a bypass capaci- +tance will create an oscillating current in the high voltage +windings on your step up xfrmr that will cause the xfrmr to fail. + +RFC 1A and RFC 1B are about 15-20 turns (minimum) of insulated +wire on a large iron powder core. I use 2" diameter iron powder +toroids to wind these chokes. + +I have found that the RF and Kickback protection of the circuit +using bypass capacitors and iron powder (as opposed to air core) +RF chokes is much better than the simpler circuit recommended by +Mr. Goldman. If you are running a small tabletop Tesla coil, then +Mr. Goldman's circuit is probably all you need. But if you are +running, or intend to run, more than 1.5 KVA out of your power +supply; look carefully at the circuit I have outlined. +Remember... Over 1.5 KVA and the kickbacks are sounding like high +powered rifle shots at the safety gap. They will "light up your +life" if not properly contained and grounded. + +... If all else fails... Throw another Megavolt across it! + + +--- WM v3.10/93-0100 + * Origin: St. Louis Users Group BBS (314) 878-7614 (1:100/4.0) +(1:100/4) + +====================================================================== +===== +Date: 03-05-94 (21:05) Number: 6265 +From: RICHARD QUICK Refer#: NONE + To: BLAIR GROVES Recvd: NO +Subj: 10KVA Tesla Coil Conf: (111) ELECTRONIC +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +----- + BG> Hi Richard, I've been reading about a monster Tesla coil + BG> you've made, but got into this echo a bit too late to hear + BG> the important stuff... can you fill me in on it? (like, how + BG> big is this beast, and what can you do with such a thing?).. + +The coil is not very big. The actual coil featured on the video +is 10-3/4 inches in diameter. The winding is a single layer of +#21 magnet wire, 1024 close spaced turns, making a winding length +that is only 32", on a form that totals 35" in height. But the +sparks from this coil have exceeded 14 feet in length... + +I have imported some stuff from my archives (which are extensive) +to answer in more detail... + + >What can a person do with such a device once constructed? Does + >it have any practical purpose other than to amuse your friends? + +I first began to build small 1/4 wave (spark generating) Tesla +coils for fun. I loved the light show, and so did my friends. As +I gained experiance in building coils I realized that most of the +"plans" were full of inaccuracies. I began to design my own +systems to increase efficiency. As my interest and experience +grew, I discovered more advanced coil systems that Tesla designed +(the Tesla Magnifier) and began initial research into other +areas: particle acceleration, lasers, wireless power +transmission, and particle beams. I am planning on making a very +serious study in these areas in the next few years. + +Dave Archer is a painter in California who uses a Tesla coil to +electrically spread paint. He places his canvas on a grounded +plate and directs the Tesla discharge over it. The resulting +paintings are regularly featured as space backgrounds and hanging +art on Star Trek TNG, Omni Magazine and several other publica- +tions, as well as private collections. Tesla coils were also used +in the time travel scenes in both Terminator movies, and are re- +emerging in the special effects industry because they photograph +well and the sparks are more realistic than computer generation +or animation. + +Tesla coils were used in the first induction heaters, and were +employed medically for the treatment of arthritis and other joint +and muscle problems. The same coil could be adjusted to generate +sufficient voltage to produce X-Rays, and as such a Tesla coil +was a standard medical instrument in Dr's offices in the early +1900s. Nearly all of the first high quality X-Rays were produced +with Tesla driven X-Ray tubes until the 1930's. The first self +cauterizing "electric scalpels" were electrified with a Tesla +coil. + +A Tesla coil is in your monitor (flyback transformer). Tesla +coils were also an important part of the first radio +transmitters. My feeling is that the Tesla coil has a major place +in modern physics, but has not been fully evaluated. + +The 1/4 wave Tesla coil (sweet and simple, though there +are other configurations) is an oscillator driven, air core +resonate transformer. + +The oscillating tank circuit drives the secondary coil. The tank +circuit consists of pulse discharging capacitors, air gap (spark +gap, break) and the primary coil. I said the setups are very +flexible, so I will focus on specs for the 10KVA coil. + +The primary coil is wound from a single 100' length of 1/2" soft +copper water pipe placed on plexiglas stand off insulators. The +inside turn starts at 14" in diameter, and the turns wind +outward to form a flat pancake spiral, like the grooves on a +phonograph record. The outside turn is 36" diam.. There are a +total of 15 turns in this coil, spacing between turns is 1/4". + +I own two .1 mfd 45 kvac pulse discharging capacitors. These two +custom commercial units were purchased to supplement my 14 +homemade polyethylene/aluminum flashing/mineral oil units rated +at .02 mfd 10 kvac pulse. With the 10 KVA coil I use the two +commercial "caps" in series with the primary, so the actual +operating capacitance is only .05 mfd. (rated 90 KVAC though...). + +I connect the capacitors to the primary coil and the spark gap. +By using a movable "tap" lead which can clip to any location on +the heavy primary coil, the primary coil inductance is varied, +and the tank circuit frequency can be changed or "tuned". + +The spark gap acts as a high voltage switch. When the gap is +open, the capacitors charge. When the gap fires, the caps are +discharged in a pulse. Because of the voltage and currents +involved, the gaps on larger coils employ a rotary break, almost +exactly like a large car distributor at high speed. + +This pulse discharging produces a large current (over 1000a@20kv +in my system) from a modest transformer output (.5 amp @ 20kv). +The pulse "rings" (oscillates) from capacitor plate, through the +coil, and back. + +The secondary coil has a natural electrical resonate frequency +dependant mostly on wire length. It may be modified or tuned by +addition or subtraction of top capacitance or "discharge +terminal". The two coils are tuned to the same frequency, and +then energy is xfered from the primary to the secondary. This is +the resonate transformer theory. + + BG> Also, I'm interested in making a Jacob's Ladder. Do you have + BG> any plans or ideas on that? + +All you need is a neon sign xfrmr and a couple of coat hangers. +Neons have built in current limiting. Do not construct a Jacob's +Ladder with an xfrmr that is not current limited. +... If all else fails... Throw another Megavolt across it! +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + + +--- WM v3.10/93-0100 + * Origin: St. Louis Users Group BBS (314) 878-7614 (1:100/4.0) +(1:100/4) + +====================================================================== +===== + BBS: WELCOM BBS +Date: 07-08-94 (21:31) Number: 10768 +From: RICHARD QUICK Refer#: NONE + To: DON KIMBERLIN Recvd: NO +Subj: Tesla Coils Conf: (111) ELECTRONIC +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +----- + + RQ> DK> ...Nice sketch: + RQ> DK> ...but where do you plug the microphone in? + + Human voice T1 + \/ + 3 + ýŽŽŽƒŽŽŽý<--Diaphram 3 L2 + ý § V ý<--Valve ~AŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ} + ý § § ý 3 } + ¡¡¡¡‹¡¬á§áááá 3 } +Gas in^ § 3 } +Gas out> § 3 } + § A1 3 } L1 C1 + Š¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡ >>>> } {ŽŽŽ'~AŽŽŽƒŽŽŽ < HF + Gas stream> 3 } { o + 3 } { G1 o + 3 } {ŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ ŽŽŽ < HF + ~AŽŽŽŽŽŽŽŽ} + 3 + earth ëëë + + RQ>The "gas under pressure" microphone was placed in the circuit + RQ>between the air capacity terminal (T1) and the ground. The + RQ>modulated air stream would in turn modulate the arc at A1. + DK> .... + + DK> ...Sonofagun! Old (young) Tesla had it all! Interesting + DK> situation occurs when trying to modulate extremely low + DK> frequencies, however. Unless the ratio between the + DK> modulating (speech) and modulated (radio) sigs is more than + DK> about 1:10, a lot of problems with distorted speech occur. + +Tesla mentions this effect several times in the COLORADO SPRINGS +NOTES, both in reference to the circuit above, and in the carbon +microphone circuits. He stated that the oscillations of the coil +and the break rate on the gap had to be very rapid to reduce this +effect and produce the clearest speech at the receiver; so it +appears to me at any rate, that he was not only very aware of +this problem, but that he had gone far towards solving it. + + DK> Still, if the technology had ever gotten to wide use, I'm + DK> sure he would have worked that out... + +I think it was worked out. So many people fail to realize that +Tesla designed and constructed not random inventions, but entire +working systems. By "working systems" I mean things like the +commercialized polyphase system in use today (and unchanged since +Tesla first handed the patents to Westinghouse machinists). + +Tesla stated all the way up to the time of his death in 1943 that +his wireless system was far superior to any system in use. The +example above is drawn from his experimental work of 1899 and +prior, as are the carbon microphone systems I mentioned (and +provided references for). What I find particularly impressive: +his system required no sensitve detector (receiver - amplifier), +and no external power supply, for a person to hear human voice at +the receiving end (the transmitter being very powerful and +efficient at delivering energy). + +Tesla showed us fully developed triode vacuum tubes in 1891 in +his public lectures (drawings, photos, and lecture transcriptions +of the tubes exist). He was asked during his pending court case +in 1916 why such tubes were not employed by him in receiver/ +amplifier circuits. He answered that in his "system" they were +not required: that no amplification was. He was clearly quite +familiar with the design, construction, and operation of these +tubes before Deforest; but did no further study with them because +the knowledge and use of these tubes were not required for voice +transmission. + +Tesla frustrates me time and time again for what he clearly +documented but refused to employ/patent in some application; +others grabbed credit for much of what was his original work. + +... If all else fails... Throw another Megavolt across it! +--- Blue Wave/RA v2.12 [NR] + * Origin: Cindex Support BBS (314) 837-5422 Florissant, MO. +(1:100/395.0) + +====================================================================== +===== + BBS: WELCOM BBS +Date: 06-09-94 (16:52) Number: 12123 +From: RICHARD QUICK Refer#: NONE + To: JAMES MEYER Recvd: NO +Subj: Tesla Capacitors Conf: (111) ELECTRONIC +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +----- + + RQ> Flat plate caps have no inductance. Rolled caps contain two + RQ> or more plates which are tightly rolled up. Rolled plates + RQ> exhibit some properties of coils, they contain a certain + RQ> degree of self-inductance. + + JM> Rolled caps don't always have to show a lot of inductance. + JM> With a slight modification to your construction techniques, + JM> you could make "extended foil" caps with almost no + JM> inductance. The inductance of an extended foil cap doesn't + JM> change as they get bigger either. + +Please tell me more. What slight modifications would be required, +and how do those modifications reduce or eliminate self- +inductance? + +As I may have mentioned; the .02 uf 10 KVAC pulse discharging +rolled capacitor (instructions which I have posted here several +times) are self-resonant around 1.2 MHz. When I build larger caps +of this design; the self resonance drops below 1 MHz where it +interferes destructively with the tank circuit operation of +smaller coils; these smaller coils are where the beginners start. + +The second design limitation I have encountered is a lowering of +the tank circuit Q factor when larger rolled caps are used in the +oscillator. I attribute part of this to destructive self-reson- +ance, but this can be controlled/reduced by operating the +oscillator at lower frequencies, and maintaining a suitable +spread between the self-resonate frequency of the cap, and the +normal operating frequency of the oscillator. The destructive +interference does not seem to account for the large drop in Q +factor I read on my scope. + +One problem with tank circuits is that the circuit Q factor drops +off as the physical length of non-primary coil conductors +increase. I have run physically large oscillators below 100 kHz, +using up to 14 of the homemade .02 uf rolled caps in the circuit +at one time, and the Q factor gets pretty poor. The bus wiring +alone subtracts plenty of Q (even with great care you get tons of +radiant surface area and off-axis inductance); but when I add up +all of the plate lengths of the rolled caps, and include these +lengths as a factor in the tank circuit wiring, it becomes clear +that the wiring length of the circuit exceeds the primary coil +length by several times. It seems that this must be avoided. + +Where physically large layouts are common, that is at lower tank +circuit frequencies (say below 175 kHz), I switch to flat stacked +capacitors. When I switch, I see tank circuit Qs increase. This +capacitor construction (flat plate) avoids the problem of self- +inductance (&therefore self-resonance), but I see an increase in +tank circuit Q that the self-inductance factor alone does not +seem to account for.... It seemed to me the best course to limit +the rolled cap design at .02 uf, and for larger capacitors, to +switch over to a flat stacked capacitor design. + +I am not at all trying to detract from the viability of your +suggestion, which I would like to hear in more detail, but I am +simply trying to outline and clarify some of the problems and +design limitations I have encountered in the course of my +experimentation. + + +... If all else fails... Throw another Megavolt across it! +--- Blue Wave/RA v2.12 [NR] + * Origin: Cindex Support BBS (314) 837-5422 Florissant, MO. +(1:100/395.0) + +====================================================================== + BBS: WELCOM BBS +Date: 06-09-94 (18:24) Number: 12124 +From: RICHARD QUICK Refer#: NONE + To: TERRY SMITH Recvd: NO +Subj: Tesla, Col.Sprng Conf: (111) ELECTRONIC +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +My mail services have been poor to worse the last two weeks. +No mail picked up for a nearly a week, then getting duplicates, +not counting posts missed completely and late messages.... + +Anyway, Terry Smith and Don Kimberlin were commenting on some +info I dug up on Tesla's Colorado Springs Magnifier.... + +TS> Interesting, yes, but nothing like what would be +TS> characteristic of any height insulated vertical radiator, +TS> with or without typical loading. + + DK>...How about it, Terry? Can you figure what the field would + DK> be like off a 94 kHz loading coil with a top hat? It sure + DK> looks to be pretty "standard" in that regard...my first + DK> guess says about 1.5 Amps average base current, but 1350 + DK> Amps peak base current...what a pulse! + +TS> Based on 209 ohms and 420 kV, we might expect over 2,000 A at +TS> the base. Extrapolating with the ratio of 31.5 and assuming +TS> minimal losses, the arc might be around 60 A. That's +TS> approaching a gigawatt. + +TS> As to radiation efficiency, I'd be curious if any data +TS> comparable to present day units existed. A 200 ohm base is +TS> typical of a 120 degree or so tower. Loading of normal +TS> radiators commonly does more to match impedances without +TS> higher Q networks, than to boost radiation efficiency. The +TS> near zero Vf, and indication (based on what?) of 70 degree +TS> wavelength, conflict with normal radiator modelling, as does +TS> a VSWR so much greater than 2. + +TS> I'd be curious, but afraid to even guess. I would speculate +TS> that fields from some of the coils might cancel, but that +TS> there'd be some radiation from both the long coil, and the +TS> arc path. How much I'd guess would depend a lot on +TS> construction practices, not shown here. If I had to pick a +TS> number to compare with equivalent transmitting power into an +TS> efficient radiator, I'd guess this might be similar to around +TS> a megawatt, though low duty cycle. Is there any historical +TS> field data? + +The whole idea of the Colorado Springs Experimental Station was +to verify Tesla's previously discovered methods of transmitting +communications and electrical power without wires. The system was +not designed, built, or operated at as radiating transmitter. The +Magnifer circuit was operated at industrial power levels to +perfect a method of wireless global transmission thru conduction. + +References to radiation efficiency completely miss the point of +the experiment. Tesla stated over and over that his goal was to +supress radiation and increase conductivity. This is why the +system was required to produce such high voltages. + +The posted values were derived from only one of many dozens of +experiments Tesla performed with the equipment at hand, and is +"typical" in showing the type voltages, currents, and frequencies +Tesla worked with at the station between 1899-1900. + +The famous spark photos from the Colorado Springs lab were taken +solely to publicize to power processing ability of the machine, +and does not document the primary function of the oscillator/coil +system. It could also be surmised that spark length gave a good +relative indication of system tune given the absence of any +reliable commercial diagnostic equipment in 1899-1900. + + +... If all else fails... Throw another Megavolt across it! +--- Blue Wave/RA v2.12 [NR] + * Origin: Cindex Support BBS (314) 837-5422 Florissant, MO. +(1:100/395.0) + +====================================================================== +===== + BBS: WELCOM BBS +Date: 07-09-94 (20:55) Number: 12220 +From: JAMES MEYER Refer#: NONE + To: RICHARD QUICK Recvd: NO +Subj: Tesla Capacitors Conf: (111) ELECTRONIC +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +----- + +On 09-06-94, RICHARD QUICK wrote to JAMES MEYER and said: + +RQ> Please tell me more. What slight modifications would be required, +RQ> and how do those modifications reduce or eliminate self- +RQ> inductance? +RQ> +RQ> I am not at all trying to detract from the viability of your +RQ> suggestion, which I would like to hear in more detail, but I am +RQ> simply trying to outline and clarify some of the problems and +RQ> design limitations I have encountered in the course of my +RQ> experimentation. + + An extended foil cap is wound with the foil extended over the + edge of the dielectric so that the connection to the foil can + be made continuously along the entire edge of the foil. This + means that the charging currents are distributed over the + foil much more evenly and the effective series inductance is + the same as a piece of wire the same length as the cap. + + Perhaps a picture right now would be worth a thousand more + words. + + "A" "B" + ------------------------------- ^ + | dielectric | | r + ---| -------------------------------- | o + | f | | foil 2 | | l + | o | | | | l + | i | | | | + | l | | | | t + | | | | | h + | 1 | | | | i + | | | | | s + ---| -------------------------------- | + | "D" | | w + ------------------------------- "C" - a + y + + "A" to "B" is the length of the finished cap. (One foot?) + "B" to "C" is the length of the foil before rolling. + (Several yards?) + + The cap is made by laying down one sheet of dielectric of the + proper size. Next goes one foil plate placed so that one + edge extends past the edge of the dielectric by about a + quarter to a half inch. + + The second dielectric sheet is exactly the same size as the + first, and it gets laid down so the corners match the corners + of the first. + + The second foil is the same size as the first and it goes on + next, but it is extended to the opposite side as the first + foil. + + Of course you want the dielectric sheets larger than the foil + by enough to get the arc-over voltage high enough. + + Then the cap is rolled up. The two foils will be extended + from opposite ends of the cap. It's then only a matter of + attaching the two terminals to the foils. Since the entire + edge of both foils is available, a good high current + connection can be made. If you use a hammer to pound the + turns of each foil into contact, you could then solder a real + heavy piece of copper strap or a threaded brass rod to the + foil at each end. + + This is how physically small caps with low inductance are + made. It's also how the large, pulse discharge, caps in the + modulator for the linear particle accelerator at the lab are + made. I know. I've dissected a couple after they "blew". + + You could take apart a few old small caps to get an idea + about how they're made. The "orange drop" Sprague caps are + usually extended foil. + + Jim + + * JABBER v1.2 * The earth is like a tiny grain of sand, only =much= +bigger. +--- FidoPCB v1.5 beta-'j' + * Origin: Psychotronic BBS - We are smarter than you. RTP,NC (1:3641/1) + +====================================================================== + BBS: WELCOM BBS +Date: 08-09-94 (07:46) Number: 12237 +From: TERRY SMITH Refer#: NONE + To: RICHARD QUICK Recvd: NO +Subj: Tesla, Col.Sprng Conf: (111) ELECTRONIC +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + + RQ> Anyway, Terry Smith and Don Kimberlin were commenting on some + RQ> info I dug up on Tesla's Colorado Springs Magnifier.... + +TS> Interesting, yes, but nothing like what would be +TS> characteristic of any height insulated vertical radiator, TS> with +or +without typical loading. + + DK>...How about it, Terry? Can you figure what the field would + DK> be like off a 94 kHz loading coil with a top hat? It sure + +TS> Based on 209 ohms and 420 kV, we might expect over 2,000 A at +TS> the base. Extrapolating with the ratio of 31.5 and assuming +TS> minimal losses, the arc might be around 60 A. That's +TS> approaching a gigawatt. + +TS> As to radiation efficiency, I'd be curious if any data +TS> comparable to present day units existed. A 200 ohm base is +TS> typical of a 120 degree or so tower. Loading of normal +TS> number to compare with equivalent transmitting power into an +TS> efficient radiator, I'd guess this might be similar to around +TS> a megawatt, though low duty cycle. Is there any historical +TS> field data? + + RQ> The whole idea of the Colorado Springs Experimental Station was + RQ> to verify Tesla's previously discovered methods of transmitting + RQ> communications and electrical power without wires. The system was + RQ> not designed, built, or operated at as radiating transmitter. The + + RQ> References to radiation efficiency completely miss the point of + RQ> the experiment. Tesla stated over and over that his goal was to + RQ> supress radiation and increase conductivity. This is why the + +Don and I were simply trying to compare apples and oranges, or place the +secondary characteristics of this coil in the realm of references we +consider when looking at RF devices of substantial fractional wavelengths. +It's normal to look at induced and radiated fields of a broadcast antenna, +coupling efficiency to the earth, and the earth resistance in conducting +that signal. Tesla's signals obviously have some overlap, though it does +appear to be a much different balance of parameters than in intentional +RF radiators. + +You must realize how most components or circuits for one nominal purpose +can usually be analyzed as to the (albeit, somtimes minute) elements of +other types. For example, you can measure series inductance of many +resistors, shunt and series resistance of capacitors, inter winding +capacitance and series resistance of inductors, etc. + + + RQ> The famous spark photos from the Colorado Springs lab were taken + RQ> solely to publicize to power processing ability of the machine, + RQ> and does not document the primary function of the oscillator/coil + RQ> system. It could also be surmised that spark length gave a good + RQ> relative indication of system tune given the absence of any + RQ> reliable commercial diagnostic equipment in 1899-1900. + +Ahh, you're just jealous that with modern technology, you haven't been +able to build something twice as large. <> + + +Terry + +--- Maximus 2.01wb + * Origin: Charges filed under Ohms Law! (203)732-0575 BBS (1:141/1275) + +====================================================================== + BBS: WELCOM BBS +Date: 09-09-94 (11:19) Number: 12267 +From: DON KIMBERLIN Refer#: NONE + To: RICHARD QUICK Recvd: NO +Subj: Tesla, Col.Sprng Conf: (111) ELECTRONIC +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + + + +RQ>TS> I'd be curious, but afraid to even guess. I would speculate +RQ>TS> that fields from some of the coils might cancel, but that +RQ>TS> there'd be some radiation from both the long coil, and the +RQ>TS> arc path. How much I'd guess would depend a lot on +RQ>TS> construction practices, not shown here. If I had to pick a +RQ>TS> number to compare with equivalent transmitting power into an +RQ>TS> efficient radiator, I'd guess this might be similar to around +RQ>TS> a megawatt, though low duty cycle. Is there any historical +RQ>TS> field data? + +RQ>The whole idea of the Colorado Springs Experimental Station was +RQ>to verify Tesla's previously discovered methods of transmitting +RQ>communications and electrical power without wires. The system was +RQ>not designed, built, or operated at as radiating transmitter. The +RQ>Magnifer circuit was operated at industrial power levels to +RQ>perfect a method of wireless global transmission thru conduction. + +SET MENTAL_BLOCK.SYS /on + +...Oh, boy, do I have trouble with that, Richard. As you note, +"radiation" does imply propagation of magnetic or static fields +through space. But "conduction" implies propagation of induction +fields through the earth. Then, we have some sort of Tesla +experiments involving what has to be radiating X-rays and such +toward the ionosphere. + +...Please sort out my feeble mind. While I have no problem with +understanding Tesla could have been working on both radiation and +conduction as I know them, it seems like the descriptions don't +separate the two...unless there is some higher plane of +understanding I need to get to. (Yes, the two are related, but +usually we're concentrating on one and trying to suppress the +other...) + +RQ>References to radiation efficiency completely miss the point of +RQ>the experiment. Tesla stated over and over that his goal was to +RQ>supress radiation and increase conductivity. This is why the +RQ>system was required to produce such high voltages. + +...Again, when it's conduction, the emphasis is on current, +not voltage...at least for ordinary mentalities...can you help +get my perspective right for this understanding? + +--- GOMail v2.0j Beta [94-0035] + * Origin: Borderline! BBS Kannapolis, N.C. (1:379/37) + +====================================================================== +===== + BBS: WELCOM BBS +Date: 11-09-94 (13:10) Number: 12291 +From: BRETT LILLEY Refer#: NONE + To: RICHARD QUICK Recvd: NO +Subj: Tesla Capacitors Conf: (111) ELECTRONIC +---------------------------------------------------------------------- +----- + +Hi Richard, I have followed the Teslar thread here with interest even to +the cost of obtaining copies of your videos via Jim Oliver. + +They are most impressive although I make a plea no doubt endorsed by +other viewers, PLEASE INVEST IN A TRIPOD FOR YOUR CAMERA. I get sea sick +watching them :-( + +I have around 15 years experience in radio, mostly at VHF and UHF and +Microwaves but my training included the LF, MF and HF bands. Your Tesla +coils operate at the lower end of the LF bands. + + > RQ> Flat plate caps have no inductance. + +Wrong! all capacitors have inductance as well as series and shunt +resistance and of course capacitance. It is just that flat plate caps +have much less inductance and at LF frequencies it provides insignificant +reactance. However even at LF frequencies an effect known as Skin effect +can result in a significant effective series resistance, more about +that later. + + > RQ> Rolled caps contain two + > RQ> or more plates which are tightly rolled up. Rolled plates + > RQ> exhibit some properties of coils, + +They are coils! + + > RQ> they contain a certain degree of self-inductance. + +Not surprising, Knowing their capacitance and self resonant frequency you +should be able to calculate their inductance. + +fc = 1/(2*pi*(L*C)^-2) or L = 1/((2*pi*fc)^2*C) + + > JM> Rolled caps don't always have to show a lot of inductance. + > JM> With a slight modification to your construction techniques, + > JM> you could make "extended foil" caps with almost no + > JM> inductance. The inductance of an extended foil cap doesn't + > JM> change as they get bigger either. + + > Please tell me more. What slight modifications would be required, + > and how do those modifications reduce or eliminate self- + > inductance? + +One method would be to terminate each plate at its edge rather than its +ends by extending the edge of one plate beyound the insulator at one end +of the roll and doing the same with the other plate at the other end. You +could then bond across all the turns of each plate. This would reduce the +inductance (and the series resistance!) by making the effective length of +conductor the width of the plate rather than the length of the plate. +You would of course have to double the "creepage" allowance of insulator +at the edges of the plates (ends of the roll). + + > The second design limitation I have encountered is a lowering of + > the tank circuit Q factor when larger rolled caps are used in the + > oscillator. I attribute part of this to destructive self-reson- + > ance, but this can be controlled/reduced by operating the + > oscillator at lower frequencies, and maintaining a suitable + > spread between the self-resonate frequency of the cap, and the + > normal operating frequency of the oscillator. The destructive + > interference does not seem to account for the large drop in Q + > factor I read on my scope. + +You are encountering skin effect. At frequencies higher than about 100khz +current flow in a conductor only occurs near the surface thus reducing the +effective cross sectional area and increasing the effective series resistance. +This effect will occur in all parts of your primary tank circuits and in +the secondary coil. The usual method of countering this is to use conductors +with a large surface area for a given cross section. Ie. compare the surface +area per unit length of a flat conductor vs a round conductor of the same +cross sectional area. Other techniques effective at LF include the use of a +multi stranded conductor where each strand is insulated (Litz wire). + +I definately don't proffess any experience in the area of Tesla coils but +hopethat a little cross pollenation with radio theory will help eliminate +some of your problems. + +Bye. + +--- + * Origin: Brett's Point (Co-Sysop of The Beast - 64 7 3575355) +(3:774/600.4) + +====================================================================== + BBS: WELCOM BBS +Date: 19-09-94 (16:12) Number: 12788 +From: RICHARD QUICK Refer#: NONE + To: DON KIMBERLIN Recvd: NO +Subj: Tesla, Col.Sprng Conf: (111) ELECTRONIC +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +RQ>The whole idea of the Colorado Springs Experimental Station +RQ>was to verify Tesla's previously discovered methods of +RQ>transmitting communications and electrical power without +RQ>wires. The system was not designed, built, or operated at as +RQ>radiating transmitter. The Magnifier circuit was operated at +RQ>industrial power levels to perfect a method of wireless +RQ>global transmission thru conduction.... +... +RQ>The high voltage and RF frequencies means that large amounts +RQ>of energy can be conducted freely through low pressure gas +RQ>(a-la waveguide) where there is no radiating wave propagation. + +DK> ...Hmmm...I'm right with you fine up to this point, but it +DK> sure seems that "conduction channel" would have to be focused +DK> toward the ionosphere somehow... + +I am not sure that Tesla was aware of the existance of the +ionosphere, nor that it matters much. Practical lab experiments +of scale test systems can be performed by any coiler worth his +salt. A four inch diameter coil (transmitter) and a six inch +diameter coil (receiver) can be set up in transmitter/receiver +configuration. The four inch coil is heavily top loaded with +capacitive air terminal (toroid) to prevent spark breakout. Top +loading the four inch coil will also reduce to coil resonate +frequency to the point where a frequency match can be made with +the unloaded, or slightly loaded, six inch coil. I connect the +base of the two coils to a common ground, and run an 8 foot long +florescent tube, or two tubes with the ends pressed and taped +together between the two air terminals of the coils. Real power +can be transmitted through the tube. I have no problems pumping +through a killowatt or two. At a threshold voltage, which depends +on gas pressure and composition, the low pressure gas becomes +self ionizing, and conducting. + + DK> ... and I don't know of any focusing devices Tesla used for + DK> that...otherwise, I'm right here with you -- I think... + +I am afraid I cannot give a precise answer to this question of +beam focusing devices. Alas there are acknowledged holes in the +documentation of Tesla's advanced work. Many of these gaps were +deliberate on Tesla's part to throw off the competition. Yet we +get closer and closer every year. Serious study, and experi- +mentation, leads us to bridges over these gaps. In all of the +work I have personally conducted, I have found no flaws in +Tesla's basic logic. + + DK> ...Was the Magnifier a focusing device for the conductive + DK> beam? + +No, the Magnifier is a name for a specific three coil arrangement +which represents a power processing efficiency breakthrough. +Tesla always strove for high efficiency, and the Magnifier gave +it to him in a RF resonate tuned transformer of enormous power. + + + DK> ...But, now that we have it going up, how do we tap into it + DK> to get it down? + +I would have to assume that the receiver plugged in the same way +as the transmitter. + +An interesting thing about this system is that it uses a +resonator for the final stage to deliver the high EMF output. +In the same simplified scale experiment I briefly described +above, the receiving coil is still processing energy even if the +conductive channel (low pressure tube) is not connecting the air +terminals. A "free" (not inductively coupled to the transmitter +system) resonator will pick up and resonate on ground current +alone. No air terminal conductive channel is required for the +system to deliver some considerable energy to the receiver +through ground conduction alone. Enough voltage is present on the +air terminal of the receiving coil to cause it to spark freely, +light bulbs, etc.. I have gotten bulbs to light on a tuned +receiving coil 1/4 mile away from a shielded transmitter. The +input energy to the transmitter was only one killowatt, there was +no raditaion: the "pickup" or receiving coil was connected to +a 50' length of aluminum flashing sunk in creek bottom. There are +some interesting properties to Tesla's open ended resonators. + +It appears that a large scale system would deliver enough energy +from the ground connection alone to open up a conductive channel +to the stratosphere (via X-Ray, UV bulbs on the air terminal of +the receiver). + + +... If all else fails... Throw another Megavolt across it! +--- Blue Wave/RA v2.12 [NR] + * Origin: Cindex Support BBS (314) 837-5422 Florissant, MO. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/satsit09.txt b/textfiles.com/science/satsit09.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..31885101 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/satsit09.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6077 @@ + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT + VOLUME 33, NUMBER 3 + SEPTEMBER 30, 1993 + + + + + + + THIS REPORT CONSISTS OF DATA COMPUTED AT UNITED STATES SPACE + COMMAND, GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER, OR PROVIDED BY SATELLITE + OWNERS. THE REPORT IS COMPILED AND PROVIDED BY: + + + + + + + + + OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT AND SUPPORT SECTION, CODE 513.1 + NASA/GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER + GREENBELT, MARYLAND, U.S.A 20771 + + + + + + + + + + SPACE OBJECTS BOX SCORE + + + SOURCE/ORGANIZATION OBJECTS IN ORBIT DECAYED OBJECTS + + PAYLOAD DEBRIS TOTAL PAYLOAD DEBRIS TOTAL + + ARGNT = ARGENTINA 1 0 1 0 0 0 + ASCO = ARAB SAT. COMM. ORG. 0 0 0 0 0 0 + ASIASA = ASIASAT CORP. 0 0 0 0 0 0 + AUSTRL = AUSTRALIA 6 1 7 1 0 1 + BRAZIL = BRAZIL 4 0 4 0 0 0 + CANADA = CANADA 16 0 16 1 0 1 + CZECH = CZECHOSLOVAKIA 1 0 1 1 0 1 + ESA = EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY 22 137 159 4 446 450 + ESRO = EURO. SPACE RES. ORG. 0 0 0 7 3 10 + FR/FRG = FRANCE/FED. REP. GER. 2 0 2 0 0 0 + FRANCE = FRANCE 23 16 39 7 59 66 + FRG = FEDERAL REPUBLIC GER. 12 2 14 5 5 10 + IMSO = INT. MARIT. SAT. ORG. 3 0 3 0 0 0 + INDIA = INDIA 9 2 11 6 8 14 + INDO = INDONESIA 6 0 6 1 1 2 + ISRAEL = ISRAEL 0 0 0 2 2 4 + ITALY = ITALY 4 0 4 5 0 5 + ITSO = INT. TELEC. SAT. ORG. 43 0 43 1 0 1 + JAPAN = JAPAN 49 51 100 9 72 81 + KOREA = KOREA 2 0 2 0 0 0 + LUXBRG = LUXEMBOURG 3 2 5 0 0 0 + MEXICO = MEXICO 2 0 2 0 0 0 + NATO = NORTH AT. TREATY ORG. 7 2 9 0 0 0 + NETH = NETHERLANDS 0 0 0 1 3 4 + PAKI = PAKISTAN 0 0 0 1 0 1 + PORTUG = PORTUGAL 1 0 1 0 0 0 + PRC = PEOPLES REP. OF CHINA 10 79 89 23 71 94 + SAUDI = SAUDI ARABIA 3 0 3 0 0 0 + SPAIN = SPAIN 3 2 5 0 0 0 + SWEDEN = SWEDEN 3 0 3 0 0 0 + UK = UNITED KINGDOM 16 1 17 8 4 12 + US = UNITED STATES 617 2676 3293 642 2855 3497 + USSR = RUSSIA 1274 2359 3633 1600 9530 11130 + COLUMN 2142 5330 7472 2325 13059 15384 + SUM TOTAL 22856 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + + +1958 LAUNCHES + +BETA 1 16 US 17 MAR 137.7 34.3 4255 654 0.31 +BETA 2 VANGUARD 1 5 US 17 MAR 133.2 34.2 3869 652 0.13 +BETA 3 1576 US 17 MAR 126.7 34.2 3300 655 0.01 + +1959 LAUNCHES + +ALPHA 1 VANGUARD 2 11 US 17 FEB 122.8 32.9 3050 557 0.42 +ALPHA 2 12 US 17 FEB 127.1 32.9 3434 556 0.85 +ALPHA4 14934 US 17 FEB 111.3 32.9 2036 531 0.02 +ETA 1 VANGUARD 3 20 US 18 SEP 126.4 33.3 3413 514 0.82 +IOTA 1 EXPLORER 7 22 US 13 OCT 98.6 50.3 858 523 0.94 +MU 1 LUNA 1 112 USSR 02 JAN HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +NU 1 PIONEER 4 113 US 03 MAR HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT + +1960 LAUNCHES + +ALPHA 1 PIONEER 5 27 US 11 MAR HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +BETA 2 TIROS 1 29 US 01 APR 98.3 48.4 696 656 0.91 +BETA 4 115 US 01 APR 98.4 48.2 717 646 0.07 +ETA 1 TRANSIT 2A 45 US 22 JUN 100.8 66.7 995 598 0.70 +ETA 2 GREB 46 US 22 JUN 100.2 66.7 939 592 0.40 +ETA 3 47 US 22 JUN 100.4 66.7 958 592 4.75 +ETA 4 840 US 22 JUN 97.9 66.7 759 551 0.03 +ETA 5 841 US 22 JUN 97.7 66.7 748 546 0.04 +IOTA 2 50 US 12 AUG 118.1 47.2 1684 1503 0.67 +IOTA 3 51 US 12 AUG 118.2 47.2 1685 1518 1.06 +IOTA 4 52 US 12 AUG NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +IOTA 5 53 US 12 AUG 118.4 47.3 1687 1528 0.00 +NU 1 COURIER 1B 58 US 04 OCT 107.1 28.3 1214 967 1.30 +NU 2 59 US 04 OCT 106.6 28.2 1208 926 4.52 +PI 1 TIROS 2 63 US 23 NOV 96.3 48.5 611 548 0.00 +PI 5 5922 US 23 NOV 105.2 47.0 1035 974 0.01 +XI 1 EXPLORER 8 60 US 03 NOV 102.3 49.9 1338 395 0.27 + +1961 LAUNCHES + +A DELTA 1 MIDAS 4 192 US 21 OCT 165.9 95.8 3763 3482 10.93 +A DELTA 3 194 US 21 OCT 165.5 95.8 3867 3345 0.65 +A DELTA 4 195 US 21 OCT 166.3 95.9 3862 3416 0.62 +A DELTA 5 2009 US 21 OCT 165.7 95.8 3733 3493 0.23 +A DELTA 6 2371 US 21 OCT 165.3 95.9 4626 2572 0.09 +A ETA 1 TRANSIT 4B 202 US 15 NOV 105.7 32.4 1104 953 2.11 +A ETA 2 TRAAC 205 US 15 NOV 105.8 32.4 1107 956 0.81 +A ETA 3 204 US 15 NOV 105.6 32.4 1097 950 4.38 +A ETA 4 10796 US 15 NOV 105.8 32.4 1106 955 0.11 +DELTA 2 82 US 16 FEB 117.8 38.9 2528 639 0.56 +DELTA 3 85 US 16 FEB 108.4 38.8 1726 579 0.06 +DELTA 6 3927 US 16 FEB 109.7 38.9 1826 597 0.07 +DELTA 7 4026 US 16 FEB 110.1 38.8 1870 595 0.09 + + + 1 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +GAMMA 1 VENERA 1 80 USSR 12 FEB HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +NU 1 EXPLORER 11 107 US 27 APR 104.5 28.8 1460 479 0.69 +NU 2 3739 US 27 APR 90.6 28.8 334 273 0.26 +OMICRON 1 TRANSIT 4A 116 US 29 JUN 103.5 66.8 981 871 2.33 +OMICRON 2 INJUN-SR-3 117 US 29 JUN 103.6 66.8 986 875 0.69 +OMICRON 3 TO 297 US 29 JUN SEE NOTE 3* 3* +RHO 1 TIROS 3 162 US 12 JUL 100.0 47.9 790 724 0.26 +RHO 2 165 US 12 JUL 98.1 47.9 685 646 0.67 +RHO 3 166 US 12 JUL 90.3 47.9 294 282 0.05 +RHO 4 167 US 12 JUL 101.5 47.9 900 758 0.08 +SIGMA 1 MIDAS 3 163 US 12 JUL 161.4 91.2 3539 3344 0.00 +SIGMA 3 188 US 12 JUL 161.1 91.2 3546 3309 0.00 +SIGMA 4 196 US 12 JUL 161.8 91.2 3558 3358 0.52 + +1962 LAUNCHES + +A ALPHA 1 TIROS 5 309 US 19 JUN 99.4 58.1 888 573 0.43 +A ALPHA 3 312 US 19 JUN 100.0 58.2 946 574 0.08 +A ALPHA 4 313 US 19 JUN 90.1 58.0 291 269 0.00 +A ALPHA 5 6251 US 19 JUN 97.2 58.1 717 527 0.00 +A EPSILON 1 TELSTAR 1 340 US 10 JUL 157.8 44.8 5644 945 0.39 +A EPSILON 2 341 US 10 JUL 157.6 44.8 5625 947 0.42 +A OMICRON 1 369 US 23 AUG 98.1 98.5 752 579 0.47 +A OMICRON 4 388 US 23 AUG 94.7 98.6 534 472 0.26 +A PSI 1 TIROS 6 397 US 18 SEP 97.6 58.3 652 634 1.17 +A PSI 3 399 US 18 SEP 97.4 58.4 652 611 0.08 +A PSI 5 19436 US 18 SEP 90.9 58.3 326 313 0.00 +A RHO 1 MARINER 2 374 US 27 AUG HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +A RHO 2 375 US 27 AUG HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +ALPHA 1 RANGER 3 221 US 26 JAN HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +ALPHA 2 222 US 26 JAN HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +B ALPHA 1 ALOUETTE 1 424 CANADA 29 SEP 105.2 80.5 1022 986 0.43 +B ALPHA 2 426 US 29 SEP 105.2 80.5 1019 991 6.83 +B ALPHA 3 510 US 29 SEP 105.2 80.5 1014 989 0.01 +B ALPHA 4 511 US 29 SEP 105.3 80.4 1030 982 0.01 +B CHI 1 EXPLORER 16 506 US 16 DEC 104.1 52.0 1159 745 1.37 +B ETA 1 RANGER 5 439 US 18 OCT HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +B ETA 2 440 US 18 OCT HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +B MU 1 ANNA 1B 446 US 31 OCT 107.9 50.1 1181 1075 1.30 +B MU 2 447 US 31 OCT 107.6 50.1 1164 1065 9.32 +B NU 3 450 USSR 01 NOV HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +B UPSILON 1 RELAY 1 503 US 13 DEC 185.1 47.5 7440 1319 0.00 +B UPSILON 2 515 US 13 DEC 184.8 47.5 7419 1321 0.43 +BETA 1 TIROS 4 226 US 08 FEB 99.9 48.3 812 693 1.03 +BETA 2 227 US 08 FEB 100.6 48.2 888 682 0.08 +BETA 3 228 US 08 FEB 97.8 48.4 672 635 0.00 +BETA 4 229 US 08 FEB 97.3 48.3 660 601 0.58 +KAPPA 1 271 US 09 APR 152.9 86.7 3405 2783 15.32 +KAPPA 3 273 US 09 APR 152.5 86.7 3360 2796 0.46 +KAPPA 4 274 US 09 APR 153.3 86.6 3445 2771 0.64 +KAPPA 7 18603 US 26 OCT 153.0 86.7 3412 2783 0.34 +KAPPA 8 19981 US 26 OCT 152.7 86.7 3381 2791 0.04 + + + 2 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +MU 2 282 US 23 APR HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT + +1963 LAUNCHES + +1963-004A SYNCOM 1 553 US 14 FEB NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1963-008B LUNA 4 566 USSR 02 APR BARYOCENTRIC ORBIT +1963-013A TELSTAR 2 573 US 07 MAY 225.3 42.8 10806 968 0.10 +1963-013B 575 US 07 MAY 225.0 42.8 10785 967 0.50 +1963-014A 574 US 09 MAY 166.4 87.3 3677 3606 13.69 +1963-014B ERS 5 579 US 09 MAY 165.0 87.2 4917 2254 0.34 +1963-014C ERS 6 608 US 09 MAY 166.4 87.3 3700 3582 0.65 +1963-014D TO 014FH US 09 MAY SEE NOTE 4* 4* +1963-022B 603 US 16 JUN 95.7 89.9 557 551 0.67 +1963-024A TIROS 7 604 US 19 JUN 91.9 58.2 373 359 1.23 +1963-025B 614 US 27 JUN 114.2 82.1 2514 324 0.11 +1963-030A ERS 10 622 US 18 JUL 167.8 88.4 3725 3672 9.13 +1963-030B ERS 9 635 US 18 JUL 167.8 88.5 3736 3661 0.56 +1963-030C 630 US 18 JUL 167.4 88.5 3759 3609 0.92 +1963-030E 631 US 18 JUL 168.2 88.5 3816 3614 0.53 +1963-030F 3121 US 18 JUL 167.8 88.5 3729 3668 0.08 +1963-030G 3132 US 18 JUL 167.8 88.4 3769 3629 0.09 +1963-030H 20153 US 18 JUL 162.1 88.7 5768 1168 0.00 +1963-031A SYNCOM 2 634 US 26 JUL NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1963-038A 669 US 28 SEP 107.0 90.0 1104 1067 4.62 +1963-038B 670 US 28 SEP 107.1 90.0 1125 1062 0.80 +1963-038C SN 39 671 US 28 SEP 107.1 90.0 1123 1061 4.95 +1963-038D 672 US 28 SEP 106.2 90.0 1079 1017 0.01 +1963-038E 745 US 28 SEP 106.5 90.0 1085 1047 0.01 +1963-038F 2097 US 28 SEP 106.2 90.0 1084 1019 0.04 +1963-038G 3166 US 28 SEP 107.1 90.0 1124 1062 0.04 +1963-038J 12943 US 28 SEP 104.6 89.9 1072 878 0.05 +1963-038K 20470 US 28 SEP 105.8 90.0 1046 1019 0.01 +1963-039A 674 US 17 OCT NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1963-039C 692 US 17 OCT NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1963-047A CENTAUR 2 694 US 27 NOV 104.6 30.4 1479 470 11.35 +1963-047D 698 US 27 NOV 106.2 29.9 1492 607 0.38 +1963-047F 700 US 27 NOV 108.0 30.5 1691 576 0.65 +1963-047G 701 US 27 NOV 105.8 30.0 1462 598 0.69 +1963-047H 739 US 27 NOV 104.8 30.4 1486 486 0.32 +1963-047K 2886 US 27 NOV 108.6 29.9 1652 668 0.02 +1963-047L 3741 US 27 NOV 104.8 29.9 1341 627 0.11 +1963-047Q 14528 US 27 NOV 105.8 29.6 1408 659 0.06 +1963-047T 19106 US 27 NOV 104.0 30.5 1253 642 0.01 +1963-049A 703 US 05 DEC 106.7 90.1 1082 1061 3.88 +1963-049B 704 US 05 DEC 106.9 90.1 1111 1056 2.10 +1963-049C 705 US 05 DEC 106.9 90.1 1109 1055 2.86 +1963-049D 706 US 05 DEC 106.5 90.1 1085 1042 0.01 +1963-049E 715 US 05 DEC 105.8 90.1 1047 1011 0.18 +1963-049F 753 US 05 DEC 106.6 90.1 1094 1041 0.10 +1963-049G 2432 US 05 DEC 106.9 90.1 1109 1054 0.25 +1963-049H 2620 US 05 DEC 106.2 90.1 1063 1040 0.08 +1963-053B 721 US 19 DEC 115.2 78.6 2329 597 0.27 + + + 3 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1963-053C 722 US 19 DEC 110.0 78.6 1823 634 0.08 +1963-053E 724 US 19 DEC 108.2 78.6 1681 608 0.02 +1963-053G 726 US 19 DEC 105.7 78.5 1466 587 0.07 +1963-053H 732 US 19 DEC 109.6 78.6 1790 628 0.10 +1963-053J 3750 US 19 DEC 107.8 78.6 1623 624 0.06 +1963-053K 17665 US 19 DEC 110.6 78.7 1865 645 0.05 +1963-054A TIROS 8 716 US 21 DEC 98.5 58.5 709 663 0.88 +1963-054C 720 US 21 DEC 100.1 58.5 850 673 0.01 +1963-054E 19396 US 21 DEC 98.0 58.5 696 634 0.01 + +1964 LAUNCHES + +1964-001A 727 US 11 JAN 103.2 69.9 924 899 10.24 +1964-001B GRAVITY GRADIENT 1 728 US 11 JAN 103.2 69.9 919 895 0.35 +1964-001C SECOR (EGRS) 1 729 US 11 JAN 103.3 69.9 924 900 0.35 +1964-001D SOLRAD 7A 730 US 11 JAN 103.2 69.9 923 899 0.47 +1964-001E GREB 731 US 11 JAN 103.2 69.9 922 898 0.61 +1964-002A 733 US 19 JAN 100.7 99.0 819 767 0.00 +1964-002B 734 US 19 JAN 100.9 99.0 811 789 0.33 +1964-002C 735 US 19 JAN 100.9 99.0 815 791 0.42 +1964-003A RELAY 2 737 US 21 JAN 194.7 46.4 7541 1960 1.11 +1964-003B 738 US 21 JAN 194.8 46.4 7547 1959 0.54 +1964-004B 741 US 25 JAN 108.8 81.5 1300 1039 6.24 +1964-004C 742 US 25 JAN 108.6 81.5 1294 1032 1.24 +1964-004D 743 US 25 JAN 108.6 81.5 1295 1028 0.96 +1964-006A ELEKTRON 1 746 USSR 30 JAN 162.7 60.8 6585 401 4.32 +1964-006B ELEKTRON 2 748 USSR 30 JAN 1356.4 60.4 62408 6015 0.00 +1964-006C TO 006AE USSR 30 JAN SEE NOTE 5* 5* +1964-006J 16545 USSR 30 JAN 114.5 60.7 2495 372 0.01 +1964-006L 16547 USSR 30 JAN 113.9 60.7 2442 371 0.01 +1964-016D ZOND 1 785 USSR 02 APR HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1964-026A 801 US 04 JUN 102.2 90.5 898 826 2.02 +1964-026B 805 US 04 JUN 102.1 89.9 883 827 0.05 +1964-026C 806 US 04 JUN 98.9 90.8 744 663 0.04 +1964-026D 809 US 04 JUN 102.5 90.5 910 842 0.38 +1964-026E 2986 US 04 JUN 102.6 90.5 923 839 0.02 +1964-031A 812 US 18 JUN 101.2 99.8 820 812 0.42 +1964-031B 813 US 18 JUN 101.3 99.8 822 814 0.00 +1964-031C 815 US 18 JUN 101.1 99.8 817 799 3.91 +1964-038A ELEKTRON 3 829 USSR 10 JUL 161.0 60.8 6454 399 4.20 +1964-038C 831 USSR 10 JUL 137.5 60.8 4509 387 0.08 +1964-040A 836 US 17 JUL NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1964-040B 837 US 17 JUL NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1964-041B 843 US 28 JUL BARYOCENTRIC ORBIT +1964-047A SYNCOM 3 858 US 19 AUG NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1964-047B 862 US 19 AUG 702.4 15.6 38461 1129 0.66 +1964-049D COSMOS 41 869 USSR 22 AUG 714.5 68.7 39069 1121 1.00 +1964-049E 898 USSR 22 AUG 716.7 68.7 39172 1128 0.00 +1964-049F 13091 USSR 22 AUG 716.2 68.1 39536 739 0.31 +1964-051A EXPLORER 20 870 US 25 AUG 103.6 79.9 1000 855 0.58 +1964-051B 871 US 25 AUG 103.2 79.9 975 843 1.64 +1964-053A COSMOS 44 876 USSR 28 AUG 98.7 65.1 813 578 7.27 + + + 4 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1964-053B 877 USSR 28 AUG 99.0 65.1 771 646 4.30 +1964-053C 21126 USSR 28 AUG 98.9 65.1 766 643 0.02 +1964-054A OGO 1 879 US 05 SEP NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1964-063A NNSS 30010 893 US 06 OCT 106.2 90.1 1066 1031 4.44 +1964-063B 897 US 06 OCT 106.4 90.1 1073 1046 0.45 +1964-063C 900 US 06 OCT 105.5 90.1 1036 996 0.04 +1964-063D 901 US 06 OCT 106.4 90.1 1070 1045 1.11 +1964-063E 902 US 06 OCT 106.4 90.1 1075 1048 0.04 +1964-063F 903 US 06 OCT 105.3 90.1 1028 992 0.07 +1964-063G 18496 US 06 OCT 104.2 90.1 994 917 0.04 +1964-064A EXPLORER 22 899 US 10 OCT 104.3 79.7 1052 873 3.29 +1964-064B 907 US 10 OCT 104.4 79.7 1056 876 1.07 +1964-064C 976 US 10 OCT 103.0 79.3 996 806 0.06 +1964-064D 977 US 10 OCT 104.8 80.0 1084 888 0.01 +1964-073A MARINER 3 923 US 05 NOV HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1964-076B EXPLORER 25 932 US 21 NOV 114.6 81.4 2350 523 0.53 +1964-076C 933 US 21 NOV 113.9 81.3 2282 523 0.94 +1964-077A MARINER 4 938 US 28 NOV HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1964-077B 942 US 28 NOV HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1964-078C ZOND 2 945 USSR 30 NOV HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1964-083A NNSS 30020 953 US 13 DEC 106.0 89.8 1063 1016 0.00 +1964-083B 956 US 13 DEC 105.7 89.8 1054 998 0.06 +1964-083C 959 US 13 DEC 105.9 89.8 1064 1007 2.08 +1964-083D 965 US 13 DEC 106.1 89.7 1076 1018 2.59 +1964-083F 967 US 13 DEC 105.7 89.7 1055 997 0.06 +1964-083G 1099 US 13 DEC 105.9 89.7 1064 1007 0.65 +1964-083J 1608 US 13 DEC 105.0 89.7 1021 970 0.00 +1964-086A EXPLORER 26 963 US 21 DEC 206.4 19.8 10086 293 0.00 + +1965 LAUNCHES + +1965-004A TIROS 9 978 US 22 JAN 118.9 96.4 2563 702 0.00 +1965-004B 979 US 22 JAN 118.7 96.4 2545 701 0.57 +1965-004C 1312 US 22 JAN 117.5 96.4 2466 669 0.03 +1965-004D 1313 US 22 JAN 120.0 96.4 2636 728 0.00 +1965-008A 1001 US 11 FEB 145.4 32.1 2796 2766 11.60 +1965-008B 1000 US 11 FEB 145.7 32.1 2801 2784 3.55 +1965-008C 1002 US 11 FEB 145.8 32.1 2809 2783 0.66 +1965-010B 1087 US 17 FEB BARYOCENTRIC ORBIT +1965-016A GREB 1271 US 09 MAR 103.2 70.1 928 892 0.74 +1965-016B GRAVITY GRADIENT 2 1244 US 09 MAR 103.2 70.1 929 895 0.51 +1965-016C GRAVITY GRADIENT 3 1292 US 09 MAR 103.0 70.1 918 884 1.08 +1965-016D SOLRAD 7B 1291 US 09 MAR 103.3 70.1 931 897 0.47 +1965-016E SECOR (EGRS) 3 1208 US 09 MAR 103.2 70.1 928 895 0.28 +1965-016F OSCAR 3 1293 US 09 MAR 102.8 70.1 904 873 0.00 +1965-016H SURCAL 1272 US 09 MAR 103.3 70.1 933 897 0.41 +1965-016J 1245 US 09 MAR 103.2 70.1 925 890 3.84 +1965-016K 12099 US 09 MAR 102.9 70.1 914 881 0.08 +1965-020E 1335 USSR 15 MAR 106.0 56.1 1493 588 1.07 +1965-020S 1347 USSR 15 MAR 101.4 56.0 1126 520 0.24 +1965-020AC 1370 USSR 15 MAR 101.9 56.1 1177 519 0.13 +1965-020AH 1392 USSR 15 MAR 104.2 55.9 1396 520 0.60 + + + 5 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1965-020BB 1477 USSR 15 MAR 111.8 55.5 1791 829 0.17 +1965-020BC 1478 USSR 15 MAR 109.5 56.1 1789 619 0.19 +1965-020BD 1479 USSR 15 MAR 114.8 56.0 2086 805 0.12 +1965-020BE 1480 USSR 15 MAR 114.5 56.1 2123 744 0.09 +1965-020BV 1495 USSR 15 MAR 102.9 55.6 1185 604 0.04 +1965-020CV 1549 USSR 15 MAR 114.4 56.2 2095 762 0.24 +1965-020ED 1634 USSR 15 MAR 115.7 56.2 2176 801 0.02 +1965-020EH 2334 USSR 15 MAR 110.6 55.7 1728 783 0.13 +1965-020EM 2934 USSR 15 MAR 115.4 55.6 1753 1191 0.04 +1965-020EN 3038 USSR 15 MAR 107.7 56.3 1654 589 0.00 +1965-020ER 3708 USSR 15 MAR 102.5 56.3 1150 599 0.00 +1965-020ES 3743 USSR 15 MAR 118.1 56.7 1803 1387 0.03 +1965-020ET 3745 USSR 15 MAR 115.3 56.0 1587 1347 0.03 +1965-020EU 3749 USSR 15 MAR 107.2 56.1 1581 608 0.04 +1965-020EV 3931 USSR 15 MAR 116.6 56.1 1693 1362 0.05 +1965-020EY 3965 USSR 15 MAR 117.7 56.3 1789 1368 0.10 +1965-020FD 6252 USSR 15 MAR 117.1 56.0 1696 1405 0.02 +1965-020FF 13517 USSR 15 MAR 109.2 55.6 1654 725 0.02 +1965-023B 1298 US 21 MAR HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1965-027A 1314 US 03 APR 111.4 90.3 1316 1268 14.48 +1965-027B SECOR (EGRS) 4 1315 US 03 APR 111.4 90.3 1314 1263 0.22 +1965-027C TO 027BD US 03 APR SEE NOTE 6* 6* +1965-028A EARLY BIRD 1317 ITSO 06 APR 1437.3 14.6 35842 35775 0.14 +1965-028B 1318 US 06 APR 680.0 18.2 37021 1453 0.00 +1965-032A EXPLORER 27 1328 US 29 APR 107.7 41.2 1309 932 2.98 +1965-032B 1358 US 29 APR 107.7 41.2 1310 934 0.52 +1965-032D 2011 US 29 APR 108.2 41.2 1282 1008 0.05 +1965-034A 1359 US 06 MAY 157.1 32.1 3746 2784 22.24 +1965-034B 1360 US 06 MAY 309.9 32.2 14806 2774 0.30 +1965-034C 1361 US 06 MAY 145.6 32.1 2796 2785 0.83 +1965-034D 2529 US 06 MAY 309.9 32.1 14791 2788 0.30 +1965-038A 1377 US 20 MAY 97.1 98.1 731 504 0.71 +1965-038B 1378 US 20 MAY 93.1 97.9 458 391 0.91 +1965-044A LUNA 6 1393 USSR 08 JUN HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1965-048A NNSS 30040 1420 US 24 JUN 106.6 90.1 1126 1013 2.49 +1965-048B 1428 US 24 JUN 106.4 90.1 1104 1020 0.00 +1965-048C 1425 US 24 JUN 106.7 90.1 1131 1019 0.28 +1965-048D 1435 US 24 JUN 105.8 90.1 1079 981 0.01 +1965-048E 2701 US 24 JUN 106.0 90.1 1083 995 0.04 +1965-048F 3592 US 24 JUN 106.0 90.1 1085 999 0.07 +1965-048G 21945 US 24 JUN 105.3 90.1 1093 925 0.01 +1965-051A TIROS 10 1430 US 02 JUL 100.1 98.8 806 722 0.85 +1965-051B 1433 US 02 JUL 99.5 98.7 771 698 0.70 +1965-051C 1440 US 02 JUL 93.1 98.6 442 407 0.06 +1965-051D 1529 US 02 JUL 101.4 99.0 854 799 0.06 +1965-056A ZOND 3 1454 USSR 18 JUL HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1965-058A 1458 US 20 JUL NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1965-058B 1459 US 20 JUL NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1965-063A SECOR (EGRS) 5 1506 US 10 AUG 122.2 69.2 2420 1133 0.48 +1965-063B 1502 US 10 AUG 122.2 69.2 2419 1135 0.62 +1965-064A CENTAUR 6 1503 US 11 AUG BARYOCENTRIC ORBIT +1965-065A NNSS 30050 1504 US 13 AUG 107.7 90.0 1168 1068 0.05 + + + 6 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1965-065B 1508 US 13 AUG 107.5 89.8 1142 1080 0.08 +1965-065C 1510 US 13 AUG 105.5 90.0 1051 980 2.62 +1965-065D 1511 US 13 AUG 107.9 90.0 1183 1079 1.02 +1965-065E 1512 US 13 AUG 108.0 90.0 1185 1080 0.09 +1965-065F 1514 US 13 AUG 107.9 90.0 1182 1077 2.29 +1965-065G 1515 US 13 AUG 107.2 90.0 1146 1045 0.08 +1965-065H 1520 US 13 AUG 107.9 90.1 1179 1075 0.04 +1965-065J 1521 US 13 AUG 108.0 90.0 1186 1080 0.08 +1965-065K 1577 US 13 AUG 107.9 90.0 1178 1076 0.44 +1965-065L 1522 US 13 AUG 108.0 90.0 1186 1079 0.54 +1965-065P 3810 US 13 AUG 107.2 90.0 1146 1045 0.01 +1965-065Q 5265 US 13 AUG 107.8 89.8 1153 1092 6.93 +1965-070A COSMOS 80 1570 USSR 03 SEP 115.0 56.1 1537 1368 0.09 +1965-070B COSMOS 81 1571 USSR 03 SEP 115.3 56.1 1543 1395 0.53 +1965-070C COSMOS 82 1572 USSR 03 SEP 115.7 56.1 1552 1418 0.44 +1965-070D COSMOS 83 1573 USSR 03 SEP 116.0 56.0 1561 1443 0.48 +1965-070E COSMOS 84 1574 USSR 03 SEP 116.4 56.0 1569 1469 0.73 +1965-070F 1575 USSR 03 SEP 114.6 56.1 1517 1354 13.69 +1965-070G 3045 USSR 03 SEP 115.8 55.5 1726 1260 0.04 +1965-072A 1580 US 10 SEP 101.2 98.5 994 634 0.19 +1965-072D 1583 US 10 SEP 100.1 98.5 909 615 0.79 +1965-072E 1931 US 10 SEP 101.6 99.0 1046 624 0.11 +1965-072F 1932 US 10 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USSR 20 OCT SEE NOTE 9* 9* +1968-092A 3510 US 23 OCT 101.0 98.7 828 784 0.26 +1968-092B 3522 US 23 OCT 100.9 98.8 822 779 2.64 +1968-097A COSMOS 252 3530 USSR 01 NOV 112.0 62.3 2109 530 3.66 +1968-097B TO 097EU USSR 01 NOV SEE NOTE 10* 10* +1968-100A PIONEER 9 3533 US 08 NOV HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1968-106A COSMOS 256 3576 USSR 30 NOV 109.3 74.0 1221 1169 2.72 +1968-106B 3577 USSR 30 NOV 109.2 74.0 1215 1162 6.42 +1968-110A OAO-A2 3597 US 07 DEC 99.9 35.0 758 749 2.29 +1968-110B 3598 US 07 DEC 99.6 35.0 776 698 0.00 +1968-112B 3605 US 12 DEC 114.3 80.4 1464 1380 0.48 +1968-112C 3617 US 12 DEC 114.0 80.2 1444 1372 0.07 +1968-112D 3618 US 12 DEC 114.7 80.5 1506 1373 0.10 +1968-112E 3840 US 12 DEC 114.4 80.6 1454 1401 0.08 +1968-114A ESSA 8 3615 US 15 DEC 114.6 101.8 1461 1411 0.88 +1968-114B 3616 US 15 DEC 115.0 101.8 1469 1444 2.11 +1968-114C 3811 US 15 DEC 112.8 101.9 1462 1248 0.03 +1968-114D 3812 US 15 DEC 116.3 102.4 1571 1458 0.09 + + + 13 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL 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1176 4.76 +1969-024B 3819 USSR 17 MAR 109.1 74.0 1193 1178 9.02 +1969-024C 6289 USSR 17 MAR 108.8 74.0 1178 1163 0.17 +1969-025C OV1-19 3825 US 18 MAR 151.4 104.7 5584 482 0.38 +1969-025E 3827 US 18 MAR 150.3 104.7 5486 485 1.88 +1969-029A METEOR 3835 USSR 26 MAR 95.9 81.2 577 549 8.78 +1969-030A MARINER 7 3837 US 27 MAR HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1969-030B 3845 US 27 MAR HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1969-036A 3889 US 13 APR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1969-037A NIMBUS 3 3890 US 14 APR 107.2 100.0 1128 1068 5.61 +1969-037B SECOR (EGRS) 13 3891 US 14 APR 107.2 100.0 1127 1067 0.25 +1969-037C 3892 US 14 APR 107.3 100.0 1131 1072 5.14 +1969-043B 3943 US 18 MAY HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1969-043C LM/DESCENT 3948 US 18 MAY SELENOCENTRIC ORBIT +1969-043D LM/ASCENT 3949 US 18 MAY HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1969-045A INTELSAT 3 F-4 3947 ITSO 22 MAY NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1969-046A OV5-5/ERS-29 3950 US 23 MAY NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1969-046B OV5-6 3951 US 23 MAY NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1969-046C OV5-9 3952 US 23 MAY NO CURRENT 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103.2 70.0 928 895 0.34 +1969-082D 4259 US 30 SEP 103.3 70.0 930 896 1.36 +1969-082E 4237 US 30 SEP 103.3 70.0 928 896 1.38 +1969-082F 4247 US 30 SEP 103.2 70.0 928 895 1.64 +1969-082G 4295 US 30 SEP 103.3 70.0 929 896 0.45 +1969-082H 4168 US 30 SEP 103.2 70.0 927 896 0.00 +1969-082J 4166 US 30 SEP 100.9 70.0 811 794 0.28 +1969-082K 4132 US 30 SEP 102.1 70.0 867 848 0.36 +1969-082L TO 082LF US 30 SEP SEE NOTE 11* 11* +1969-082LF 19581 US 30 SEP 99.4 70.1 763 699 0.01 +1969-084A METEOR 4119 USSR 06 OCT 95.3 81.2 553 514 7.21 +1969-084B 4120 USSR 06 OCT 93.8 81.2 495 424 16.18 +1969-091A COSMOS 304 4138 USSR 21 OCT 99.6 74.0 750 730 3.41 +1969-091B 4139 USSR 21 OCT 98.9 74.0 711 701 20.74 +1969-097A GRS-A/AZUR 4221 FRG 08 NOV 110.6 102.7 2133 373 0.68 +1969-097B 4222 US 08 NOV 100.0 102.8 1171 347 0.82 +1969-099B 4226 US 14 NOV NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1969-101A SKYNET A 4250 UK 22 NOV 1436.1 13.8 35892 35682 1.20 +1969-101B 4251 US 22 NOV NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1969-103A COSMOS 312 4254 USSR 24 NOV 108.5 74.0 1173 1139 5.53 +1969-103B 4255 USSR 24 NOV 108.3 74.0 1155 1139 8.32 + +1970 LAUNCHES + +1970-003A INTELSAT 3 F-6 4297 ITSO 15 JAN NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1970-003B 4298 US 15 JAN 519.9 28.1 29762 317 0.10 +1970-008A ITOS 1 4320 US 23 JAN 115.0 101.3 1476 1431 6.22 +1970-008B OSCAR 5 4321 AUSTRL 23 JAN 115.0 101.4 1475 1432 0.48 +1970-008C 4322 US 23 JAN 115.0 101.4 1476 1432 7.07 +1970-009A SERT 2 4327 US 04 FEB 106.0 99.2 1044 1038 7.96 +1970-011A OHSUMI 4330 JAPAN 11 FEB 113.7 31.0 2470 324 0.35 +1970-012A 4331 US 11 FEB 100.8 98.9 839 750 1.18 +1970-012B 4332 US 11 FEB 100.8 98.9 843 752 3.15 +1970-021A NATO 1 4353 NATO 20 MAR 1436.0 13.2 35804 35764 0.30 +1970-021B 4354 US 20 MAR 517.5 25.3 29637 306 0.10 +1970-021C 5975 US 20 MAR 536.2 25.3 30671 295 0.10 +1970-025A NIMBUS 4 4362 US 08 APR 107.1 99.9 1096 1086 6.02 +1970-025B TOPO 1 4363 US 08 APR 106.9 99.8 1084 1081 0.00 +1970-025C TO 025QP US 08 APR SEE NOTE 12* 12* +1970-028A COSMOS 332 4369 USSR 11 APR 99.4 74.0 736 727 4.84 +1970-028B 4370 USSR 11 APR 99.1 74.0 728 701 7.40 +1970-028C 14814 USSR 11 APR 98.3 74.0 684 672 0.02 +1970-032A INTELSAT 3 F-7 4376 ITSO 23 APR NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1970-032B 4377 US 23 APR NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1970-034A MAO 1 4382 PRC 24 APR 111.6 68.4 2161 436 1.09 +1970-034B 4392 PRC 24 APR 100.1 68.4 1121 402 5.27 +1970-036A COSMOS 336 4383 USSR 25 APR 115.4 74.0 1484 1461 0.86 +1970-036B COSMOS 337 4384 USSR 25 APR 116.2 74.0 1550 1465 0.81 +1970-036C COSMOS 338 4385 USSR 25 APR 115.8 74.0 1516 1465 0.76 +1970-036D COSMOS 339 4386 USSR 25 APR 115.0 74.0 1467 1443 0.65 +1970-036E COSMOS 340 4387 USSR 25 APR 114.6 74.0 1467 1406 0.19 +1970-036F COSMOS 341 4388 USSR 25 APR 113.9 74.0 1467 1340 0.00 + + + 15 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1970-036G COSMOS 342 4389 USSR 25 APR 113.5 74.0 1465 1309 0.83 +1970-036H COSMOS 343 4390 USSR 25 APR 114.2 74.0 1466 1372 0.69 +1970-036J 4391 USSR 25 APR 116.6 74.0 1586 1466 8.09 +1970-037A METEOR 4393 USSR 28 APR 95.8 81.2 579 535 3.28 +1970-037B 4394 USSR 28 APR 96.5 81.2 661 524 8.35 +1970-046A 4418 US 19 JUN NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1970-046B 4511 US 19 JUN NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1970-047A METEOR 4419 USSR 23 JUN 101.8 81.2 872 815 4.60 +1970-047B 4420 USSR 23 JUN 102.0 81.2 919 790 8.79 +1970-055A INTELSAT 3 F-8 4478 ITSO 23 JUL 1408.2 14.0 36624 33852 1.50 +1970-055B 4486 US 23 JUL NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1970-062A SKYNET B 4493 UK 19 AUG NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1970-067A NNSS 30190 4507 US 27 AUG 106.7 90.0 1204 942 3.36 +1970-067B 4515 US 27 AUG 106.8 90.0 1208 944 0.88 +1970-067C 5036 US 27 AUG 102.7 90.1 904 872 0.05 +1970-067D 5447 US 27 AUG 109.1 90.0 1427 943 0.05 +1970-069A 4510 US 01 SEP NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1970-070A 4512 US 03 SEP 100.6 98.9 837 738 1.39 +1970-070B 4513 US 03 SEP 100.7 99.0 843 741 0.00 +1970-079A COSMOS 367 4564 USSR 03 OCT 104.5 65.3 1017 920 1.29 +1970-083A COSMOS 371 4578 USSR 12 OCT 99.3 74.0 727 724 0.00 +1970-083B 4579 USSR 12 OCT 99.0 74.0 720 703 6.66 +1970-085A METEOR 4583 USSR 15 OCT 93.5 81.2 449 445 1.80 +1970-085B 4584 USSR 15 OCT 94.5 81.2 536 452 9.06 +1970-086A COSMOS 372 4588 USSR 16 OCT 100.4 74.1 786 768 1.82 +1970-086B 4589 USSR 16 OCT 100.1 74.1 781 749 8.22 +1970-086C 5357 USSR 16 OCT 98.2 74.0 675 668 0.01 +1970-086D 5358 USSR 16 OCT 99.1 74.0 718 709 0.00 +1970-089A COSMOS 374 4594 USSR 23 OCT 106.7 63.0 1648 500 0.10 +1970-089B TO 089DG USSR 23 OCT SEE NOTE 13* 13* +1970-091A COSMOS 375 4598 USSR 30 OCT 111.3 62.8 1995 577 6.99 +1970-091B TO 091AX USSR 30 OCT SEE NOTE 14* 14* +1970-093A 4630 US 06 NOV 1197.9 16.4 36115 25853 0.70 +1970-093B 4632 US 06 NOV 1197.7 16.4 36157 25805 1.50 +1970-102A COSMOS 381 4783 USSR 02 DEC 104.8 74.0 1005 960 0.00 +1970-102B 4784 USSR 02 DEC 104.6 74.0 996 958 9.06 +1970-102D 5225 USSR 02 DEC 104.0 74.0 960 932 0.03 +1970-102E 8764 USSR 02 DEC 104.2 74.0 973 937 0.03 +1970-102F 9794 USSR 02 DEC 98.1 74.0 679 660 0.04 +1970-103A COSMOS 382 4786 USSR 02 DEC 171.0 55.9 5269 2385 28.34 +1970-103B 4789 USSR 02 DEC 158.8 51.6 5083 1589 0.80 +1970-103C 4790 USSR 02 DEC 159.1 51.6 5086 1611 0.72 +1970-103G 12854 USSR 02 DEC 144.9 50.6 3540 1981 0.35 +1970-106A NOAA 1 4793 US 11 DEC 114.8 101.3 1471 1421 4.55 +1970-106B 4794 US 11 DEC 114.9 101.3 1478 1420 7.28 +1970-106C 8828 US 11 DEC 116.3 102.4 1539 1493 0.01 +1970-108A COSMOS 385 4799 USSR 12 DEC 104.6 74.0 978 972 4.41 +1970-108B 4800 USSR 12 DEC 104.5 74.0 976 961 6.95 +1970-109B 4802 FRANCE 12 DEC 96.1 15.0 595 545 1.43 +1970-113A COSMOS 389 4813 USSR 18 DEC 95.8 81.2 569 544 0.00 +1970-113B 4814 USSR 18 DEC 96.4 81.2 629 545 12.10 + + + + 16 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + + +1971 LAUNCHES + +1971-003A METEOR 4849 USSR 20 JAN 95.6 81.2 551 538 7.71 +1971-003B 4850 USSR 20 JAN 95.3 81.2 579 485 4.95 +1971-003C 18277 USSR 20 JAN 93.2 81.2 450 409 0.01 +1971-006A INTELSAT 4 F-2 4881 ITSO 26 JAN 1457.0 13.1 36251 36136 31.60 +1971-006B 4882 US 26 JAN 653.3 27.5 36452 672 25.10 +1971-009A NATO 2 4902 NATO 03 FEB 1436.1 13.8 35856 35718 0.50 +1971-009B 4903 US 03 FEB NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1971-009D 5986 US 03 FEB NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1971-010A COSMOS 394 4922 USSR 09 FEB 95.4 65.8 544 530 1.42 +1971-011A TANSEI 1 4952 JAPAN 16 FEB 106.1 29.7 1105 987 0.70 +1971-011B 5126 JAPAN 16 FEB 104.8 29.7 995 973 0.93 +1971-012A 4953 US 17 FEB 100.2 98.7 799 740 1.16 +1971-012B 4954 US 17 FEB 100.3 98.7 802 747 2.85 +1971-015A COSMOS 397 4964 USSR 25 FEB 113.2 65.7 2175 566 7.74 +1971-015B TO 015DV USSR 25 FEB SEE NOTE 15* 15* +1971-016A COSMOS 398 4966 USSR 26 FEB 108.4 51.5 2119 188 9.01 +1971-020A COSMOS 400 5050 USSR 18 MAR 104.9 65.8 1001 980 2.83 +1971-020B 5051 USSR 18 MAR 104.7 65.8 1019 942 12.14 +1971-020C 5052 USSR 18 MAR 104.9 65.8 999 978 0.50 +1971-021A 5053 US 21 MAR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1971-021B 5054 US 21 MAR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1971-024A ISIS 2 5104 CANADA 01 APR 113.5 88.2 1421 1355 1.41 +1971-024B 5106 US 01 APR 113.5 88.2 1418 1352 0.89 +1971-024C 5360 US 01 APR 113.5 88.3 1420 1357 0.04 +1971-025A COSMOS 402 5105 USSR 01 APR 104.9 65.0 1017 959 4.64 +1971-028A COSMOS 405 5117 USSR 07 APR 96.7 81.2 602 595 9.59 +1971-028B 5118 USSR 07 APR 96.9 81.2 658 561 9.18 +1971-028D 5724 USSR 07 APR 95.8 81.2 557 555 0.20 +1971-031B 5143 USSR 17 APR 94.4 81.2 523 460 12.77 +1971-035A COSMOS 407 5174 USSR 23 APR 100.6 74.0 800 773 3.37 +1971-035B 5175 USSR 23 APR 100.4 74.0 797 754 8.19 +1971-035C 5300 USSR 23 APR 99.3 74.0 736 717 0.01 +1971-035D 5301 USSR 23 APR 99.8 74.0 760 735 0.01 +1971-038A COSMOS 409 5180 USSR 28 APR 109.2 74.0 1209 1174 4.13 +1971-038B 5181 USSR 28 APR 109.0 74.0 1223 1138 4.45 +1971-039A 5204 US 05 MAY NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1971-039B 5205 US 05 MAY NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1971-041A COSMOS 411 5210 USSR 07 MAY 113.8 74.0 1488 1313 0.67 +1971-041B COSMOS 412 5211 USSR 07 MAY 116.1 74.0 1532 1478 0.07 +1971-041C COSMOS 413 5212 USSR 07 MAY 115.7 74.0 1506 1471 0.84 +1971-041D COSMOS 414 5213 USSR 07 MAY 115.1 74.0 1491 1425 0.00 +1971-041E COSMOS 415 5214 USSR 07 MAY 115.4 74.0 1498 1448 1.10 +1971-041F COSMOS 416 5215 USSR 07 MAY 114.4 74.0 1490 1368 0.71 +1971-041G COSMOS 417 5216 USSR 07 MAY 114.1 74.0 1490 1340 0.83 +1971-041H COSMOS 418 5217 USSR 07 MAY 114.7 74.0 1491 1396 0.89 +1971-041J 5218 USSR 07 MAY 116.8 74.0 1591 1485 0.00 +1971-045A MARS 2 5234 USSR 19 MAY MARS ORBIT +1971-046A COSMOS 422 5238 USSR 22 MAY 104.9 74.0 1002 981 2.96 +1971-046B 5239 USSR 22 MAY 104.8 74.0 993 978 6.31 + + + 17 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1971-049A MARS 3 5252 USSR 28 MAY MARS ORBIT +1971-051A MARINER 9 5261 US 30 MAY MARS ORBIT +1971-051B 5267 US 30 MAY HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1971-052A COSMOS 426 5281 USSR 04 JUN 99.5 74.0 1118 353 3.32 +1971-052B 5282 USSR 04 JUN 100.6 74.0 1213 359 13.31 +1971-059B 5328 USSR 16 JUL 94.7 81.2 540 469 0.00 +1971-063D APOLLO 15 5377 US 26 JUL SELENOCENTRIC ORBIT + SUBSATELLITE +1971-067B OV1-21 5397 US 07 AUG 101.7 87.6 898 775 1.09 +1971-067E 5398 US 07 AUG 101.0 87.6 857 755 0.00 +1971-067J 5405 US 07 AUG 95.9 87.6 579 543 0.07 +1971-067K 5395 US 07 AUG 100.9 87.6 850 752 0.80 +1971-067L 5399 US 07 AUG 96.4 87.6 601 572 0.02 +1971-067M 5400 US 07 AUG 96.0 87.6 583 554 0.07 +1971-067N 5384 US 07 AUG 101.4 87.6 882 763 0.34 +1971-069C 5426 USSR 12 AUG 99.5 49.6 814 655 0.01 +1971-071A EOLE 1 5435 FRANCE 16 AUG 99.7 50.2 836 652 1.99 +1971-071B 5438 US 16 AUG 99.6 50.2 831 648 0.00 +1971-071C 5440 US 16 AUG 96.4 50.7 628 540 0.04 +1971-073B 5449 USSR 02 SEP SELENOCENTRIC ORBIT +1971-080A SHINSEI 5485 JAPAN 28 SEP 113.1 32.1 1866 873 1.19 +1971-080B 5498 JAPAN 28 SEP 111.9 32.0 1756 870 0.77 +1971-082A LUNA 19 5488 USSR 28 SEP SELENOCENTRIC ORBIT +1971-082C 5490 USSR 28 SEP SELENOCENTRIC ORBIT +1971-086A COSMOS 444 5547 USSR 13 OCT 114.1 74.0 1505 1319 0.64 +1971-086B COSMOS 445 5548 USSR 13 OCT 114.4 74.0 1509 1348 0.00 +1971-086C COSMOS 446 5549 USSR 13 OCT 114.8 74.0 1510 1378 0.54 +1971-086D COSMOS 447 5550 USSR 13 OCT 115.1 74.0 1512 1408 0.74 +1971-086E COSMOS 448 5551 USSR 13 OCT 115.5 74.0 1514 1438 0.65 +1971-086F COSMOS 449 5552 USSR 13 OCT 116.2 74.0 1540 1480 0.76 +1971-086G COSMOS 450 5553 USSR 13 OCT 115.8 74.0 1527 1459 0.89 +1971-086H COSMOS 451 5554 USSR 13 OCT 116.6 74.0 1571 1487 0.88 +1971-086J 5555 USSR 13 OCT 117.3 74.0 1621 1500 10.40 +1971-087A 5557 US 14 OCT 101.1 99.1 851 772 0.64 +1971-087B 5556 US 14 OCT 101.3 99.2 868 774 1.78 +1971-089A 5560 US 17 OCT 99.8 92.7 761 738 16.83 +1971-093A PROSPERO 5580 UK 28 OCT 104.4 82.0 1404 531 1.01 +1971-093B 5581 UK 28 OCT 104.5 82.0 1413 531 1.07 +1971-095A 5587 US 03 NOV 1436.2 13.7 35814 35762 1.20 +1971-095B 5588 US 03 NOV 1437.6 13.5 35828 35802 0.00 +1971-095C 5589 US 03 NOV 1481.7 14.3 37353 35995 1.20 +1971-099A COSMOS 457 5614 USSR 20 NOV 109.4 74.0 1215 1181 5.59 +1971-099B 5615 USSR 20 NOV 109.3 74.0 1209 1175 6.86 +1971-110A 5678 US 14 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1971-110B 5679 US 14 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1971-110C 5680 US 14 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1971-110D 5681 US 14 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1971-110E 5682 US 14 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1971-111A COSMOS 465 5683 USSR 15 DEC 104.8 74.0 1004 964 0.00 +1971-111B 5685 USSR 15 DEC 104.6 74.0 992 960 14.93 +1971-114A COSMOS 468 5705 USSR 17 DEC 100.4 74.0 791 766 5.56 +1971-114B 5707 USSR 17 DEC 100.3 74.0 791 754 10.75 + + + 18 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1971-114C 5778 USSR 17 DEC 99.6 74.0 749 733 0.00 +1971-114D 5858 USSR 17 DEC 99.5 74.0 741 729 0.02 +1971-116A INTELSAT 4 F-3 5709 ITSO 20 DEC 1445.6 10.9 36016 35928 1.20 +1971-117A COSMOS 469 5721 USSR 25 DEC 104.6 64.5 999 956 1.00 +1971-119A OREOL 1 5729 USSR 27 DEC 108.9 74.0 1958 389 3.63 +1971-119B 5730 USSR 27 DEC 108.1 73.9 1890 384 10.03 +1971-120A METEOR 5731 USSR 29 DEC 102.5 81.3 911 837 13.41 +1971-120B 5732 USSR 29 DEC 102.0 81.3 873 837 6.99 +1971-120C 8826 USSR 29 DEC 100.8 81.2 808 781 1.51 +1971-120D 8827 USSR 29 DEC 101.9 81.3 858 838 0.20 +1971-120F 15344 USSR 29 DEC 96.9 81.2 621 599 0.02 + +1972 LAUNCHES + +1972-003A INTELSAT 4 F-4 5775 ITSO 23 JAN 1442.4 10.2 35918 35901 15.80 +1972-003B 5816 US 23 JAN 652.9 27.9 36530 574 2.50 +1972-007B 5836 USSR 14 FEB SELENOCENTRIC ORBIT +1972-009A COSMOS 475 5846 USSR 25 FEB 104.6 74.0 995 959 4.98 +1972-009B 5847 USSR 25 FEB 104.4 74.0 989 944 7.61 +1972-010A 5851 US 01 MAR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1972-010B 5854 US 01 MAR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1972-011B 5853 USSR 01 MAR 92.7 81.2 421 388 9.32 +1972-012A PIONEER 10 5860 US 03 MAR HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1972-012B 5861 US 03 MAR HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1972-018A 5903 US 24 MAR 101.3 98.9 858 781 0.00 +1972-018B 5904 US 24 MAR 101.3 98.9 854 783 2.04 +1972-019A COSMOS 480 5905 USSR 25 MAR 109.1 83.0 1197 1168 1.61 +1972-019B 5907 USSR 25 MAR 108.9 83.0 1192 1159 6.93 +1972-022A METEOR 5917 USSR 30 MAR 102.3 81.2 879 852 2.14 +1972-022B 5918 USSR 30 MAR 102.5 81.2 917 832 9.60 +1972-023E 6073 USSR 31 MAR 155.8 52.2 6212 214 1.11 +1972-029A PROGNOZ 5941 USSR 14 APR NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1972-031C LUNAR MODULE 6005 US 16 APR SELENOCENTRIC ORBIT 2* +1972-035A COSMOS 489 6019 USSR 06 MAY 104.7 74.0 996 960 2.81 +1972-035B 6020 USSR 06 MAY 104.5 74.0 984 954 6.07 +1972-041A INTELSAT 4 F-5 6052 ITSO 13 JUN 1438.8 11.2 35856 35821 1.50 +1972-041B 6058 US 13 JUN 650.0 26.9 36428 528 2.00 +1972-043A COSMOS 494 6059 USSR 23 JUN 100.4 74.1 787 771 2.62 +1972-043B 6061 USSR 23 JUN 100.2 74.1 781 752 7.71 +1972-043C 6063 USSR 23 JUN 99.3 74.1 733 718 0.00 +1972-043D 6065 USSR 23 JUN 99.6 74.1 753 728 0.01 +1972-049A METEOR 6079 USSR 30 JUN 102.7 81.2 893 876 6.37 +1972-049B 6080 USSR 30 JUN 102.8 81.2 927 856 13.26 +1972-049C 20348 USSR 30 JUN 102.8 81.2 926 855 6.76 +1972-057A COSMOS 504 6117 USSR 20 JUL 113.9 74.0 1493 1319 0.60 +1972-057B COSMOS 505 6118 USSR 20 JUL 114.3 74.0 1494 1350 0.00 +1972-057C COSMOS 506 6119 USSR 20 JUL 114.6 74.0 1494 1379 0.68 +1972-057D COSMOS 507 6120 USSR 20 JUL 114.9 74.0 1494 1409 0.73 +1972-057E COSMOS 508 6121 USSR 20 JUL 115.3 74.0 1494 1441 0.56 +1972-057F COSMOS 509 6122 USSR 20 JUL 115.6 74.0 1496 1471 0.71 +1972-057G COSMOS 510 6123 USSR 20 JUL 116.0 74.0 1507 1493 0.67 +1972-057H COSMOS 511 6124 USSR 20 JUL 116.4 74.0 1542 1493 0.70 + + + 19 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1972-057J 6125 USSR 20 JUL 117.0 74.0 1599 1489 4.23 +1972-058A LANDSAT 1 6126 US 23 JUL 103.0 99.4 907 897 2.39 +1972-058B TO 058JL US 23 JUL SEE NOTE 16* 16* +1972-062A COSMOS 514 6148 USSR 16 AUG 104.2 83.0 965 949 0.00 +1972-062B 6149 USSR 16 AUG 104.1 83.0 960 947 6.62 +1972-062C 6277 USSR 16 AUG 104.1 82.9 956 945 0.12 +1972-062D 7560 USSR 16 AUG 102.7 83.0 940 833 0.04 +1972-065A COPERNICUS 6153 US 21 AUG 99.2 35.0 724 713 20.26 +1972-065B 6155 US 21 AUG 98.7 35.0 729 664 16.16 +1972-066A COSMOS 516 6154 USSR 21 AUG 104.5 64.8 1035 908 6.24 +1972-069A TRIAD OI-1X 6173 US 02 SEP 99.9 90.0 792 710 0.00 +1972-069B 6180 US 02 SEP 99.4 90.0 765 690 1.31 +1972-069C 6250 US 02 SEP 97.7 89.6 686 612 0.03 +1972-072A COSMOS 520 6192 USSR 19 SEP 715.3 68.7 36146 4084 1.20 +1972-072E 6302 USSR 19 SEP 706.7 68.4 35870 3934 0.60 +1972-073A EXPLORER 47 6197 US 23 SEP NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1972-074A COSMOS 521 6206 USSR 29 SEP 104.9 65.8 998 981 1.65 +1972-074B 6207 USSR 29 SEP 104.7 65.8 991 970 11.01 +1972-074C 6210 USSR 29 SEP 104.9 65.8 999 978 0.49 +1972-076A 6212 US 02 OCT 97.4 98.6 639 627 1.22 +1972-076B 6217 US 02 OCT 98.7 98.7 705 688 2.26 +1972-076C 6218 US 02 OCT 99.1 98.5 725 706 6.18 +1972-076D 6221 US 02 OCT 96.7 98.6 607 597 1.83 +1972-079C 6822 US 10 OCT 114.7 95.6 1463 1416 0.43 +1972-079D 6823 US 10 OCT 114.7 95.8 1483 1403 0.12 +1972-079E 6824 US 10 OCT 114.6 95.5 1443 1430 0.09 +1972-082A NOAA 2 6235 US 15 OCT 114.9 102.0 1453 1446 3.42 +1972-082B AMSAT-OSCAR 6 6236 US 15 OCT 114.9 102.0 1452 1446 0.37 +1972-082C 6237 US 15 OCT 109.2 102.8 1464 914 3.84 +1972-085A METEOR 6256 USSR 26 OCT 102.3 81.2 880 851 2.96 +1972-085B 6257 USSR 26 OCT 102.4 81.3 914 830 3.95 +1972-087A COSMOS 528 6262 USSR 01 NOV 114.1 74.0 1466 1363 0.74 +1972-087B COSMOS 529 6264 USSR 01 NOV 114.5 74.0 1465 1400 0.71 +1972-087C COSMOS 530 6265 USSR 01 NOV 113.7 74.0 1465 1330 0.31 +1972-087D COSMOS 531 6266 USSR 01 NOV 114.7 74.0 1466 1419 0.80 +1972-087E COSMOS 532 6267 USSR 01 NOV 113.4 74.0 1465 1298 1.05 +1972-087F COSMOS 533 6268 USSR 01 NOV 113.6 74.0 1466 1314 0.00 +1972-087G COSMOS 534 6269 USSR 01 NOV 113.9 74.0 1466 1346 0.77 +1972-087H COSMOS 535 6270 USSR 01 NOV 114.3 74.0 1467 1381 0.77 +1972-087J 6271 USSR 01 NOV 116.6 74.0 1591 1464 13.96 +1972-089A 6275 US 09 NOV 101.2 98.6 839 786 2.11 +1972-089B 6276 US 09 NOV 101.4 98.7 853 798 1.70 +1972-090A ANIK A1 6278 CANADA 10 NOV 1457.2 11.2 36245 36149 1.00 +1972-097A NIMBUS 5 6305 US 11 DEC 107.1 99.8 1099 1086 4.87 +1972-097B 6306 US 11 DEC 111.7 99.8 1514 1098 4.07 +1972-101A 6317 US 20 DEC NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1972-101B 6318 US 20 DEC NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1972-102A COSMOS 539 6319 USSR 21 DEC 112.9 74.0 1377 1339 4.55 +1972-102B 6320 USSR 21 DEC 112.7 74.0 1370 1333 6.63 +1972-104A COSMOS 540 6323 USSR 25 DEC 100.4 74.1 790 763 0.00 +1972-104B 6324 USSR 25 DEC 100.0 74.1 766 752 9.53 +1972-104C 6391 USSR 25 DEC 98.7 74.1 703 687 0.01 + + + 20 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1972-104D 6396 USSR 25 DEC 98.6 74.0 697 682 0.01 + +1973 LAUNCHES + +1973-005A COSMOS 546 6350 USSR 26 JAN 95.7 50.7 563 538 2.72 +1973-009A PROGNOZ 3 6364 USSR 15 FEB NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1973-013A 6380 US 06 MAR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1973-015A METEOR 6392 USSR 20 MAR 102.3 81.2 879 860 8.87 +1973-015B 6393 USSR 20 MAR 102.5 81.3 921 833 0.00 +1973-019A PIONEER 11 6421 US 06 APR HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1973-019B 6425 US 06 APR HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1973-023A ANIK A2 6437 CANADA 20 APR 1443.1 10.1 35972 35873 1.00 +1973-034A METEOR 6659 USSR 29 MAY 102.2 81.2 879 843 14.85 +1973-034B 6660 USSR 29 MAY 102.5 81.2 908 841 11.81 +1973-037A COSMOS 564 6675 USSR 08 JUN 114.6 74.0 1478 1392 0.74 +1973-037B COSMOS 565 6676 USSR 08 JUN 115.3 74.0 1487 1446 0.83 +1973-037C COSMOS 566 6677 USSR 08 JUN 115.0 74.0 1480 1431 0.68 +1973-037D COSMOS 567 6678 USSR 08 JUN 114.8 74.0 1480 1410 0.00 +1973-037E COSMOS 568 6679 USSR 08 JUN 114.4 74.0 1478 1372 0.72 +1973-037F COSMOS 569 6680 USSR 08 JUN 114.1 74.0 1478 1354 0.59 +1973-037G COSMOS 570 6681 USSR 08 JUN 113.9 74.0 1479 1335 0.28 +1973-037H COSMOS 571 6682 USSR 08 JUN 113.7 74.0 1477 1317 0.68 +1973-037J 6683 USSR 08 JUN 116.8 74.0 1594 1481 7.31 +1973-039A EXPLORER 49 6686 US 10 JUN SELENOCENTRIC ORBIT +1973-039D 6689 US 10 JUN NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1973-039F 6725 US 10 JUN SELENOCENTRIC ORBIT +1973-039G 6726 US 10 JUN SELENOCENTRIC ORBIT +1973-040A 6691 US 12 JUN NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1973-040B 11940 US 12 JUN NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1973-042A COSMOS 574 6707 USSR 20 JUN 104.9 83.0 1006 976 1.38 +1973-042B 6708 USSR 20 JUN 104.8 82.9 994 977 0.00 +1973-047A MARS 4 6742 USSR 21 JUL HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1973-049A MARS 5 6754 USSR 25 JUL MARS ORBIT +1973-052A MARS 6 6768 USSR 05 AUG MARS ORBIT +1973-053A MARS 7 6776 USSR 09 AUG MARS ORBIT +1973-053D CAPSULE 7224 USSR 09 AUG HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1973-054A 6787 US 17 AUG 100.9 98.9 819 779 1.93 +1973-054B 6788 US 17 AUG 101.1 98.9 830 789 0.00 +1973-056A 6791 US 21 AUG NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1973-056B 6792 US 21 AUG NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1973-058A INTELSAT 4 F-7 6796 ITSO 23 AUG 1452.4 10.2 36120 36090 0.90 +1973-058B 6797 US 23 AUG 651.9 27.3 36539 511 22.13 +1973-064A COSMOS 585 6825 USSR 08 SEP 113.5 74.0 1401 1373 2.73 +1973-064B 6826 USSR 08 SEP 113.4 74.0 1402 1358 6.03 +1973-065A COSMOS 586 6828 USSR 14 SEP 104.7 82.9 1001 959 0.00 +1973-065B 6829 USSR 14 SEP 104.6 82.9 991 957 7.25 +1973-069A COSMOS 588 6845 USSR 02 OCT 115.3 74.0 1491 1446 0.73 +1973-069B COSMOS 589 6846 USSR 02 OCT 114.9 74.0 1486 1412 0.27 +1973-069C COSMOS 590 6847 USSR 02 OCT 115.1 74.0 1485 1431 0.27 +1973-069D COSMOS 591 6848 USSR 02 OCT 114.1 74.0 1483 1345 0.28 +1973-069E COSMOS 592 6849 USSR 02 OCT 113.9 74.0 1482 1328 0.68 +1973-069F COSMOS 593 6850 USSR 02 OCT 114.3 74.0 1483 1362 0.85 + + + 21 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1973-069G COSMOS 594 6851 USSR 02 OCT 114.5 74.0 1483 1378 0.73 +1973-069H COSMOS 595 6852 USSR 02 OCT 114.7 74.0 1484 1396 0.68 +1973-069J 6853 USSR 02 OCT 117.1 74.0 1620 1482 11.33 +1973-078A EXPLORER 50 6893 US 26 OCT NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1973-078C 6895 US 26 OCT 95.5 28.8 768 318 10.09 +1973-078D 6896 US 26 OCT NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1973-081A NNSS 30200 6909 US 30 OCT 105.2 89.8 1122 886 2.08 +1973-081B 6910 US 30 OCT 105.3 89.8 1126 886 0.63 +1973-081C 15764 US 30 OCT 105.7 90.5 1168 890 0.03 +1973-084A COSMOS 606 6916 USSR 02 NOV 717.2 69.0 36929 3397 0.40 +1973-084D 6939 USSR 02 NOV 706.5 67.2 37183 2613 0.90 +1973-085A MARINER 10 6919 US 03 NOV HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1973-086A NOAA 3 6920 US 06 NOV 116.1 102.2 1508 1498 5.68 +1973-086B TO 086HF US 06 NOV SEE NOTE 17* 17* +1973-088D 6938 US 10 NOV 114.5 96.9 1454 1412 0.00 +1973-088E 7559 US 10 NOV 114.6 96.8 1475 1401 0.07 +1973-098A COSMOS 614 6965 USSR 04 DEC 100.2 74.1 786 752 4.30 +1973-098B 6966 USSR 04 DEC 100.1 74.1 777 744 9.88 +1973-098C 6967 USSR 04 DEC 98.3 74.1 689 664 0.01 +1973-098D 9569 USSR 04 DEC 99.4 74.1 740 716 0.02 +1973-100A 6973 US 13 DEC 1474.6 13.7 36650 36423 0.50 +1973-100B 6974 US 13 DEC 1462.2 13.4 36309 36283 0.10 +1973-100D 6976 US 13 DEC 1515.0 14.4 38517 36116 1.00 +1973-104A COSMOS 617 6985 USSR 19 DEC 113.9 74.0 1481 1332 0.82 +1973-104B COSMOS 618 6986 USSR 19 DEC 115.2 74.0 1484 1442 0.77 +1973-104C COSMOS 619 6987 USSR 19 DEC 115.0 74.0 1485 1421 0.78 +1973-104D COSMOS 620 6988 USSR 19 DEC 115.4 74.0 1491 1456 0.78 +1973-104E COSMOS 621 6989 USSR 19 DEC 114.7 74.0 1483 1403 0.33 +1973-104F COSMOS 622 6990 USSR 19 DEC 114.3 74.0 1483 1366 0.30 +1973-104G COSMOS 623 6991 USSR 19 DEC 114.5 74.0 1483 1384 0.74 +1973-104H COSMOS 624 6992 USSR 19 DEC 114.1 74.0 1483 1348 0.67 +1973-104J 6993 USSR 19 DEC 117.0 74.0 1620 1473 0.00 +1973-107A OREOL 2 7003 USSR 26 DEC 103.3 74.0 1447 385 3.58 +1973-107B 7004 USSR 26 DEC 102.7 74.0 1390 377 12.62 +1973-108A COSMOS 626 7005 USSR 27 DEC 103.9 65.4 976 912 5.97 +1973-109A COSMOS 627 7008 USSR 29 DEC 104.9 83.0 1013 964 0.00 +1973-109B 7009 USSR 29 DEC 104.6 82.9 989 959 6.93 + +1974 LAUNCHES + +1974-001A COSMOS 628 7094 USSR 17 JAN 104.7 83.0 1008 950 3.92 +1974-001B 7095 USSR 17 JAN 104.5 83.0 997 943 5.91 +1974-011A METEOR 7209 USSR 05 MAR 101.9 81.2 877 821 13.46 +1974-011B 7210 USSR 05 MAR 102.0 81.2 911 791 8.13 +1974-013A UK-X4 7213 UK 09 MAR 100.3 97.9 867 676 0.00 +1974-013B 7228 US 09 MAR 100.3 97.9 863 687 1.23 +1974-015A 7218 US 16 MAR 100.9 99.1 845 757 0.52 +1974-015B 7219 US 16 MAR 101.2 99.1 863 765 1.80 +1974-017A COSMOS 637 7229 USSR 26 MAR 1428.9 13.4 35814 35478 0.70 +1974-017F 11567 USSR 26 MAR 1425.7 13.3 35781 35384 2.00 +1974-020B 7244 US 10 APR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1974-022A WESTAR 1 7250 US 13 APR 1441.6 9.7 35922 35865 1.00 + + + 22 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1974-024A COSMOS 641 7265 USSR 23 APR 114.5 74.0 1479 1385 0.69 +1974-024B COSMOS 642 7266 USSR 23 APR 113.7 74.0 1478 1316 0.83 +1974-024C COSMOS 643 7267 USSR 23 APR 114.1 74.0 1478 1351 0.96 +1974-024D COSMOS 644 7268 USSR 23 APR 113.9 74.0 1479 1333 0.98 +1974-024E COSMOS 645 7269 USSR 23 APR 114.3 74.0 1479 1367 0.63 +1974-024F COSMOS 646 7270 USSR 23 APR 114.7 74.0 1482 1401 0.85 +1974-024G COSMOS 647 7271 USSR 23 APR 114.9 74.0 1481 1420 0.66 +1974-024H COSMOS 648 7272 USSR 23 APR 115.1 74.0 1487 1435 0.70 +1974-024J 7273 USSR 23 APR 117.0 74.0 1605 1485 10.54 +1974-025A METEOR 7274 USSR 24 APR 102.3 81.2 881 852 6.83 +1974-025B 7275 USSR 24 APR 102.4 81.2 914 830 7.30 +1974-026A MOLNIYA 2-9 7276 USSR 26 APR 640.6 62.3 35687 787 0.70 +1974-026E 7373 USSR 26 APR 699.2 62.3 38503 931 0.00 +1974-028A COSMOS 650 7281 USSR 29 APR 113.4 74.0 1398 1365 2.51 +1974-028B 7284 USSR 29 APR 113.2 74.0 1386 1361 10.02 +1974-029A COSMOS 651 7291 USSR 15 MAY 103.4 65.0 939 897 3.39 +1974-032A COSMOS 654 7297 USSR 17 MAY 104.4 64.9 1013 917 3.08 +1974-033A SMS 1 7298 US 17 MAY 1460.3 15.4 36303 36214 0.50 +1974-037A LUNA 22 7315 USSR 29 MAY SELENOCENTRIC ORBIT +1974-039A ATS 6 7318 US 30 MAY 1412.1 13.0 35441 35188 0.00 +1974-039C 7324 US 30 MAY 1430.6 13.2 35794 35564 10.00 +1974-044A COSMOS 660 7337 USSR 18 JUN 104.3 83.0 1540 382 3.22 +1974-044B 7338 USSR 18 JUN 101.5 83.0 1273 382 13.86 +1974-048A COSMOS 663 7349 USSR 27 JUN 104.7 83.0 998 960 1.66 +1974-048B 7350 USSR 27 JUN 104.5 82.9 985 958 7.39 +1974-050C 7354 USSR 29 JUN 682.6 62.5 38557 46 6.15 +1974-052A METEOR 7363 USSR 09 JUL 102.9 81.2 907 883 0.00 +1974-052B 7364 USSR 09 JUL 102.5 81.2 907 844 12.04 +1974-054A 7369 US 14 JUL 468.7 125.1 13775 13444 0.10 +1974-054C 8599 US 14 JUL 468.8 125.1 13779 13442 0.00 +1974-056A MOLNIYA 2-10 7376 USSR 23 JUL 718.1 62.3 40020 351 0.30 +1974-056D 7382 USSR 23 JUL 731.9 61.9 40639 409 0.70 +1974-060A MOLNIYA 1-S 7392 USSR 29 JUL 1435.4 13.7 35816 35731 0.14 +1974-060F 20836 USSR 29 JUL 1437.4 13.7 35888 35734 0.31 +1974-063A 7411 US 09 AUG 101.1 98.8 843 780 1.92 +1974-063B 7412 US 09 AUG 101.3 98.8 854 786 0.82 +1974-066B 7418 USSR 16 AUG 93.6 81.2 465 434 12.18 +1974-066C 8424 USSR 16 AUG 91.2 81.2 337 325 1.50 +1974-069A COSMOS 675 7424 USSR 29 AUG 113.6 74.1 1421 1361 1.36 +1974-069B 7426 USSR 29 AUG 113.5 74.1 1419 1351 9.44 +1974-071A COSMOS 676 7433 USSR 11 SEP 100.6 74.0 799 779 4.16 +1974-071B 7434 USSR 11 SEP 100.4 74.0 795 764 3.51 +1974-071C 8756 USSR 11 SEP 99.5 74.1 740 730 0.01 +1974-071D 8829 USSR 11 SEP 100.1 74.1 779 750 0.01 +1974-072A COSMOS 677 7435 USSR 19 SEP 114.4 74.0 1465 1394 0.43 +1974-072B COSMOS 678 7436 USSR 19 SEP 115.9 74.0 1529 1465 0.66 +1974-072C COSMOS 679 7437 USSR 19 SEP 115.7 74.0 1508 1464 0.64 +1974-072D COSMOS 680 7438 USSR 19 SEP 115.5 74.0 1489 1464 0.73 +1974-072E COSMOS 681 7439 USSR 19 SEP 115.3 74.0 1470 1463 0.86 +1974-072F COSMOS 682 7440 USSR 19 SEP 115.0 74.0 1464 1451 0.58 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7646 FRANCE 06 FEB 104.2 49.8 1108 805 0.15 +1975-010B 7647 FRANCE 06 FEB 104.3 49.8 1126 800 0.96 +1975-010C 7654 FRANCE 06 FEB 103.6 49.9 1063 795 0.05 +1975-010D 7655 FRANCE 06 FEB 103.7 49.8 1070 794 0.06 +1975-010E 7659 FRANCE 06 FEB 103.8 49.8 1083 793 0.12 +1975-011A SMS 2 7648 US 06 FEB 1447.1 11.8 36061 35943 0.00 +1975-011F 20835 US 06 FEB 1460.7 13.4 36673 35858 10.00 +1975-012A COSMOS 708 7663 USSR 12 FEB 113.5 69.2 1405 1369 0.00 +1975-012B 7665 USSR 12 FEB 113.3 69.2 1393 1365 8.50 +1975-016A COSMOS 711 7678 USSR 28 FEB 115.4 74.0 1490 1459 0.64 +1975-016B COSMOS 712 7679 USSR 28 FEB 114.8 74.0 1488 1408 0.62 +1975-016C COSMOS 713 7680 USSR 28 FEB 114.6 74.0 1485 1393 0.85 +1975-016D COSMOS 714 7681 USSR 28 FEB 115.2 74.0 1488 1443 0.71 +1975-016E COSMOS 715 7682 USSR 28 FEB 115.7 74.0 1502 1467 0.84 +1975-016F COSMOS 716 7683 USSR 28 FEB 115.9 74.0 1512 1477 0.32 +1975-016G COSMOS 717 7684 USSR 28 FEB 116.1 74.0 1533 1477 0.88 +1975-016H COSMOS 718 7685 USSR 28 FEB 115.0 74.0 1487 1426 0.66 +1975-016J 7686 USSR 28 FEB 117.9 74.0 1718 1456 9.86 +1975-017A 7687 US 10 MAR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1975-017B 7688 US 10 MAR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE + + + 24 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1975-023A METEOR 7714 USSR 01 APR 102.3 81.2 883 852 7.01 +1975-023B 7715 USSR 01 APR 102.4 81.2 909 834 1.54 +1975-024A COSMOS 723 7718 USSR 02 APR 103.6 64.7 954 907 10.63 +1975-025A COSMOS 724 7727 USSR 07 APR 102.9 65.6 947 848 1.57 +1975-027A GEOS 3 7734 US 09 APR 101.6 115.0 853 813 1.86 +1975-027B 7735 US 09 APR 101.3 115.0 856 779 7.32 +1975-027C 10728 US 09 APR 101.4 115.2 872 778 0.00 +1975-027E 10730 US 09 APR 103.5 115.0 992 855 2.55 +1975-028A COSMOS 726 7736 USSR 11 APR 104.5 83.0 989 949 5.54 +1975-028B 7737 USSR 11 APR 104.3 83.0 978 949 8.90 +1975-029D 7741 USSR 14 APR 726.6 62.3 40651 139 16.31 +1975-034A COSMOS 729 7768 USSR 22 APR 104.8 83.0 1003 970 0.00 +1975-034B 7769 USSR 22 APR 104.7 83.0 995 969 9.04 +1975-036A MOLNIYA 1-29 7780 USSR 29 APR 718.0 61.8 39365 998 2.50 +1975-036D 7800 USSR 29 APR 732.4 61.8 40292 781 1.00 +1975-038A ANIK A3 7790 CANADA 07 MAY 1439.2 8.8 35858 35838 0.70 +1975-038D 7794 US 07 MAY 381.2 24.5 21802 272 0.20 +1975-042A INTELSAT 4 F-1 7815 ITSO 22 MAY 1450.8 8.6 36128 36018 12.50 +1975-042B 7902 US 22 MAY 652.9 26.0 36513 592 2.70 +1975-043A 7816 US 24 MAY NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1975-043B 7817 US 24 MAY NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1975-045A COSMOS 732 7820 USSR 28 MAY 114.6 74.0 1468 1401 0.73 +1975-045B COSMOS 733 7822 USSR 28 MAY 116.2 74.0 1551 1468 0.74 +1975-045C COSMOS 734 7823 USSR 28 MAY 115.0 74.0 1469 1441 0.00 +1975-045D COSMOS 735 7824 USSR 28 MAY 115.2 74.0 1471 1459 0.59 +1975-045E COSMOS 736 7825 USSR 28 MAY 115.5 74.0 1484 1467 0.69 +1975-045F COSMOS 737 7826 USSR 28 MAY 115.9 74.0 1526 1468 0.60 +1975-045G COSMOS 738 7827 USSR 28 MAY 115.7 74.0 1507 1467 0.70 +1975-045H COSMOS 739 7828 USSR 28 MAY 114.8 74.0 1469 1421 0.71 +1975-045J 7831 USSR 28 MAY 117.9 74.0 1692 1484 11.63 +1975-049B SRET 2 7910 FRANCE 05 JUN NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1975-050A VENERA 9 7915 USSR 08 JUN VENUS ORBIT +1975-051C SSU 1 7937 US 08 JUN 113.5 95.1 1392 1383 0.19 +1975-051D 7938 US 08 JUN 113.2 95.0 1402 1341 0.01 +1975-051E 7939 US 08 JUN 113.9 95.2 1424 1382 0.14 +1975-052A NIMBUS 6 7924 US 12 JUN 107.4 99.8 1110 1099 5.18 +1975-052B TO 052JX US 12 JUN SEE NOTE 20* 20* +1975-054A VENERA 10 7947 USSR 14 JUN VENUS ORBIT +1975-055A 7963 US 18 JUN NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1975-055B 7964 US 18 JUN NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1975-056B 7969 USSR 20 JUN 94.0 81.2 485 452 9.44 +1975-063A MOLNIYA 2-13 8015 USSR 08 JUL 719.0 61.8 39471 945 1.20 +1975-063D 8018 USSR 08 JUL 732.6 61.8 40322 758 0.70 +1975-064A METEOR 2 8026 USSR 11 JUL 102.2 81.3 877 844 3.70 +1975-064B 8027 USSR 11 JUL 102.3 81.3 908 830 8.95 +1975-064C 8039 USSR 11 JUL 102.2 81.3 876 850 0.01 +1975-064D 8110 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SEP 652.0 22.1 36527 532 2.80 +1975-094A COSMOS 773 8343 USSR 30 SEP 100.5 74.1 789 772 0.00 +1975-094B 8344 USSR 30 SEP 100.3 74.1 787 754 8.02 +1975-094C 8346 USSR 30 SEP 98.2 74.0 681 662 0.02 +1975-094D 14865 USSR 30 SEP 99.8 74.0 755 746 0.01 +1975-097A COSMOS 775 8357 USSR 08 OCT 1435.0 13.4 35802 35726 0.14 +1975-097F 11676 USSR 08 OCT 1438.8 13.4 35927 35750 2.50 +1975-100A GOES 1 8366 US 16 OCT 1435.7 12.2 35792 35765 0.10 +1975-100C 8368 US 16 OCT 133.3 23.4 4285 247 0.00 +1975-100F 20962 US 16 OCT 1412.7 12.8 36507 34146 10.00 +1975-103A COSMOS 778 8419 USSR 04 NOV 104.7 83.0 1000 965 3.65 +1975-103B 8421 USSR 04 NOV 104.6 83.0 993 958 6.97 +1975-105A MOLNIYA 3-3 8425 USSR 14 NOV 718.1 61.7 39479 889 5.10 +1975-105D 8462 USSR 14 NOV 733.3 61.8 40342 773 0.70 +1975-112A COSMOS 783 8458 USSR 28 NOV 100.6 74.1 797 778 2.62 +1975-112B 8459 USSR 28 NOV 100.4 74.1 790 766 3.43 +1975-112C 8757 USSR 28 NOV 99.3 74.0 726 721 0.02 +1975-112D 14801 USSR 28 NOV 100.2 74.1 775 760 0.02 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74.1 1693 1481 5.74 +1976-010A INTELSAT 4A F-2 8620 ITSO 29 JAN 1444.5 8.8 35977 35923 5.00 +1976-010B 8621 US 29 JAN 653.7 21.6 36506 639 15.80 +1976-011A COSMOS 800 8645 USSR 03 FEB 104.9 83.0 1008 975 2.31 +1976-011B 8646 USSR 03 FEB 104.8 83.0 989 981 2.55 +1976-014A COSMOS 803 8688 USSR 12 FEB 95.2 65.8 548 512 2.04 +1976-017A MARISAT 1 8697 US 19 FEB 1436.1 10.8 35796 35779 3.90 +1976-017C 8702 US 19 FEB 146.3 24.4 5392 248 2.15 +1976-019A UME 8709 JAPAN 29 FEB 105.0 69.7 1003 988 1.80 +1976-019B 8710 JAPAN 29 FEB 105.1 69.7 1008 990 2.06 +1976-022A COSMOS 807 8744 USSR 12 MAR 104.6 82.9 1571 383 2.60 +1976-022B 8745 USSR 12 MAR 101.0 82.9 1242 368 10.01 +1976-023A LES 8 8746 US 15 MAR 1436.2 17.2 35831 35743 0.30 +1976-023B LES 9 8747 US 15 MAR 1436.1 17.3 35883 35690 0.70 +1976-023C SOLRAD 11A 8748 US 15 MAR NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1976-023D SOLRAD 11B 8749 US 15 MAR NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1976-023F 8751 US 15 MAR 1465.5 17.7 36983 35737 1.50 +1976-023G 8752 US 15 MAR NO CURRENT 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AVAILABLE +1976-038G 8843 US 30 APR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1976-038H 8859 US 30 APR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1976-038J SSU-3 8884 US 30 APR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1976-038K 9796 US 30 APR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1976-038L 9996 US 30 APR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1976-039A LAGEOS 8820 US 04 MAY 225.4 109.9 5946 5837 0.50 +1976-039C 8822 US 04 MAY 225.4 109.9 5943 5835 1.30 +1976-039D 14514 US 04 MAY 93.4 109.9 643 236 0.04 +1976-041A MOLNIYA 3-5 8833 USSR 12 MAY 664.3 62.0 37590 93 0.00 +1976-041D 8844 USSR 12 MAY 710.5 61.9 39885 111 29.39 +1976-042A COMSTAR 1 8838 US 13 MAY 1442.7 8.6 35937 35895 1.60 +1976-042B 8840 US 13 MAY 648.2 21.9 36215 648 1.50 +1976-043A METEOR 8845 USSR 15 MAY 102.0 81.3 884 826 4.87 +1976-043B 8846 USSR 15 MAY 102.2 81.2 900 829 9.86 +1976-047A P 76-5 8860 US 22 MAY 105.4 99.6 1044 982 1.59 +1976-047B 8861 US 22 MAY 105.5 99.5 1046 984 1.63 +1976-047C 8867 US 22 MAY 106.3 99.3 1110 997 0.06 +1976-047D 8868 US 22 MAY 104.5 100.1 1011 934 0.06 +1976-050A 8871 US 02 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104.8 83.0 997 975 6.96 +1977-005A NATO III-B 9785 NATO 28 JAN 1511.5 10.4 37434 37067 0.50 +1977-005B 9786 US 28 JAN 103.7 28.0 1251 618 12.26 +1977-005D 9809 US 28 JAN NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1977-005E 9810 US 28 JAN NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1977-005F 9811 US 28 JAN NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1977-007A 9803 US 06 FEB NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1977-007C 9855 US 06 FEB NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1977-007D 9856 US 06 FEB NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1977-010A MOLNIYA 2-17 9829 USSR 11 FEB 717.8 62.0 39787 569 0.50 +1977-010E 9850 USSR 11 FEB 730.9 62.6 40582 416 1.00 +1977-012A TANSEI 3 9841 JAPAN 19 FEB 134.1 65.8 3797 803 1.56 +1977-012C 9843 JAPAN 19 FEB 134.0 65.7 3793 803 0.00 +1977-012E 9981 JAPAN 19 FEB 133.3 65.2 3729 798 0.22 +1977-012F 9982 JAPAN 19 FEB 133.5 65.9 3771 777 0.09 +1977-012G 9983 JAPAN 19 FEB 134.1 65.6 3792 808 0.10 +1977-012H 12857 JAPAN 19 FEB 133.9 66.3 3774 812 0.10 +1977-012J 13133 JAPAN 19 FEB 133.0 65.8 3711 792 0.01 +1977-012K 14512 JAPAN 19 FEB 133.8 65.7 3770 801 0.03 +1977-012L 19314 JAPAN 19 FEB 133.3 65.4 3893 634 0.01 +1977-013A COSMOS 894 9846 USSR 21 FEB 104.8 82.9 1007 962 3.96 +1977-013B 9848 USSR 21 FEB 104.7 82.9 991 967 6.30 +1977-014A KIKU 2 9852 JAPAN 23 FEB 1439.9 11.7 35869 35852 0.10 +1977-015B 9854 USSR 26 FEB 94.0 81.2 489 445 5.89 +1977-018A PALAPA 2 9862 INDNSA 10 MAR 1439.2 7.4 35864 35829 1.40 +1977-021A MOLNIYA 1-36 9880 USSR 24 MAR 718.2 61.8 39738 635 0.70 +1977-021D 9927 USSR 24 MAR 732.4 62.5 40681 392 0.70 +1977-024A METEOR 9903 USSR 05 APR 102.3 81.3 888 843 6.11 +1977-024B 9904 USSR 05 APR 102.4 81.3 910 832 11.05 +1977-024C 9907 USSR 05 APR 102.4 82.9 891 856 0.01 +1977-027A COSMOS 903 9911 USSR 11 APR 717.9 67.6 37656 2703 1.00 + + + 30 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1977-027D 9921 USSR 11 APR 724.0 68.2 37826 2835 0.80 +1977-027E 10946 USSR 11 APR NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1977-029A ESA-GEOS 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METEOSAT 1 10489 ESA 23 NOV 1437.7 11.8 35854 35780 0.07 +1977-108B 10490 US 23 NOV 115.1 28.3 2427 491 17.82 +1977-109A COSMOS 963 10491 USSR 24 NOV 109.2 82.9 1205 1174 3.09 +1977-109B 10492 USSR 24 NOV 109.1 82.9 1200 1168 12.07 +1977-112A 10502 US 08 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1977-112B 10504 US 08 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1977-112C 10528 US 08 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1977-112D 10529 US 08 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1977-112E 10544 US 08 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1977-112F 10594 US 08 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1977-112G 10595 US 08 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1977-112H 12859 US 08 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1977-114A 10508 US 11 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1977-114B 10509 US 11 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1977-116A COSMOS 967 10512 USSR 13 DEC 104.7 65.8 996 964 1.62 +1977-116B 10513 USSR 13 DEC 104.5 65.8 989 951 0.00 +1977-116C 10518 USSR 13 DEC 104.6 65.8 990 962 0.69 +1977-116D 10526 USSR 13 DEC 104.7 65.8 997 965 0.21 + + + 32 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL 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10539 USSR 27 DEC 103.7 75.8 1157 710 3.39 +1977-123B 10541 USSR 27 DEC 103.7 75.8 1153 711 8.10 + +1978 LAUNCHES + +1978-002A INTELSAT 4A F-3 10557 ITSO 07 JAN 1441.3 7.0 35901 35877 1.10 +1978-002B 10722 US 17 JAN 650.1 21.1 36322 640 2.00 +1978-004A COSMOS 975 10561 USSR 10 JAN 95.0 81.2 523 515 7.94 +1978-004B 10582 USSR 10 JAN 95.7 81.2 582 523 8.69 +1978-005A COSMOS 976 10581 USSR 10 JAN 115.0 74.0 1461 1454 0.91 +1978-005B COSMOS 977 10584 USSR 10 JAN 114.4 74.0 1461 1397 0.68 +1978-005C COSMOS 978 10585 USSR 10 JAN 114.6 74.0 1461 1416 0.98 +1978-005D COSMOS 979 10586 USSR 10 JAN 114.8 74.0 1461 1435 0.67 +1978-005E COSMOS 980 10587 USSR 10 JAN 115.3 74.0 1473 1461 0.65 +1978-005F COSMOS 981 10588 USSR 10 JAN 115.5 74.0 1493 1461 0.84 +1978-005G COSMOS 982 10589 USSR 10 JAN 115.7 74.0 1513 1461 0.71 +1978-005H COSMOS 983 10590 USSR 10 JAN 116.0 74.0 1535 1462 0.86 +1978-005J 10591 USSR 10 JAN 117.7 74.0 1692 1460 2.72 +1978-007A COSMOS 985 10599 USSR 17 JAN 104.6 82.9 1015 935 3.84 +1978-007B 10600 USSR 17 JAN 104.5 82.9 1006 933 7.63 +1978-012A IUE 10637 US 26 JAN 1435.9 34.1 41290 30277 0.90 +1978-012C 10723 US 26 JAN 527.2 29.3 30208 271 0.20 +1978-014A KYOKKO 10664 JAPAN 04 FEB 134.0 65.4 3949 643 1.61 +1978-014C 12329 JAPAN 04 FEB 133.7 65.3 3916 650 0.07 +1978-014D 12330 JAPAN 04 FEB 133.9 65.4 3948 637 0.28 +1978-014E 12331 JAPAN 04 FEB 132.4 64.8 3814 639 0.06 +1978-014F 12406 JAPAN 04 FEB 133.0 65.9 3857 647 0.06 +1978-016A FLTSATCOM 1 10669 US 09 FEB 1436.2 11.0 35810 35766 2.70 +1978-016C 12908 US 09 FEB 188.8 26.4 8790 253 19.62 +1978-018A UME 2 10674 JAPAN 16 FEB 107.2 69.4 1216 973 0.32 +1978-018B 10675 JAPAN 16 FEB 107.1 69.4 1211 973 1.62 +1978-018C 13132 JAPAN 16 FEB 107.9 69.2 1286 970 0.12 +1978-019A COSMOS 990 10676 USSR 17 FEB 100.4 74.0 790 765 3.12 +1978-019B 10677 USSR 17 FEB 100.2 74.0 779 757 10.20 +1978-019C 14803 USSR 17 FEB 99.1 74.0 722 712 0.01 +1978-019D 13500 USSR 17 FEB 99.9 74.1 762 742 0.01 +1978-019E 18501 USSR 17 FEB 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COSMOS 1000 10776 USSR 31 MAR 104.7 82.9 1006 954 2.73 +1978-034B 10777 USSR 31 MAR 104.6 82.9 992 954 10.06 +1978-035A INTELSAT 4A F-6 10778 ITSO 31 MAR 1434.4 7.0 35792 35715 1.50 +1978-035B 10779 US 31 MAR 647.8 21.0 36270 574 3.10 +1978-038A 10787 US 07 APR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1978-038B 10788 US 07 APR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1978-039A YURI 10792 JAPAN 07 APR 1436.9 11.6 35872 35732 0.31 +1978-039B 10793 US 07 APR 110.9 28.2 1961 573 11.31 +1978-039C 10794 US 07 APR 158.4 26.9 6417 222 1.82 +1978-042A 10820 US 01 MAY 100.7 98.7 800 785 4.42 +1978-044A OTS-2 10855 ESA 11 MAY 1452.5 9.1 36142 36072 0.80 +1978-044B 10856 US 11 MAY 139.9 27.9 3527 1572 15.72 +1978-044C 10857 US 11 MAY NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1978-045A COSMOS 1005 10860 USSR 12 MAY 94.4 81.2 496 486 9.19 +1978-045B 10861 USSR 12 MAY 95.9 81.2 588 535 8.76 +1978-047A 10893 US 13 MAY 714.2 63.6 20634 19542 0.00 +1978-047B 10894 US 13 MAY 286.6 64.5 15043 1000 0.40 +1978-051A PIONEER VENUS 10911 US 20 MAY VENUS IMPACT + 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GOES 3 10953 US 16 JUN 1436.0 9.6 35811 35759 2.29 +1978-062B 10954 US 16 JUN 107.3 28.4 1649 555 12.11 +1978-062D 20801 US 16 JUN 1450.5 11.7 39880 32256 1.20 + + + 34 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1978-063A COSMOS 1023 10961 USSR 21 JUN 100.4 74.1 787 766 5.61 +1978-063B 10962 USSR 21 JUN 100.2 74.1 785 747 8.90 +1978-063C 13497 USSR 21 JUN 100.2 74.1 780 755 0.01 +1978-063D 14804 USSR 21 JUN 98.4 74.0 690 670 0.00 +1978-064A SEASAT 1 10967 US 27 JUN 100.1 108.0 764 761 31.71 +1978-066A COSMOS 1024 10970 USSR 28 JUN 718.0 67.4 35234 5132 0.90 +1978-066D 10998 USSR 28 JUN 720.1 67.3 35603 4865 0.70 +1978-067A COSMOS 1025 10973 USSR 28 JUN 95.9 82.5 567 552 0.00 +1978-067B 10974 USSR 28 JUN 97.2 82.5 636 607 6.45 +1978-068A COMSTAR 3 10975 US 29 JUN 1451.7 6.9 36183 35999 3.00 +1978-068B 10976 US 29 JUN 648.7 22.0 36259 631 16.30 +1978-071A ESA 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3.01 +1978-083F 12919 USSR 06 SEP 719.5 64.0 37421 3020 0.86 +1978-083G 13959 USSR 06 SEP 721.7 63.7 37601 2948 0.00 +1978-084A VENERA 11 11020 USSR 09 SEP HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1978-086A VENERA 12 11025 USSR 14 SEP HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1978-087A JIKI'KEN 11027 JAPAN 16 SEP 372.4 31.1 21283 249 0.10 +1978-087B 11028 JAPAN 16 SEP 312.2 31.3 17476 255 0.00 +1978-091A COSMOS 1034 11042 USSR 04 OCT 114.9 74.0 1478 1420 0.14 +1978-091B COSMOS 1035 11044 USSR 04 OCT 114.6 74.0 1477 1401 0.99 +1978-091C COSMOS 1036 11045 USSR 04 OCT 115.1 74.0 1478 1439 0.78 +1978-091D COSMOS 1037 11046 USSR 04 OCT 115.3 74.0 1479 1459 0.82 +1978-091E COSMOS 1038 11047 USSR 04 OCT 115.5 74.0 1484 1475 0.64 +1978-091F COSMOS 1039 11048 USSR 04 OCT 116.3 74.0 1549 1477 0.75 +1978-091G COSMOS 1040 11049 USSR 04 OCT 116.0 74.0 1525 1477 0.59 +1978-091H COSMOS 1041 11050 USSR 04 OCT 115.8 74.0 1506 1475 0.90 +1978-091J 11051 USSR 04 OCT 117.9 74.0 1697 1479 9.77 +1978-093A 11054 US 07 OCT 744.2 63.4 20942 20705 0.20 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4.86 +1978-105B 11112 USSR 16 NOV 100.4 74.0 803 751 7.84 +1978-105C 11113 USSR 16 NOV 99.8 74.0 756 738 0.00 +1978-105D 11114 USSR 16 NOV 99.5 74.0 745 728 0.03 +1978-106A NATO III-C 11115 NATO 19 NOV 1462.2 7.4 36316 36275 0.80 +1978-109A COSMOS 1051 11128 USSR 05 DEC 114.6 74.0 1483 1392 0.64 +1978-109B COSMOS 1052 11129 USSR 05 DEC 114.8 74.0 1486 1408 0.70 +1978-109C COSMOS 1053 11130 USSR 05 DEC 115.0 74.0 1486 1427 0.77 +1978-109D COSMOS 1054 11131 USSR 05 DEC 115.2 74.0 1487 1444 0.88 +1978-109E COSMOS 1055 11132 USSR 05 DEC 115.4 74.0 1488 1462 0.65 +1978-109F COSMOS 1056 11133 USSR 05 DEC 115.7 74.0 1501 1470 0.75 +1978-109G COSMOS 1057 11134 USSR 05 DEC 115.9 74.0 1513 1478 0.90 +1978-109H COSMOS 1058 11135 USSR 05 DEC 116.1 74.0 1536 1478 0.66 +1978-109J 11136 USSR 05 DEC 118.1 74.0 1698 1489 10.67 +1978-112A 11141 US 11 DEC 746.5 64.5 21012 20750 0.30 +1978-112B 11142 US 11 DEC 269.4 63.8 14238 643 0.10 +1978-113A 11144 US 14 DEC 1462.2 9.6 36307 36285 4.50 +1978-113B 11145 US 14 DEC 1451.8 9.6 36120 36068 1.50 +1978-113D 11147 US 14 DEC 1533.4 11.5 38857 36483 0.31 +1978-116A ANIK B1 11153 CANADA 16 DEC 1442.7 6.4 35926 35902 0.00 +1978-117A COSMOS 1063 11155 USSR 19 DEC 95.1 81.2 525 519 9.81 +1978-117B 11156 USSR 19 DEC 95.2 81.3 552 503 8.84 +1978-118A GORIZONT 1 11158 USSR 19 DEC 1435.7 22.2 49333 22222 0.14 +1978-118C 11926 USSR 19 DEC 1417.4 22.0 48717 22121 2.50 +1978-121A COSMOS 1066 11165 USSR 23 DEC 102.0 81.2 892 818 9.53 +1978-121B 11166 USSR 23 DEC 101.9 81.2 898 799 6.05 +1978-121C 19643 USSR 23 DEC 101.9 81.2 895 797 0.01 +1978-122A COSMOS 1067 11168 USSR 26 DEC 109.0 83.0 1209 1155 1.55 +1978-122B 11170 USSR 26 DEC 108.9 83.0 1193 1157 14.10 + +1979 LAUNCHES + +1979-003A COSMOS 1072 11238 USSR 16 JAN 104.8 82.9 1012 956 3.46 +1979-003B 11239 USSR 16 JAN 104.7 82.9 1010 948 6.96 +1979-004A MOLNIYA 3-11 11240 USSR 18 JAN 717.9 63.0 39968 389 1.00 +1979-004D 11553 USSR 18 JAN 733.0 63.6 40514 587 2.00 +1979-005A METEOR 1-29 11251 USSR 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0.02 +1979-017FF 16484 US 24 FEB 92.1 97.6 385 370 0.24 +1979-017FG 16485 US 24 FEB 90.4 97.4 300 285 0.37 +1979-017GJ 16551 US 24 FEB 92.6 97.8 412 394 0.01 +1979-017GX 16564 US 24 FEB 94.1 97.8 480 470 0.01 +1979-017JF 16878 US 24 FEB 93.8 97.9 471 451 0.00 +1979-017JH 17094 US 24 FEB 93.9 97.8 481 445 0.13 +1979-020A INTERCOSMOS 19 11285 USSR 27 FEB 96.3 74.0 712 455 11.37 +1979-020B 11286 USSR 27 FEB 96.5 74.0 731 454 9.69 +1979-021A METEOR 2-4 11288 USSR 01 MAR 102.0 81.2 871 837 0.00 +1979-021B 11289 USSR 01 MAR 102.0 81.2 911 799 9.99 +1979-021C 11290 USSR 01 MAR 102.1 81.2 881 833 0.01 +1979-021D 14632 USSR 01 MAR 102.8 81.3 931 853 0.01 +1979-024A COSMOS 1081 11296 USSR 15 MAR 114.5 74.0 1464 1401 0.90 +1979-024B COSMOS 1082 11297 USSR 15 MAR 114.7 74.0 1463 1421 1.07 +1979-024C COSMOS 1083 11298 USSR 15 MAR 114.9 74.0 1463 1440 0.80 +1979-024D COSMOS 1084 11299 USSR 15 MAR 115.1 74.0 1462 1459 0.36 +1979-024E COSMOS 1085 11300 USSR 15 MAR 115.6 74.0 1502 1463 0.37 +1979-024F COSMOS 1086 11301 USSR 15 MAR 115.4 74.0 1480 1463 0.63 +1979-024G COSMOS 1087 11302 USSR 15 MAR 115.8 74.0 1522 1463 0.66 +1979-024H COSMOS 1088 11303 USSR 15 MAR 116.1 74.0 1545 1463 0.00 +1979-024J 11304 USSR 15 MAR 117.6 74.0 1688 1457 10.14 +1979-025B 11306 US 16 MAR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1979-026A COSMOS 1089 11308 USSR 21 MAR 104.7 83.0 996 965 3.08 +1979-026B 11309 USSR 21 MAR 104.6 83.0 988 961 7.36 +1979-028A COSMOS 1091 11320 USSR 07 APR 104.7 82.9 1004 960 4.93 +1979-028B 11321 USSR 07 APR 104.6 82.9 990 963 5.55 +1979-030A COSMOS 1092 11326 USSR 11 APR 104.7 82.9 1002 958 3.10 +1979-030B 11327 USSR 11 APR 104.6 82.9 995 955 9.24 +1979-031A MOLNIYA 1-43 11328 USSR 12 APR 100.4 63.7 1460 99 0.00 +1979-031D 11551 USSR 12 APR 620.8 64.1 35321 132 21.14 +1979-032A COSMOS 1093 11331 USSR 14 APR 94.3 81.2 489 476 12.14 +1979-032B 11332 USSR 14 APR 95.6 81.2 583 514 10.83 +1979-035A RADUGA 5 11343 USSR 25 APR 1436.3 11.7 35807 35774 0.00 +1979-035E 17873 USSR 25 APR 1438.1 11.7 35932 35719 0.00 +1979-038A FLTSATCOM 2 11353 US 04 MAY 1461.3 9.7 36344 36214 3.10 +1979-046A COSMOS 1104 11378 USSR 31 MAY 104.7 82.9 1004 953 2.89 +1979-046B 11379 USSR 31 MAY 104.6 82.9 989 957 1.22 +1979-050A 11389 US 06 JUN NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1979-050B 11403 US 06 JUN NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1979-050C 11408 US 06 JUN NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1979-050D 11410 US 06 JUN NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1979-050G 11534 US 06 JUN NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1979-053A 11397 US 10 JUN NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1979-053C 11436 US 10 JUN NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1979-053D 20364 US 10 JUN NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1979-057A NOAA 6 11416 US 27 JUN 100.7 98.6 800 785 10.47 +1979-057B 11419 US 27 JUN 98.8 98.3 703 700 0.11 + + + 37 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1979-057C 11634 US 27 JUN 98.9 98.3 706 702 0.11 +1979-058A COSMOS 1109 11417 USSR 27 JUN 718.1 67.3 38611 1758 0.00 +1979-058D 11555 USSR 27 JUN 721.6 67.7 38528 2012 0.50 +1979-058E 12833 USSR 27 JUN 715.2 67.3 38356 1870 0.50 +1979-058F 12834 USSR 27 JUN 719.2 67.4 34784 5641 0.20 +1979-058G 12909 USSR 27 JUN 719.6 68.2 39114 1329 0.00 +1979-058H 12995 USSR 27 JUN 698.9 66.3 38251 1169 0.00 +1979-058J 13960 USSR 27 JUN 720.2 67.7 38486 1985 0.20 +1979-060A COSMOS 1110 11425 USSR 28 JUN 100.6 74.0 796 776 4.09 +1979-060B 11427 USSR 28 JUN 100.4 74.0 792 761 9.53 +1979-060C 14866 USSR 28 JUN 99.3 74.0 729 724 0.02 +1979-060D 15784 USSR 28 JUN 99.8 74.0 752 746 0.01 +1979-062A GORIZONT 2 11440 USSR 05 JUL 1435.6 11.3 35846 35708 0.14 +1979-062D 14005 USSR 05 JUL 1474.4 11.6 36555 36511 1.50 +1979-067B 11458 USSR 20 JUL 94.6 81.2 524 477 1.88 +1979-070A MOLNIYA 1-44 11474 USSR 31 JUL 717.7 63.4 39711 637 0.40 +1979-070D 11556 USSR 31 JUL 733.1 64.0 40033 1074 8.09 +1979-072A WESTAR 3 11484 US 10 AUG 1440.6 5.1 35892 35858 2.00 +1979-072C 13940 US 10 AUG 154.9 24.3 6182 173 2.15 +1979-077A COSMOS 1124 11509 USSR 28 AUG 716.7 67.3 35297 5001 0.70 +1979-077D 11550 USSR 28 AUG 723.9 67.2 35729 4925 0.40 +1979-077E 12814 USSR 28 AUG 720.2 68.3 38472 2001 0.93 +1979-077F 12815 USSR 28 AUG 715.4 67.0 35667 4571 3.77 +1979-077G 12816 USSR 28 AUG 686.5 63.6 36895 1904 0.00 +1979-077H 12817 USSR 28 AUG 720.7 68.4 37999 2497 10.00 +1979-078A COSMOS 1125 11510 USSR 28 AUG 100.6 74.0 797 777 2.98 +1979-078B 11511 USSR 28 AUG 100.4 74.0 790 766 12.53 +1979-078C 14805 USSR 28 AUG 99.4 74.1 730 725 0.02 +1979-078D 14806 USSR 28 AUG 100.4 74.0 779 771 0.01 +1979-078E 18650 USSR 28 AUG 99.3 74.1 727 718 0.01 +1979-084A COSMOS 1130 11538 USSR 25 SEP 114.6 74.0 1478 1395 0.51 +1979-084B COSMOS 1131 11539 USSR 25 SEP 114.8 74.0 1481 1408 0.61 +1979-084C COSMOS 1132 11540 USSR 25 SEP 114.9 74.0 1480 1423 0.76 +1979-084D COSMOS 1133 11541 USSR 25 SEP 115.1 74.0 1481 1437 0.81 +1979-084E COSMOS 1134 11542 USSR 25 SEP 115.3 74.0 1481 1452 0.36 +1979-084F COSMOS 1135 11543 USSR 25 SEP 115.4 74.0 1490 1460 0.92 +1979-084G COSMOS 1136 11544 USSR 25 SEP 115.6 74.0 1495 1470 0.89 +1979-084H COSMOS 1137 11545 USSR 25 SEP 115.8 74.0 1512 1470 0.73 +1979-084J 11546 USSR 25 SEP 117.8 74.0 1682 1480 7.76 +1979-086A 11558 US 01 OCT NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1979-086C 11560 US 01 OCT NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1979-087A EKRAN 4 11561 USSR 03 OCT 1435.4 11.3 35807 35740 0.14 +1979-087C 17939 USSR 03 OCT 1433.3 11.4 35902 35562 0.14 +1979-089A COSMOS 1140 11573 USSR 11 OCT 100.4 74.1 788 764 0.00 +1979-089B 11574 USSR 11 OCT 100.2 74.1 780 754 8.12 +1979-089C 14345 USSR 11 OCT 99.9 74.0 761 742 0.02 +1979-089D 14807 USSR 11 OCT 99.3 74.1 728 719 0.01 +1979-089E 19048 USSR 11 OCT 100.0 74.0 770 743 0.00 +1979-090A COSMOS 1141 11585 USSR 16 OCT 104.6 82.9 996 952 4.19 +1979-090B 11586 USSR 16 OCT 104.4 82.9 988 946 9.47 +1979-090C 11587 USSR 16 OCT 102.3 82.9 890 848 0.03 +1979-091A MOLNIYA 1-45 11589 USSR 20 OCT 717.4 61.8 40098 239 0.80 + + + 38 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1979-091D 11602 USSR 20 OCT 731.8 61.9 40565 477 0.70 +1979-093A COSMOS 1143 11600 USSR 26 OCT 95.2 81.3 535 525 26.39 +1979-093B 11601 USSR 26 OCT 95.7 81.2 581 526 13.67 +1979-095A METEOR 2-5 11605 USSR 31 OCT 102.4 81.2 879 861 5.21 +1979-095B 11608 USSR 31 OCT 102.4 81.2 913 833 16.88 +1979-098A 11621 US 21 NOV 1451.3 9.1 36089 36079 0.14 +1979-098B 11622 US 21 NOV 1436.2 9.2 35806 35770 0.14 +1979-098C 11623 US 21 NOV 1510.8 10.6 38546 35926 0.31 +1979-099A COSMOS 1145 11629 USSR 27 NOV 94.5 81.2 498 486 31.99 +1979-099B 11630 USSR 27 NOV 95.5 81.2 573 509 8.78 +1979-101A RCA SATCOM III 11635 US 07 DEC 788.9 8.1 35474 8334 0.10 +1979-105A GORIZONT 3 11648 USSR 28 DEC 1437.1 11.0 35831 35779 0.14 +1979-105E 11684 USSR 28 DEC 1459.2 11.2 36314 36161 2.00 + +1980 LAUNCHES + +1980-003A COSMOS 1150 11667 USSR 14 JAN 104.8 83.0 1011 961 4.71 +1980-003B 11668 USSR 14 JAN 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114.7 74.0 1459 1426 0.59 +1988-016G COSMOS 1930 18943 USSR 11 MAR 114.6 74.0 1458 1411 0.73 +1988-016H COSMOS 1931 18944 USSR 11 MAR 114.4 74.0 1459 1395 0.60 +1988-016J 18945 USSR 11 MAR 117.6 74.0 1685 1461 10.44 +1988-016K 19451 USSR 11 MAR 117.5 74.0 1678 1460 0.03 +1988-017A MOLNIYA 1-71 18946 USSR 11 MAR 717.7 63.7 39086 1264 0.90 +1988-017D 18949 USSR 11 MAR 695.6 63.9 38013 1240 6.30 +1988-018A SPACENET 3R 18951 US 11 MAR 1436.1 0.0 35789 35784 29.50 +1988-018B TELECOM 1C 18952 FRANCE 11 MAR 1436.1 0.0 35795 35778 0.70 +1988-018C 18953 ESA 11 MAR 570.3 7.0 32539 266 0.00 +1988-019A COSMOS 1932 18957 USSR 14 MAR 104.4 65.0 1006 922 3.08 +1988-019D 19162 USSR 14 MAR 104.0 65.0 976 921 0.23 +1988-020A COSMOS 1933 18958 USSR 15 MAR 97.1 82.5 631 604 15.26 +1988-020B 18959 USSR 15 MAR 97.4 82.5 645 619 4.95 +1988-021A IRS-1A 18960 INDIA 17 MAR 103.1 98.8 913 894 10.37 +1988-021B 18961 USSR 17 MAR 102.8 98.8 929 849 6.21 +1988-022A MOLNIYA 1-72 18980 USSR 17 MAR 717.8 64.8 38208 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MAY 1436.1 0.0 35794 35779 369.10 +1988-040B 19122 ESA 17 MAY 633.9 7.8 35641 491 2.50 +1988-043A COSMOS 1946 19163 USSR 21 MAY 675.7 65.0 19147 19110 0.00 +1988-043B COSMOS 1947 19164 USSR 21 MAY 675.7 65.0 19142 19116 0.70 +1988-043C COSMOS 1948 19165 USSR 21 MAY 675.7 64.9 19139 19119 0.60 +1988-043F 19168 USSR 21 MAY 674.5 65.0 19107 19088 0.00 +1988-043G 19169 USSR 21 MAY 339.8 65.3 18771 734 1.34 +1988-043H 19170 USSR 21 MAY 339.9 65.3 18726 783 1.85 +1988-044A MOLNIYA 3-32 19189 USSR 26 MAY 714.1 64.7 38110 2061 0.70 +1988-044B 19190 USSR 26 MAY 732.9 64.8 38743 2357 0.60 +1988-046A COSMOS 1950 19195 USSR 30 MAY 116.0 73.6 1519 1482 30.11 +1988-046B 19196 USSR 30 MAY 116.0 73.6 1514 1482 2.30 +1988-050A COSMOS 1953 19210 USSR 14 JUN 97.1 82.5 638 604 11.92 +1988-050B 19211 USSR 14 JUN 97.4 82.5 651 615 7.99 +1988-051A METEOSAT 19215 ESA 15 JUN 1436.0 1.1 35794 35773 1.20 +1988-051B OSCAR 13 19216 US 15 JUN 686.6 57.8 37994 810 0.20 +1988-051C PAS-1 19217 US 15 JUN 1436.1 0.0 35792 35783 4.50 +1988-051D 19218 ESA 15 JUN 167.3 10.1 7223 135 2.50 +1988-051E 19219 ESA 15 JUN 592.7 9.9 33716 274 0.20 +1988-051F 19220 ESA 15 JUN 417.1 10.0 23963 265 0.20 +1988-051G 19857 ESA 15 JUN 631.4 6.4 35384 617 1.77 + + + 67 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1988-051H 19951 ESA 15 JUN 633.0 7.9 35303 783 0.31 +1988-052A 19223 US 16 JUN 108.9 90.0 1199 1149 0.00 +1988-053A COSMOS 1954 19256 USSR 21 JUN 100.5 74.0 797 771 2.24 +1988-053B 19257 USSR 21 JUN 100.4 74.1 794 760 6.11 +1988-053C 19260 USSR 21 JUN 100.3 74.1 781 767 0.02 +1988-053D 19261 USSR 21 JUN 100.4 74.1 786 766 0.01 +1988-056A OKEAN 1 19274 USSR 05 JUL 97.1 82.5 634 605 14.10 +1988-056B 19275 USSR 05 JUL 97.4 82.5 650 619 6.43 +1988-058A PHOBOS 1 19281 USSR 07 JUL MARS ORBIT +1988-058B 19282 USSR 07 JUL HELIOCENTRIC ORBIT +1988-059A PHOBOS 2 19287 USSR 12 JUL MARS ORBIT 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19380 USSR 12 AUG 730.8 65.1 39308 1688 0.50 +1988-071A GORIZONT 16 19397 USSR 18 AUG 1440.6 3.1 35922 35824 8.00 +1988-071D 19400 USSR 18 AUG 1432.4 3.1 35791 35636 2.00 +1988-071E 19401 USSR 18 AUG 600.1 46.7 34244 131 10.00 +1988-071F 19402 USSR 18 AUG 231.9 46.7 12076 171 1.00 +1988-074A 19419 US 25 AUG 107.3 89.9 1175 1030 1.88 +1988-074B 19420 US 25 AUG 107.3 89.9 1173 1031 2.37 +1988-074C 19421 US 25 AUG 107.3 89.9 1175 1032 0.98 +1988-074D 19515 US 25 AUG 107.2 89.8 1166 1022 0.08 +1988-074E 19516 US 25 AUG 107.1 89.9 1160 1024 0.02 +1988-074F 19559 US 25 AUG 107.2 89.4 1167 1025 0.03 +1988-074G 19577 US 25 AUG 107.2 90.5 1165 1031 0.05 +1988-076A COSMOS 1966 19445 USSR 30 AUG 718.8 67.2 37970 2436 0.70 +1988-076D 19448 USSR 30 AUG 705.5 67.4 37374 2374 0.70 +1988-077A 19458 US 02 SEP NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1988-077B 19459 US 02 SEP NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1988-077C 19490 US 02 SEP NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1988-077D 22668 US 02 SEP NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1988-077E 22669 US 02 SEP NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1988-077F 22818 US 02 SEP NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1988-078A 19460 US 05 SEP NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1988-078B 19461 US 05 SEP NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1988-080A FENGYUN 1 19467 PRC 06 SEP 102.7 99.3 937 832 11.84 +1988-080B 19468 PRC 06 SEP 102.7 99.3 895 873 0.00 + + + 68 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1988-081A GSTAR 3 19483 US 08 SEP 1436.0 5.2 35804 35768 0.00 +1988-081B SBS 5 19484 US 08 SEP 1436.1 0.0 35796 35779 8.10 +1988-081C 19485 ESA 08 SEP 414.0 7.3 23767 274 2.90 +1988-085A COSMOS 1970 19501 USSR 16 SEP 675.7 65.7 19159 19099 0.40 +1988-085B COSMOS 1971 19502 USSR 16 SEP 675.7 65.7 19157 19101 0.30 +1988-085C COSMOS 1972 19503 USSR 16 SEP 675.7 65.7 19135 19123 0.60 +1988-085E 19505 USSR 16 SEP 674.9 65.7 19133 19083 25.10 +1988-085F 19535 USSR 16 SEP 339.2 65.4 18761 704 0.10 +1988-085G 19537 USSR 16 SEP 339.2 65.3 18706 761 1.48 +1988-085H 21751 USSR 16 SEP 211.8 64.5 10224 558 0.25 +1988-086A CS-3B 19508 JAPAN 16 SEP 1436.1 0.0 35792 35785 0.14 +1988-086C 19558 JAPAN 16 SEP 629.3 27.9 35800 95 0.00 +1988-089A NOAA 11 19531 US 24 SEP 101.9 99.1 857 840 17.24 +1988-089B 19532 US 24 SEP 97.8 98.9 656 650 0.06 +1988-090A MOLNIYA 3-33 19541 USSR 29 SEP 716.5 65.0 38441 1847 0.50 +1988-090D 19544 USSR 29 SEP 698.1 64.8 37560 1821 0.80 +1988-091B TDRS 3 19548 US 29 SEP 1436.1 0.4 35796 35780 187.90 1* +1988-091C 19549 US 29 SEP 601.2 26.4 34121 316 1.00 +1988-091D 19550 US 29 SEP 1433.0 2.3 35815 35637 1.20 +1988-092A COSMOS 1974 19554 USSR 03 OCT 718.6 64.1 37324 3071 2.20 +1988-092D 19557 USSR 03 OCT 705.4 64.3 36781 2961 0.70 +1988-093A COSMOS 1975 19573 USSR 11 OCT 97.1 82.5 637 603 16.02 +1988-093B 19574 USSR 11 OCT 97.4 82.5 651 615 5.16 +1988-093C 20471 USSR 11 OCT 96.0 82.5 581 555 0.12 +1988-095A RADUGA 22 19596 USSR 20 OCT 1436.0 2.9 35792 35777 0.14 +1988-095D 19600 USSR 20 OCT 602.6 46.6 34363 144 0.50 +1988-095E 19601 USSR 20 OCT 545.2 46.6 31321 138 0.50 +1988-095F 19777 USSR 20 OCT 1470.3 3.0 36518 36389 2.50 +1988-096A COSMOS 1977 19608 USSR 25 OCT 717.7 64.7 37085 3263 0.00 +1988-096D 19611 USSR 25 OCT 704.9 65.1 36630 3086 1.50 +1988-098A TDF-1 19621 FRANCE 28 OCT 1436.2 0.1 35790 35786 3.20 +1988-098B 19622 ESA 28 OCT 557.6 4.0 31835 289 1.20 +1988-098C 20132 ESA 26 OCT 339.9 3.8 19195 313 1.20 +1988-099A 19625 US 06 NOV NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1988-099B 19626 US 06 NOV NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1988-102A COSMOS 1980 19649 USSR 23 NOV 101.8 71.0 849 841 17.69 +1988-102B 19650 USSR 23 NOV 101.7 71.0 850 831 20.45 +1988-102C 19656 USSR 23 NOV 105.1 71.0 1159 841 0.04 +1988-102D 19657 USSR 23 NOV 105.1 71.0 1156 840 0.10 +1988-102E 19658 USSR 23 NOV 104.9 71.0 1136 841 0.10 +1988-102F 19659 USSR 23 NOV 104.7 71.0 1119 841 0.03 +1988-102H 19813 USSR 23 NOV 105.1 71.0 1162 839 0.00 +1988-102J 20301 USSR 23 NOV 101.9 71.0 858 835 0.13 +1988-106B 19671 US 02 DEC NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE 1* +1988-108A EKRAN 19 19683 USSR 08 DEC 1436.2 2.8 35799 35777 0.14 +1988-108D 19686 USSR 08 DEC 1418.5 2.8 35501 35383 2.00 +1988-109A SKYNET 4B 19687 UK 11 DEC 1436.1 1.2 36017 35553 7.20 +1988-109B ASTRA 1A 19688 LUXBRG 11 DEC 1436.1 0.0 35826 35745 0.00 +1988-109C 19689 ESA 11 DEC 638.4 7.1 35917 447 1.50 +1988-109D 19690 ESA 11 DEC 128.1 7.0 3930 151 0.20 +1988-111A PRC 25 19710 PRC 22 DEC 1436.2 0.0 35792 35783 0.14 +1988-112A MOLNIYA 3-34 19713 USSR 22 DEC 718.2 63.9 39472 901 0.00 + + + 69 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1988-112D 19716 USSR 22 DEC 696.1 63.9 38458 823 0.60 +1988-113H 19764 USSR 23 DEC 94.0 73.5 475 465 5.19 +1988-115A MOLNIYA 1-74 19730 USSR 28 DEC 717.9 64.9 39026 1336 0.80 +1988-115D 19733 USSR 28 DEC 695.7 64.9 37883 1375 0.60 + +1989 LAUNCHES + +1989-001A COSMOS 1987 19749 USSR 10 JAN 675.7 64.9 19143 19116 0.20 +1989-001B COSMOS 1988 19750 USSR 10 JAN 675.7 64.9 19146 19112 1.00 +1989-001C COSMOS 1989 19751 USSR 10 JAN 675.5 64.9 19152 19097 0.10 +1989-001E 19753 USSR 10 JAN 675.5 64.9 19152 19097 0.14 +1989-001F 19754 USSR 10 JAN 674.7 65.0 19147 19060 2.50 +1989-001G 19755 USSR 10 JAN 339.6 65.4 18736 755 1.41 +1989-001H 19856 USSR 10 JAN 339.6 65.4 18763 727 1.46 +1989-004A GORIZONT 17 19765 USSR 26 JAN 1436.1 2.7 35790 35782 0.14 +1989-004E 19771 USSR 26 JAN 279.8 46.7 15390 195 0.10 +1989-004F 19776 USSR 26 JAN 1469.5 2.7 36533 36341 20.00 +1989-005A COSMOS 1992 19769 USSR 26 JAN 100.5 74.0 797 765 3.78 +1989-005B 19770 USSR 26 JAN 100.3 74.0 776 768 9.06 +1989-005C 19831 USSR 26 JAN 100.3 74.1 784 758 0.01 +1989-005D 19945 USSR 26 JAN 100.5 74.1 803 764 0.01 +1989-006A INTELSAT 5A F-15 19772 ITSO 27 JAN 1436.2 0.0 35800 35777 385.50 +1989-006B 19773 ESA 27 JAN 636.9 8.5 35762 521 1.00 +1989-009A COSMOS 1994 19785 USSR 10 FEB 113.9 82.6 1414 1392 2.00 +1989-009B COSMOS 1995 19786 USSR 10 FEB 114.1 82.6 1413 1411 1.95 +1989-009C COSMOS 1996 19787 USSR 10 FEB 114.0 82.6 1414 1404 1.69 +1989-009D COSMOS 1997 19788 USSR 10 FEB 113.9 82.6 1414 1398 1.99 +1989-009E COSMOS 1998 19789 USSR 10 FEB 113.8 82.6 1414 1387 1.94 +1989-009F COSMOS 1999 19790 USSR 10 FEB 113.7 82.6 1413 1381 1.98 +1989-009G 19791 USSR 10 FEB 114.7 82.6 1470 1413 4.36 +1989-011A COSMOS 2001 19796 USSR 14 FEB 719.1 66.5 38001 2415 3.30 +1989-011D 19799 USSR 14 FEB 705.7 67.1 37447 2310 0.20 +1989-013A 19802 US 14 FEB 718.0 55.1 20277 20086 0.50 +1989-014A MOLNIYA 1-75 19807 USSR 15 FEB 717.7 63.4 38198 2150 0.50 +1989-014D 19810 USSR 15 FEB 694.4 63.5 37196 1999 0.70 +1989-016A EXOS-D 19822 JAPAN 21 FEB 186.6 75.1 8608 269 5.89 +1989-016C 19824 JAPAN 21 FEB 171.3 75.1 7403 270 0.73 +1989-016K 19952 JAPAN 21 FEB 137.3 75.6 4628 250 0.03 +1989-016M 19963 JAPAN 21 FEB 160.4 75.1 6546 256 0.00 +1989-016N 20021 JAPAN 21 FEB 148.6 74.4 5560 271 0.22 +1989-016P 20034 JAPAN 21 FEB 89.8 74.8 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28 NOV 92.8 82.5 423 399 0.12 +1990-105A 20978 US 01 DEC 100.5 98.7 837 724 9.15 +1990-105B 20979 US 01 DEC 97.6 98.8 678 608 0.06 +1990-105M 20998 US 01 DEC 96.4 98.9 675 496 0.00 +1990-105S 21073 US 01 DEC 98.0 98.8 702 625 0.02 +1990-105Z 21080 US 01 DEC 99.3 98.8 771 682 0.15 +1990-105AA 21124 US 01 DEC 94.6 98.8 533 462 0.07 +1990-105AB 21125 US 01 DEC 95.7 98.9 614 491 0.05 +1990-105AE 21690 US 01 DEC 99.0 98.8 751 667 0.21 +1990-110A COSMOS 2109 21006 USSR 08 DEC 675.7 64.9 19283 18975 0.50 +1990-110B COSMOS 2110 21007 USSR 08 DEC 675.7 64.9 19224 19034 0.40 +1990-110C COSMOS 2111 21008 USSR 08 DEC 675.7 64.9 19149 19109 0.20 +1990-110F 21011 USSR 08 DEC 675.2 64.9 19131 19102 3.10 +1990-110G 21012 USSR 08 DEC 340.1 65.3 18797 723 1.30 +1990-110H 21013 USSR 08 DEC 340.1 65.2 18792 728 0.00 +1990-111A COSMOS 2112 21014 USSR 10 DEC 100.6 74.0 806 766 3.13 +1990-111B 21015 USSR 10 DEC 100.5 74.1 797 766 9.92 +1990-111C 21255 USSR 10 DEC 100.6 74.0 800 776 0.01 +1990-112A RADUGA 26 21016 USSR 20 DEC 1436.3 0.9 35806 35772 10.00 +1990-112D 21019 USSR 20 DEC 1439.7 0.9 35969 35744 1.20 +1990-112F 21025 USSR 20 DEC 458.3 46.7 26389 237 0.83 +1990-114A COSMOS 2114 21028 USSR 22 DEC 114.0 82.6 1413 1406 1.98 +1990-114B COSMOS 2115 21029 USSR 22 DEC 113.9 82.6 1407 1405 2.22 +1990-114C COSMOS 2116 21030 USSR 22 DEC 113.9 82.6 1406 1400 1.51 +1990-114D COSMOS 2117 21031 USSR 22 DEC 113.8 82.6 1406 1394 1.84 +1990-114E COSMOS 2118 21032 USSR 22 DEC 113.7 82.6 1406 1390 1.83 +1990-114F COSMOS 2119 21033 USSR 22 DEC 113.7 82.6 1406 1383 1.88 +1990-114G 21034 USSR 22 DEC 114.6 82.6 1471 1406 9.64 +1990-116A RADUGA 1-2 21038 USSR 27 DEC 1436.2 0.9 35791 35786 0.00 +1990-116D 21041 USSR 27 DEC 1470.2 0.9 36590 36313 0.31 +1990-116F 21045 USSR 27 DEC 272.0 46.6 14885 171 0.10 +1990-116G 21961 USSR 27 DEC 308.9 46.6 17339 179 1.16 + + + + 77 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + + +1991 LAUNCHES + +1991-001A NATO IVA 21047 NATO 08 JAN 1436.2 2.7 35798 35777 42.10 +1991-001B 21048 NATO 08 JAN 121.6 18.4 2723 785 14.16 +1991-001C 21049 NATO 08 JAN 635.9 26.0 35463 772 0.30 +1991-003A ITALSAT-1 21055 ITALY 15 JAN 1436.1 0.1 36641 34932 10.00 +1991-003B EUTELSAT 21056 ESA 15 JAN 1435.9 0.1 36646 34919 63.10 +1991-003C 21057 ESA 15 JAN 569.9 6.7 32525 254 2.00 +1991-003D 21058 ESA 15 JAN 437.6 6.7 25188 240 1.00 +1991-006A INFORMTR-1 21087 USSR 29 JAN 104.7 82.9 1007 953 4.51 +1991-006B 21088 USSR 29 JAN 104.6 82.9 994 955 10.93 +1991-007A COSMOS 2123 21089 USSR 05 FEB 104.7 82.9 1004 960 3.10 +1991-007B 21090 USSR 05 FEB 104.6 82.9 993 961 12.22 +1991-007C 21091 USSR 05 FEB 104.6 82.9 994 953 0.01 +1991-009A COSMOS 2125 21100 USSR 12 FEB 115.2 74.0 1471 1455 0.91 +1991-009B COSMOS 2126 21101 USSR 12 FEB 115.5 74.0 1494 1464 0.81 +1991-009C COSMOS 2127 21102 USSR 12 FEB 115.3 74.0 1476 1464 0.91 +1991-009D COSMOS 2128 21103 USSR 12 FEB 115.0 74.0 1466 1443 0.89 +1991-009E COSMOS 2129 21104 USSR 12 FEB 114.8 74.0 1466 1428 0.78 +1991-009F COSMOS 2130 21105 USSR 12 FEB 114.5 74.0 1466 1399 0.56 +1991-009G COSMOS 2131 21106 USSR 12 FEB 114.3 74.0 1465 1385 0.87 +1991-009H COSMOS 2132 21107 USSR 12 FEB 114.7 74.0 1466 1414 0.87 +1991-009J TO 009CJ USSR 12 FEB SEE NOTE 36* 36* +1991-010A COSMOS 2133 21111 USSR 14 FEB 1436.2 0.5 35798 35779 37.00 +1991-010D 21114 USSR 14 FEB 400.4 46.5 23045 188 0.10 +1991-010F 21129 USSR 14 FEB 1438.2 0.5 35899 35755 0.31 +1991-012A MOLNIYA 1-80 21118 USSR 15 FEB 717.8 63.2 38642 1713 0.00 +1991-012D 21121 USSR 15 FEB 700.5 63.1 37829 1671 0.50 +1991-012E 21122 USSR 15 FEB 588.3 47.2 33331 424 0.10 +1991-013A COSMOS 2135 21130 USSR 26 FEB 104.5 82.8 1017 920 4.00 +1991-013B 21131 USSR 26 FEB 104.3 82.8 1010 917 8.95 +1991-014A RADUGA 27 21132 USSR 28 FEB 1436.1 0.9 35810 35763 1.00 +1991-014D 21135 USSR 28 FEB 1392.2 0.9 35027 34819 2.00 +1991-015A ASTRA 1-B 21139 LUXEM 02 MAR 1436.1 0.0 35811 35760 19.90 +1991-015B MOP-2 21140 ESA 02 MAR 1436.1 0.2 35794 35780 0.80 +1991-015C 21141 ESA 02 MAR 533.7 6.8 30608 227 1.10 +1991-015D 21142 ESA 02 MAR 365.2 6.8 20879 213 0.30 +1991-015E 21904 ESA 02 MAR 1438.2 1.3 36463 35192 0.02 +1991-017A 21147 US 08 MAR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1991-017B 21148 US 08 MAR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1991-018A INMARSAT-2 21149 UK 08 MAR 1436.2 2.1 35793 35782 0.80 +1991-018B 21150 US 08 MAR 99.3 25.0 1047 406 12.04 +1991-018C 21151 US 08 MAR 514.9 23.5 29592 212 0.10 +1991-019A NADEZHDA 21152 USSR 12 MAR 104.8 82.9 1014 954 3.83 +1991-019B 21153 USSR 12 MAR 104.7 82.9 1005 952 4.90 +1991-021A COSMOS 2137 21190 USSR 19 MAR 92.0 65.8 377 364 2.73 +1991-021B 21191 USSR 19 MAR 90.1 65.8 283 274 11.05 +1991-022A MOLNIYA 3-40 21196 USSR 22 MAR 717.8 63.1 38643 1709 0.90 +1991-022D 21199 USSR 22 MAR 700.2 63.2 37789 1693 0.70 +1991-025A COSMOS 2139 21216 USSR 04 APR 675.7 65.1 19156 19102 1.50 +1991-025B COSMOS 2140 21217 USSR 04 APR 675.7 65.1 19160 19098 0.30 + + + 78 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1991-025C COSMOS 2141 21218 USSR 04 APR 675.7 65.1 19149 19109 0.20 +1991-025E 21221 USSR 04 APR 675.5 65.1 19134 19114 2.50 +1991-025F 21220 USSR 04 APR 339.3 65.0 18892 580 0.10 +1991-025G 21226 USSR 04 APR 339.2 64.9 18892 575 0.10 +1991-026A ANIK E-2 21222 CANADA 05 APR 1436.2 0.0 35801 35776 100.00 +1991-026B 21223 ESA 05 APR 634.7 4.2 35744 428 2.00 +1991-027B GRO 21225 US 05 APR 91.3 28.4 343 336 69.18 +1991-028A ASC 2 SPACENET 4 21227 US 13 APR 1436.0 0.0 35790 35782 22.50 +1991-028B 21228 US 13 APR 115.5 24.0 2396 560 0.00 +1991-028C 21229 US 13 APR 655.6 21.7 35913 1327 0.40 +1991-029A COSMOS 2142 21230 USSR 16 APR 104.9 83.0 1015 960 3.15 +1991-029B 21231 USSR 16 APR 104.7 82.9 1005 954 10.12 +1991-030A METEOR 3-4 21232 USSR 24 APR 109.3 82.5 1206 1184 16.19 +1991-030B 21233 USSR 24 APR 109.3 82.5 1209 1183 6.53 +1991-031C 21262 US 28 APR NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE 1* +1991-032A NOAA 12 21263 US 14 MAY 101.2 98.6 823 806 0.00 +1991-032B 21267 US 14 MAY 100.5 98.7 784 778 0.07 +1991-032C 21298 US 14 MAY 100.5 98.7 785 779 0.00 +1991-033A COSMOS 2143 21299 USSR 16 MAY 113.9 82.6 1412 1397 2.09 +1991-033B COSMOS 2144 21300 USSR 16 MAY 114.0 82.6 1413 1409 1.84 +1991-033C COSMOS 2145 21301 USSR 16 MAY 114.0 82.6 1412 1403 2.04 +1991-033D COSMOS 2146 21302 USSR 16 MAY 113.8 82.6 1412 1392 1.04 +1991-033E COSMOS 2147 21303 USSR 16 MAY 113.8 82.6 1412 1387 2.06 +1991-033F COSMOS 2148 21304 USSR 16 MAY 113.7 82.6 1412 1381 2.59 +1991-033G 21305 USSR 16 MAY 114.7 82.6 1472 1412 4.22 +1991-035C 21479 USSR 21 MAY 85.8 82.2 90 65 0.00 +1991-037A AURORA-II 21392 US 29 MAY 1436.1 0.0 35800 35773 5.20 +1991-037B 21393 US 29 MAY 112.4 25.0 2269 405 0.00 +1991-037C 21394 US 29 MAY 648.8 23.4 35449 1443 0.20 +1991-039A OKEAN 3 21397 USSR 04 JUN 97.5 82.5 656 621 17.98 +1991-039B 21398 USSR 04 JUN 97.6 82.5 660 625 8.42 +1991-039C 21842 USSR 04 JUN 97.2 82.5 642 610 0.12 +1991-041A COSMOS 2150 21418 USSR 11 JUN 100.7 74.0 803 779 0.00 +1991-041B 21419 USSR 11 JUN 100.6 74.0 798 775 10.27 +1991-041C 21420 USSR 11 JUN 100.8 74.1 802 791 0.03 +1991-041D 21711 USSR 11 JUN 100.6 74.0 796 774 0.01 +1991-042A COSMOS 2151 21422 USSR 13 JUN 97.5 82.5 654 625 15.10 +1991-042B 21423 USSR 13 JUN 97.6 82.5 657 627 5.88 +1991-043A MOLNIYA 1-81 21426 USSR 18 JUN 717.7 63.4 38971 1380 0.30 +1991-043D 21429 USSR 18 JUN 732.2 63.4 39671 1394 0.50 +1991-045A REX 21527 US 29 JUN 101.3 89.6 870 766 0.36 +1991-045B 21528 US 29 JUN 101.1 89.6 855 763 0.00 +1991-045C 21529 US 29 JUN 101.2 89.6 870 764 1.00 +1991-045D 21532 US 29 JUN 101.2 89.5 872 757 0.06 +1991-045E 21691 US 29 JUN 100.4 89.9 791 762 0.07 +1991-045F 21712 US 29 JUN 101.9 89.3 957 738 0.08 +1991-046A GORIZONT 23 21533 USSR 02 JUL 1455.9 0.4 36201 36146 10.00 +1991-046D 21536 USSR 02 JUL 1426.8 0.4 35669 35538 2.00 +1991-046E 21538 USSR 02 JUL 469.2 47.0 26984 264 0.10 +1991-047A 21552 US 04 JUL 718.0 55.6 20314 20052 0.10 +1991-047D 21555 US 04 JUL 224.0 34.5 11501 177 0.20 +1991-050A ERS-1 21574 ESA 17 JUL 100.5 98.6 782 779 17.55 + + + 79 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1991-050B UOSAT-F 21575 UK 17 JUL 100.2 98.5 771 760 0.19 +1991-050C ORBCOMM-X 21576 US 17 JUL 100.2 98.5 771 765 0.25 +1991-050D TUBSAT 21577 FRG 17 JUL 100.2 98.5 772 762 0.48 +1991-050E SARA 21578 FRANCE 17 JUL 100.0 98.5 764 756 1.32 +1991-050F 21610 ESA 17 JUL 100.3 98.4 775 771 16.39 +1991-053A MOLNIYA 1-82 21630 USSR 01 AUG 717.7 64.4 39608 744 0.50 +1991-053D 21633 USSR 01 AUG 733.1 64.6 40381 726 0.70 +1991-054B TDRS-5 21639 US 02 AUG 1436.2 0.0 35795 35782 0.31 1* +1991-054C 21640 US 02 AUG 616.7 26.5 34983 258 0.50 +1991-054D 21641 US 02 AUG 1435.6 1.7 35939 35613 1.00 +1991-054E 21642 US 02 AUG 618.8 27.0 35079 271 1.00 +1991-055A INTELSAT 6 F-5 21653 ITSO 14 AUG 1436.1 0.0 35788 35787 0.00 +1991-055B 21654 ESA 14 AUG 587.1 6.8 33436 257 1.50 +1991-056A METEOR 3-5 21655 USSR 15 AUG 109.3 82.6 1204 1183 6.85 +1991-056B 21656 USSR 15 AUG 109.3 82.6 1203 1183 5.50 +1991-059A COSMOS 2154 21666 USSR 22 AUG 104.8 82.9 1004 969 1.81 +1991-059B 21667 USSR 22 AUG 104.7 82.9 999 962 10.97 +1991-060A BS-3B 21668 JAPAN 25 AUG 1436.1 0.0 35801 35774 1.60 +1991-061A 21688 INDIA 29 AUG 103.1 99.1 918 889 4.01 +1991-061B 21689 INDIA 29 AUG 102.8 99.2 914 864 11.18 +1991-062A SOLAR-A 21694 JAPAN 30 AUG 97.5 31.3 756 517 10.18 +1991-062B 21695 JAPAN 30 AUG 97.5 31.3 759 515 3.01 +1991-062F 21699 JAPAN 30 AUG 93.7 31.4 487 420 0.05 +1991-062H 21802 JAPAN 30 AUG 97.3 31.5 707 553 0.06 +1991-063B UARS 21701 US 12 SEP 96.2 56.9 593 568 56.03 1* +1991-064A COSMOS 2155 21702 USSR 13 SEP 1437.0 0.4 35825 35781 0.90 +1991-064B 21703 USSR 13 SEP 1441.7 0.4 35904 35887 1.90 +1991-065A MOLNIYA 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22643 USSR 28 APR 92.7 65.0 418 400 24.71 +1993-030A COSMOS 2245 22646 USSR 11 MAY 113.9 82.6 1415 1393 1.60 +1993-030B COSMOS 2246 22647 USSR 11 MAY 113.9 82.6 1416 1396 1.60 +1993-030C COSMOS 2247 22648 USSR 11 MAY 114.0 82.6 1416 1399 0.00 +1993-030D COSMOS 2248 22649 USSR 11 MAY 113.9 82.6 1415 1397 0.00 +1993-030E COSMOS 2249 22650 USSR 11 MAY 114.0 82.6 1416 1400 0.00 +1993-030F COSMOS 2250 22651 USSR 11 MAY 114.0 82.6 1416 1399 1.61 +1993-030G 22652 USSR 11 MAY 114.0 82.6 1416 1399 0.00 +1993-031A ASTRA-1C 22653 LUX 12 MAY 1435.6 0.1 35835 35718 0.00 +1993-031B ARASENE 22654 FRANCE 12 MAY 1012.7 1.3 36830 17224 0.00 +1993-031C 22655 LUX 12 MAY 638.7 5.5 36064 314 0.00 +1993-031D 22656 LUX 12 MAY 616.3 5.5 34963 258 0.00 +1993-032A USA 91 22657 US 13 MAY 717.9 55.0 20342 20020 1.58 +1993-032B 22658 US 13 MAY 96.8 21.9 734 477 0.00 +1993-032C 22659 US 13 MAY 347.4 34.9 19774 205 3.16 +1993-034C 22708 USSR 22 MAY 92.0 51.6 375 367 0.00 +1993-035A MOLNIYA 1-86 22671 USSR 26 MAY 717.7 62.9 39743 609 0.00 +1993-035D 22674 USSR 26 MAY 733.0 62.8 40499 605 0.00 +1993-036A COSMOS 2251 22675 USSR 16 JUN 100.7 74.0 803 779 0.00 +1993-036B 22676 USSR 16 JUN 100.6 74.0 798 774 0.00 +1993-038A COSMOS 2252 22687 USSR 24 JUN 114.0 82.6 1414 1400 0.00 +1993-038B COSMOS 2253 22688 USSR 24 JUN 114.1 82.6 1424 1405 0.00 +1993-038C COSMOS 2254 22689 USSR 24 JUN 113.8 82.6 1411 1390 0.00 +1993-038D COSMOS 2255 22690 USSR 24 JUN 113.9 82.6 1413 1401 0.00 +1993-038E COSMOS 2256 22691 USSR 24 JUN 113.9 82.6 1411 1398 0.00 +1993-038F COSMOS 2257 22692 USSR 24 JUN 114.0 82.6 1418 1404 0.00 +1993-038G 22693 USSR 24 JUN 114.7 82.6 1479 1405 0.00 +1993-039A GALAXY 4 22694 US 25 JUN 1437.1 0.1 35911 35700 0.00 +1993-041A RADCAL 22698 US 25 JUN 101.3 89.6 883 752 0.00 + + + 86 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1993-041B 22699 US 25 JUN 101.3 89.6 887 752 0.00 +1993-041C 22706 US 25 JUN 100.7 89.3 817 765 0.00 +1993-041D 22707 US 25 JUN 101.8 89.9 959 724 0.00 +1993-042A USA 92 22700 US 26 JUN 718.0 54.7 20248 20115 0.00 +1993-042C 22702 US 26 JUN 344.9 34.7 19636 190 0.00 +1993-043A SOYUZ TM-17 22704 USSR 01 JUL 92.3 51.6 391 385 0.00 +1993-044A COSMOS 2258 22709 USSR 07 JUL 92.7 65.0 416 402 0.00 +1993-046A USA 93 22719 US 19 JUL NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1993-046B 22720 US 19 JUL NO ELEMENTS AVAILABLE +1993-046C 22738 US 19 JUL NO CURRENT ELEMENTS +1993-048A HISPASAT 1B 22723 SPAIN 22 JUL 1432.8 0.1 35785 35659 0.00 +1993-048B INSAT 2B 22724 INDIA 22 JUL 1436.2 0.1 35802 35774 0.00 +1993-048C 22725 ESA 22 JUL 643.4 7.1 36284 335 0.00 +1993-048D 22726 USSR 22 JUL 622.5 7.2 35295 248 0.00 +1993-049A MOLNIYA 3-45 22729 USSR 04 AUG 717.7 62.8 39870 481 0.00 +1993-049D 22732 USSR 04 AUG 699.5 62.9 38977 473 0.00 +1993-050A NOAA 13 22739 US 09 AUG 102.0 98.9 860 846 0.00 +1993-050B 22740 US 09 AUG 102.0 98.9 860 849 0.00 +1993-050C 22801 US 09 AUG 102.0 98.9 856 849 0.00 +1993-051A COSMOS 2261 22741 USSR 10 AUG 717.8 62.9 39698 658 0.00 +1993-051B 22742 USSR 10 AUG 89.5 62.8 310 190 0.00 +1993-051D 22744 USSR 10 AUG 707.8 62.9 39199 659 0.00 +1993-052A PROGRESS M-19 22745 USSR 10 AUG 92.3 51.6 391 385 0.00 +1993-054A USA 94 22779 US 30 AUG 718.0 54.9 20257 20109 0.00 +1993-054B 22780 US 30 AUG 96.5 22.0 724 457 0.00 +1993-054C 22781 US 30 AUG 352.7 34.8 20117 196 0.00 +1993-055A METEOR 2-21 22782 USSR 31 AUG 104.1 82.5 965 935 0.00 +1993-055B TEMISAT 22783 ITALY 31 AUG 104.1 82.5 965 934 0.00 +1993-055C 22784 USSR 31 AUG 104.1 82.5 965 934 0.00 +1993-056A USA 95 22787 US 03 SEP 1436.5 5.1 36446 35140 0.00 +1993-056B 22788 US 03 SEP 272.7 27.0 14875 226 0.00 +1993-057A COSMOS 2262 22789 USSR 07 SEP 89.8 64.9 319 210 0.00 +1993-058B ACTS 22796 US 12 SEP 1437.8 0.2 35929 35709 0.00 1* +1993-058D 22797 US 12 SEP 716.3 15.6 39949 330 0.00 +1993-058E 22799 US 12 SEP 89.8 28.5 279 245 0.00 +1993-059A COSMOS 2263 22802 USSR 16 SEP 101.9 71.0 852 846 0.00 +1993-059B 22803 USSR 16 SEP 101.7 71.0 851 823 0.00 +1993-059C 22804 USSR 16 SEP 105.1 71.0 1157 842 0.00 +1993-059D 22805 USSR 16 SEP 105.2 71.0 1163 844 0.00 +1993-059E 22806 USSR 16 SEP 105.0 71.0 1143 843 0.00 +1993-059F 22807 USSR 16 SEP 105.1 71.0 1152 843 0.00 +1993-060A COSMOS 2264 22808 USSR 17 SEP 92.8 65.0 416 402 0.00 +1993-061A SPOT 3 22823 FRANCE 26 SEP 101.2 98.7 815 813 0.00 +1993-061B STELLA 22824 FRANCE 26 SEP 100.8 98.7 802 794 0.00 +1993-061C KITSAT 22825 KOREA 26 SEP 100.8 98.7 802 791 0.00 +1993-061D POSAT 1 22826 PORTUG 26 SEP 100.8 98.7 802 790 0.00 +1993-061E HEALTHSAT 22827 US 26 SEP 100.8 98.7 802 790 0.00 +1993-061F ITAMSAT 22828 ITALY 26 SEP 100.8 98.7 801 791 0.00 +1993-061G EYESAT 1 22829 US 26 SEP 100.8 98.6 822 772 0.00 +1993-061H 22830 ESA 26 SEP 100.8 98.6 803 787 0.00 +1993-062A RADUGA 30 22836 USSR 30 SEP INITIAL ELEMENTS NOT AVAILABLE +1993-062B 22837 USSR 30 SEP INITIAL ELEMENTS NOT AVAILABLE + + + 87 + + + + + OBJECTS IN ORBIT +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + +1993-062C 22838 USSR 30 SEP 88.4 51.6 198 180 0.00 +1993-062D 22839 USSR 30 SEP 1438.3 1.6 35865 35793 0.00 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 88 + + + + +INITIAL ELEMENTS OF THE OBJECTS WHICH WERE LAUNCHED/CATALOGED AND DECAYED WITHIN THE REPORTING PERIOD +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG PERIOD INCLI- APOGEE PERIGEE RCS FOOT- +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH MINUTES NATION (KM) (KM) (SQ.M) NOTES + + +1993 LAUNCHES + +1993-043B 22705 USSR 01 JUL 84.9 51.6 41 26 +1993-044B 22710 USSR 07 JUL 89.3 65.0 329 170 +1993-045A COSMOS 2259 22716 USSR 14 JUL 89.3 67.1 335 179 +1993-045B 22717 USSR 14 JUL 84.9 67.1 43 24 +1993-047A COSMOS 2260 22721 USSR 22 JUL 89.8 82.3 290 237 +1993-047B 22722 USSR 22 JUL 82.2 78.3 78 22 +1993-047C 22733 USSR 22 JUL 89.0 82.3 242 208 +1993-047D 22734 USSR 22 JUL 85.2 82.7 58 38 +1993-047E 22735 USSR 22 JUL 88.3 82.2 223 191 +1993-047F 22736 USSR 22 JUL 85.9 82.2 85 61 +1993-047G 22737 USSR 22 JUL 88.4 82.3 231 189 +1993-049B 22730 USSR 04 AUG 85.5 62.8 74 53 +1993-049C 22731 USSR 04 AUG 85.8 62.7 88 68 +1993-051C 22743 USSR 10 AUG 88.6 62.8 255 156 +1993-052B 22746 USSR 10 AUG 86.3 51.6 110 94 +1993-053A RESURS F-19 22777 USSR 24 AUG 89.0 82.6 230 217 +1993-053B 22778 USSR 24 AUG 82.5 86.4 135 86 +1993-053C 22791 USSR 24 AUG 89.7 82.5 246 225 +1993-053D 22792 USSR 24 AUG 85.2 82.5 51 15 +1993-053E 22793 USSR 24 AUG 85.1 82.5 71 10 +1993-053F 22794 USSR 24 AUG 87.0 82.5 148 123 +1993-057B 22790 USSR 07 SEP 84.8 64.8 39 19 +1993-058A STS 51 22795 US 12 SEP 90.3 28.4 318 260 +1993-058C ORFEUS SPA 22798 FRG 12 SEP 90.0 28.4 309 269 +1993-058F 22800 US 12 SEP 86.8 28.4 128 114 +1993-060B 22809 USSR 17 SEP 89.0 64.9 364 117 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 89 + + + + + OBJECTS DECAYED WITHIN THE REPORTING PERIOD +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH DECAY NOTES + +1963-014DZ 19032 US 09 MAY 27 AUG 93 +1968-097EG 15536 USSR 01 NOV 04 JUL 93 +1969-082GA 4523 US 30 SEP 26 AUG 93 +1977-057A METEOR 10113 USSR 29 JUN 28 AUG 93 +1977-082A MOLNIYA 1-38 10315 USSR 30 AUG 28 SEP 93 +1978-026DM 12268 US 05 MAR 18 JUL 93 +1980-030AQ 13932 USSR 18 APR 09 SEP 93 +1983-123A MOLNIYA 3-22 14570 USSR 21 DEC 18 AUG 93 +1986-017HA 22631 USSR 19 FEB 25 JUL 93 +1986-017HD 22677 USSR 19 FEB 09 AUG 93 +1987-020BG 19147 USSR 20 FEB 23 SEP 93 +1990-079C 20778 ESA 30 AUG 28 AUG 93 +1991-062D 21697 JAPAN 30 AUG 04 AUG 93 +1992-049B EURECA-1 22065 ESA 31 JUL 01 JUL 93 +1992-078A MSTI 22229 US 21 NOV 18 JUL 93 +1992-082E 22249 USSR 27 NOV 14 JUL 93 +1993-005A SOYUZ TM-16 22319 USSR 24 JAN 22 JUL 93 +1993-013F 22570 USSR 25 MAR 29 SEP 93 +1993-034A PROGRESS M-18 22666 USSR 22 MAY 04 JUL 93 +1993-037A STS 57 22684 US 21 JUN 01 JUL 93 +1993-040A RESURS F-18 22696 USSR 25 JUN 12 JUL 93 +1993-040C 22711 USSR 25 JUN 27 JUL 93 +1993-040D 22712 USSR 25 JUN 17 JUL 93 +1993-040E 22713 USSR 25 JUN 18 JUL 93 +1993-040F 22714 USSR 25 JUN 14 JUL 93 +1993-040G 22715 USSR 25 JUN 14 JUL 93 +1993-042B 22701 US 26 JUN 30 AUG 93 +1993-043B 22705 USSR 01 JUL 03 JUL 93 +1993-044B 22710 USSR 07 JUL 07 JUL 93 +1993-045A COSMOS 2259 22716 USSR 14 JUL 25 JUL 93 +1993-045B 22717 USSR 14 JUL 19 JUL 93 +1993-047A COSMOS 2260 22721 USSR 22 JUL 05 AUG 93 +1993-047B 22722 USSR 22 JUL 24 JUL 93 +1993-047C 22733 USSR 22 JUL 14 SEP 93 +1993-047D 22734 USSR 22 JUL 12 AUG 93 +1993-047E 22735 USSR 22 JUL 18 AUG 93 +1993-047F 22736 USSR 22 JUL 09 AUG 93 +1993-047G 22737 USSR 22 JUL 15 AUG 93 +1993-049B 22730 USSR 04 AUG 30 AUG 93 +1993-049C 22731 USSR 04 AUG 17 AUG 93 +1993-051C 22743 USSR 10 AUG 04 SEP 93 +1993-052B 22746 USSR 10 AUG 13 AUG 93 +1993-053A RESURS F-19 22777 USSR 24 AUG 10 SEP 93 +1993-053B 22778 USSR 24 AUG 27 AUG 93 +1993-053C 22791 USSR 24 AUG 12 SEP 93 +1993-053D 22792 USSR 24 AUG 24 SEP 93 +1993-053E 22793 USSR 24 AUG 15 SEP 93 +1993-053F 22794 USSR 24 AUG 13 SEP 93 +1993-057B 22790 USSR 07 SEP 11 SEP 93 +1993-058A STS 51 22795 US 12 SEP 22 SEP 93 +1993-058C ORFEUS SPA 22798 FRG 12 SEP 22 SEP 93 + + 90 + + + + + + + OBJECTS DECAYED WITHIN THE REPORTING PERIOD +INTER- +NATIONAL CATALOG +DESIGNATION NAME NUMBER SOURCE LAUNCH DECAY NOTES + +1993-058F 22800 US 12 SEP 16 SEP 93 +1993-060B 22809 USSR 17 SEP 17 SEP 93 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 91 + + + + + + + + + FOOTNOTES + + 1* DEPLOYED FROM SPACE TRANSPORTATION VEHICLE. + + 2* A MANNED SPACECRAFT WHICH SUCCESSFULLY LANDED ON THE MOON AND RETURNED TO SELENOCENTRIC ORBIT. + + 3* 297 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1961 OMICRON 1 AND 1961 OMICRON 2. + OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 + END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 4* 153 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1963-014A, 1963-014B, AND 1963-014C. + OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 + END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 5* 29 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUCHED WITH 1964-006A. OBJECTS IN THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 6* 51 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HABING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1965-027A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 7* 473 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1965-082A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 8* 43 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1967-001A. OBJECTS IN THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 9* 111 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1968-091A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 10* 139 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1968-097A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 11* 270 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1969-082A, 1969-082B, 1969-082C, + 1969-082D, 1969-082E, 1969-082F, 1969-082G, 1969-082H, 1969-082J, AND 1969-082K. OBJECTS OF THIS + SERIES THAT HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR + SUMMARY SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 12* 375 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1970-025A AND 1970-025B. OBJECTS OF + THIS SERIES THAT HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 + END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 13* 103 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1970-089A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 14* 46 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1970-091A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + + + 92 + + + + + + + FOOTNOTES + + 15* 120 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1971-015A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 16* 229 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1972-058A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 17* 198 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1973-086A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 18* 152 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1974-089A, 1974-089B, AND 1974-089C. + OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 + END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 19* 208 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1975-004A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 20* 235 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1975-052A. OBJECTS IN THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 21* 72 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1976-067A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 22* 159 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1976-077A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 23* 79 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1976-126A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 24* 172 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1977-065A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 25* 70 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1977-121A. THE OBJECT OF THIS SERIES + THAT HAS DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 26* 210 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1978-026A AND 1978-026B. OBJECTS OF + THIS SERIES THAT HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 + END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 27* 402 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1978-100A. 1978-100B, AND 1978-100C. + OBJECTS IN THIS SERIES THAT HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 + END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT + + + + + 93 + + + + + + + FOOTNOTES + + 28* 307 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1981-053A OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 29* 60 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1982-055A. OBJECTS IN THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 30* 208 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1986-017A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 31* 499 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1986-019A. OBJECTS IN THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 32* 112 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1987-020A. OBJECTS IN THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 33* 33 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1989-089A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 34* 16 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1990-065A. OBJECTS IN THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 35* 79 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1990-081A. OBJECTS IN THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 36* 73 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1991-009A. OBJECTS IN THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-THE-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 37* 230 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1992-093A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. + + 38* 31 OBJECTS HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED AS HAVING BEEN LAUNCHED WITH 1993-016A. OBJECTS OF THIS SERIES THAT + HAVE DECAYED CAN BE FOUND IN THE DECAYED OBJECTS LIST IN THE DECEMBER 31 END-OF-YEAR SUMMARY + SATELLITE SITUATION REPORT. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/sci-skep b/textfiles.com/science/sci-skep new file mode 100644 index 00000000..bcef5187 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/sci-skep @@ -0,0 +1,2811 @@ +From: paj@uk.co.gec-mrc (Paul Johnson) +Date: 23 Jul 93 12:26:24 GMT +Newsgroups: sci.skeptic,sci.answers,news.answers +Subject: sci.skeptic FAQ: The Frequently Questioned Answers + +Archive-name: skeptic-faq +Last-modified: 93/07/23 +Version: @(#)skeptic-faq.text 1.11 + + The Frequently Questioned Answers + ================================= + +Introduction +============ + +This is the sci.skeptic FAQ. It is intended to provide a factual base +for most of the commonly discussed topics on sci.skeptic. +Unfortunately I don't have much time to do this in, and anyway a FAQ +should be the Distilled Wisdom of the Net rather than just My Arrogant +Opinion, so I invite submissions and let all the net experts out there +fill in the details. Submissions from any point of view and on any +sci.skeptic topic are welcomed, but please keep them short and to the +point. The ideal submission is a short summary with one or two +references to other literature. I have added comments in square +brackets where I think more information is particularly needed, but +don't let that stop you sending something else. + +Many FAQs, including this one, are available on the archive site +rtfm.mit.edu in the directory pub/usenet/news.answers. The name under +which a FAQ is archived appears in the Archive-name line at the top of +the article. This FAQ is archived as skeptic-faq. + +In general it is not very useful to criticise areas of the FAQ as "not +explaining it properly". If you want to see something changed then +please write a submission which explains it better. Grammar and +spelling corrections are always welcome though. + +If you are reading this with a newsreader and want to follow up on +something, please copy the question to the subject line. This is more +informative than a reference to the entire FAQ. + +Please mail submissions and comments to . If that +bounces, try , which explicitly routes +your email via the UK backbone. + +This is in no way an "official" FAQ. I am a computer scientist by +profession and deeply skeptical of paranormal claims (although I may +include some pro-paranormal arguments here). If anyone else with a +less skeptical point of view wants to start a FAQ list, please feel +free. I certainly can't stop you. + +Disclaimer: The opinions in this article are not necessarily those of + GEC. + +Other Topics +============ + +Please send in contact addresses for local skeptics organisations not +listed in section 0.11. + +Credits +======= + +Thanks to all the people who have sent me submissions and comments. +There isn't enough room to thank everyone individually, but some of +the more major contributors are listed here: + +York H. Dobyns provided carbon 14 +dating information, notes about current psi researchers and other +useful comments. + +Dendrochronology information came from . + +The questions "What are UFOs?" and "Are crop circles made by flying +saucers?" were answered by Chris Rutkowski + +Ken Shirriff provided information on +perpetual motion machines, Leidenfrost reference and the AIDS section. + +Robert Sheaffer sent information about Philip +Klass and UFO abductions. + +The Ezekiel information comes from a posting by John Baskette +. + +John Boyd provided skeptical references on acupuncture. + +Eric Raymond contributed an explanation of the +"paranormalist" point of view for item 0.7, along with information on +acupuncture, the origin of life, and the CIA AIDS theory. + +Kirlian photography information was paraphrased from an article by +Dave Palmer . + +Cold reading information came from an article by Pope Charles +. + +Todd Stark sent information on acupuncture +analgesia. + +Geoff Lane provided +the article and references on Tunguska. + +Contents +======== + +A `*' indicates a new or rewritten entry. A `+' indicates an altered +entry. + +Background +---------- +0.1: What is sci.skeptic for? +0.2: What is sci.skeptic not for? +0.3: What is CSICOP? Whats their address? +0.4: What is "Prometheus"? +0.5: Who are some prominent skeptics? + +0.6: Aren't all skeptics just closed-minded bigots? +0.6.1: Why are skeptics so keen to rubbish fringe ideas? * +0.6.2: How do we know Randi is honest? * +0.7: Aren't all paranormalists just woolly-minded fools? +0.7.1: Why don't skeptics challenge religions? * +0.8: What is a "conspiracy theory"? +0.9: What is "cold reading?" +0.10: Is there a list of logical fallacies? +0.11: What local skeptics organisations are there? * + +The Scientific Method +--------------------- + +1.1: What is the scientific method? +1.2: What is the difference between a fact, a theory and a hypothesis? + +1.3: Can science ever really prove anything? +1.4: If scientific theories keep changing, where is the Truth? +1.5: What evidence is needed for an extraordinary claim? +1.6: What is Occam's Razor? +1.7: Galileo was persecuted, just like researchers into today. +1.8: What is the "Experimenter effect". +1.9: How much fraud is there in science? +1.9.1: Did Mendel fudge his results? + +Psychic Powers +-------------- + +2.1: Is Uri Geller for real? +2.2: I have had a psychic experience. +2.3: What is "sensory leakage"? +2.4: Who are the main psi researchers? +2.5: Does dowsing work? +2.6: Could psi be inhibited by the presence of skeptics? +2.7: Why don't the skeptics test the *real* psychics? + +UFOs/Flying Saucers +------------------- +3.1 What are UFOs? +3.1.1: Are UFOs alien spacecraft? +3.1.2: Are UFOs natural phenomena? +3.1.3: But isn't it possible that aliens are visiting Earth? +3.2: Is it true that the US government has a crashed flying saucer? + (MJ-12)? +3.3: What is "channeling"? +3.4: How can we test a channeller? +3.5: I am in telepathic contact with the aliens. +3.6: Some bozo has just posted a load of "teachings" from a UFO. What + should I do? +3.7: Are crop circles made by flying saucers? +3.7.1: Are crop circles made by "vortices"? +3.7.2: Are crop circles made by hoaxers? +3.7.3: Are crop circles radioactive? +3.7.4: What about cellular changes in plants within crop circles? +3.8: Have people been abducted by UFOs? +3.9: What is causing the strange cattle deaths? +3.10: What is the face on Mars? +3.11: Did Ezekiel See a Flying Saucer? +3.12: What happened at Tunguska? + +Faith Healing and Alternative Therapies +--------------------------------------- + +4.1: Isn't western medicine reductionistic and alternatives holistic? +4.2: What is a double-blind trial? What is a placebo? +4.3: Why should scientific criteria apply to alternative therapies? +4.4: What is homeopathy? +4.5: What is aromatherapy? +4.6: What is reflexology? +4.7: Does acupuncture work? +4.8: What about psychic surgery? +4.9: What is Crystal Healing? +4.10: Does religious healing work? +4.11: What harm does it do anyway? + +Creation versus Evolution +------------------------- + +5.1: Is the Bible evidence of anything? +5.2: Could the Universe have been created old? +5.3: What about Carbon-14 dating? +5.4: What is "dendrochronology"? +5.5: What is evolution? Where do I find out more? +5.6: "The second law of thermodynamics says...." +5.7: How could living organisms arise "by chance"? +5.8: But doesn't the human body seem to be well designed? +5.9: What about the thousands of scientists who have become Creationists? +5.10: Is the speed of light decreasing? +5.11: What about Velikovsky? + +Fire-walking +----------- + +6.1: Is fire-walking possible? +6.2: Can science explain fire-walking? + +New Age +------- + +7.1: What do New Agers believe? +7.2: What is the Gaia hypothesis? +7.3: Was Nostradamus a prophet? + +7.4: Does astrology work? +7.4.1: Could astrology work by gravity? +7.4.2: What is the `Mars Effect'? +7.5: What is Kirlian photography? + +Strange Machines: Free Energy and Anti-Gravity +---------------------------------------------- + +8.1: Why don't electrical perpetul motion machines work? +8.2: Why don't magnetic perpetual motion machines work? +8.3: Why don't mechanical perpetual motion machines work? +8.4: Magnets can levitate. Where is the energy from? +8.5: But its been patented! +8.6: The oil companies are conspiring to suppress my invention! +8.7: My machine gets its free energy from +8.8: Can gyroscopes neutralise gravity? +8.9: My prototype gets lighter when I turn it on + +AIDS +---- + +9.1: What about these theories on AIDS? +9.1.1: The Mainstream Theory +9.1.2: Strecker's CIA Theory +9.1.3: Duesberg's Risk-Group Theory + +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Background +========== + +0.1: What is sci.skeptic for? +----------------------------- + +[Did anyone save the Charter? PAJ] + +Sci.skeptic is for those who are skeptical about claims of the +paranormal to meet with those who believe in the paranormal. In this +way the paranormalists can expose their ideas to scientific scrutiny, +and if there is anything in these ideas then the skeptics might learn +something. + +However this is a very wide area, and some of the topics covered might +be better kept in their own newsgroups. In particular the evolution +vs. creation debate is best kept in talk.origins. General New Age +discussions belong in talk.religion.newage. Strange "Heard it on the +grapevine" stories belong on alt.folklore.urban, which discusses such +things as vanishing hitchhikers and the Everlasting Lightbulb +conspiracy. Serious conspiracy theories should be kept on +alt.conspiracy, and theories about the assassination of President +Kennedy should be kept on alt.conspiracy.jfk. CROSS-POSTING from +these groups is NOT APPRECIATED by the majority of sci.skeptic +readers. + +The discussion of a topic in this FAQ is not an attempt to have the +final word on the subject. It is simply intended to answer a few +common questions and provide a basis for discussion of common topics. + +0.2: What is sci.skeptic not for? +--------------------------------- + +The scope of sci.skeptic extends into any area where hard evidence can +be obtained, but does not extend into speculation. So religious +arguments about the existence of God are out of place here (take them +to alt.atheism or talk.religion.*). On the other hand discussion +about miracles is to be welcomed, since this is an issue where +evidence can be obtained. + +Topics that have their own groups should be taken to the appropriate +group. See the previous answer for a partial list. + +Also out of place are channelled messages from aliens. If your +channelled message contains testable facts then post those. Otherwise +we are simply not interested. Take it to alt.alien.visitors. + +The posting of large articles (>200 lines) is not a way to persuade +people. See the section on "closed minded skeptics" below for some +reasons for this. I suggest you summarise the article and offer to +mail copies to anyone who is interested. + +Sci.skeptic is not an abuse group. There is a regrettable tendency +for polite discussion here to degenerate into ad-hominem flames about +who said what to whom and what they meant. PLEASE DO NOT FLAME. You +won't convince anyone. Rather the opposite. + +0.3: What is CSICOP? What is its address? +------------------------------------------ + +CSICOP stands for the "Committee for the Scientific Investigation of +Claims Of the Paranormal". They publish a quarterly magazine called +"The Skeptical Inquirer". Their address is: + + Skeptical Inquirer, + Box 703, + Buffalo, NY 14226-9973. + +Tel. 716-636-1425 voice, 716-636-1733 fax. + +Note that this is a new address. + +0.4: What is "Prometheus"? +-------------------------- + +Prometheus Books is a publisher specialising in skeptical books. +Their address is: + + Prometheus Books + 700 Amherst Street + Buffalo, NY 14215-9918 + +0.5: Who are some prominent skeptics? +------------------------------------- + +James "The Amazing" Randi is a professional stage magician who spends +much time and money debunking paranormal claims. He used to offer a +reward of $100,000 to anyone who can demonstrate paranormal powers +under controlled conditions, but has had to exhaust that fund to pay +legal expenses in the series of lawsuits that have been brought +against him since 1988. Currently, he can offer only a $10,000 +promissory note. Anyone who wants to contribute to his defense can do +so via: + + The James Randi Fund + c/o Robert Steiner, CPA + P.O. Box 659 + El Cerrito, CA 94530 + +The lawsuit by Geller against Randi is still going on. There is a +mailing list for updates on the situation, which originates from the +account . [To subscribe, you should probably +send mail to .] + +Martin Gardner is an author, mathematician and amateur stage magician +who has written several books dealing with paranormal phenomena, +including "Science: Good, Bad and Bogus" and "Fads and Fallacies in +the Name of Science". + +Philip J. Klass retired after thirty-five years as a Senior Editor of +"Aviation Week and Space Technology" magazine, specializing in +avionics. He is a founding fellow of CSICOP, and was named a Fellow of +the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). He has +won numerous awards for his technical journalism. His principal books +are: + + UFO Abductions, A Dangerous Game (Prometheus, 1988) + + UFOs, The Public Deceived (Prometheus, 1983) + + UFOs Explained (Random House, 1974) + +Susan Blackmore holds a Ph.D in parapsychology, but in the course of her +Ph.D research she became increasingly disillusioned and is now highly +skeptical of paranormal claims. + +Ray Hyman is a professor of psychology at the University of Oregon. +He is one of the major external, skeptical critics of parapsychology. +In 1986, he and parapsychologist Charles Honorton engaged in a +detailed exchange about Honorton's ganzfeld experiments and +statistical analysis of his results which was published in the Journal +of Parapsychology. A collection of Hyman's work may be found in his +book The Elusive Quarry: A Scientific Appraisal of Psychical Research, +1989, Prometheus. This includes "Proper Criticism", an influential +piece on how skeptics should engage in criticism, and "'Cold Reading': +How to Convince Strangers that You Know All About Them." + +James Alcock is a professor of psychology at York University in +Toronto. He is the author of the books Parapsychology: Science +or Magic?, 1981, Pergamon, and Science and Supernature: A Critical +Appraisal of Parapsychology, 1990, Prometheus. + +Joe Nickell is a former private investigator, a magician, and +an English instructor at the University of Kentucky. He is the +author of numerous books on paranormal subjects, including Inquest +on the Shroud of Turin, 1982, Prometheus. He specializes in +investigating individual cases in great detail, but has recently +done some more general work, critiquing crop circles, spontaneous +human combustion, and psychic detectives. + +Isaac Asimov wrote a great deal on skeptical issues. He had a regular +column in _Fantasy and Science Fiction_, and collections of essays +from it have been published. Some of these essays are on assorted +crackpottery, like UFO's, Velikovsky, creationism, and so forth. They +have titles like "Worlds in Confusion" (Velikovsky), "Look Long upon a +Monkey" (creationism), "Armies of the Night" (crackpottery in +general), "The Rocketing Dutchmen" (UFO's), and so forth.; these are +usually on a rather general sort of level. + +Marcello Truzzi was one of the founders of CSICOP, but broke away from +the organisation when it became to "dry" for him (see section 0.6.1 on +wet vs. dry skeptics). He now publishes the "Zetetic Inquirer" on an +occasional basis. He can be contacted at the Dept. of Sociology, +Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI 48197, or at P.O. Box 1052, +Ann Arbor, MI 48106. [Does anyone know if this address is still good? +PAJ] + + +[Can someone supply me with potted biographies and publication lists +of these and other people? PAJ] + +0.6: Aren't all skeptics just closed-minded bigots? +--------------------------------------------------- + +People who have failed to convince skeptics often say "Well all +skeptics are just closed-minded bigots who won't listen to me!". This +is not true. Skeptics pay close attention to the evidence. If you +have no evidence then you will get nowhere. + +Unfortunately life is short. Most of us have better things to do than +investigate yet another bogus claim. Some paranormal topics, +especially psi research and UFOlogy, produce vast quantities of low +grade evidence. In the past people have investigated such evidence +carefully, but it always seems to evaporate when anyone looks at it +closely. Hence skeptics should be forgiven for not bothering to +investigate yet another piece of low grade evidence before rejecting +it. + +Issac Asimov has suggested a triage process which divides scientific +claims into three groups: mundane, unusual and bullshit [my terms]. +As an example, a claim that "I have 10kg of salt in my lab" is pretty +mundane. No-one would disbelieve me, but they wouldn't be very +interested. A claim that "I have 10kg of gold in my lab" would +probably result in mild disbelief and requests to have a look. +Finally a claim that "I have 10kg of Einsteinium in my lab" would be +greeted with cries of "Bullshit!". + +Of course there are some who substitute flaming and rhetoric for +logical argument. We all lose our temper sometimes. + +0.6.1: Why are skeptics so keen to rubbish fringe ideas? +-------------------------------------------------------- + +Skeptics vary on the attitude they take towards a new fringe idea, +varying from the "wet" to the "dry". The question of which attitude +is better is very much a live issue in the skeptical community. Here +is a brief summary of the two extremes: + +DRY: There is no reason to treat these people seriously. Anyone with + half an ounce of sense can see that their ideas are completely + bogus. Time spent trying to "understand their ideas" and + "examine their evidence" beyond that necessary for debunking is + wasted time, and life is short. Furthermore, such behaviour + lends them respectibility. If we take them seriously, so will + other people. We must ridicule their ideas so that others will + see how silly they are. "One belly laugh is worth a thousand + syllogisms" (Martin Gardner). + +WET: If we lay into these people without giving them a fair hearing + then we run two risks: + 1: We might miss someone who is actually right. History contains + many examples. + 2: We give them a weapon against us. Ad-hominem attacks and + sloppy logic bring us down to their level. If we are truly + the rational, scientific people we claim to be then we should + ask for their evidence, and then pronounce our considered + opinion of it. + +The two extremes are perhaps personified by Martin Gardner (dry) and +Marcello Truzzi (wet). Note that no particular judgement is attached +to these terms. They are just handy labels. + +People who read articles by dry skeptics often get the impression that +skeptics are as pig-headed as any fundamentalist or stage psychic. I +think that this is a valid criticism of some skeptics on the dry end. +However, an article which ridicules fringe beliefs may also contain +sound logic based on careful investigation. As always, you have to +read carefully, distinguish logic from rhetoric, and then make a +judgement. + +0.6.2: How do we know Randi is honest? +-------------------------------------- + +Randi has offered a large prize to anyone who can demonstrate +paranormal powers under controlled conditions. He also has a lot of +professional prestige tied up in his self-appointed role of psychic +debunker. This leads to allegations that if he ever did find a +genuine psychic then he would lie rather than lose so much money and +prestige. + +When Randi tests psychic claims, he is always very careful to agree +with the claimant before the test exactly what the conditions will be. +The test will proceed only if both he and the claimant agree that this +will be a fair test of the claim. The conditions usually involve +video tapes and independant witnesses specifically to rule out +cheating by either side. + +On one occasion Randi did agree that the claimant had passed the test. +Arthur G. Lintgen claimed an ability to identify LP records without +labels. Randi tested him, and found that he could in fact do this by +reading the patterns of loud and quiet in the groove. Lintgen did not +get Randi's reward because he had not demonstrated (or claimed) any +paranormal ability. + +0.7: Aren't all paranormalists just woolly-minded fools? +-------------------------------------------------------- + +[The following was contributed by Eric Raymond ] + +Some `paranormalists' are people who fully agree with the scientific +method and scientific cosmology, but who are also trying to deal with +personal experiences or abilities that do not presently seem to fit +accepted scientific theory. The honest skeptic should recognize that +not all paranormalists are supernaturalists. + +The honest skeptic should also recognize that some phenomena formerly +thought of as `paranormal' are now within the purview of science. The +classic example is meteorites; more recent ones include the remarkable +somatic-control abilities of advanced yogis, the physiological +mechanisms behind acupuncture and acupressure, and healing by laying +on of hands (now widely taught in mainstream nursing schools as +`therapeutic touch'). + +To assume uncritically that all paranormalists are simply flakes risks +foreclosing future advances of the same kind. And there may be some +doozies waiting in the wings. Recent experiments in computer analysis +of EEG/EMG patterns, for example, strongly suggest that mental +telepathy is at least *possible in principle* between speakers of the +same language (though it has not been demonstrated to occur). + +Thus, the honest skeptic owes it to him/herself to remember that the +flakiness and credulity of *some* paranormalists does not imply the +insanity of *all*. + +0.7.1: Why don't skeptics debunk religions? +------------------------------------------- + +Skeptics aim to debunk false claims and silly theories by using the +*evidence*. The question of whether God exists is not one for which +evidence is available, and so skeptics tend to treat it as a private +matter. When someone claims to have evidence (such as a miraculous +healing) then skeptics are as ready to test this claim as they are any +other. + +Most skeptics agree that it is perfectly possible to be a skeptic +about paranormal claims but still honestly believe in God. Martin +Gardner is a "dry" skeptic and one of the founders of CSICOP. He also +believes in a personal god and describes himself as a "philosophical +theist". + +Most skeptics tend to take an "agnostic-atheist" attitude, assuming +that God does not exist until evidence to the contrary turns up. + +If you are interested in organisations that oppose religion in general +then see the alt.atheism FAQ "Atheist Resources" for a list of atheist +and humanist organisations. + +0.8: What is a Conspiracy Theory? +--------------------------------- + +There are two general categories of conspiracy theory: Grand and +Petty. + +A Grand conspiracy theory is a belief that there is a large-scale +conspiracy by those in power to mislead and/or control the rest of the +world. Consider the following example: + + There is a conspiracy amongst the computer programmers to + control the world. They are only allowing the public to have + simple machines, while they control the really powerful ones. + There is a computer in they call "The Beast". It has + records about everyone. They use this information to + manipulate the politicians and businessmen who ostensibly rule + the world into doing their will. The Beast was prophesied in + the Book of Revelation. + +Grand conspiracy theories divide the world into three groups. The +Conspirators, the Investigators, and the Dupes. Conspirators have a +vast secret. The Investigators have revealed parts of the conspiracy, +but much is still secret. Investigators are always in great danger of +being silenced by Conspirators. Dupes are just the rest of us. Often +the Conspirators show a mixture of incredible subtlety and stunning +stupidity. + +Evidence produced by the Investigators is always either circumstantial +or evaporates when looked at carefully. The theories can never be +disproved, since any evidence to the contrary can be dismissed as +having been planted by the Conspirators. If you spend any time or +effort digging into the evidence produced by Investigators then you +will be labelled a Conspirator yourself. Of course, nothing a +Conspirator says can be believed. + +Petty conspiracy theories are smaller than the Grand variety, and +sometimes turn out to be true. Watergate and "Arms for Hostages" +episodes both started life as Petty conspiracy theories. Just because +a theory involves a conspiracy does not make that theory false. The +main difference between Grand and Petty Conspiracy Theories is the +number of alleged conspirators. Grand Conspiracy Theories require +thousands or even millions. + +[Since this FAQ was first posted I have heard that the Beast computer +is in Holland and that you can be saved by converting to a particular +cult. In addition the cult claims that every product bar code +includes three 6 digits as frame markers, hence 666, the number of the +beast. In fact this is not true, and even if it were it would not +fulfill the prophecy in Revelation. Meanwhile the cult members were +*meant* to rise up to heaven on 29/10/92 but very embarrassingly +didn't. The Korean founder was also discovered to have bought millions +of $ worth of stocks and bonds which didn't mature until 1995, and was +convicted of fraud.] + +0.9: What is "cold reading"? +---------------------------- + +[From a posting by Pope Charles ] + +Cold reading is the technique of saying little general things and +watching a persons reactions. As one goes from very general to more +specific things, one notes the reaction and uses it as a giude ti find +out what to say. Also there are stock phrases that sound like +statements but are really questions. If these subtle questions evoke +answers, these answers are used as a basis for the next round of +statements. + +Many people get involved in various things like this because of their +interest in the usual things, health, love, sex, ect. One can +develope a set of stock questions and statements that will elicit +positive responses fom 90% of your 'clients'. + +In the hands of an expert, these simple techniques can be frightening +almost. But they are simple things. Of course a paintbrush and a +canvass are simple things too. It all depends on skill and talent for +these things. + +One can learn these things coldbloodedly knowing them as the tricks +they are, or as probably most use them, learned at the feet of other +practitioners as it were by rote, and developed by practice and +adapted to the tastes of the reader and his or her sitters. As +skeptics have pointed out, it is the best cold readers that make the +best Tarot Readers, Astrologers, Palm Readers, or what have you. + +If your library is lucky enough to have it, Check The Zetetic, (later +renamed Skeptical Inquirer), Vol. 1, #2 Summer 1977 "Cold Reading: How +to convince strangers you know all about them" by Ray Hyman. + +These techniques are not confined to the occult world by any means. +Religous workers, salesmen and the like use the principles to build +rapport with people. + +0.10: Is there a list of logical fallacies? +------------------------------------------- + +A complete list of formal and informal logical fallacies is posted by +Mathew as part of his excellent alt.atheism FAQ +file series. This should be read carefully by anyone wishing to +construct a logical argument to support their position on any group. + +For those who want more information, "The Book of the Fallacy" by +Madsen Pirie covers the same ground in more detail. + +Formal and informal statistical fallacies are dealt with in the book +"How To Lie With Statistics" by Darrell Huff. I strongly recommend +this one. + +0.11: What local skeptics organisations are there? +-------------------------------------------------- + +[Contact addresses please] + +Australian Skeptics "The Skeptic", P.O. Box 475, +PO Box E324 Manchester, +St. James M60 2TH, +Sydney U.K. +NSW 2000 + +The Scientific Method +===================== + +1.1: What is the "scientific method"? +------------------------------------- + +The scientific method is the best way yet discovered for winnowing +the truth from lies and delusion. The simple version looks something +like this: + + 1: Observe some aspect of the universe. + 2: Invent a theory that is consistent with what you have + observed. + 3: Use the theory to make predictions. + 4: Test those predictions by experiments or further + observations. + 5: Modify the theory in the light of your results. + 6: Go to step 3. + +This leaves out the co-operation between scientists in building +theories, and the fact that it is impossible for every scientist to +independently do every experiment to confirm every theory. Because +life is short, scientists have to trust other scientists. So a +scientist who claims to have done an experiment and obtained certain +results will usually be believed, and most people will not bother to +repeat the experiment. + +Experiments do get repeated as part of other experiments. Most +scientific papers contain suggestions for other scientists to follow +up. Usually the first step in doing this is to repeat the earlier +work. So if a theory is the starting point for a significant amount +of work then the initial experiments will get replicated a number of +times. + +Some people talk about "Kuhnian paradigm shifts". This refers to the +observed pattern of the slow extension of scientific knowledge with +occasional sudden revolutions. This does happen, but it still follows +the steps above. + +Many philosophers of science would argue that there is no such thing +as *the* scientific method. + +1.2: What is the difference between a fact, a theory and a hypothesis? +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +In popular usage, a theory is just a vague and fuzzy sort of fact. +But to a scientist a theory is a conceptual framework that *explains* +existing facts and predicts new ones. For instance, today I saw the +Sun rise. This is a fact. This fact is explained by the theory that +the Earth is round and spins on its axis while orbiting the sun. This +theory also explains other facts, such as the seasons and the phases +of the moon, and allows me to make predictions about what will happen +tomorrow. + +This means that in some ways the words "fact" and "theory" are +interchangeable. The organisation of the solar system, which I used as +a simple example of a theory, is normally considered to be a fact that +is explained by Newton's theory of gravity. And so on. + +A hypothesis is a tentative theory that has not yet been tested. +Typically, a scientist devises a hypothesis and then sees if it "holds +water" by testing it against available data. If the hypothesis does +hold water, the scientist declares it to be a theory. + +1.3: Can science ever really prove anything? +-------------------------------------------- + +Yes and no. It depends on what you mean by "prove". + +For instance, there is little doubt that an object thrown into the air +will come back down (ignoring spacecraft for the moment). One could +make a scientific observation that "Things fall down". I am about to +throw a stone into the air. I use my observation of past events to +predict that the stone will come back down. Wow - it did! + +But next time I throw a stone, it might not come down. It might +hover, or go shooting off upwards. So not even this simple fact has +been really proved. But you would have to be very perverse to claim +that the next thrown stone will not come back down. So for ordinary +everyday use, we can say that the theory is true. + +You can think of facts and theories (not just scientific ones, but +ordinary everyday ones) as being on a scale of certainty. Up at the +top end we have facts like "things fall down". Down at the bottom we +have "the Earth is flat". In the middle we have "I will die of heart +disease". Some scientific theories are nearer the top than others, +but none of them ever actually reach it. Skepticism is usually +directed at claims that contradict facts and theories that are very +near the top of the scale. If you want to discuss ideas nearer the +middle of the scale (that is, things about which there is real debate +in the scientific community) then you would be better off asking on +the appropriate specialist group. + +1.4: If scientific theories keep changing, where is the Truth? +-------------------------------------------------------------- + +In 1666 Isaac Newton proposed his theory of gravitation. This was one +of the greatest intellectual feats of all time. The theory explained +all the observed facts, and made predictions that were later tested +and found to be correct within the accuracy of the instruments being +used. As far as anyone could see, Newton's theory was the Truth. + +During the nineteenth century, more accurate instruments were used to +test Newton's theory, and found some slight discrepancies (for +instance, the orbit of Mercury wasn't quite right). Albert Einstein +proposed his theories of Relativity, which explained the newly +observed facts and made more predictions. Those predictions have now +been tested and found to be correct within the accuracy of the +instruments being used. As far as anyone can see, Einstein's theory +is the Truth. + +So how can the Truth change? Well the answer is that it hasn't. The +Universe is still the same as it ever was, and Newton's theory is as +true as it ever was. If you take a course in physics today, you will +be taught Newton's Laws. They can be used to make predictions, and +those predictions are still correct. Only if you are dealing with +things that move close to the speed of light do you need to use +Einstein's theories. If you are working at ordinary speeds outside of +very strong gravitational fields and use Einstein, you will get +(almost) exactly the same answer as you would with Newton. It just +takes longer because using Einstein involves rather more maths. + +One other note about truth: science does not make moral judgements. +Anyone who tries to draw moral lessons from the laws of nature is on +very dangerous ground. Evolution in particular seems to suffer from +this. At one time or another it seems to have been used to justify +Nazism, Communism, and every other -ism in between. These +justifications are all completely bogus. Similarly, anyone who says +"evolution theory is evil because it is used to support Communism" (or +any other -ism) has also strayed from the path of Logic. + +1.5: What evidence is needed for an extraordinary claim? +-------------------------------------------------------- + +Extraordinary evidence. + +An extraordinary claim is one that contradicts a fact that is close +to the top of the certainty scale discussed above. So if you are +trying to contradict such a fact, you had better have facts available +that are even higher up the certainty scale. + +1.6: What is Occam's Razor? +--------------------------- + +Ockham's Razor ("Occam" is a Latinised variant) is the principle +proposed by William of Ockham in the fifteenth century that +"Pluralitas non est ponenda sine neccesitate", which translates as +"entities should not be multiplied unnecessarily". Various other +rephrasings have been incorrectly attributed to him. In more modern +terms, if you have two theories which both explain the observed facts +then you should use the simplest until more evidence comes along. See +W.M. Thorburn, "The Myth of Occam's Razor," _Mind_ 27:345-353 (1918) +for a detailed study of what Ockham actually wrote and what others +wrote after him. + +The reason behind the razor is that for any given set of facts there +are an infinite number of theories that could explain them. For +instance, if you have a graph with four points in a line then the +simplest theory that explains them is a linear relationship, but you +can draw an infinite number of different curves that all pass through +the four points. There is no evidence that the straight line is the +right one, but it is the simplest possible solution. So you might as +well use it until someone comes along with a point off the straight +line. + +Also, if you have a few thousand points on the line and someone +suggests that there is a point that is off the line, it's a pretty +fair bet that they are wrong. + +A related rule, which can be used to slice open conspiracy theories, is +Hanlon's Razor: "Never attribute to malice that which can be +adequately explained by stupidity". See the Jargon File (edited by +Eric Raymond) for more details. + +1.7: Galileo was persecuted, just like researchers into today. +------------------------------------------------------------------ + +People putting forward extraordinary claims often refer to Galileo as +an example of a great genius being persecuted by the establishment for +heretical theories. They claim that the scientific establishment is +afraid of being proved wrong, and hence is trying to suppress the +truth. + +This is a classic conspiracy theory. The Conspirators are all those +scientists who have bothered to point out flaws in the claims put +forward by the researchers. + +The usual rejoinder to someone who says "They laughed at Columbus, +they laughed at Galileo" is to say "And they also laughed at Bozo the +Clown". (From Carl Sagan, "Broca's Brain", Coronet 1980, p79). + +Incidentally, stories about the persecution of Galileo Galilei and the +ridicule Christopher Columbus had to endure should be taken with a +grain of salt. + +During the early days of Galileo's theory church officials were +interested and sometimes supportive, even though they had yet to find +a way to incorporate it into theology. His main adversaries were +established scientists - since he was unable to provide HARD proofs +they didn't accept his model. Galileo became more agitated, declared +them ignorant fools and publicy stated that his model was the correct +one, thus coming in conflict with the church. + +When Columbus proposed to take the "Western Route" the spherical +nature of the Earth was common knowledge, even though the diameter was +still debatable. Columbus simply believed that the Earth was a lot +smaller, while his adversaries claimed that the Western Route would be +too long. If America hadn't been in his way, he most likely would have +failed. The myth that "he was laughed at for believing that the Earth +was a globe" steems from an American author who intentionally +adulterated history. + + +1.8: What is the "Experimenter effect"? +--------------------------------------- + +It is unconscious bias introduced into an experiment by the +experimenter. It can occur in one of two ways: + + o Scientists doing experiments often have to look for small effects + or differences between the things being experimented on. + + o Experiments require many samples to be treated in exactly the same + way in order to get consistent results. + +Note that neither of these sources of bias require deliberate fraud. + +A classic example of the first kind of bias was the "N-ray", +discovered early this century. Detecting them required the +investigator to look for very faint flashes of light on a +scintillator. Many scientists reported detecting these rays. They +were fooling themselves. + +A classic example of the second kind of bias were the detailed +investigations into the relationship between race and brain capacity +in the last century. Skull capacity was measured by filling the empty +skull with beans and then measuring the volume of beans. A +significant difference in the results could be obtained by ensuring +that the beans in some skulls were better settled than others. For +more details on this story, read Stephen Jay Gould's "The Mismeasure +of Man". + +For more detail see: + +T.X. Barber, "Pitfalls of Human Research", 1976. +Robert Rosenthal, "Pygmalion in the Classroom". + +[These were recommended by a correspondant. Sorry I have no more +information.] + +1.9: How much fraud is there in science? +---------------------------------------- + +In its simplest form this question is unanswerable, since undetected +fraud is by definition unmeasurable. Of course there are many known +cases of fraud in science. Some use this to argue that all scientific +findings (especially those they dislike) are worthless. + +This ignores the replication of results which is routinely undertaken +by scientists. Any important result will be replicated many times by +many different people. So an assertion that (for instance) scientists +are lying about carbon-14 dating requires that a great many scientists +are engaging in a conspiracy. See the previous question. + +In fact the existence of known and documented fraud is a good +illustration of the self-correcting nature of science. It does not +matter if a proportion of scientists are fraudsters because any +important work they do will not be taken seriously without independant +verification. Hence they must confine themselves to pedestrian work +which no-one is much interested in, and obtain only the expected +results. For anyone with the talent and ambition necessary to get a +Ph.D this is not going to be an enjoyable career. + +Also, most scientists are idealists. They perceive beauty in +scientific truth and see its discovery as their vocation. Without +this most would have gone into something more lucrative. + +These arguments suggest that undetected fraud in science is both rare +and unimportant. + +For more detail on more scientific frauds than you ever knew existed, +see "False Prophets" by Alexander Koln. + +1.9.1: Did Mendel fudge his results? +------------------------------------ + +Gregor Mendel was a 19th Century monk who discovered the laws of +inheritance (dominant and recessive genes etc.). More recent analysis +of his results suggest that they are "too good to be true". Mendelian +inheritance involves the random selection of possible traits from +parents, with particular probabilities of particular traits. It seems +from Mendel's raw data that chance played a smaller part in his +experiments than it should. This does not imply fraud on the part of +Mendel. + +First, the experiments were not "blind" (see the questions about +double blind experiments and the experimenter effect). Deciding +whether a particular pea is wrinkled or not needs judgement, and this +could bias Mendel's results towards the expected. This is an example +of the "experimenter effect". + +Second, Mendel's Laws are only approximations. In fact it does turn +out that in some cases inheritance is less random than his Laws state. + +Third, Mendel might have neglected to publish the results of `failed' +experiments. It is interesting to note that all of his published work +is concerned with characteristics which are controlled by single +genes. He did not report any experiments with more complicated +characteristics. + +Psychic Powers +============== + +2.1: Is Uri Geller for real? +---------------------------- + +James "The Amazing" Randi has, through various demonstrations, cast +doubt on Geller's claims of psychic powers. Geller has sued Randi. +Skeptics are advised to exercise extreme caution in addressing this +topic, given the pending litigation. Bay Area Skeptics, Tampa Bay +Skeptics, and the Skeptics Society of Los Angeles have all been +threatened with litigation over this matter, which could be expected +to be extremely expensive and time-consuming whatever the eventual +outcome. + +2.2: I have had a psychic experience. +------------------------------------- + +That is pretty remarkable. But before you post to the Net, consider:- + + * Could it just be coincidence? The human mind is good at + remembering odd things but tends to forget ordinary things, such as + premonitions that didn't happen. If psychic experiences happen to + you on a regular basis then try writing down the premonitions when + you have them and then comparing your record to later events. + + * If you think you have a mental link with someone you know, try a + few tests with playing cards [Has anyone got a good protocol for + this kind of thing? PAJ]. + + * If you are receiving messages from elsewhere (e.g. UFOs), ask for + specific information that you can then check. The complete prime + factorisation of 2^1024+1 would be a good start: we don't know it, + but any proposed answer is easy to check. + +If you want to make a formal registration of your predictions, send +mail to . + +2.3: What is "Sensory Leakage"? +------------------------------- + +Sensory leakage is something that designers of tests for psi must be +careful to guard against. Tests for psi use powerful statistical +tests to search for faint traces of communication. Unfortunately the +fact that communication has taken place does not prove that it was +done by telepathy. It could have been through some more mundane form +of signal. + +For instance one experiment involved a "sender" in one room with a +stack of numbered cards (1-10) and a "receiver" in another room trying +to guess what the next card was. The sender looked at a card and +pressed a button to signal to the receiver. The receiver then tried +to guess the number on the card. There was a definite correlation +between the card numbers and the guesses. However the sender could +signal the receiver by varying the delays between buzzes. When this +channel of communication was removed, the effect disappeared. + +2.4: Who are the main psi researchers? +-------------------------------------- + +Targ and Puthoff spring to mind, but actually, Puthoff is no longer +doing psi research (I don't have any idea what Targ is up to these +days.) Granted, their SRI work is quite famous, but if we want to +review the historical (rather than currently active) figures, you +probably want to go back at least as far as the Rhines. + +Helmut Schmidt, a physicist who has been looking at PK, is still +active at the Mind Science Foundation in Texas. (Sorry, I don't know a +more specific address than that.) + +The Foundation for Research into the Nature of Man (FRNM), which is +what Rhine's work at Duke eventually developed into, is still active +near Duke. It is currently headed by K. Ramakrishna Rao. + +The Koestler Chair of Parapsychology at the University of Edinburgh +is, as far as I know, still active. The current incumbent is, I think, +named Robert Morris; his main assistant is Deborah Delanoy. + +Roger Nelson is active in the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research +center (PEAR) and occasionally posts to the net. + +Active workers in the field that I can think of currently include Dean +Radin, who also posts to sci.skeptic as , +Jessica Utts, and Ed May. The Parapsychological Association has a much +larger roster than that, of course, but I'm not a member myself and +don't have access to their membership roll. + +2.5: Does dowsing work? +----------------------- + +Dowsing is the art of finding underground water by extra-sensory +perception. Sometimes tools are used. The traditional one is a +forked hazel stick. When held in the correct way this will twitch in +response to small muscle movements in the back and shoulders. Another +tool that has become popular in recent years is a pair of rods mounted +in tubes that are held in each hand just in front of the user. + + Rod bent into tube. + | + V + r------------------------------- + || ^ + || | + || <- Tube Rod + || + || + || + +When water (or something else) is dowsed, the rods turn towards each +other. Like the forked hazel stick it amplifies small movements of +the arm and shoulder muscles. + +Unfortunately careful tests of dowsers have revealed absolutely no +ability to find water or anything else by extra-sensory perception. +Dowsing success stories can be explained by noting that wherever you +dig you will find water. You just have to dig deep enough. It has +also been suggested that dowsers may unconsciously use clues in the +environment. + +James Randi has tested more than 100 dowsers (I don't know the actual +count). He tells that only 2 tried to cheat. This suggests that +dowsers are basically honest people. + +The Skeptical Inquirer has published a number of articles on dowsing. +James Randi's "A Controlled Test of Dowsing" was in vol. 4, no. 1, pp. +16-20. Michael Martin's "A New Controlled Dowsing Experiment" was in +vol. 8, pp. 138-140. Dick Smith's "Two Tests of Divining in +Australia" was in vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 34-37. Randi's book Flim-Flam! +has a section on dowsing. The main skeptical book about dowsing is +Vogt, E.Z. and Hyman R. (1959, 2nd edition 1979) "Water witching USA". +The University of Chicago Press. 260 pages. Available as a paperback. + + +2.6: Could psi be inhibited by the presence of skeptics? +-------------------------------------------------------- + +Psychic researchers have noted something they call the "shyness +effect" (or more grandly "psi-mediated experimenter effects"). This +is invoked to explain the way in which many subjects' psychic powers +seem to fade when exposed to careful scrutiny and proper controls. +Often it is alleged that having a skeptic in the audience can prevent +the delicate operation of psi. + +In its most extreme form this hypothesis becomes a "catch-22" that +makes any results consistent with a psi hypothesis. This renders the +hypothesis unfalsifiable and therefore unscientific. Less extreme +forms might be testable. + +2.7: Why don't the skeptics test the *real* psychics? +----------------------------------------------------- + +A claim is sometimes made that the Skeptics movement only tests those +psychics which it knows to be frauds. The real psychics are supposedly +being ignored by skeptics who are afraid to be proved wrong. + +There are three problems with this claim. + +Firstly, it assumes that all the skeptics are engaged in a conspiracy +to persuade the world that psychic powers do not exist. This is only +a Petty Conspiracy theory (see section 0), since it only requires the +involvment of a few dozen of the most prominent skeptics, but it is +still difficult to see any motive for such a deception. "Fear of +being proved wrong" implies that they already know they are wrong, +which makes their continued activity rather puzzling. + +Secondly, most skeptics are always ready to take part in any +reasonable test. The "real" psychics are perfectly at liberty to +challange the skeptics. + +Thirdly, there are always more alleged psychics. Hence this +argument presents the skeptics with an ever-receeding target. The +dialogue goes something like this: + +Paranormalist: Yes, I conceed that Mr. Adams is a fake, but what about + Mr. Brown. The things that he does could never be + faked. + +[Some months later] + +Skeptic: Here is how Brown did it.... + +P: OK, I conceed that Adams and Brown are fakes, but Mrs Carver is the + surely the real thing. + +[Some months later] + +S: Here is how Carver did it... + +P: OK, maybe Adams, Brown and Carver were fakes, but what about Digby + and Ender? + +S: I give up. There's no convincing some people. + +P: [shouting] Digby and Ender are real psychics: the skeptics are + afraid to test them. They only test the fakes! + + +UFOs and Flying Saucers +======================= + +3.1 What are UFOs? +------------------- + +UFOs are, simply, Unidentified Flying Objects, no more, no less. This +means that if you are out one night and see a light moving in the sky +and cannot immediately identify it as a certain star, planet or other +object, then it is by definition a UFO. THIS DOES NOT MEAN YOU HAVE +SEEN AN ALIEN SPACESHIP. + +A better question would be: + +3.1.1 Are UFOs alien spacecraft? +--------------------------------- + +Probably not. The vast majority of UFO reports, when investigated by +competent researchers (and that is a problem all by itself), can be +easily explained as natural or manmade objects misidentified for one +reason or another. The actual percentage is around 95%. A very few +reports are provable hoaxes. The remaining few percent (some skeptics +argue that there are no remaining reports) are not explained at this +time. Again, this does not mean that they are observations of alien +spaceships. All we can say is that, given the information presently +available, some cases don't appear to be stars, balloons, airplanes, +aurorae. etc. Given a great deal more time and effort, many more +could likely be identified. It's possible that the witness(es) were +in error, or are very good liars. And the remaining few cases? Well, +the best we can say, as true skeptics, is that we don't know what they +were, but there is NO proof that they were alien spacecraft. + +3.1.2 Are UFOs natural phenomena? +---------------------------------- + +Possibly. A number of theories have been proposed, suggesting that +some UFOs are "plasmas" or variations of ball lightning or earthquake +lights. Unfortunately, the theories seem to change to fit observed +data, rather than predict the observations. Also, studies designed to +support the theories have used newspaper articles and raw, unsifted UFO +case lists for data, and therefore the studies do not appear to be +completely unbiased. Perhaps time will tell. Until then it is safe to +say that SOME UFOs are probably ball lightning or other rare natural +phenomena. + +3.1.3 But isn't it possible that aliens are visiting Earth? +------------------------------------------------------------ + +Yes. But it is also possible that there is an invisible snorg reading +this over your shoulder right now. + +Basically, some astronomers (e.g. Carl Sagan) are convinced that there +are other habitable planets in our galaxy, and that there may be some +form of life on them. Assuming that parallel evolution occurred on +these other planets, there MIGHT be intelligent life forms there. It +is possible that some of these life forms could have an advanced +civilization, and perhaps have achieved space travel. BUT - there is +no proof that this is so. SETI programs such as the High Resolution +Microwave Search now being conducted by NASA under the direction of +Jill Tartar are "listening" to other stars in the hope of detecting +radio signals that might indicate intelligent life - kind of +listening for the equivalent of "Watson, come here, I need you!", or +"I love Lucy" in the infancy of our early communications. Such +searches have been fruitless, so far. + +If there are aliens on distant planets, then it is possible that they +might have found a way to travel between stars in their lifetimes. +According to our present understanding of physics, this is not likely, +given the vast distances between stars. Even travelling at the speed +of light (which cannot be done), a round trip to the nearest star would +take about ten years. This does not rule out interstellar ships, but +it does make it seem unlikely that we are being visited. + +If *even one* civilization has found a way to travel between stars in +the entire history of the Milky Way Galaxy (about ten billion years), +it ought to fill the entire Galaxy in only a hundred million years or +so. The question, then, is why don't we observe evidence of alien +civilization everywhere? This question is known as the Fermi Paradox, +and there is no really satisfactory answer. If, however, we postulate +alien visits to Earth, we must also accept a Galaxy-wide civilization +and ask why we see no evidence of it. + +3.2: Is it true that the US government has a crashed flying saucer (MJ-12)? +--------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +The MJ-12 documents purportedly established that the U.S. government +had established a secret organization of 12 people called MJ-12 or +Majestic-12 to deal with UFOs. These 12 people were all conveniently +dead at the time the documents were discovered. Klass proved that the +documents are fakes. + +The Roswell Incident refers to an alleged UFO crash in Roswell, NM. +This is also known as the "Roswell Incident". Philip Klass has also +investigated this one and shown the reports to be bogus. One of the +more notable items of "evidence" was a document "signed by the +president". Klass showed that this signature was a photocopy of an +existing presidential signature. See SI 14:2 (Winter 1990) pp +135-140. + +All such allegations involve a conspiracy theory. Sometimes these +conspiracy theories get very big indeed. One common one involves a +treaty between the government and the saucer people whereby the +government stays in power and the saucer people get to abduct humans +for various gruesome purposes. + +3.3: What is "channeling"? +-------------------------- + +"Channeling" is remarkably similar to Spiritualism. The main +difference is that the relatives "on the other side" are replaced by a +wide variety of other beings. This means that the channeler does not +have to worry about providing accurate information about people in the +audience. The beings that channelers claim to speak for range from +enlightened aliens to humans who lived thousands of years ago to +discarnate intelligences who have never had bodies. + +3.4: How can we test a channeler? +--------------------------------- + +Some channelled entities are alleged to come from the distant past. +They can be asked about events, climate and language in ways that can +be checked. + +If the entity is from a technically advanced race, try asking for the +complete factorisation of 2^1024+1. + +3.5: I am in telepathic contact with the aliens. +------------------------------------------------ + +See the earlier section on psychic experiences and then try testing +your aliens to see if you get a specific answer. If you can come up +with new facts that can be tested by scientists then you will be +listened to. Otherwise you would do better on alt.alien.visitors. + +3.6: Some bozo has just posted a load of "teachings" from a UFO. What +---------------------------------------------------------------------- + should I do? + ------------ + +You have several choices: + + * Ignore it. + + * Ask for evidence (see question 3.4 above). + + * Insult or flame the poster. This is a bad idea. + +3.7: Are crop circles made by flying saucers? +--------------------------------------------- + +There is no convincing evidence that crop circles or any other kind of +UGM (Unusual Ground Markings) were made by aliens. There are some +reports of lights being seen in and around crop circle sites, and a few +videos showing objects flitting over fields. The lights are hardly +proof, and the objects in the videos seem to be pieces of foil or paper +being tossed about by the wind. + +In a deliberate attempt to test crop circle "experts", a crop circle +was faked under the watchful eyes of the media. When cerealogists were +called in, they proclaimed it genuine. + +3.7.1: Are crop circles made by "vortices"? +--------------------------------------------- + +Probably not. There are a number of meteorologists who believe that +crop circle formations are created by rare natural forces such as +"ionised plasma vortices". Basically, winds blowing across rolling +hills sometimes form eddies, which in some circumstances (that have +never been quantified) become strong, downward spiralling drafts that +lay down the crop. Cerealogists claim to have over two dozen witnesses +to such events. Unfortunately, many more have said they have seen +flying saucers do the same thing. + +Scientific articles arguing for the reality of these vortices have +appeared regularly in the Journal of Meteorology. But its editor is +the leading proponent of the theory, Dr. Terence Meaden. + +Winds can lay down crop in patches known as lodging. But geometric +patterns in fields can hardly be attributable to natural phenomena. +Meaden has changed his theory to first accommodate complex circles, +ovals and even triangles (!), but now admits that most circles are +hoaxes and the theory can only explain simpler patterns. + +3.7.2: Are crop circles made by hoaxers? +----------------------------------------- + +Of course. Although most people have heard only of two, Doug Bower and +Dave Chorley of England, many others have been caught, not only in +Britain but in other countries such as Canada. Their methods range +from inscribed circles with a pole and a length of rope to more complex +systems involving chains, rollers, planks and measuring devices. + +And as a further note: just because you can't prove a crop circle was +made by a hoaxer, you should not assume aliens were involved. Remember +Occam's Razor (Section 1.6). + +3.7.3: Are crop circles radioactive? +-------------------------------------- + +This is a claim that has received wide circulation in UFO/cerealogy +circles (pardon the pun). It is also untrue. Examination of the data +from spectral analyses of soil taken from crop circles has shown that +there were no readings above the normal background levels. The +proponents of this claim are debating this, however. + +3.7.4: What about cellular changes in plants within crop circles? +------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Yes, what about the changes? Although this is another claim that is +widely circulated among ufologists and cerealogists, the evidence is +simply not very good. A few photographs of alleged changes in the +"crystalline structure" of wheat stems were published in some +magazines and UFO publications. The method used was spagyrical +analysis. This is a technique involving crystallization of the +residue of organic material after harsh processing, invented three +centuries ago and popularized by Sir Kenelm Digby. Digby is known for +other wonderful inventions like condensation of sunlight and the +development of sword salve (which you had to put on the weapon rather +than on the wound, in order to cure the wound). The fact that this +technique was tried at all casts serious doubts on the "researchers" +involved. + +3.8: Have people been abducted by UFOs? +--------------------------------------- + +While the number of people who believe themselves to have been +abducted by flying saucer aliens must number at least many thousands, +not one of them has produced any physical evidence to establish the +reality of their claim. On the contrary, a number of factors clearly +point to a subjective basis for the "UFO abduction" phenomenon. +Probably the strongest factor is that of the cultural dependence of +such claims. Such claims were virtually unknown until the famous +abduction story of Betty and Barney Hill received widespread publicity +in the late 1960s. Also, the appearance and behavior of supposed UFO +occupants varies greatly with location and year. UFO abduction claims +are made much less frequently outside North America, especially in +non-English-speaking countries, although foreign reports have started +to catch up since the publication of Whitley Strieber's "Communion". +Furthermore, the descriptions of supposed UFO aliens contain clear +cultural dependencies; in North America large-headed grey aliens +predominate, while in Britain abducting aliens are mostly tall, blond, +and Nordic. Aliens that are claimed to steal sperm, eggs, and fetuses, +or make scars or body implants on those supposedly abducted, were +practically unknown before the publication of Budd Hopkins's books. +This particularly alarming type of abduction seems to be quite rare +outside North America. + +Clear "borrowings" from popular science fiction stories can be traced +in certain major "UFO abductions." Barney Hill's description of his +supposed abductors' "wraparound eyes" (an extreme rarity in science +fiction films), first described and drawn during a hypnosis session on +Feb. 22, 1964, comes just twelve days after the first broadcast of an +episode of "The Outer Limits" featuring an alien of this quite unique +description. Many other elements of the Hill story can be traced to +the 1953 film "Invaders from Mars," including aliens having "Jimmy +Durante" noses, an alien medical examination, something done to her +eyes to relax her, being probed with a needle, a star map hanging on a +wall, a notebook offered as a remembrance, even the imagery of a +needle in the navel. Other "abductees" borrowed other ideas from +"Invaders From Mars," including brain implants, aliens drilling into a +human skull, and aliens seeking to revitalize a dying world. + +Originally, stories of UFO abductions were obtainable solely by +hypnotic regression of the claimant, although in recent years the +subject of "UFO abductions" has become so generally known that some +subjects claim to remember their "abduction" without hypnosis. +Hypnosis is a NOT a reliable method for extracting so- called "hidden +memories", and its use in this manner is likely to lead to fabrication +and error. Moreover, if it is suggested to a hypnotized person that +fictitious events have occurred, the subject himself may come to +believe this (See the article "Hypnosis" in the 1974 "Encyclopaedia +Brittanica" by Martin Orne). + + +3.9: What is causing the strange cattle deaths? +----------------------------------------------- + +The only information I have on these is a long file that came to me +via Len Bucuvalas from ParaNet. The +gist is that cattle and other animals have been found dead with +strange mutilations. Organs, especially genitals, have been removed +but no blood appears to have been lost. These events are also +sometimes associated with reports of alien encounters and UFOs. + +The best source of information on cattle mutilations is the +book Mute Evidence by Ian Summers and Daniel Kagan, a couple +of investigative journalists who started out believing that +something mysterious was happening, but ended up skeptics. +SI has published James Stewart's "Cattle Mutilations: An Episode +of Collective Delusion" (way back in vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 55-66). +Stewart is a sociologist who examined the pattern of reports and +found that new reports were inspired by previous media coverage. +It came in "waves" or "flaps". + +3.10: What is the face on Mars? +------------------------------- + +One of the Mars orbiters took a photograph of a part of Mars (Cydonia) +when the sun was very low on the horizon. The picture shows a "face" +and some nearby pyramids. Both these structures are seen more by +their shadows than their actual shape. The pyramid shadows appear +regular because their size is close to the limit of resolution of the +camera, and the "face" is just a chance arrangement of shadow over a +couple of hills. The human brain is very good at picking out familiar +patterns in random noise, so it is not surprising that a couple of +Martian surface features (out of thousands photographed) vaguely +resemble a face when seen in the right light. + +Richard Hoagland has championed the idea that the Face is artificial, +intended to resemble a human, and erected by an extraterrestrial +civilization. Most other analysts concede that the resemblance is most +likely accidental. Other Viking images show a smiley-faced crater and +a lava flow resembling Kermit the Frog elsewhere on Mars. There exists +a Mars Anomalies Research Society (sorry, don't know the address) to +study the Face and related features. + +The Mars Observer spacecraft, scheduled for launch September 25, has a +camera that can give 1.5m per pixel resolution. More details of the +Cydonia formations should become available when it arrives. + +Anyone who wants to learn some more about this should look up "Image +Processing", volume 4 issue 3, which includes enhanced images of the +"face". Hoagland has written "The Monuments of Mars: A City on the +Edge of Forever", North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, California, USA, +1987. + +[Some of this is from the sci.space FAQs] + +3.11: Did Ezekiel See a Flying Saucer? +-------------------------------------- + +The chapter in question is Ezekiel 1:4-28. This vision is an example +of apocalyptic writing common in the centuries before and after +Christ. (Good examples are chapters 2 and 7-12 of Daniel and the book +of Revelation.) Apocalyptic literature is difficult to interpret +because the language is symbolic and figurative. In some cases the +writer will reveal what is meant by the symbols. Verse 28 identifies +Ezekiel's wheels within wheels vision as, "the appearance of the +likeness of the glory of the LORD." This "glory" is the "Khabod", a +manifestation of brilliant light thought to be present in the temple. +The wheels are described as appearing in a *vision* which is more like +an hallucination than a physical event. The wheels are seen again in +Ezekiel chap 10 leaving the temple in Jerusalem, but Ezekiel sees this +while sitting inside his house which is in Babylon (see Eze. 1:1-2 and +Eze. 8:1). In other words this was a message from God (or a +hallucination) rather than a physical event. + +3.12: What happened at Tunguska? +-------------------------------- + +At 7:17 in the morning of June 30th 1908, close to the Stony Tunguska +River, on the Central Siberian Plateau, a huge air explosion occurred. +The explosion was powerful enough to be heard hundreds of miles away. +The area around the Stony Tunguska River is inaccessible and consists +mostly of bogs and pine forests. The seismic shocks from the +explosion were detected around the Earth. The London Times of July +4th, 1908 reported "The remarkable ruddy glows which have been seen on +many nights lately...seen...as far as Berlin." + +When an expedition eventually reached the epicentre of the explosion +they found that the pine trees had been pushed over, pointing away +from the centre. The trees directly under the explosion remained +standing. Some small craters *were* observed at the time but have +disappeared over the years due to the boggy land. The pattern is now +recognised as being similar to that produced by an air-burst nuclear +bomb. + +Currently the event is usually explained as a small, unnoticed, comet +hitting the upper atmosphere somewhere over China and finally +exploding a few seconds latter above Tunguska. A number of other +explainations have been offered... + + * an atomic explosion. Some reports collected some time after the + event describe a typical mushroom cloud. The problem here is + that such clouds are typical of large explosions due to any cause + - they are not peculiar to atomic explosions. There is also the + difficulty in explaining how the Russians first developed and + then forgot the technology when it would have been very useful in + two major wars! + + * a small black hole weighing a few million tons passed through the + Earth. The other entry/exit point was unnoticed as it was in the + ocean. Steven Hawking has now shown that black holes of such a + size have very short lives in cosmic terms due to an + `evaporation' effect. + + * a small anti-matter meteor. This now seems very unlikely with + the recent discovery of large amounts of inter-stellar matter in + which, although still close to a vacuum, is quite sufficient to + erode any small amount of anti-matter quite rapidly. In addition, + the very existance of anti-matter in any sizable amounts in our + universe is now thought to be very unlikely. + + * an alien spaceship, damaged and out of control, exploded during + an emergency landing. There is no supporting evidence for this + apart from eye witness reports of the vapour trail caused during + the objects passage through the atmosphere showing a distinct + `bend', which is supposed to be due to a course change. Such + bends can also be found in the vapour trails of aircraft which + can be seen to be flying straight and are caused by winds in the + upper atmosphere. + + +The event is not such a mystery as some suppose. In 1969 a Soviet +periodical published a bibliography of more than 1000 entries. Though +these are mostly in Russian it is not difficult to find references in +western scientific publications. `Nature' has published a number of +papers covering most of the above explanations. + +References + +John Baxter and Thomas Atkins, "The Fire Came By", Futura +Publications Ltd, 1977, ISBN 0 86000 7540 0 + +Oliver, Charles P. "The Great Siberian Meteorite," Scientific +American, Vol. 139, No. 1(1928), 42-44 + +Growther, J.G. "More About the Great Siberian Meteorite," +Scientific American, Vol. 144, No. 5 (1931), 314-317 + +Zigel, Felix. "Nuclear Explosion over the Taiga: Study of the +Tunguska Meteorite," Znaniye-Sila, No. 12 (1961), 24-27 [English +translation available from Joint Publications Research Service, +Washington, DC., JPRS-13480 (April 1962) + +Parry, Albert. "Russia's Rockets and Missiles" Macmillan 1962, +pp 248-267 + +Cowan,C.,C.R. Atluri and W.F. Libby. "Possible Anti-Matter +Content of the Tunguska Meteor of 1908," Nature, Vol. 206, No. +4987 (1965), 861-865 + +Jackson, A.A., and M.P. Ryan, "Was the Tungus Event Due to a +Black Hole?", Nature, Vol. 245, No. 5420 (1973), 88-89 + +Faith Healing and Alternative Therapies +======================================= + +Disclaimer: I am not medically qualified. If you have a medical + problem then I strongly recommend that you go to a + qualified medical practitioner. Asking the Net for + specific medical advice is always a bad idea. + +4.1: Isn't western medicine reductionistic and alternatives holistic? +--------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Practitioners of alternative therapies often put forward the idea that +modern scientific medicine is reductionistic: it concentrates on those +parts of the body that are not working properly, and in so doing it +reduces the patient to a collection of organs. Alternative therapies +try to consider the patient as a whole (a holistic approach). + +This is a fine piece of rhetoric, but it's wrong. It is true that +modern medicine looks at the details of diseases, trying to find out +exactly what is going wrong and what is causing it. But it also looks +at the life of the patient, and tries to understand how the patient +interacts with his/her environment and how this interaction can be +improved. For instance, smoking is known to cause a wide variety of +medical problems. Hence doctors advise patients to give up smoking as +well as treating the individual illnesses that it causes. When a +patient presents with an illness then the doctor will not only treat +the illness but also try to understand how this illness was caused in +order to avoid a recurrence. + +4.2: What is a double-blind trial? What is a placebo? +------------------------------------------------------ + +A double-blind trial is the standard method for deciding whether or +not a treatment has any "real" effect. + +A placebo is a "treatment" that has no effect except through the mind +of the patient. The usual form is a pill containing a little lactose +(milk-sugar), although a bitter-tasting liquid or injections of 1cc +saline can be used instead. + +The "placebo effect" is the observed tendency for patients to display +the symptoms they are told to expect. + +The problem is that the state of mind of a patient is often a +significant factor in the effect of a course of treatment. All +doctors know this; it is why "bedside manner" is considered so +important. In statistical tests of new treatments it is even more +important, since even a small effect from the state of mind of a small +fraction of the patients in the trial can have a significant effect +on the results. Hence new medicines are tested against a placebo. +The patients in the trial are randomly divided into two groups. One +of these groups is given the real medicine, the other is given the +placebo. Neither group knows which they have been given. Hence the +state of mind for both groups will be similar, and any difference +between the two groups must be due to the drug. This is a blind trial. + +It has been found that patients can be unconsciously affected by the +attitude and expectations of the doctor supplying the drug, even if +the doctor does not explicitly tell them what to expect. Hence it is +usual for the doctor to be equally unaware which group is which. This +is a "double blind" trial. The job of remembering which group is +which is given to some administrative person who does not normally +come into contact with patients. + +This causes problems for many alternative therapies because they do +something to the patient which is difficult to do in a placebo-like +manner. For instance, a treatment involving the laying-on of hands +cannot be done in such a way that both patient and practitioner are +unaware as to whether a "real" laying on of hands has taken place. +There are partial solutions to this. For instance one study employed +a three-way test of drug placebo, counseling and alternative therapy. + +4.3: Why should scientific criteria apply to alternative therapies? +------------------------------------------------------------------- + +So that we can tell if they work or not. If you take an patient +and give them treatment then one of three things will happen: the +patient will get better, will get worse, or will not change. And this +is true whether the treatment is a course of drugs chosen by a doctor, +an alternative therapy, or just counting to ten. + +Many alternative therapies depend on "anecdotal evidence" where +particular cases got better after the therapy was applied. Almost any +therapy will have some such cases, even if it actually harms the +patients. And so anecdotal evidence of Mrs. X who was cured of cancer +by this wonderful new treatment is not useful in deciding whether the +treatment is any good. + +The only way to tell for sure whether or not an alternative treatment +works is to use a double-blind trial, or as near to it as you can get. +See the previous question. + +4.4: What is homeopathy? +------------------------ + +Homeopathy is sometimes confused with herbalism. A herbalist +prescribes herbs with known medicinal effects. Two well known +examples are foxglove flowers (which contain digitalin) and willow +bark (which contains aspirin). Folk remedies are now being studied +extensively in order to winnow the wheat from the chaff. + +Homeopathists believe that if a drug produces symptoms similar to +certain disease then a highly diluted form of the same drug will cure +the disease. The greater the dilution, the stronger this curative +effect will be (this is known as the law of Arndt-Schulz). Great +importance is also attatched to the way in which the diluted solution +is shaken during the dilution. + +People are skeptical about homeopathy because: + +1: There is no known mechanism by which it can work. Many homeopathic + treatments are so diluted that not one molecule of the original + substance is contained in the final dose. + +2: The indicator symptoms are highly subjective. Some substances have + hundreds of trivial indicators. + +3: Almost no clinical tests have been done. + +4: It is not clear why trace impurities in the dilutants are not also + fortified by the dilution mechanism. + +Reports of one scientific trial that seemed to provide evidence for +homeopathy until a double-blind trial was set up can be found in +Nature vol 333, p.816 and further, and the few issues of Nature +following that, about until November of that year (1988). + +SI ran a good article on the origins and claims of homeopathy: +Stephen Barrett, M.D., "Homeopathy: Is It Medicine?", SI, +vol. 12, no. 1, Fall 1987, pp. 56-62. + +4.5: What is aromatherapy? +-------------------------- + +A belief that the essential oils of various flowers have therapeutic +effects. These effects are psychological rather than physical, and so +its a bit difficult to define what we mean by a statement that "it +works". After all, if people do it and feel better then that is a +real effect, whether it occured because of suggestion or because the +flowers contain a powerful psychoactive drug. + +4.6: What is reflexology? What is iridology? +--------------------------------------------- + +Reflexology is an alternative therapy based on massage of the feet. +The idea is that parts of the body can be mapped onto areas of the +feet. There is no known mechanism by which massaging the feet can +affect other parts of the body (other than the simple soothing and +relaxing effect that any massage gives) and no evidence that it +actually works. + +Iridology is a remarkably similar notion. Diseases are detected and +diagnosed by examining the iris of the eye. A good critique of +iridology: Russell S. Worrall, "Iridology: Diagnosis or Delusion?", +SI, vol. 7 no. 3, pp. 23-35. + +4.7: Does acupuncture work? +---------------------------- + +There is evidence that acupuncture treatment has an analgesic ("pain +killing") effect. The mechanism seems to involve the endogenous +opiate system (at least in part), but the exact mechanism by which +endogenous opiates are released by acupuncture skin stimulation is not +yet known. It does not appear that the effect can be explained simply +by pain caused by the needles. + +There have been reports of measurable physiological effects, +apparently via local changes in the activity of the sympathetic and +parasympathetic nervous systems. While much more detail remains to be +elucidated, this is at least a testable hypothesis which brings +acupuncture within the realm of science. + +This suggests that acupuncture can be a useful tool in pain +management, but that it is unlikely to be of value in curing the +underlying cause of the pain. + +The traditional theory of acupuncture involves balancing the yin and +yang (male and female principles) which flow in pathways through the +body. Nothing bearing any resemblance to this has been found by +medical researchers. + +~References: + +Skrabanek, Paul: Acupuncture: Past, Present and Future. In: Examining +Holistic Medicine by Stalker D & Glymour G (eds), Prometheus Books, NY + +Skrabanek, Paul: Acupuncture and Endorphins. Lancet 1984;i:220 + +Skrabanek, Paul: Acupuncture and the Age of Unreason. Lancet +1984;i:1169-1171 + +Skrabanek, Paul: Acupuncture-Needless Needles. Irish Medical +Journal1986;79:334-335 + +A 1977 study, Stern, Brown, Ulett, and Sletten, 'A comparison of +hypnosis, acupuncture, morphine, Valium, aspirin, and placebo in the +management of experimentally induced pain,' Annals_of_the_New_York_ +Academy_of_Sciences, 296, 175-193, found that acupuncture, +morphine, and hypnostic analgesia all produced significantly reduced +pain ratings for cold pressor and ischemic pain. + +Mayer,Price, Raffi, 1977, +"Antagonism of acupuncture analgesia in man by the narcotic +antagonist naloxone," _Brain_Research_, 121, 368-372. + +Sjolund, Terenius, Erikson, 1977, +"Increased cerebrospinal fluid levels of endorphins after electroacupuncture," +Acta_Physiologica_Scandinavica, 100, 382-384. + +"Practical application of acupuncture analgesia" and it's by Cheng, +SB (1973 Apr 27), _Nature 242(5400)_: 559-60. + +"Electrophysiological measures during acupuncture-induced surgical +analgesia" by Starr A (1989 Sep) _Arch Neurol 46(9)_: 1010-12. + + +4.8: What about psychic surgery? +-------------------------------- + +Psychic surgeons have claimed to be able to make magical incisions, +remove cancers and perform other miracles. To date, no investigation +of a psychic surgeon has ever found real paranormal ability. Instead +they have found one of two things: + + 1: Simple conjuring tricks. The "surgeons" in these cases are + confidence tricksters who prey on the desperate and the foolish. + + 2: Delusions of grandeur. These people are even more dangerous than + the first category, as their treatments may actually cause harm in + addition to whatever was wrong with the patient in the first + place. + +4.9: What is Crystal Healing? +----------------------------- + +The belief that carrying a small quartz crystal will make you a +healthier person. People selling these crystals use phrases like "the +body's natural energy fields" and "tuning into the right vibrational +frequencies". All this sounds vaguely scientific but means absolutely +nothing. Crystal Healing is mostly a New Age idea. See the section +on the New Age below for more information. + +4.10: Does religious healing work? +---------------------------------- + +Miraculous healing is often put forward as a proof of the existence +and approval of God. The Catholic and Christian Scientist churches in +particular often claim that believers have been healed, but none of +these healings have stood up to careful scrutiny. However it should +be noted that the Catholic church does investigate alleged miracles. + +One famous "healing" which has been carefully investigated is the case +of Mrs. Jean Neil. Many people have seen the video of her getting out +of a wheel-chair and running around the stadium at meeting led by the +German evangeist Reinhard Bonnke. This was investigated by Dr. Peter +May, a GP and member of the General Synod of the Church of England. +His findings were reported in the Skeptic (organ of the UK Skeptics). +Here is a summary of the report. [Any errors are mine. PAJ]. + +May found that Mrs. Neil was helpful and enthusiastic when he +contacted her, and there is little doubt that her quality of life has +improved greatly since the "healing". However May was unable to find +any physical changes. His report lists each of the illnesses claimed +by Mrs. Neil, and he found that they were either not recorded by +doctors previous to the healing or that no physical change had taken +place. It seems that the only change in Mrs. Neil was in her mental +state. Before the healing she was depressed and introverted. +Afterwards she became happy and outgoing. + +A more sinister aspect of the story is the presentation of the Neil +case in a video promoted by CfaN Productions. This represented Mrs. +Neil before the healing as a "hopeless case", implied that she had a +single serious illness rather than a series of less major ones, and +included the false statement that she had been confined to a +wheelchair for 25 years (in fact Mrs. Neil had used a wheelchair for +about 15 months and could still walk, although with great difficulty). +A report on her spine was carefully edited to include statements about +her new pain-free movement but to exclude the statement that there was +no evidence of physical changes. + +For the full report, see "The Skeptic" p9, vol. 5, no. 5, Sept. 91. Back +issues are available from "The Skeptic (Dept. B), P.O. Box 475, +Manchester, M60 2TH, U.K. Price UKL 2.10 for UK, UKL 2.70 elsewhere. + +The video is entitled "Something to Shout About --- The Documentation +of a Miracle". May does not say where this can be obtained. [Does +anyone know?] + +Of course, this does not disprove the existence of miraculous healing. +Even Mrs. Neil's improvement could have been due to divine +intervention rather than a sub-conscious decision to get better (as +most skeptics would conclude, although the May report carefully +refrains from doing so). I include this summary here because the Neil +case is often cited by evangelical Christians as an undeniable +miracle. In fact the case demonstrates that even such dramatic events +as a cripple getting up and running may not be so very inexplicable. + +For more general coverage of this topic, see James Randi's book "The +Faith Healers". Free Inquiry magazine has also run exposes on +fraudulent faith healers like Peter Popoff and W.V. Grant. + +4.11: What harm does it do anyway? +---------------------------------- + +People have died when alternative practitioners told them to stop +taking conventional treatment. Children have died when their parents +refused to give them conventional treatment. These issues matter. + +Most alternative treatments are harmless, so the "complementary +medicine" approach where conventional and alternative therapies +proceed in parallel will not hurt anyone physically (although it is a +waste of time and money). + + +Creation versus Evolution +========================= + +5.1: Is the Bible evidence of anything? +--------------------------------------- + +Apart from the beliefs of those who wrote it, no. It is true that +most Christians take the truth of at least some parts of the bible as +an article of faith, but non-Christians are not so constrained. +Quoting the bible to such a person as "evidence" will simply cause +them to question the accuracy of the bible. See the alt.atheism FAQ +lists for more details. + +Some things in the bible are demonstrably true, but this does not make +the bible evidence, since there are also things in the bible that are +demonstrably false. + +5.2: Could the Universe have been created old? +---------------------------------------------- + +An argument is sometimes put forwards along the following lines: + + We know from biblical evidence (see above) that the Universe + is about 6,000 years old. Therefore God created it 6,000 + years ago with fossils in the ground and light on its way from + distant stars, so that there is no way of telling the real age + of the Universe simply by looking at it. + +This hypothesis is unfalsifiable, and therefore not a scientific one +(see the section on the scientific method). It could also be made for +any date in the past (like last Tuesday). Finally it requires that +God, who is alleged to speak to us through His Works, should be lying +to us by setting up a misleading Creation. This seems to be rather +inconsistent with Biblical claims of God being the source of all +truth. + +Note that this argument is not put forward by creation scientists. +They hold that modern science has misinterpreted the evidence about +the age of the universe. + +5.3: What about Carbon-14 dating? +--------------------------------- + +Isotope dating takes advantage of the fact that radioactive materials +break down at a rate independent of their environment. Any solid +object that formed containing radioactive materials therefore steadily +loses them to decay. If it is possible to compare the amount of +radioactive material currently present with the amount originally +present, one can deduce how long ago the object was formed. The amount +originally present cannot, of course, be observed directly, but can be +determined by indirect means, such as identifying the decay products. + +C-14 dating uses an unstable isotope of carbon that is constantly +being produced in the upper atmosphere by cosmic rays. This process is +assumed to be in equilibrium with the decay of C-14 throughout the +biosphere, so the proportion of carbon that is C-14 as opposed to the +stable C-12 and C-13 isotopes is essentially constant in any living +organism. When an organism dies, it stops taking up new carbon from +its environment, but the C-14 in its body continues to decay. By +measuring the amount of C-14 left in organic remains, one can +establish how long ago the organism they came from died. Because C-14 +has a half-life of only a few thousand years, C-14 dating can only be +used for remains less than a few tens of thousands of years old-- +after that, the C-14 is entirely gone, to all practical purposes. +Other isotopic dating techniques, such as potassium-argon dating, use +much longer-lived radionuclides and can reliably measure dates +billions of years in the past. + +Actually the production rate isn't all that constant, so the amount of +C-14 in the biosphere varies somewhat with time. You also need to be +sure that the only source of carbon for the organism was atmospheric +carbon (via plants). The nominal date from a C-14 reading, based on +the present concentration, therefore has to be corrected to get the +real date --- but once the correction has been calculated using an +independent dating tool like dendrochronology (see below), it can be +applied to almost any sample. + +There are some known anomolies in C14 dating, such as molluscs that +get their carbon from water. Creationists seem to make a habit of +taking samples that are known to be useless for C14 dating, presenting +them to scientists for examination, representing them as other than +they are, and then claiming the anomalous dates they get for them as +evidence that C14 dating is all a sham. + +While it is true that there *may* be unknown errors in some dating +methods (see the note in section 0 about science "proving" things) +this assertion cannot be used to write off isotope dating as evidence +of an ancient Earth. This is because: + +o There are several independent ways of dating objects, including + radio-isotopes, dendrochronology, position in rock strata etc. + These all give a consistent picture. + +o Dating methods all point to an *old* Earth, about *half a million* + times older than the Creationists claim. This requires dating + methods which are accurate up to 6,000 years ago and then suddenly + start to give completely wrong (but still consistent) answers. Even + if our dating methods are out by a factor of 10 or 100, the earth is + still thousands of times older than Creationists claim. + +5.4: What is dendrochronology? +------------------------------ + +The science of dating wood by a study of annual rings. + +[These figures and references come from a longer summary e-mailed to me +by . Any mistakes are mine. PAJ] + +Everyone knows that when you cut down a tree the cut surface shows a +series of concentric rings, and that one of these rings is added each +year as the tree grows. The lighter part of the ring is the summer +growth and the darker part is the winter growth. Hence you can date a +tree by counting the rings. + +But the rings are not evenly spaced. Some rings are wider than +others. These correspond to good and poor growing seasons. So if you +have a piece of wood cut down a few thousand years ago, you can date +it by comparing the pattern of rings in your sample to known patterns +in recently cut trees (Bristlecone pines exist which are over 4600 +years old, and core samples allow ring counting without killing the +tree). + +Now for the clever bit. The tree from which your sample came may have +been old before any trees now alive were even saplings. So you can +extend the known pattern of rings back even further, and hence date +samples of wood which are even older. By lining up samples of wood in +this way, dendrochronologists have been able to produce a continuous +pattern of rings going back around 9,900 years. This easily refutes +the chronology of Bishop Usher, who calculated from dates and ages +given in the Bible that the Earth was created in 4004 BC. + +Dendrochronology is also valuable in providing calibration data for +C14 and other isotope dating methods. See the previous question for +more details. + +~References: + + "Dendrochronology of the Bristlecone Pine....." + by C. W. Ferguson, 1970. Published in a book called + "Radiocarbon Variations and Absolute Chronology" + +This takes the record back 7484 years. I am told that more recent +work published in Nature in 1991 [exact reference anyone?] has pushed +this back to the 9,900 years I mentioned above. + +5.5: What is evolution? Where can I find out more? +--------------------------------------------------- + +Many creationist "refutations" of evolution are based on a straw-man +argument. The technique is to misrepresent the theory of evolution, +putting forward an absurd theory as "what scientists claim". The +absurdity of this pseudo-evolution theory is then ridiculed. + +Debunking all these refutations would take a lot of space. Instead I +suggest that anyone interested should go and read the FAQ lists over +on talk.origins. These contain good explanations of what evolution is +(and isn't). Books and essays on the subject by Stephen Jay Gould are +good, and "The Blind Watchmaker" by Richard Dawkins is the sort of +book that makes you want to find a creationist to argue with. + +5.6: "The second law of thermodynamics says.... +----------------------------------------------- + +...that entropy is always increasing. Entropy is a measure of the +randomness in a system. So the universe is getting more and more +disordered. But if this is so, how can life happen, since +evolutionists claim essentially that life is a system that becomes +more ordered with time?" + +In fact this is a misstatement of the law. Here is one generally +accepted statement of the Second Law: + + No process is possible whose *sole* result is a heat flow out of + a system and at a given temperature and the performance of work + with that energy. + +In other words, you can't get work except by exploiting a temperature +gradient (at least, not thermodynamically - forms of potential energy +other than heat may be used - but they can also be used to make a +heat gradient). + +Notice that this statement of the second law doesn't mention the word +"disorder". In fact, the principle of entropy increase also does not, +since entropy is a thermodynamic state variable whose definition is +independent of such ill-defined terms as "disorder". + +So, where does this idea that entropy is a measure of "disorder" come +from - and what does it mean anyway? Well, the idea comes from a +misstatement of the theory of statistical mechanics. And the meaning +is nil - since the term "disorder" has no precise scientific meaning +anyway. + +In statistical mechanics, "entropy" is defined in terms of the number +of distinct energy "microstates" that are possible within the system. +This diversity of states was (and sometimes still is) informally +called "disorder" by some statistical mechanics experts when trying to +convey a feel for the subject to lay audiences. It was never a +technical term - and never had any specific meaning in the theory. +The term "disorder" applied in this way is misleading (or, at best, +meaningless). A room which is messy would be informally called +"disordered" by most people - even if they're ignorant (as most are) +of the entropy of the room. The room might actually have a *higher* +entropy after it has been cleaned. + +In addition the laws of thermodynamics only apply to closed systems +(which the Earth is not). Small parts of such a closed system can +show a decrease in entropy, but only if some other part has a higher +entropy. Entropy in the system as a whole will always increase. + +For instance, when you freeze water the molecules of H2O line up in +beautifully organised crystals. This organisation does not violate +the second law of thermodynamics because the work done by the freezer +in extracting the heat from the water has caused the total entropy of +the *universe* to rise, even though the entropy of the *water* has +decreased. + +Similarly the existence of life on earth has not decreased the entropy +of the universe, so the second law has not been violated. + +5.7: How could living organisms arise "by chance"? +-------------------------------------------------- + +This is actually a less sophisticated version of the question above. +Consider the freezing water in the example. The wonderful arrangement +in crystals arises from the random movement of water molecules. But +ice crystals do not require divine intervention as an explanation, and +neither does the evolution of life. + +Also, consider a casino. An honest casino makes a profit from +roulette wheels. The result of a spin of a particular wheel is purely +random, but casinos make very predictable profits. So in evolutionary +theory, even though the occurence of a particular mutation is random, +the overall effect of improved adaptation to the environment over time +is not. + +The actual origin of life is more problematical. If you stick some +ammonia, methane and a few other simple chemicals into a jar and +subject them to ultraviolet light then after a week or two you get a +mixture of organic molecules, including amino acids (the building +blocks of protein). So current theories propose a "primordial soup" +of dilute organic chemicals. Somewhere a molecule happened to form +which could make copies of itself out of other molecules floating +around in the soup, and the rest is history. + +Ilya Prigogine's work in non-equilibrium thermodynamics (for which he +received a Nobel prize) shows that thermodynamic systems far out of +equilibrium tend to produce spontaneous order through what he calls +"dissipative structures". Dissipative structures trade a *local* +increase in orderliness for faster overall increase in entropy. Life +can be viewed as a dissipative structure in exactly this sense --- not +a wildly improbable freak of combinations but as a natural, indeed +inevitable result of the laws of thermodynamics. + +5.8: But doesn't the human body seem to be well designed? +--------------------------------------------------------- + +Not to me. Consider a few pieces of the human body for a moment. The +back for instance. The reason we poor humans suffer so much from back +problems is that the back is actually not well designed. And what +about human reproduction. Can you imagine any engineer being proud of +having designed *that*? + +5.9: What about the thousands of scientists who have become Creationists? +------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +This outrageous claim is frequently made by creationists, but somehow +these mystery scientists are never identified. It is claimed that +these conversions have been caused by "the evidence", but this +evidence never seems to be forthcoming either. + +To test this claim, try looking up "creation" and "bible" in any +biology or paleontology journal index. + +Even if this claim were true, it would not be a reason to become a +creationist. The only reason for adopting creationism as a scientific +theory would be the production of convincing evidence. + +5.10: Is the Speed of Light Decreasing? +--------------------------------------- + +The origin of this claim is a paper by Norman & Setterfield which +plots various historical measurements of the speed of light and claims +to show a steady decrease. Extrapolating backwards, they conclude +that the Universe is only about 6,000 years old. + +The first point about their paper is that it was originally +distributed in Stanford Research Institute covers, and is sometimes +described as an SRI report. However SRI did not have anything to do +with the report and are tired of answering queries about it. + +Norman & Setterfield appear to have selected their data in order to +support their hypothesis: graphs include only those points which are +close to the "theoretical" curve while ommitting points which are not +close to the curve. This curve gives an inverse cosecant relationship +between time and the speed of light. There is no justification for +such a curve: the usual curve for a decaying value is exponential and +this would have fitted the plotted data just as well as the inverse +cosecant chosen by Norman and Setterfield. + +5.11: What about Velikovsky? +---------------------------- + +In the 1950s a Russian psychologist named Immanuel Velikovsky wrote +"Worlds in Collision". This book and its successors are remarkable +for the density of scientific, archeological and mythological howlers. +There are far to many to list here, but most are sufficient to cast +serious doubt on his knowledge of any of these fields, and many are so +large that even one is enough to refute the entire theory. + +Much of Velilovsky's proof lies in statements of the form "The reason +for is not known. My theory explains it as follows:". Many of +these reasons were in fact known when Velikovsky wrote, and many +others have been discovered since. None of these reasons bear any +relationship to Velikovksy's theory. The predictive value of the +theory appears to be nil. + +The books lack any mathematical analysis at all, which is strange +considering that mathematics is the language of science, especially +physics and astronomy. + +Some of the more noticable howlers are: + +1: Strange orbits which cannot be explained in terms of Newtonian + mechanics (or indeed anything less than an angel sitting on a + planet and steering it like a starship!). + +2: The Earth's spin being altered suddenly by a close encounter with + Venus, and then restored. Where to begin? Planets just don't do + that. + +3: A confusion between hydrocarbons (e.g petrol, mineral oil, tar) and + carbohydrates (e.g sugar, starch, glucose). + +4: World-shaking events (literally) which were accurately recorded by + the Isralites but not even noticed anywhere else, even quite close + by. + +5: Ancient records (e.g Mayan, Sumerian and Chinese astronomical + observations) which contradict Velikovsky's theory. + +Velikovsy's supporters often cite a conspiracy theory to explain why +the world of science refuses to take these ideas seriously. See +section 0 of this FAQ. + +For more information, see: + +Worlds in Collision + Immanuel Velikovsky + +Earth in Upheaval + Immanuel Velikovsky + +Velikovsky Reconsidered + The Editors of Pensee + (has a lot of his papers in it, along with other papers pro-V.) + +Scientists Confront Velikovsky + Donald Goldsmith + +Beyond Velikovsky: The History of a Public Controversy + Henry H. Bauer + +Broca's Brain + Carl Sagan + +Jim Meritt has posted a long article on +talk.origins which systematically demolishes Velikovsky's ideas. I +don't know if it is archived anywhere. This section attempts to +summarise it. Most discussion of Velikovsky occurs on talk.origins. + + +Fire-walking +============ + +WARNING: Whatever the truth about firewalking may be, it is a + potentially dangerous activity. Do not attempt it without + expert guidance. + +[Please could one of the firewalkers on the net contribute a paragraph +or two for this section. PAJ] + +6.1: Is fire-walking possible? +------------------------------ + +Yes. It is possible to walk on a bed of burning wood without being +hurt. + +6.2: Can science explain fire-walking? +-------------------------------------- + +There are a number of theories which have been put forward to explain +firewalking. Any or all may be the explanation for a particular +event. + +o The dry wood coals used by firewalkers conduct heat very poorly. + The coal itself may be very hot but it will not transfer that heat + to something touching it. + +o The coals are a very uneven surface, and the actual surface area of + foot touching the coals is very small. Hence the conduction of heat + is even slower. + +o Wood coals have a very low heat capacity, so although they are very + hot there is actually not much heat energy to be transferred to the + foot. + +o Firewalkers do not spend very much time on the coals, and they keep + moving. Jan Willem Nienhuys adds that about 1 + second total contact time per foot seems on the safe side. + +o Blood is a good conductor of heat. What heat does get through is + quickly conducted away from the soles of the feet. + +o The "Leidenfrost" effect may play a part. This occurs when a cold, + wet object (like a foot) touches a hot, dry object (like a burning + coal). The water vaporises, creating a barrier of steam between the + hot and cold objects. Hence the two objects do not actually touch + and evaporation from the cold object is much slower than might + otherwise be expected. Since steam is a relatively poor conductor + of heat the foot does not get burned. Jearl Walker, of Scientific + American's "The Amateur Scientist" column, explains the Leidenfrost + effect in the August 1977 issue; he walked across coals unharmed and + attributes this to the Leidenfrost effect. Other scientists believe + that the Leidenfrost effect is unimportant in firewalking. + +Some firewalkers put forward mystical explanations of why firewalking +is possible. A few skeptics have challenged these firewalkers to +stand on hot metal plates instead of coals. Others have pointed out +that making such a challenge in the belief that the firewalker would +be seriously hurt is of dubious morality. + +New Age +======= + +7.1: What do New Agers believe? +------------------------------- + +An awful lot, it would seem. New Age seems to be a sort of +"roll-your-own" religion. Some of the more common threads include: + +o Divination, especially Tarot, I-Ching, and Western and Chinese + Astrology. + +o Green politics, especially the more extreme "deep green" movements. + +o Flying saucers. + +o "Alternative" health (see above). + +o Vegetarianism. + +o Pacifism. + +o Conspiracy theories to explain why the rest of the world does not + follow the same beliefs. + +o Rejection of science and logic as tools for understanding the + universe. A reliance on feelings and intuition as guides to action. + +o Pseudo-scientific jargon. New Agers talk about "rebalancing energy + fields" and "vibrational frequencies". These sound vaguely + scientific but in fact have no meaning at all. + +o Eastern religions, especially "cult" religions. Mainstream eastern + religions such as Hinduism and Sihkism don't seem to attract New Age + believers. Most New Agers are actively against organised + Christianity, but some favour heretical variants such as Gnosticism. + +Not all of these are bad just because New Age people follow them, but +the rejection of logical argument as a basis for belief and action +often leads to bizarre beliefs and futile actions. A recent example +was the vandalism of a GPS satellite while it was waiting to be +launched. The vandals claimed that GPS was part of a nuclear +first-strike system. In fact ICBMs use inertial guidance instead of +GPS, and have done for decades. + +[Would any New Agers out there like to try summarising their beliefs +in a few paragraphs for this section? PAJ] + +7.2: What is the Gaia hypothesis? +--------------------------------- + +There are several versions: + +Religious: The planet (or the ecosphere) is aware, or at least alive, + and tries to preserve itself. + +Strong: The planet/ecosphere reacts to preserve a homeostasis; if, for + example, global warming raises the temperature then various + changes in the planet's biota will occur, which will (in some + period of time) lower the temperature. + +Weak: Life affects the conditions of life. + +No scientist would disagree with the weak version given here; at the +other extreme, the "religious" version is not science (unless we can +find signs of that awareness). + +Not only can we look at the ozone hole, global warming, or human +pollution, but the presence of oxygen in the atmosphere is also due to +the presence of life. + +The strong hypothesis is very much a matter of debate. Most +scientists don't believe it, some don't think it's science, but others +feel they have good evidence. Some point to Le Chatelier's principle +(a system in equilibrium, when disturbed, reacts to as to tend to +restore the original equilibrium). However the ice ages suggest that +the Earth is not in long-term equilibrium. + +For a range of interesting perspectives on the Gaia hypothesis, see +the SF novel "Earth" by David Brin. + +Was Nostradamus a prophet? +-------------------------- + +No. His supporters are very good at predicting events after the fact, +often relying on doubtful translations of the original French to +bolster their case. But they have had absolutely no success at +predicting the future. Up until a few years ago most Nostradamus +books were predicting a nuclear war in the next few years. + +The prophecies are very general, with lots of symbolism. It is very +easy to find connections between these symbols and almost anything +else, particularly if you allow multi-lingual puns and rhymes. + +A good general reference on Nostradamus is: + + The Mask of Nostradamus + James Randi + Charles Scribner's Sons + ISBN 0-684-19056-7 + BF1815.N8R35 1990 + +7.4: Does astrology work? +------------------------- + +No. A number of studies have been done which have failed to find any +predictive power in astrology. Psychologists have also done studies +showing that people will agree with almost any statement made about +them provided that it is a mild compliment. + +A good report about research into astrology is: + Carlson, Shawn. (1985) "A double-blind test of astrology", + Nature, 318 (Dec. 5), 419-425. + +7.4.1: Could astrology work by gravity? +--------------------------------------- + +Some people argue that we are affected by the gravity of the planets +(just as tides are caused by the gravity of the Moon and Sun), and +that this is the connection between the motion of the planets and +mundane events on Earth. + +Leaving aside the fact that astrology doesn't work (see above), +gravity is simply too weak to do this. Gravitational force on a mass +(such as a human being) decreases with the square of the distance to +the other mass. But the Earth is affected just as strongly by the +other mass, and accelerates slightly towards it. So the net effect on +us is nil. What is important is the difference in gravity between the +two sides of the mass. This decreases with the *third* power of the +distance (i.e. very fast) but increases with the distance between the +near and far sides. Hence the Moon and Sun cause tides because the +Earth is very large. But the difference in gravity between one end of +a human and the other is absolutely miniscule. + +Also, if this were the mechanism behind astrology then the most +significant thing in astrology would be the position of the Moon, with +the time of day coming second (as it is for tides). The position of +the planets would be completely irrelevant because they are so much +further away than the Moon and so much smaller than the Sun. + +7.4.2: What is the `Mars Effect'? +--------------------------------- + +French scientist Michael Gauquelin has discovered an apparent +correlation between the position of some planets at the time of birth +and the career followed as an adult. The strongest correlation is +between the time when Mars rises on the day of birth and athletic +prowess. However: + +o The Effect seems to come and go depending on exactly what the sample + population is. Most of the controversy seems to revolve around who + did what to which sample populations. + +o `Mundane' mechanisms for the Mars Effect correlations have been + proposed which invoke the age grouping of school athletic + activities. + +o Nothing found by Gaugelin bears any resemblance to classical + astrology, so claims that Gaugelin has somehow "validated" astrology + are bogus. + +7.5: What is Kirlian Photography? +--------------------------------- + +[Information from a posting by Dave Palmer ] + +The technique involves applying a high-frequency, high-voltage +electrical source (such as from a Tesla coil) to a subject. The source +is also very low-current, so the subject does not get electrocuted +(it's the current in electricity that does the harm, not the voltage). +When this is done, an "aura" of lightning-like electrical discharges +forms around the subject. This field is visible to the naked eye (in +a dark room, anyway), and may be photographed. Adherents of Kirlian +photography claim that this field is some sort of "life energy" which +may indicate things about the subject, such as health, psychic +ability, and so forth. They claim that Kirlian photography sometimes +shows the "phantom effect." That is, if a limb is amputated from the +subject (or, less gruesomely, if a piece is torn off a leaf), that the +field will still show the missing piece for a time, because its "life +energy" is still there. + +There is no truth to the claims that it shows any sort of "aura" or +"life energy." It is merely a coronal discharge, complete with ozone +production. The most damaging argument against the "life energy" claim +is that Kirlian photography works on ANY subject that conducts +electricity, even completely lifeless metal, or synthetic sponges +soaked in salt water. + +The field produced jumps around quite a bit. Because the shape of the +field changes, it can occasionally appear to outline non-existent +areas of the subject, hence the phantom effect. Dave Palmer reports +producing the phantom effect with tin foil about as often with leaves. +Far more often, he got false phantom effects, that is, pictures of +pieces of the subject that had never existed. + + +Strange Machines: Free Energy and Anti-Gravity +============================================== + +8.1: Why don't electrical perpetual motion machines work? +--------------------------------------------------------- + +Electrical perpetual motion machinists usually present a machine that +causes a small battery to generate a huge amount of power. The most +common problem here is that the "huge amount of power" was incorrectly +measured. AC power measurements are tricky; you can't just multiply +the voltage and current, because they may be out of phase. Thus, +measuring 10 Volts and 10 Amps could indicate anything from 0 to 100 +Watts, depending on the power factor. In addition, most AC meters +expect a sinusoidal wave; if they are given some other wave they may +be totally wrong. A simple argument against these machines is; "If +they can provide so much energy, why do they need the battery to keep +going?" + +8.2: Why don't mechanical perpetual motion machines work? +--------------------------------------------------------- + +Mechanical perpetual motion machines depend on rising and descending +weights. The problem is that the amount of energy that you get out of +a descending weight is exactly the same amount that it took to raise +the weight in the first place: gravity is said to be a "conservative" +force. So no matter what the weights do, you can't get energy out. + +8.3: Why don't magnetic perpetual motion machines work? +------------------------------------------------------- + +Magnetic motors have a clever arrangement of magnets which keeps the +motor rotating forever. Not surprisingly, whenever someone tries to +build one, the motor rotates for a while and then stops -- this is +usually attributed to the magnets "wearing out". These motors usually +rely on using magnets as low-friction bearings, meaning the "motor" +can coast for a long time, but it doesn't supply any power. Magnetism +is like gravity; you can store potential energy and get it back, but +you can't get more energy no matter what you try. + +8.4: Magnets can levitate. Where is the energy from? +----------------------------------------------------- + +Levitating magnets do not require energy, any more than something +resting on a table requires energy. Energy is the capacity for doing +work. Work can be measured by force times distance. Although the +magnets are exerting a force the levitated object is stationary, so +the magnets aren't supplying any energy. + +8.5: But its been patented! +--------------------------- + +So what? Patent offices will not grant a patent on a "perpetual +motion machine" (some just require a working model) but if you call it +a "vacuum energy device" and claim that it gets its energy from some +previously unknown source then you can probably get a patent. Patent +offices are there to judge whether something has been invented before, +not whether it will work. The ban on devices labelled "perpetual +motion" is a special case because the patent officers dislike being +cited as some sort of approval by con-men. + +8.6: The oil companies are conspiring to suppress my invention +-------------------------------------------------------------- + +This is a conspiracy theory. See the entry on these in section 0. + +In most of the US the utility companies are *required by law* to buy +your excess electricity if you produce your own. If you've got an +energy machine, build it in your basement, phase match it to the line, +and enjoy. + +8.7: My machine gets its free energy from +--------------------------------------------- + +A number of machines have been proposed which are not "perpetual +motion" machines in the sense of violating the law of conservation of +energy. Mostly these are based on bogus science. One inventor claims +that atoms of copper wire are being converted to energy in accordance +with Einstein's "e=mc^2". However he fails to explain what causes +this transformation and how this energy is converted into electrical +energy rather than gamma rays or heat. + +Occasionally one sees a machine which could work in theory but would +produce very tiny amounts of energy. For instance, one can set up a +gyroscope which always points in one direction (this is how the +gyrocompass in an aircraft works). The earth will rotate underneath +this once every day (to an observer standing on the Earth it looks +like the gyro is rotating). So you could attach gears and a generator +to the gyroscope and use this rotation to get electricity. The +4,320,000:1 gearing required is left as an exercise for the student, +as is naming the source of the energy it would generate. + +8.8: Can gyroscopes neutralise gravity? +--------------------------------------- + +Gyroscopes (or gyros) are a favorite of "lift" machine inventors +because many people have come across them and they behave rather +oddly. However there is nothing all that mysterious about the +behaviour of gyros. You can use Newtonian physics to explain them. +Briefly, if you imagine a bit of metal on the edge of a spinning gyro, +then to turn the gyro you have to stop the bit of metal moving in its +current direction and start it moving in another direction. To do +this when it is moving fast you have to push it rather hard. Nothing +about this makes the thing get any lighter (in fact to be pedantic, +the gyro gets very slightly heavier when it spins, in accordance with +Einstein's theory of relativity.) + +8.9: My prototype gets lighter when I turn it on +------------------------------------------------ + +Weighing something which is vibrating on ordinary scales is a sure way +of getting a wrong answer. The vibration from the machine combines +with "stiction" in the scales to give a false reading. As a result +the weight reductions reported for such machines are always close to +the limits of accuracy of the scales used. + +AIDS +==== + +9.1: What about these theories on AIDS? +--------------------------------------- + +There are two AIDS theories that often appear in sci.skeptic. The +first is Strecker's theory that the CIA invented HIV by genetic +engineering; the second is Duesberg's theory that HIV has nothing to +do with AIDS. + +9.1.1: The Mainstream Theory +---------------------------- + +The generally accepted theory is that AIDS is caused by the Human +Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). There are two different versions of +HIV: HIV-1 and HIV-2. These viruses are believed, on the basis of +their genetic sequences, to have evolved from the Simian +Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV), with HIV-2 being much more similar to +SIV. Several years after the initial HIV infection, the immune system +is weakened to the point where opportunistic infections occur, +resulting in the syndrome of AIDS. A good reference for more +information on the "mainstream" view of AIDS is: + + The Science of AIDS : readings from Scientific American magazine. + New York : W.H. Freeman, c1989. + +More recently, it has been proposed that AIDS is actually an +auto-immune disease (where the body's defences attack healthy cells in +error) which is triggered by HIV. + +9.1.2: Strecker's CIA Theory +---------------------------- + +Strecker's theory is that the CIA made HIV in the 1970's by combining +bovine leukemia virus (BLV) and sheep visna virus (OLV). The evidence for +this theory is that the government was looking at biological warfare around +then, and that there are some structural similarities between HIV and BLV +and visna. The evidence against this theory is: + +a: HIV has been found in preserved blood samples from the 1950's. + [Anyone have a reference for this?] +b: We didn't have the biotechnology back then for the necessary gene + splicing. (But maybe the CIA has secret advanced technology?) +c: The genetic sequences for HIV, SIV, BLV, and OLV are freely + available (e.g. from genbank). You can look at them and compare + them yourself. The HIV sequence is totally different from BLV and + OLV, but is fairly similar to SIV, just as the scientists say. + +One school of thought holds that the "AIDS was a U.S. biological +warfare experiment" myth was extensively spread as part of a +dezinformatsiya campaign by Department V of the Soviet KGB (their +`active measures' group). They may not have invented the premise +(Soviet disinformation doctrine favored legends originated by third +parties), but they added a number of signature details such as the +name of the supposed development site (usually Fort Meade in Maryland) +which still show up in most retellings. + +According to a defector who was once the KGB chief rezident in Great +Britain, the KGB promulgated this legend through controlled sources in +Europe and the Third World. The Third World version (only) included +the claim that HIV was the result of an attempt to build a "race +bomb", a plague that would kill only non-whites. + +Also see the question in section 0 about Conspiracy Theories. + +9.1.3: Duesberg's Risk-Group Theory +----------------------------------- + +Duesberg's theory is: HIV is a harmless retrovirus that may serve as a +marker for people in AIDS high-risk groups. AIDS is not a contagious +syndrome caused by one conventional virus or microbe. AIDS is +probably caused by conventional pathogenic factors: administration of +blood transfusions or drugs, promiscuous male homosexual activity +associated with drugs, acute parasitic infections, and malnutrition. +Drugs such as AZT promote AIDS, rather than fight it. His theory is +explained in detail in "Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired +Immunodeficiency Syndrome: Correlation but not Causation", Proc. Natl. +Acad. Sci. USA V86 pp.755-764, (Feb. 1989). + +He claims as evidence for his theory: + +a: HIV does not meet Koch's postulates for the causative agent of an + infectious disease. +b: The conversion rate from HIV infection to AIDS depends greatly on + the country and risk group membership, so HIV isn't sufficient to + cause AIDS. +c: The HIV virus is minimally active, does not seem to infect many + cells, and is suppressed by the immune system, so how could it + cause problems? +d: It takes between 2 and 15 years from HIV infection for AIDS to + occur. HIV should cause illness right away or never. +e: HIV is similar to other retroviruses that don't cause AIDS. There + seems to be nothing special about HIV that would cause AIDS. +f: AIDS patients suffer very different diseases in the US and Africa, + which suggests that the cofactors are responsible, not AIDS. +g: How could two viruses, HIV-1 and HIV-2, evolve at the same time? + It doesn't seem likely that two deadly viruses would show up + together. + +Virtually the entire scientific community considers Duesberg a flake, +although he was a respected researcher before he came out with his +theory about AIDS. There is no suggestion that his theories are the +result of a political agenda or homophobia. + +Some of the arguments against him are: + +a: People who receive HIV tainted blood become HIV+ and come down with + AIDS. People who receive HIV-free blood don't get AIDS (unless + they get HIV somewhere else). Thus, it is the HIV, not the + transfusion, that causes AIDS. +b: The risk factors (homosexuality, drug use, transfusions, etc.) have + been around for a very long time, but AIDS doesn't show up until + HIV shows up. People who engage in homosexuality, drug use, etc. + but aren't exposed to HIV don't get AIDS. On the other hand, + people who aren't members of "risk groups" but are exposed to HIV + get AIDS. Thus, it is the HIV, not the risk factors, that causes + AIDS. +c: With a few recent exceptions, everyone with an AIDS-like immune + deficiency tests positive for HIV. Everyone with HIV apparently + gets AIDS eventually, after an average of 8 years. +d: Koch's postulates are more of historical interest than practical + use. There are many diseases that don't satisfy the postulates. +e: It is not understood exactly how HIV causes AIDS, but a lack of + understanding of the details isn't a reason to reject HIV. +f: A recent study matched up people in the same risk groups and found + those with HIV got AIDS but those without HIV didn't. The study + was titled "HIV causes AIDS". + +More information can be found in published rebuttals to Duesberg, such +as in Nature V345 pp.659-660 (June 21, 1990), and in Duesberg's debate +with Blattner, Gallo, Temin, Science V241 pp.514-517 (1988). + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/shuttle.fey b/textfiles.com/science/shuttle.fey new file mode 100644 index 00000000..97cd8c3f --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/shuttle.fey @@ -0,0 +1,529 @@ +From: w_smith%wookie.DEC@decwrl.dec.com (Willie Smith, LTN Components Eng.) +Date: 16 Mar 88 21:32 +Subject: Richard Feynman's report on the shuttle [very good stuff!] + +There are some memorable and educational things in here, and while it's too big +for a risks posting, I know you would want to read it (if you haven't already). +If you want I could probably try to edit it down to the proper size for a Risks +posting. There are some rather interesting things in here about how (and how +not) to do software and other systems work. + +Personal observations on the reliability of the Shuttle, by R. P. Feynman + +Introduction + +It appears that there are enormous differences of opinion as to the probability +of a failure with loss of vehicle and of human life. The estimates range from +roughly 1 in 100 to 1 in 100,000. The higher figures come from the working +engineers, and the very low figures from management. What are the causes and +consequences of this lack of agreement? Since 1 part in 100,000 would imply +that one could put a Shuttle up each day for 300 years expecting to lose only +one, we could properly ask "What is the cause of management's fantastic faith +in the machinery?" + +We have also found that certification criteria used in Flight Readiness Reviews +often develop a gradually decreasing strictness. The argument that the same +risk was flown before without failure is often accepted as an argument for the +safety of accepting it again. Because of this, obvious weaknesses are accepted +again and again, sometimes without a sufficiently serious attempt to remedy +them, or to delay a flight because of their continued presence. + +There are several sources of information. There are published criteria for +certification, including a history of modifications in the form of waivers and +deviations. In addition, the records of the Flight Readiness Reviews for each +flight document the arguments used to accept the risks of the flight. +Information was obtained from the direct testimony and the reports of the range +safety officer, Louis J. Ullian, with respect to the history of success of +solid fuel rockets. There was a further study by him (as chairman of the +launch abort safety panel (LASP)) in an attempt to determine the risks involved +in possible accidents leading to radioactive contamination from attempting to +fly a plutonium power supply (RTG) for future planetary missions. The NASA +study of the same question is also available. For the History of the Space +Shuttle Main Engines, interviews with management and engineers at Marshall, and +informal interviews with engineers at Rocketdyne, were made. An independent +(Cal Tech) mechanical engineer who consulted for NASA about engines was also +interviewed informally. A visit to Johnson was made to gather information on +the reliability of the avionics (computers, sensors, and effectors). Finally +there is a report "A Review of Certification Practices, Potentially Applicable +to Man-rated Reusable Rocket Engines," prepared at the Jet Propulsion +Laboratory by N. Moore, et al., in February, 1986, for NASA Headquarters, +Office of Space Flight. It deals with the methods used by the FAA and the +military to certify their gas turbine and rocket engines. These authors were +also interviewed informally. + +Solid Rockets (SRB) + +An estimate of the reliability of solid rockets was made by the range safety +officer, by studying the experience of all previous rocket flights. Out of a +total of nearly 2,900 flights, 121 failed (1 in 25). This includes, however, +what may be called, early errors, rockets flown for the first few times in +which design errors are discovered and fixed. A more reasonable figure for the +mature rockets might be 1 in 50. With special care in the selection of parts +and in inspection, a figure of below 1 in 100 might be achieved but 1 in 1,000 +is probably not attainable with today's technology. (Since there are two +rockets on the Shuttle, these rocket failure rates must be doubled to get +Shuttle failure rates from Solid Rocket Booster failure.) + +NASA officials argue that the figure is much lower. They point out that these +figures are for unmanned rockets but since the Shuttle is a manned vehicle "the +probability of mission success is necessarily very close to 1.0." It is not +very clear what this phrase means. Does it mean it is close to 1 or that it +ought to be close to 1? They go on to explain "Historically this extremely +high degree of mission success has given rise to a difference in philosophy +between manned space flight programs and unmanned programs; i.e., numerical +probability usage versus engineering judgment." (These quotations are from +"Space Shuttle Data for Planetary Mission RTG Safety Analysis," Pages 3-1, 3-1, +February 15, 1985, NASA, JSC.) It is true that if the probability of failure +was as low as 1 in 100,000 it would take an inordinate number of tests to +determine it ( you would get nothing but a string of perfect flights from which +no precise figure, other than that the probability is likely less than the +number of such flights in the string so far). But, if the real probability is +not so small, flights would show troubles, near failures, and possible actual +failures with a reasonable number of trials. and standard statistical methods +could give a reasonable estimate. In fact, previous NASA experience had shown, +on occasion, just such difficulties, near accidents, and accidents, all giving +warning that the probability of flight failure was not so very small. The +inconsistency of the argument not to determine reliability through historical +experience, as the range safety officer did, is that NASA also appeals to +history, beginning "Historically this high degree of mission success..." + +Finally, if we are to replace standard numerical probability usage with +engineering judgment, why do we find such an enormous disparity between the +management estimate and the judgment of the engineers? It would appear that, +for whatever purpose, be it for internal or external consumption, the +management of NASA exaggerates the reliability of its product, to the point of +fantasy. + +The history of the certification and Flight Readiness Reviews will not be +repeated here. (See other part of Commission reports.) The phenomenon of +accepting for flight, seals that had shown erosion and blow-by in previous +flights, is very clear. The Challenger flight is an excellent example. There +are several references to flights that had gone before. The acceptance and +success of these flights is taken as evidence of safety. But erosion and +blow-by are not what the design expected. They are warnings that something is +wrong. The equipment is not operating as expected, and therefore there is a +danger that it can operate with even wider deviations in this unexpected and +not thoroughly understood way. The fact that this danger did not lead to a +catastrophe before is no guarantee that it will not the next time, unless it is +completely understood. When playing Russian roulette the fact that the first +shot got off safely is little comfort for the next. The origin and +consequences of the erosion and blow-by were not understood. They did not +occur equally on all flights and all joints; sometimes more, and sometimes +less. Why not sometime, when whatever conditions determined it were right, +still more leading to catastrophe? + +In spite of these variations from case to case, officials behaved as if they +understood it, giving apparently logical arguments to each other often +depending on the "success" of previous flights. For example. in determining +if flight 51-L was safe to fly in the face of ring erosion in flight 51-C, it +was noted that the erosion depth was only one-third of the radius. It had been +noted in an experiment cutting the ring that cutting it as deep as one radius +was necessary before the ring failed. Instead of being very concerned that +variations of poorly understood conditions might reasonably create a deeper +erosion this time, it was asserted, there was "a safety factor of three." This +is a strange use of the engineer's term ,"safety factor." If a bridge is built +to withstand a certain load without the beams permanently deforming, cracking, +or breaking, it may be designed for the materials used to actually stand up +under three times the load. This "safety factor" is to allow for uncertain +excesses of load, or unknown extra loads, or weaknesses in the material that +might have unexpected flaws, etc. If now the expected load comes on to the new +bridge and a crack appears in a beam, this is a failure of the design. There +was no safety factor at all; even though the bridge did not actually collapse +because the crack went only one-third of the way through the beam. The O-rings +of the Solid Rocket Boosters were not designed to erode. Erosion was a clue +that something was wrong. Erosion was not something from which safety can be +inferred. + +There was no way, without full understanding, that one could have confidence +that conditions the next time might not produce erosion three times more severe +than the time before. Nevertheless, officials fooled themselves into thinking +they had such understanding and confidence, in spite of the peculiar variations +from case to case. A mathematical model was made to calculate erosion. This +was a model based not on physical understanding but on empirical curve fitting. +To be more detailed, it was supposed a stream of hot gas impinged on the O-ring +material, and the heat was determined at the point of stagnation (so far, with +reasonable physical, thermodynamic laws). But to determine how much rubber +eroded it was assumed this depended only on this heat by a formula suggested by +data on a similar material. A logarithmic plot suggested a straight line, so +it was supposed that the erosion varied as the .58 power of the heat, the .58 +being determined by a nearest fit. At any rate, adjusting some other numbers, +it was determined that the model agreed with the erosion (to depth of one-third +the radius of the ring). There is nothing much so wrong with this as believing +the answer! Uncertainties appear everywhere. How strong the gas stream might +be was unpredictable, it depended on holes formed in the putty. Blow-by showed +that the ring might fail even though not, or only partially eroded through. +The empirical formula was known to be uncertain, for it did not go directly +through the very data points by which it was determined. There were a cloud of +points some twice above, and some twice below the fitted curve, so erosions +twice predicted were reasonable from that cause alone. Similar uncertainties +surrounded the other constants in the formula, etc., etc. When using a +mathematical model careful attention must be given to uncertainties in the +model. + +Liquid Fuel Engine (SSME) + +During the flight of 51-L the three Space Shuttle Main Engines all worked +perfectly, even, at the last moment, beginning to shut down the engines as the +fuel supply began to fail. The question arises, however, as to whether, had it +failed, and we were to investigate it in as much detail as we did the Solid +Rocket Booster, we would find a similar lack of attention to faults and a +deteriorating reliability. In other words, were the organization weaknesses +that contributed to the accident confined to the Solid Rocket Booster sector or +were they a more general characteristic of NASA? To that end the Space Shuttle +Main Engines and the avionics were both investigated. No similar study of the +Orbiter, or the External Tank were made. + +The engine is a much more complicated structure than the Solid Rocket Booster, +and a great deal more detailed engineering goes into it. Generally, the +engineering seems to be of high quality and apparently considerable attention +is paid to deficiencies and faults found in operation. + +The usual way that such engines are designed (for military or civilian +aircraft) may be called the component system, or bottom-up design. First it is +necessary to thoroughly understand the properties and limitations of the +materials to be used (for turbine blades, for example), and tests are begun in +experimental rigs to determine those. With this knowledge larger component +parts (such as bearings) are designed and tested individually. As deficiencies +and design errors are noted they are corrected and verified with further +testing. Since one tests only parts at a time these tests and modifications +are not overly expensive. Finally one works up to the final design of the +entire engine, to the necessary specifications. There is a good chance, by +this time that the engine will generally succeed, or that any failures are +easily isolated and analyzed because the failure modes, limitations of +materials, etc., are so well understood. There is a very good chance that the +modifications to the engine to get around the final difficulties are not very +hard to make, for most of the serious problems have already been discovered and +dealt with in the earlier, less expensive, stages of the process. + +The Space Shuttle Main Engine was handled in a different manner, top down, we +might say. The engine was designed and put together all at once with +relatively little detailed preliminary study of the material and components. +Then when troubles are found in the bearings, turbine blades, coolant pipes, +etc., it is more expensive and difficult to discover the causes and make +changes. For example, cracks have been found in the turbine blades of the high +pressure oxygen turbopump. Are they caused by flaws in the material, the +effect of the oxygen atmosphere on the properties of the material, the thermal +stresses of startup or shutdown, the vibration and stresses of steady running, +or mainly at some resonance at certain speeds, etc.? How long can we run from +crack initiation to crack failure, and how does this depend on power level? +Using the completed engine as a test bed to resolve such questions is extremely +expensive. One does not wish to lose an entire engine in order to find out +where and how failure occurs. Yet, an accurate knowledge of this information +is essential to acquire a confidence in the engine reliability in use. Without +detailed understanding, confidence can not be attained. + +A further disadvantage of the top-down method is that, if an understanding of a +fault is obtained, a simple fix, such as a new shape for the turbine housing, +may be impossible to implement without a redesign of the entire engine. + +The Space Shuttle Main Engine is a very remarkable machine. It has a greater +ratio of thrust to weight than any previous engine. It is built at the edge +of, or outside of, previous engineering experience. Therefore, as expected, +many different kinds of flaws and difficulties have turned up. Because, +unfortunately, it was built in the top-down manner, they are difficult to find +and fix. The design aim of a lifetime of 55 missions equivalent firings +(27,000 seconds of operation, either in a mission of 500 seconds, or on a test +stand) has not been obtained. The engine now requires very frequent +maintenance and replacement of important parts, such as turbopumps, bearings, +sheet metal housings, etc. The high-pressure fuel turbopump had to be replaced +every three or four mission equivalents (although that may have been fixed, +now) and the high pressure oxygen turbopump every five or six. This is at most +ten percent of the original specification. But our main concern here is the +determination of reliability. + +In a total of about 250,000 seconds of operation, the engines have failed +seriously perhaps 16 times. Engineering pays close attention to these failings +and tries to remedy them as quickly as possible. This it does by test studies +on special rigs experimentally designed for the flaws in question, by careful +inspection of the engine for suggestive clues (like cracks), and by +considerable study and analysis. In this way, in spite of the difficulties of +top-down design, through hard work, many of the problems have apparently been +solved. + +A list of some of the problems follows. Those followed by an asterisk (*) are +probably solved: + +1. Turbine blade cracks in high pressure fuel turbopumps (HPFTP). + (May have been solved.) + +2. Turbine blade cracks in high pressure oxygen + turbopumps (HPOTP). + +3. Augmented Spark Igniter (ASI) line rupture.* + +4. Purge check valve failure.* + +5. ASI chamber erosion.* + +6. HPFTP turbine sheet metal cracking. + +7. HPFTP coolant liner failure.* + +8. Main combustion chamber outlet elbow failure.* + +9. Main combustion chamber inlet elbow weld offset.* + +10. HPOTP subsynchronous whirl.* + +11. Flight acceleration safety cutoff system (partial failure in a redundant + system).* + +12. Bearing spalling (partially solved). + +13. A vibration at 4,000 Hertz making some engines inoperable, etc. + +Many of these solved problems are the early difficulties of a new design, for +13 of them occurred in the first 125,000 seconds and only three in the second +125,000 seconds. Naturally, one can never be sure that all the bugs are out, +and, for some, the fix may not have addressed the true cause. Thus, it is not +unreasonable to guess there may be at least one surprise in the next 250,000 +seconds, a probability of 1/500 per engine per mission. On a mission there are +three engines, but some accidents would possibly be contained, and only affect +one engine. The system can abort with only two engines. Therefore let us say +that the unknown suprises do not, even of themselves, permit us to guess that +the probability of mission failure do to the Space Shuttle Main Engine is less +than 1/500. To this we must add the chance of failure from known, but as yet +unsolved, problems (those without the asterisk in the list above). These we +discuss below. (Engineers at Rocketdyne, the manufacturer, estimate the total +probability as 1/10,000. Engineers at marshal estimate it as 1/300, while NASA +management, to whom these engineers report, claims it is 1/100,000. An +independent engineer consulting for NASA thought 1 or 2 per 100 a reasonable +estimate.) + + The history of the certification principles for these engines is confusing +and difficult to explain. Initially the rule seems to have been that two +sample engines must each have had twice the time operating without failure as +the operating time of the engine to be certified (rule of 2x). At least that +is the FAA practice, and NASA seems to have adopted it, originally expecting +the certified time to be 10 missions (hence 20 missions for each sample). +Obviously the best engines to use for comparison would be those of greatest +total (flight plus test) operating time -- the so-called "fleet leaders." But +what if a third sample and several others fail in a short time? Surely we will +not be safe because two were unusual in lasting longer. The short time might +be more representative of the real possibilities, and in the spirit of the +safety factor of 2, we should only operate at half the time of the short-lived +samples. + +The slow shift toward decreasing safety factor can be seen in many examples. +We take that of the HPFTP turbine blades. First of all the idea of testing an +entire engine was abandoned. Each engine number has had many important parts +(like the turbopumps themselves) replaced at frequent intervals, so that the +rule must be shifted from engines to components. We accept an HPFTP for a +certification time if two samples have each run successfully for twice that +time (and of course, as a practical matter, no longer insisting that this time +be as large as 10 missions). But what is "successfully?" The FAA calls a +turbine blade crack a failure, in order, in practice, to really provide a +safety factor greater than 2. There is some time that an engine can run +between the time a crack originally starts until the time it has grown large +enough to fracture. (The FAA is contemplating new rules that take this extra +safety time into account, but only if it is very carefully analyzed through +known models within a known range of experience and with materials thoroughly +tested. None of these conditions apply to the Space Shuttle Main Engine. + +Cracks were found in many second stage HPFTP turbine blades. In one case three +were found after 1,900 seconds, while in another they were not found after +4,200 seconds, although usually these longer runs showed cracks. To follow +this story further we shall have to realize that the stress depends a great +deal on the power level. The Challenger flight was to be at, and previous +flights had been at, a power level called 104% of rated power level during most +of the time the engines were operating. Judging from some material data it is +supposed that at the level 104% of rated power level, the time to crack is +about twice that at 109% or full power level (FPL). Future flights were to be +at this level because of heavier payloads, and many tests were made at this +level. Therefore dividing time at 104% by 2, we obtain units called equivalent +full power level (EFPL). (Obviously, some uncertainty is introduced by that, +but it has not been studied.) The earliest cracks mentioned above occurred at +1,375 EFPL. + +Now the certification rule becomes "limit all second stage blades to a maximum +of 1,375 seconds EFPL." If one objects that the safety factor of 2 is lost it +is pointed out that the one turbine ran for 3,800 seconds EFPL without cracks, +and half of this is 1,900 so we are being more conservative. We have fooled +ourselves in three ways. First we have only one sample, and it is not the +fleet leader, for the other two samples of 3,800 or more seconds had 17 cracked +blades between them. (There are 59 blades in the engine.) Next we have +abandoned the 2x rule and substituted equal time. And finally, 1,375 is where +we did see a crack. We can say that no crack had been found below 1,375, but +the last time we looked and saw no cracks was 1,100 seconds EFPL. We do not +know when the crack formed between these times, for example cracks may have +formed at 1,150 seconds EFPL. (Approximately 2/3 of the blade sets tested in +excess of 1,375 seconds EFPL had cracks. Some recent experiments have, indeed, +shown cracks as early as 1,150 seconds.) It was important to keep the number +high, for the Challenger was to fly an engine very close to the limit by the +time the flight was over. + +Finally it is claimed that the criteria are not abandoned, and the system is +safe, by giving up the FAA convention that there should be no cracks, and +considering only a completely fractured blade a failure. With this definition +no engine has yet failed. The idea is that since there is sufficient time for +a crack to grow to a fracture we can insure that all is safe by inspecting all +blades for cracks. If they are found, replace them, and if none are found we +have enough time for a safe mission. This makes the crack problem not a flight +safety problem, but merely a maintenance problem. + +This may in fact be true. But how well do we know that cracks always grow +slowly enough that no fracture can occur in a mission? Three engines have run +for long times with a few cracked blades (about 3,000 seconds EFPL) with no +blades broken off. + +But a fix for this cracking may have been found. By changing the blade shape, +shot-peening the surface, and covering with insulation to exclude thermal +shock, the blades have not cracked so far. + +A very similar story appears in the history of certification of the HPOTP, but +we shall not give the details here. + +It is evident, in summary, that the Flight Readiness Reviews and certification +rules show a deterioration for some of the problems of the Space Shuttle Main +Engine that is closely analogous to the deterioration seen in the rules for the +Solid Rocket Booster. + +Avionics + +By "avionics" is meant the computer system on the Orbiter as well as its input +sensors and output actuators. At first we will restrict ourselves to the +computers proper and not be concerned with the reliability of the input +information from the sensors of temperature, pressure, etc., nor with whether +the computer output is faithfully followed by the actuators of rocket firings, +mechanical controls, displays to astronauts, etc. + +The computer system is very elaborate, having over 250,000 lines of code. It +is responsible, among many other things, for the automatic control of the +entire ascent to orbit, and for the descent until well into the atmosphere +(below Mach 1) once one button is pushed deciding the landing site desired. It +would be possible to make the entire landing automatically (except that the +landing gear lowering signal is expressly left out of computer control, and +must be provided by the pilot, ostensibly for safety reasons) but such an +entirely automatic landing is probably not as safe as a pilot controlled +landing. During orbital flight it is used in the control of payloads, in +displaying information to the astronauts, and the exchange of information to +the ground. It is evident that the safety of flight requires guaranteed +accuracy of this elaborate system of computer hardware and software. + +In brief, the hardware reliability is ensured by having four essentially +independent identical computer systems. Where possible each sensor also has +multiple copies, usually four, and each copy feeds all four of the computer +lines. If the inputs from the sensors disagree, depending on circumstances, +certain averages, or a majority selection is used as the effective input. The +algorithm used by each of the four computers is exactly the same, so their +inputs (since each sees all copies of the sensors) are the same. Therefore at +each step the results in each computer should be identical. From time to time +they are compared, but because they might operate at slightly different speeds +a system of stopping and waiting at specific times is instituted before each +comparison is made. If one of the computers disagrees, or is too late in +having its answer ready, the three which do agree are assumed to be correct and +the errant computer is taken completely out of the system. If, now, another +computer fails, as judged by the agreement of the other two, it is taken out of +the system, and the rest of the flight canceled, and descent to the landing +site is instituted, controlled by the two remaining computers. It is seen that +this is a redundant system since the failure of only one computer does not +affect the mission. Finally, as an extra feature of safety, there is a fifth +independent computer, whose memory is loaded with only the programs of ascent +and descent, and which is capable of controlling the descent if there is a +failure of more than two of the computers of the main line four. + +There is not enough room in the memory of the main line computers for all the +programs of ascent, descent, and payload programs in flight, so the memory is +loaded about four time from tapes, by the astronauts. + +Because of the enormous effort required to replace the software for such an +elaborate system, and for checking a new system out, no change has been made to +the hardware since the system began about fifteen years ago. The actual +hardware is obsolete; for example, the memories are of the old ferrite core +type. It is becoming more difficult to find manufacturers to supply such +old-fashioned computers reliably and of high quality. Modern computers are +very much more reliable, can run much faster, simplifying circuits, and +allowing more to be done, and would not require so much loading of memory, for +the memories are much larger. + +The software is checked very carefully in a bottom-up fashion. First, each new +line of code is checked, then sections of code or modules with special +functions are verified. The scope is increased step by step until the new +changes are incorporated into a complete system and checked. This complete +output is considered the final product, newly released. But completely +independently there is an independent verification group, that takes an +adversary attitude to the software development group, and tests and verifies +the software as if it were a customer of the delivered product. There is +additional verification in using the new programs in simulators, etc. A +discovery of an error during verification testing is considered very serious, +and its origin studied very carefully to avoid such mistakes in the future. +Such unexpected errors have been found only about six times in all the +programming and program changing (for new or altered payloads) that has been +done. The principle that is followed is that all the verification is not an +aspect of program safety, it is merely a test of that safety, in a +non-catastrophic verification. Flight safety is to be judged solely on how +well the programs do in the verification tests. A failure here generates +considerable concern. + +To summarize then, the computer software checking system and attitude is of the +highest quality. There appears to be no process of gradually fooling oneself +while degrading standards so characteristic of the Solid Rocket Booster or +Space Shuttle Main Engine safety systems. To be sure, there have been recent +suggestions by management to curtail such elaborate and expensive tests as +being unnecessary at this late date in Shuttle history. This must be resisted +for it does not appreciate the mutual subtle influences, and sources of error +generated by even small changes of one part of a program on another. There are +perpetual requests for changes as new payloads and new demands and +modifications are suggested by the users. Changes are expensive because they +require extensive testing. The proper way to save money is to curtail the +number of requested changes, not the quality of testing for each. + +One might add that the elaborate system could be very much improved by more +modern hardware and programming techniques. Any outside competition would have +all the advantages of starting over, and whether that is a good idea for NASA +now should be carefully considered. + +Finally, returning to the sensors and actuators of the avionics system, we find +that the attitude to system failure and reliability is not nearly as good as +for the computer system. For example, a difficulty was found with certain +temperature sensors sometimes failing. Yet 18 months later the same sensors +were still being used, still sometimes failing, until a launch had to be +scrubbed because two of them failed at the same time. Even on a succeeding +flight this unreliable sensor was used again. Again reaction control systems, +the rocket jets used for reorienting and control in flight still are somewhat +unreliable. There is considerable redundancy, but a long history of failures, +none of which has yet been extensive enough to seriously affect flight. The +action of the jets is checked by sensors, and, if they fail to fire the +computers choose another jet to fire. But they are not designed to fail, and +the problem should be solved. + +Conclusions + +If a reasonable launch schedule is to be maintained, engineering often cannot +be done fast enough to keep up with the expectations of originally conservative +certification criteria designed to guarantee a very safe vehicle. In these +situations, subtly, and often with apparently logical arguments, the criteria +are altered so that flights may still be certified in time. They therefore fly +in a relatively unsafe condition, with a chance of failure of the order of a +percent (it is difficult to be more accurate). + +Official management, on the other hand, claims to believe the probability of +failure is a thousand times less. One reason for this may be an attempt to +assure the government of NASA perfection and success in order to ensure the +supply of funds. The other may be that they sincerely believed it to be true, +demonstrating an almost incredible lack of communication between themselves and +their working engineers. + +In any event this has had very unfortunate consequences, the most serious of +which is to encourage ordinary citizens to fly in such a dangerous machine, as +if it had attained the safety of an ordinary airliner. The astronauts, like +test pilots, should know their risks, and we honor them for their courage. Who +can doubt that McAuliffe was equally a person of great courage, who was closer +to an awareness of the true risk than NASA management would have us believe? + +Let us make recommendations to ensure that NASA officials deal in a world of +reality in understanding technological weaknesses and imperfections well enough +to be actively trying to eliminate them. They must live in reality in +comparing the costs and utility of the Shuttle to other methods of entering +space. And they must be realistic in making contracts, in estimating costs, +and the difficulty of the projects. Only realistic flight schedules should be +proposed, schedules that have a reasonable chance of being met. If in this way +the government would not support them, then so be it. NASA owes it to the +citizens from whom it asks support to be frank, honest, and informative, so +that these citizens can make the wisest decisions for the use of their limited +resources. + +For a successful technology, reality must take precedence over public +relations, for nature cannot be fooled. + +------------------------------ diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/shuttle.fre b/textfiles.com/science/shuttle.fre new file mode 100644 index 00000000..247f0f94 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/shuttle.fre @@ -0,0 +1,128 @@ + SHUTTLE MISSION + FREQUENCIES + + BY + TOPOL + + + +This is a list of frequencies that are used during a shuttle mission, I have found them from all sorts of various materials, including monitoring times, popular communication and jim thompson. + + +NASA SHUTTLE AIR-TO GROUND + + 3.850 mhz Johnson Space Flight Center + 3.860 mhz Goddard Space Flight Center + 7.185 mhz Goddard Space Flight Center +14.280 mhz Johnson SFC +14.295 mhz Goddard SFC +21.370 mhz Johnson SFC +21.395 mhz Goddard SFC +28.600 mhz Johnson SFC +28.645 mhz Goddard SFC + +USAF/NASA FREQUENCIES + +4.510 MHZ 9.974 MHZ +4.760 MHZ 10.780 MHZ +4.855 MHZ 11.104 MHZ +4.992 MHZ 11.414 MHZ +5.350 MHZ 11.548 MHZ +5.810 MHZ 14.615 MHZ +6.727 MHZ 19.303 MHZ +6.740 MHZ 19.984 MHZ +8.993 MHZ 20.191 MHZ +9.315 MHZ 20.475 MHZ + + +HF USED AT KENNEDY SPACE CENTER + +search/rescue +2.182 mhz 3.023 mhz 5.68 mhz 8.346 mhz 10.003 mhz 14.993 mhz 19.993 mhz +VHF Sarsat 121.50 marine distress 156.0 military air distress 243.0 +Kennedy operations +7.675 mhz 7.765 mhz 10.78 mhz 13.213 mhz 20.390 mhz +Ships +2.625 mhz 5.190 mhz 5.696 mhz 5.810 mhz 9.125 mhz 11.407 mhz +Aircraft +6.693 mhz 6.896 mhz 6.983 mhz 7.461 mhz 8.891 mhz 9.043 mhz 9.131 mhz +10.78 mhz 11.205 mhz 13.170 mhz 15.015 mhz 18.20 mhz + +VHF FREQUENCIES AT KENNEDY + +Operations +117.80 mhz 121.90 mhz 126.40 mhz 148.40 mhz 162.60 mhz 170.10 mhz 284.0 +Aircraft +164.80 mhz +Ships +148.50 mhz 149.10 mhz 162.0 mhz + +Shuttle +296.0 mhz primary 259.70 mhz secondary 296.8 mhz eva spacesuits 279.0 mhz +S band microwave in mhz +Shuttle to ground 2205.0 2217.5 2250.0 2287.5 mhz +Ground to Shuttle 2041.9 2201.4 + +Jim thompson had these up on hamnet + +Nasa Aeronautical Frequencies vhf/uhf in mhz + +KENNEDY SC PATRICK AFB EDWARDS AFB +117.8 118.4 116.4 +121.7 121.7 120.7 +126.2 125.1 121.8 +126.3 126.2 126.1 +284.0 128.7 127.8 +138.3 236.6 +138.45 269.9 +149.925 290.3 +162.6120 318.1 +273.5 390.1 +335.8 +340.9 +348.4 +358.3 +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ennedy space center ground support VHF in mhz + +148.480 163.510 170.350 +149.170 163.560 171.150 +162.610 165.190 171.260 +163.460 170.150 173.560 +163.480 170.170 173.680 +--------------------------------------------------------------------------------.ASA MALABAR (PALM BAY) HF NETWORKS IN KHZ + + 2405 DATA BUOYS 2622 SRB RECOVERY PRIMARY + 2664 BACKUP MISSION AUDIO-CAPE/HOU 2678 ETR RANGE CONTROL + 2716 NAVY HARBOR CNTL-PORT CANAV. 2764 SRB RECOVERY CHANNEL + 3024 COAST GUARD SAR-PRIMARY 3187 SRB RECOVERY SHIPS CHANNEL + 4376 PRIMARY RECOVERY ZONE SAR 4510 SRB RECOVERY SHIPS CHANNEL + 4856 CAPE RADIO/LEADER 4992 CAPE RADIO/COAST GUARD SHIPS + 5180 NASA TRACKING SHIPS 5187 NASA TRACKING SHIPS + 5190 ETR PRIMARY NIGHT CHANNEL 5350 LAUNCH SUPPORT AIRCRAFT + 5680 LAUNCH SUPPORT SHIPS 5810 ETR SECONDARY NIGHT CHANNEL + 6720 SAR PRIMARY ATLANTIC 6896 CAPE RADIO + 6837 CAPE RADIO 7412 SAR COMMS WITH BAHAMMAS + 7461 CAPE RADIO/LAUNCH SUPPORT A/C 7525 NASA GROUND TRACKING NET + 7676 LAUNCH SUPPORT AIRCRAFT 7765 SRB RECOVERY SHIPS + 7919 DATA CHANNEL 7985 DATA CHANNEL + 9022 LAUNCH SUPPORT AIRCRAFT 9043 LAUNCH SUPPORT AIRCRAFT + 9132 LAUNCH SUPPORT AIRCRAFT 10305 SPACE MISSILE TACTICAL NET +10310 MALABAR TO ASCENSION IS-MUX 10780 ETR PRIMARY DAY CHANNEL +11104 LAUNCH SUPPORT SHIPS 11252 LAUNCH SUPPORT SHIPS +11407 SRB RECOVERY SHIPS 11414 CAPE RADIO +11548 CAPE RADIO 11621 SRB RECOVERY SHIPS +13227 LAUNCH SUPPORT AIRCRAFT 13237 DATA CHANNEL +13495 DATA CHANNEL 13600 MALABAR TO ASCENSION IS-MUX +13878 LAUNCH SUPPORT AIRCRAFT 14937 ASCENSION IS TO MALABAR-MUX +18009 LAUNCH SUPPORT SHIPS 19303 LAUNCH SUPPORT SHIPS +19640 CAPE RADIO 19966 ASCENSION IS TO MALABAR-MUX +20186 LAUNCH TRACKING NET 20192 MALABAR TO ASCENSION IS MUX +20198 OCC SHUTTLE MISSION AUDIO 20390 ETR-SECONDARY DAY CHANNEL +22755 ASCENSION IS TO MALABAR-MUX 23413 CAPE RADIO +27065 NASA CB RADIOS +--------------------------------------------------------------------------------RBy the way dont forget that nasa has transponders on f2 satellites on the clarke belt. For a more detailed list of information refer to monitoring times sept.88 issue. Or leave e-mail to me, and i'll look it up. + + +by topol kwv8bp +--------------- +l \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/shuttle.fun b/textfiles.com/science/shuttle.fun new file mode 100644 index 00000000..543dc3fc --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/shuttle.fun @@ -0,0 +1,235 @@ +NOTE: The following is from the UPI newswire services. More information + can be found in option "T". + + + CAPE CANAVERAL, Fla. (UPI) _ A "space Coke can" for carbonated beverages will +be tested during the next space shuttle flight set to start July 12, the space +agency announced Thursday. + + The National Aeronautics and Space Administration said the Coca-Cola Co. +developed at its own expense and initiative a way to dispense carbonated drinks +in weightlessness. + + Up to now, NASA said it was not possible for astronauts to consume carbonated +beverages in weightlessness "because there was no adequate way to dispense +carbonated beverages." + + "The new technology will provide an alternative source of liquid consumption +for astronauts," NASA said. + + The upcoming test is part of an agreement between NASA and Coca-Cola under +which the company will grant NASA a license to use the space can design for +unrestricted use in dispensing beverages in space. + + NASA said other companies are welcome to propose different technology to +achieve the same purpose. +_________ + + + 44 upi 06-20-85 02:32 ped + +Hangar accident blamed on human error +By WILLIAM HARWOOD +UPI Science Writer + + CAPE CANAVERAL, Fla. (UPI) _ A hangar accident that damaged the shuttle +Discovery last March was caused in part by disregard of a "Do Not Operate" tag +on a broken hoist, a NASA report said Thursday. + + Although the Lockheed Space Operations Co. was responsible for operation and +maintenance of the work platform hoist that failed, the investigation board +said "this company inherited the system and a certain tradition of its misuse +by NASA and its predecessor contractors." + + The accident occurred March 8 when a cable in the hoist for a 2,500-pound +mobile service platform broke and dropped the platform on Discovery's left-side +payload bay door, puncturing it in two places and injuring a technician. + + Gary Sutherland suffered a broken leg in the incident and Discovery's flight +was delayed 18 days, until April 12, so the payload bay door damage could be +repaired at a cost of $200,000. + + "The mishap can be characterized as the logical culmination of a series of +events and conditions which pushed the mechanical components to and beyond +their limits," the accident report said. + + The report said factors contributing to the accident included improper +operation of the service platform, poor operating instructions, violations of +safety rules and inadequate maintenance. + + A Lockheed techincian reported that a switch failed on the hoist March 4 and +one of two redundant cable links was severed, the report said. The entire +system then was flagged with the "Do Not Operate" tag. + + Despite the tag, the hoist was used at least twice between March 4 and March +8, causing great strain to the master link in the remaining cable assembly, the +report said. + + When the platform was moved March 8, the jolt was enough to fracture the +remaining cable link and the platform fell. + + The report said the Lockheed technicians who admitted using the platform March +6 "stated that they saw some tags, believed them to be old tags and proceeded +to operate the platform." + + _________ + + + +The only _ satellite launched) +By WILLIAM HARWOOD +UPI Science Writer + + CAPE CANAVERAL, Fla. (UPI) _ Discovery's crew launched a boxy satellite today +to look for evidence of a black hole at the core of the Milky Way and ground +crews promised no more foul-ups for a rescheduled "Star Wars" test. + + Astronaut Shannon Lucid, using the shuttle's 50-foot-long robot arm, released +the 2,190-pound Spartan satellite at 12:02 p.m. + + If all goes well, the automated observatory will be retrieved Saturday after +spending 45 hours on its own recording X-rays from the heart of the Milky Way +and from a cluster of galaxies in the Perseus constellation. + + Scientists hope to use the data to learn more about the evolution of the +universe and whether black holes, objects with such intense gravity even light +cannot escape, are common in the cosmos. + + Commander Daniel Brandenstein, co-pilot John Creighton and crewmates Shannon +Lucid, Steven Nagel, John Fabian, Frenchman Patrick Baudry and Saudi Prince +Sultan Salman Al-Saud have sailed through the first three days of the 18th +shuttle mission. + + The only glitch in what is shaping up as the smoothest flight in the shuttle +program came Wednesday when the first space test of a "Star Wars" missile +defense experiment was bungled. + + Flight director Milt Heflin said Brandenstein was given incorrect information +to orient the shuttle to reflect a laser beam fired from Hawaii back to the +ground station for analysis. + + The test was rescheduled today for Friday and a morning teleprinter message +from ground controllers promised to "get the altitude right for your next +attempt." + + Otherwise, the flight has proceeded so smoothly mission controllers beamed up +a recording of "The Sounds of Silence" early today because the crew has had so +little to say. + + "We were trying to pick a theme song for this flight and we thought that was +appropriate," said Robert Springer in mission control. + + "Yeah, we thought that might be a subtle hint," Nagel replied. + + Three communications satellites owned by Mexico, the Arab League and American +Telephone & Telegraph Co. have been successfully launched since blastoff +Monday to earn NASA about $30 million. + + Spartan is a reusable, $3.5 million satellite designed to provide a relatively +inexpensive way to conduct useful astronomy from orbit. + + Powerful bursts of X-rays from the core of the Milky Way, shrouded behind +thick veils of interstellar dust and debris, seem to indicate the presence of a +black hole possibly 4 million times more massive than the sun. + + By definition, black holes cannot be detected visually. But theory holds that +as matter is sucked in it is accelerated and heated, which produces X-rays. +Spartan automatically will record the radiation for analysis on the ground. + + The shuttle "Star Wars" test is a significant step in a program that could +lead to a weapons system in which ground lasers would bounce blasts of energy +off giant orbiting mirrors to destroy enemy missiles in flight. + + Bouncing a low-power laser beam from Hawaii off a mirror mounted in a shuttle +window Wednesday, scientists had hoped To demonstrate the capability of +correcting the beam for atmospheric distortion. + + But Brandenstein's flight plan contained the wrong information for the +shuttle's guidance system to correctly point the shuttle _ and the mirror _ at +the ground station 9,994 feet up Mount Haleakala on the island of Maui, Hawaii. + + Heflin said the flight plan called for the guidance information to be entered +into the shuttle computers in feet when it should have been entered in nautical +miles. + + So instead of aiming the mirror at a target 1,644 nautical miles high, the +shuttle aimed at a target 9,994 miles high. The result: the mirror was +pointed toward deep space instead of Hawaii. + + "It'll work the next time, assuming the weather is going to be good," said Air +Force Lt. Gen. James Abrahamson, director of President Reagan's Strategic +Defense Initiative _ commonly referred to as "Star Wars." + + ____________ + + 36 upi 06-20-85 05:21 aed + + Astronaut joins private space firm + By BETTY LUMAN + + HOUSTON (UPI) _ Joseph Allen says he never expected to retire as an astronaut +at age 65, so he will leave NASA after 18 years to become vice president of a +private space firm a few days after his 48th birthday. + + Allen, who rescued a 1,265-pound stranded satellite in November by flying over +to it with a jet backpack, said Wednesday he is resigning from NASA effective +July 1. + + The physicist was selected an astronaut-scientist in August 1967. He will +become executive vice president of Space Industries Inc., a Houston firm +pursuing ventures in the commerical use of space. + + "My memory is more filled now with wonderful events ... than I ever could +have imagined when Alan Shepard called me those 18 years ago," he said. + + Allen, 48, said he is leaving NASA with "considerable nostalgia and sadness, +but some excitement. I never pictured myself retiring at 65 from the astronaut +office. + + "It's good news and good news. I found another job and it's still in the +space business." + + Allen flew on two space missions _ the first fully operational flight of the +shuttle in November 1982 and the spectacular salvage mission of two $35 million +satellites two years later. + + On the 14th shuttle mission, Allen and Dale Gardner took turns on two +different days to fly over to the Palapa and Westar satellites, grab them with +a grappling hook and manhandle them into the shuttle Discovery's cargo bay with +the help of the robot arm operated by astronaut Anna Fisher. + + It was the first time stranded satellites were plucked from orbit and returned +to Earth for repair. + + Space Industries last year signed a memorandum of understanding with NASA to +design and build the world's first man-tended space platform. It is +negotiating agreements for launch of the platform in 1989. + + The president of SII is Dr. Maxime Faget, former director of engineering and +development at the Johnson Space Center. + + Doug Lilly, another SII vice president, said plans call for the shuttle to +dock with the platform so astronauts can work in a "shirt sleeve environment" +on various experiments that then can be left alone for 30 to 90 days. + + _________ + +By WILLIAM HARWOOD +UPI Science Writer + + + The rest of the 1985 launch schedule: + + + _June 12: Discovery returns to service with a three-satellite payload; + _July 15: Challenger is launched on a Spacelab mission; + _Aug. 10: Discovery carries three communications satellites into orbit; + _Sept.26: The new shuttle Atlantis, the fourth and final shuttle in NASA's + fleet, blasts off on a secret military mission; + _Oct. 16: The original shuttle Columbia, which has been under going + modifications, returns to service for a Spacelab mission and its + first flight since November 1983; + _Nov. 8: Challenger is launched with three satellites; + _Dec. 20: Columbia takes off on a satellite-launching mission. + ____________________________________________________________________________ + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/silver.txt b/textfiles.com/science/silver.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..2f087402 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/silver.txt @@ -0,0 +1,97 @@ + Silvering Telescope Mirrors + + by Don Barry + + After a few years with our telescopes, most of us feel as if they are +our children -- we know how to deal with every tantrum and fix every cut +and bruise. Yet when the mirrors age and tarnish into senescence, we +grumble as we dismantle our behemoths and dispatch the mirrors in gigantic +excelsior boxes to the factory for a face-lift. But we don't have to send +them to foster care: with a little patience and the right chemicals, the +following recipe will restore a mirror to pristine youth, and even increase +its reflectivity some 8 percent over an aluminum coating. + + First the old coating must be removed. This can be done with a wash in +pure nitric acid in the case of an old silver mirror, or a teaspoon of lye +in a cup of water for an aluminum coating. After this and a thorough +rinse, a second and third wash in nitric acid is mandatory in either case, +applied (using gloves!!) with cotton balls, and rubbed with considerable +pressure, followed by rinsing until the characteristic squeak of cotton on +wet glass is heard. Following a final rinse in distilled water, the +impeccably clean glass is kept under water until silvered as follows: + + + A: Silver Nitrate 6 grams + distilled water to make 100 ml. + B: Ammonium Nitrate 9 grams + distilled water to make 100 ml. + C: Sodium Hydroxide 10.5 grams + distilled water to make 100 ml. + D: Glucose 10 grams + Denatured alcohol 15 ml. + distilled water to make 100 ml. + + + Wrap the mirror face-up about the edge with waxed paper (never foil) and +hold with a rubber band in order to make a dish supporting the chemicals. +Alternately, lay the mirror face-down on two wooden dowels in a non- +metallic pan. Calculate the amount of fluid in each case to cover the +surface thoroughly or to reach halfway up the mirror side - this is about +30 to 40 ml. total volume for a 6" mirror. Divide this by 3 to obtain the +quantity of solution A required. Now mix separately equal volumes of +solutions A, B, and C, adding C last, stirring to note that the last bit of +C added causes the solution to turn brown to black. Stop just at the point +that precipitate begins to form - the ideal solution should be a slightly +turbid tea-color. Next add D in quantity one third to that of A, and +immediately pour upon the mirror. + + The solution will turn black and begin to deposit the coating. The +mirror will appear invitingly bright after only a minute or two, but the +deposit must be thickened by allowing silvering to proceed for at least 5 +to 8 minutes so that the mirror is not overly transparent. After the coat +is deposited, immediately rinse the mirror in copious amounts of distilled +water, then wash down with alcohol and allow to dry. After a day of aging, +the film can be polished somewhat if necessary by rubbing lightly with +lens-cloth with perhaps a little rouge. + + It is impossible to damage a mirror in any way by improper deposition of +silver. If the film produced is too thin, it may be thickened by repeating +the process. If too thick and rough, it may be removed and the process +repeated. The ideal film will be just thick enough so that a lamp filament +is barely visible by transmitted light, yet thin enough that the surface +requires but little polishing to bring out a full lustre. + + Perhaps the only disadvantage to a silver coat is the inevitable tarnish +that results and limits the useful life of a silvered mirror to only one or +two observing seasons. Even heavy tarnish, however, will not impact +viewing of most deep sky objects, whose emission is in the red end of the +spectrum. Blue objects, however, will be affected early in the mirror's +life as tarnish gradually extinguishes the mirror's ability to reflect +short-wave light. A useful way to extend the mirror's tarnish-free heydey +is by lining its holder and telescope cap with alum-paper, prepared by +soaking paper in a saturated solution of common alum. This paper scavenges +from the air the agent(hydrogen sulfide) responsible for tarnish +deposition. This paper can also protect your finest sterlingware! + + Remember to use only the finest chemicals available and distilled water. +As with all toxic and corrosive chemicals, use appropriate precautions such +as protective eye-wear, gloves, aprons, etc. Never use a metal pan or +metal supports for the mirror. Flush all end products down a drain with +copious amounts of water. If black silver spots are deposited in unwanted +places, they may be removed with a dilute solution of nitric acid. Don't +worry about these spots on the skin - they aren't toxic, but may take a day +or two to wear off. Wash your hands thoroughly immediately after handling +the chemicals, and keep them out of reach of children. + + It is sometimes difficult to find local sources of the chemicals +required, but they are always available by mail-order from chemical supply +corporations such as Fisher or Cenco. If there is sufficient interest, a +workshop in mirror-silvering can be conducted at a future club meeting. +Bonne Chance! + + + -------------------------------------------------- + + Don Barry is a member of the Atlanta Astronomy Club. This article appeared +in the February, 1987 issue of Ad Astra, the Atlanta Astronomy Club's monthly +bulletin. Don may be reached in care of Leonard Abbey, CIS #72277,566. diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/slinky.txt b/textfiles.com/science/slinky.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d1576fc7 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/slinky.txt @@ -0,0 +1,256 @@ + The Single Helix + + Some toys are destined to be broken in the child's attempt to +discover the source of their magic sway. No doubt many engineers +have sprung from such troublesome children, surrounded by the +empty wreckage and clinging dust of a trashed Etch-a-Sketch. +This gives us proposition one: a good toy is one with high +mortality rates. + Furthermore, a plaything's power rises in proportion to the +simplicity with which it suggests elementary social or physical +phenomena. Social toys date since the first time a stick was +raised in mock attack (war) and a doll with the vaguest of human +outlines was cradled (love). But in a second, more Apollonian +category are objects--are they toys?--intended basically for +admiring. Here's a list of current contenders and their +provenance: Suspended metal clacking balls--Newtonian mechanics; +the lava lamp--heat transfer and cavitation with non-Newtonian, +low-Reynolds-number fluid dynamics; and the Slinky--wave +propagation, somersaults, and the mysterious, entrancing +animation of nothing but a dinky piece of metal tape. + One Slinky expert's epiphany reveals the toy's pull. In 1946 +W.J. Cunningham was midway in his first year as a professor in +Yale University's electrical engineering department when someone +gave him a Magi-Koil. It was a helical steel spring with about +80 turns. The helix was a ribbon of thin, rectangular steel, and +if left undisturbed each coil stacked almost entirely on the +next. The diameter was about 2-1/2 inches and the whole thing +about the size of the box a baseball comes in. + Oscillated with two hands it looks like pouring water, as +energy is resupplied as the captivated user pretends he is +weighing fruit. Or, you put it on a top step, pull one end to the +step below, and let it do the rest. According to the ads, it +could "walk as though it were alive." Today it would be +difficult to find a child who disputes that. The Magi-Koil was +renamed the Slinky, a mechanical engineer made a mint on it, and +today it's essentially unchanged. Prof. Cunningham still hasn't +figured out how it works. + Forty years ago Cunningham had printed a paper quantifying +the actions of his intriguing new toy. Today he still teaches at +Yale, and also is chairman of the board of editors of American +Scientist magazine. Writing in the May-June 1987 issue of the +magazine, he denigrates his earlier self-assurance, now that he +is "less sure he really understands all that goes on." + In an interview he elaborated on the problems. "The general +idea is pretty obvious, but even with all the physical +measurements I wanted I couldn't tell you the minimum height of +step to kick it off on a walk down the stairs." It's tied up +with the damping in the spring, which is hard to measure to begin +with. "What's clear is the larger the damping in the spring, the +larger the step height, and I can tell you how long it will take +to go down the step. But working from first principles I have +not been abe to set up a predictive mathematical model." + Before looking at the analytical theory of Slinkyonics (as +we'll see, there is no one scientific domain within which its +actions can be described), we can get a sense of its odd-ball +usefuleness. In Vietnam, American soldiers used it as antennae +for radios; its jiggles have been been used to predict the onset +of an earthquake; while being observed intently from Earth, Space +Shuttle astronauts have used it to while away the orbiting hours +and prove--in case you were worried--conservation laws. + Who needs the $4 billion supercollider when you have the +Slinky? One paper in the American Journal of Physics suggested +that a moving Slinky, when hung in the air by thread at various +points, models the types of waves in gas plasma. Cunningham +recently received a physics paper on "dispersion waves," from a +woman who attached one end to the side of a door, which acts as +a soundboard. She stretched the thing out, and snapped the wire +at the far end. Try this at home. + The first sound that comes out, says Cunningham, is called a +"whistler"--a high-frequency whoop-whoop, like a descending bird +cry with a sharp ascent, or, to my ears, an eerily synthesizer +sound-alike suitable for a Star Trek episode. A short time +later, said Cunningham, warming to the imitation, comes a deep +voiced phew-phew, a sharply descending cry from the bird's older +brother. There is far too much ambient noise in my apartment for +me to ever actually hear these frequencies. But the point is +that the high frequencies travel along the spring faster than the +low ones, each at a particular dispersion. + +Stepping out. The Slinky in its preeminent role, as sinuous +stair descender, exhibits different characteristics, most +prominently what is called an extensional disturbance wave. A +spring is a medium with distributed mass and stiffness. In a +spring with a linear medium, an impulse--disturbance--will travel +at a speed of the square root of the ratio of stiffness to +density. But is the Slinky doing its stuff linearly? + Midway through its jaunt down the steps, the Slinky has two +essentially straight axes connected by a wide-linked, U-shaped +arch through which the metal snake seems to draw itself. The +mid-air portion of the spring is stretched out, compared to the +compact back foot (the empyting pile) on the upper stair +unseating itself, and the collecting pile of turns on the lower +stair. + Despite the event's apparent nonlinearity, Cunningham +considers it analyzable as a linear case of small deflections +along the length of the helical wire itself. In his study, he +considers an idealized Slinky resting horizontally on a +frictionless tabletop. (Surely Plato himself must play in the +frictionless land stocked with idealized toys.) Say the right +side of the spring is jerked to the right. An extensional +disturbance travels along the wire with a constant speed. Each +turn moves briefly to the right with a certain "particle +velocity." The last turn of the slinky finishes up at twice the +speed of the first one. (We'll see why the speed doubles in a +moment.) + Let's move from the heady world of ideals to the hall +staircase. The researcher, or child, has piled the Slinky on one +step and obligingly placed the free end on the step below. +Inertial and elastic effects cause a wave to travel through the +arched coil upwards--although it looks like the spring is pouring +downwards--and the last turn is lifted off the step with velocity +twice that of its brothers resting on the step above. (It's hard +to keep it visualized that the spring is a continuum through +which the wave passes, even though the visible parts of the coils +seem to be knocked against each other one by one.) + If the force is high enough at the critical take-off instant, +two events occur: the arch stays arched due to centrifugal force, +and the last rung vaults over to the next lower step. The arch +inverts, and by the time the last rung lands, a few adjacent +turns are thrown in contact. The turns pour onto the once high +flying turn, now the bottom of the pile. A new disturbance has +begun in the opposite direction. + It may seem that having the free end of the coil moving at +twice the speed of the initial coil, while receiving no +additional energy, violates conservation laws. But the +explanation is related to the theory of transmission lines. As +the pulse comes down the line, the quantity of material that is +moving becomes smaller. With a decrease in mass, the velocity +has to increase to conserve the energy. It's similar to when +you snap a towel--considering here the snap made in mid-air, not +on someone's wet skin--or, even better, to popping a whip. +Massive energy is needed to whip the massive stock of a bullwhip. +A uniform amount of energy travels down the steeply tapered whip. +The crack of the whip is the shockwave when the featherweight +flick-end breaks the speed of sound. + A physical case closer to that of the Slinky--propagation +made visible by discrete points along the line, and uniform +material dimensions--is apparent in curtains made of hanging +beads. (A locale of an exotic boudouir comes to mind.) Large +bead curtains also have a nicer planar aspect and lovely +billowing effects, a phenomenom I once noticed as I stood from +the second-floor balcony of Avery Fischer concert hall in New +York, trying to flick, in exhilarating slow motion, strands of +the enormous bead rope against the ankle of a dowager in the +lobby. + But a Slinky in action is different than the flick of a +beadstring. The Slinky's two ends are constantly changing their +relative situation: one end initiates the pulse, and one end +awaits it, and then back again. Energy is certainly lost inside +the spring itself, although with steel it's probably fairly +small; energy is also lost when the free end makes an inelastic +impact with the step. + The takeoff speed and the material design of the Slinky are +critical. The speed must be high enough to propel it down and +over two steps, but the entire rippling effect must be slow +enough to be visible. To slow it down, you need relatively more +mass per unit length. How do you keep down stiffness per length +(not the lateral stiffness)? Edge-wind it: flatten the wire +(give it rectangular cross-section) which simply reduces the +ratio of stiffness to mass. + The edge-winding of the Slinky reduces the axial length for a +fixed mumber of turns, helps the windings stack, and gives a +larger lateral stiffness to resist shearing forces--which keeps +the slinky from slip-sliding around as it pours into its +invisible glass. The scaling factors for the Slinky are linear, +for those of you familiar with the Slinky Jr., a half-size, half +speed offspring. The plastic, brightly-colored Slinky now in the +stores moves twice as slowly as the steel one, and is better for +engineering demonstrations (and children who gnaw on everything) +but is a loser as a toy compared to Old Reliable. + Cunningham's first Slinky is still the only one in his eyes. +Today's brass model, for example, doesn't work nearly as well as +the steel, he claims. The brass doesn't have the the right +relationship between Young's modulus and the density--it's not +stiff enough against lateral deflection. Perhaps we need +something like the original-instrument movement among the music +buffs; otherwise we will never know the true stuff of the device. + +Birth and transfiguration. In November 1945, Gimbel's (remember +Gimbel's?) sold out 400 of the brand-new items in 90 minutes. +Two years later a patent for the Slinky was given to Richard +James, a Penn-State mechanical engineering graduate working for +Newport News Shipbuilding. The original design was first +licensed out to one Leroy Shane, who marketed the Magi-Koil. (As +we will see, there are some grey areas in the genesis story of +the Slinky.) Eventually, the enterprising engineer founded James +Industries Inc., Holidaysburg, Pa., now run by James's widow +Betty. The company's flagship model is made of "cold-rolled +spring steel," as divulged by a tight-lipped Mrs. James, +fabricated from round wire rolled out at zero tension, flattened, +and twisted into the helix. The company turns out 6000 Slinkys a +day. + What engendered the idea for the Slinky? At one time voice +coils in loudspeakers were made edge-wound, like a Slinky, in +order that as much metal as possible could be within the magnetic +field. So goes one theory for the initial design concept, its +adaptor to toydom unknown. But according to Mrs. James, Richard +James got the idea when he dropped a "torsion spring." The +quotes you see around the words are because I could not discover +exactly what this object is, and Mrs. James could not, or would +not qualify her information any further. Interestingly, Prof. +Cunningham received a letter containing a third story, one with +darker overtones, but plausible nonetheless. + According to this Deep-throat-delivered story, someone ran a +machine shop in Philadelphia making helical piston rings for +small gas engines. (Within each engine cylinder, placed over the +piston, are two or three springy helical coils of tape that bear +against the cylinder wall. Their expansion keeps the cylinder +gas-tight, and the flat coil keeps lubricating oil away from the +burning fuel.) The story goes that, after slicing off the tops +of the steel helixes to make the rings, whoever ran the machine +shop noticed the properties that now we all know. The identity +of this "whoever" remains shrouded. Some time later Richard +James got wind of the doctored piston rings, and marketed +the concept. The relationship of humanity and staircase was +irrevocably altered. + + + +Copyright 1989 +Copyleft 1989 +Robert Braham +Scitech Publishing Services + +1315 Third Ave. +New York, NY 10021 +Voice: 212-879-1026 +E-mail: +CIME-ISE (Computers in Mechanical Engineering, +Information and Software Exchange BBS (pronounced "Siamese") +608-233-3378 (Madison, Wisconsin) + +(An abbreviated, edited, and unsigned version of this text, +Slinky.txt, appeared in 1988 in Mechanical Engineering magazine.) + + +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X + + Another file downloaded from: NIRVANAnet(tm) + + & the Temple of the Screaming Electron Jeff Hunter 510-935-5845 + Rat Head Ratsnatcher 510-524-3649 + Burn This Flag Zardoz 408-363-9766 + realitycheck Poindexter Fortran 415-567-7043 + Lies Unlimited Mick Freen 415-583-4102 + + Specializing in conversations, obscure information, high explosives, + arcane knowledge, political extremism, diversive sexuality, + insane speculation, and wild rumours. ALL-TEXT BBS SYSTEMS. + + Full access for first-time callers. We don't want to know who you are, + where you live, or what your phone number is. We are not Big Brother. + + "Raw Data for Raw Nerves" + +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/soviet.pre b/textfiles.com/science/soviet.pre new file mode 100644 index 00000000..942207f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/soviet.pre @@ -0,0 +1,74 @@ +********************************************************************** + + The Soviet Space Program - the Next Five Years + + In response to the publication of "Soviet Military Power" by the DoD, +and Aviation Week magazine's continuing predictions over the years, this +DL entry takes a dissenting position, not based on classified +information, but on a historical perspective of the Soviet space +program, and projects past performance into the future. + For those who have missed the above publications, their basic position +is that the USSR is embarked upon three major projects, each rivaling +our Shuttle program in scope and cost. These are: 1) A Saturn IB class +booster that will used to launch a mini-shuttle, 2) A Shuttle with +greater capacity than ours, and 3) A Heavy Lift booster, comparable in +size to our Saturn V, that will be used to launch the a Skylab-sized +core for a huge space station. All of these projects are claimed to be +in their final stages of development, with first launch to come within a +year or two. As a final spectacular note, the DoD publication claims +that a Mars mission is being contemplated by the Soviets for the year +1992. + Each of these projects pre-supposes the development of liquid hydrogen +engines at least the size of the Saturn J-2 engine, and possibly the +size of the Space shuttle main engine. As the Soviets have yet to +demonstrate the use of even a Centaur-class LH2 engine, it has not yet +been explained how the Soviets will develop this highly advanced +technology in the next year. + The actual Soviet practice over the years has been: + 1) Use of non-cryogenic fuels whenever possible. + 2) Use of assembly line techniques to develop economies of scale in +production of both boosters and spacecraft. + 3) Slow development of programs with evolutionary, not revolutionary +steps, contrasted with the huge jumps that the US program has made such +as between Gemini and Apollo, and Apollo and the Shuttle. + 4) Thorough unmanned testing of systems before first launch. + 5) Confusing public statements to disguise their real intent, and to +cover their tracks in case of failure. + + Based on these practices, the following predictions are in order for +the year 1990: + 1) Continued use of Salyut, but with modifications. These could be a) +use of a multiple docking adaptor to allow several cargo vehicles to +dock simultaneously, b) regular crew rotation, with Salyut occupancy +near 100%, c) use of Soyuz orbital modules left attached to Salyut to +increase living space, and d) permanent attachment of Star modules to +increase living space, provide more electrical power, and to provide +more on-board equipment. + 2) Use of a small LH2 engine on either the A class booster or Proton to +increase payload of cargo missions or size of Salyut. + 3) Development of a Dyna-soar class shuttle, coupled with development +of a LH2 engine to allow a vehicle of 50,000+ lbs, including engine +weight with the Proton booster. This is doubtful, as launch of a Star +module without the minishuttle would result in greater payload capacity. + 4) Use of more sophisticated EVA equipment, such as a MMU, to allow +cosmonauts to maneuver more freely in open space. + 5) Continued use of ICBMs as launch vehicles, possibly the SS-18 in the +near-term. This could become the new J Class vehicle, with orbital +capabilities rivaling the A class, with easier launch operations, and +greater reliability. (This is not to be confused with the all-new +J-Class vehicle postulated by the DoD, with a payload of 30,000+ lbs). +Coupled with a LH2 stage, the vehicle could be more powerful than any +booster except the D class. As this vehicle has already been proven, +conversion to space use could be rapid, once the decision is made to do +so, possibly after an arms agreement with the U.S. + 6) Of course, longer stays in orbit, up to 365 days. + 7) More female cosmonauts, but an all-female crew is unlikely. + 8) Continued exploration of the planets through unmanned probes. + 9) Cosmos 2000 (at least!). + 10) Rumors of an impending Mars flight by the Soviets, of a heavy lift +vehicle, and a heavy shuttle. + 11) Statements by the Soviets that they plan on a Cosmograd, that +colonization of the planets is a goal, and that they will build a +shuttle. +In other words, more of the same. + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/sovsdi.txt b/textfiles.com/science/sovsdi.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8f0e6aac --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/sovsdi.txt @@ -0,0 +1,220 @@ +The following was forwarded to us from the Arpanet by Dale Amon at CMU: + +From: creon@ames-nas.arpa (Creon Levit) +Date: 7 Dec 1985 1642-PST (Saturday) +Subject: Review of Soviet work in quantum nonlocality and SDI super weapons? + +STRATEGIC DEFENSE STUDY GROUP +POB 26548, San Francisco, CA 94126 +(415)398 6690/362 7779, 12/2/85 + +Memorandum for the record by J. Sarfatti. + +Soviet view of quantum nonlocality and the potential for SDI super weapons. + +Reference: Nonlocality in quantum physics. Soviet Physics Usp. 27(4)April 1984 +(Usp Fiz Nauk 142 599-617). +by B.I. Spasski & A.V. Moskovskii of M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University. + +They say that we must distinguish two meanings of nonlocality. First, that of +microcausality in quantum field theory in which the commutator of second +quantized boson fields vanishes for faster than light space-like separation +between the two field points. The currents of spinor fields also obey +microcausality in conventional local quantum field theory. Violation of this +condition is the first meaning of nonlocality. They write: + + "In this sense, one means by nonlocal theories...generalizations of quantum +field theory based on... a nonpoint interaction." + +The second sense of nonlocality is then described: + + "There are..several quantum phenomena that from a classical point of view can +be interpreted as... nonlocality inherent in quantum objects....the Aharonov- +Bohm effect, the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox, the Hanbury Brown-Twiss +effect, and other phenomena... within the Copenhagen interpretation... until a +particle interacts with some classical object it does not have definite space- +time characteristics, being, as it were, simultaneously in all the regions of +space in which the wave function... is nonvanishing... the Aharonov-Bohm +effect... the behavior of a quantum object can be influenced by the existence +of a field where the probability of finding a particle is zero... the field +acts where it is not... in quantum mechanics the potentials play a role +analogous to that of fields in classical physics ... Either one must give up +the locality principle or recognize that potentials have a physical reality no +less fundamental than the fields. But the second alternative would mean that +it is possible to find a physical difference between states differing only in +gauge... Aharonov and Bohm abandoned the second alternative ... The Aharonov- +Bohm effect could be regarded from the classical point of view as a proof of +action at a distance." + +In the modern gauge theory of the unified force the field potentials are +parallel transport connections in the fiber space beyond space-time analogous +to the Christoffel symbols of general relativity within the curved space-time +base space of the bundle. Internal symmetry transformations result from +torsion in the fiber space from lifted holonomic loops in space-time. +Nonvanishing fields are a measure of curvature in the bundle. (Reference: +Classical geometric resolution of the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox, Yuval +Ne'eman, Israeli Minister of Science, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., USA Vol80, 7051- +7053,Nov 1983. Ne'eman writes: + + "in the geometry of a fiber bundle describing a gauge theory, curvature and +parallel transport ensure and impose nonseparability..") + +The Soviet physicists continue: + +"A further illustration of the nonlocality of quantum objects is provided by +the interference experiments... by Pfleeger, Mandel, and Magyar. They showed +that overlapping beams of two lasers can give an interference pattern... +although the photon interferes only with itself... the attempt to follow the +flight of the photon ...emitted by the lasers necessarily destroys the +original interference pattern... A quantum system radiates as a single entity +even when its various parts are separated by a macroscopic distance... This +property... can also be demonstrated by the Hanbury Brown-Twiss effect +interference of intensities...Suppose we have two light sources A and B at a +large distance from two photon detectors a and b. The detectors are connected +to a coincidence circuit...the number of coincidences is a periodic function +of R1 - R2, where R1 is the distance between A and a, and R2 is the distance +between B and b. The quantum feature .. is the impossibility of distinguishing +photons which arrive at a from A from photons which arrive at a from B. If the +experiment is arranged in such a way that such a distinction becomes possible, +the effect disappears... The effect appears paradoxical from the point of view +of classical notions, since it means that photons emitted by two independent +sources know the behavior of each other... " + +The Soviet discussion of the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) paradox makes it +clear that it is the locality assumption of no quantum action at a distance +that makes the paradox in which the Heisenberg uncertainty principle is +violated. They write: + +"A ... solution of the EPR paradox was proposed by V.A. Fock and A.D. +Aleksandrov (Moscow, 1956), who put forward the idea of a nonforce interaction +of quantum objects ... another example of such (nonforce) interaction is the +correlation in the behavior of microscopic objects expressed by the Pauli +principle ... another example of a nonforce interaction (is) interference from +two mirrors. The interference pattern, which is determined by the positions of +the mirrors, means that an individual photon feels an effect of the mirrors +that is not associated with transfer of energy and momentum." + +The idea of the nonforce interaction is geometrically understood in the fiber +bundle geometry. The traditional force is due to energy- momentum transport in +the base space-time. The nonforce interaction is due to information transfer +in the fiber space beyond space-time. In Aspect's photon pair polarization +correlation experiment, the information transfer does not require energy- +momentum transport. The information transfer violating Bell's locality +inequality is in the fiber space. Quite apart from that, there may also be +faster than light tachyonic and Wickyonic energy-momentum transport in the +base space-time. But these two modes of superluminal interaction, i.e. ( +nonforce fiber quantum information transfer, and (force) base space-time +translation energy momentum transport) must be clearly distinguished. Indeed, +the relativistic kinematics of the photon pair may allow the faster than light +collective tachyonic transport of one half the energy difference between the +two photons when moving in opposite directions in 3-space. + +In my recent research on Wick rotations of solutions of the Dirac spinor +equation, I note that the slower than light bradyon has timelike world lines +inside the light cone. The bradyon (normal matter and antimatter) obeys +Einstein's 1905 equation E equals mc squared i.e. more precisely: + +E = m/(1 - v2)1/2, + +where c = 1, v2 means "the square of velocity", and (...)1/2 means "square +root". . + +The faster than light tachyon has spacelike world lines outside the light +cone. It obeys: + +E'= m/(v2 - 1)1/2 . + +Both the bradyon and the tachyon feel the light cone as an impassable +classical barrier. They are classically restricted to opposite sides of the +barrier. In contrast, the Wickyon, discovered in Dirac's theory by me, can +pass right through the light cone as if it were not there. In fact, the +Wickyon loses energy as it accelerates from subluminal to superluminal speed. +The equation for the Wickyon is: + +E''= m/(v2 + 1)1/2 + +I note that Sakharov ( the now dissident Father of the Soviet Nuclear Arsenal) +has also been thinking about the effect of Wick rotations in big bang +cosmology (private communication from Waldyr Rodrigues Jr. Institute +Mathematics, UNICAMP, S.P. Brasil). + + If life can persist through a bradyon-Wickyon quantum jump then we can look +forward to a hyperdrive for time travelling Star Ships - contrary to Dr. +Forward's recent report for the U.S. Air Force (AFRPL TR-83-067). + +The Soviets say: + +"Some authors developed the idea that the violation of locality must be +interpreted in the framework of the Wheeler-Feynman theory of action at a +distance.. In this scheme, the correlations between the readings of the +instruments are explained by ... advanced waves (telegraph from the future) +...relativistic invariance is maintained, but one necessarily reproduces the +difficulties characteristic of a theory of action at a distance, in +particular, the breakdown in the time ordering between cause and effect." + + + Kurt Godel showed that retroactivity, or backwards causation, poses no +logical problem for physics (Ref. INFINITY AND THE MIND, Rudy Rucker). Sir +Fred Hoyle, FRS in INTELLIGENT UNIVERSE shows that retroactivity is necessary +to understand cosmology and the origin of life. My gedankenexperiments attempt +to pin down the precise nonlocal quantum mechanisms needed to test Hoyle's +revolutionary paradigm. A paradigm anticipated by American scholars such as +Harvard's Henry Dwight Sedgwick eighty years ago. Hoyle's notion of the Loop +in Time has already been treated in literature by Borges in Coleridge's Dream +and in the works of Olaf Stapledon, to name the best. It has been popularized +in films like Escape from the Planet of the Apes and Back to the Future. + +Of crucial significance for SDI command control communication is the Soviet +view on the practical use of quantum nonlocal action at a space-time distance +between transmitter and receiver. + +"Is a superluminal telegraph possible? +... Stapp writes:...Quantum phenomena provide prima facie evidence that +information gets around in ways that do not conform to classical ideas... +everything we know about nature is in accord with the idea that the +fundamental processes of Nature lie outside space-time... but generate events +that can be located in space-time... none of the arguments we have considered +for the existence of superluminal signals is satisfactory." + +The Soviets do not discuss my scheme for a superluminal telegraph which +depends upon extending conventional quantum mechanics to include nonlocal +observables. I have a detailed model which predicts quantum tunneling of one +photon in a pair through the classical barrier of crossed polarizers. The +tunneling probability depends on the relative orientation of a distant +polarizer that interacts with the twin photon. It is as if the distant +polarizer is placed between the crossed polarizers at exactly one half of the +actual relative orientation. One esthetically pleasing feature of this +nonlocal hidden variable model is that it has the structure of the simplest +fiber bundle - the spinor bundle of the Mobius strip. This model allows for +the experimental test of Hoyle's Loop in Time in which a Future Cause +retroactively superdetermines a Past Effect negating ordinary notions of Free +Will in accord with Godel's teleological argument. + +It is important to recognize that there are now two experiments that +demonstrate the reality of nonlocality. First, Aspect's Paris experiment +showing violation of Bell's locality inequality over faster than light space- +like intervals between the two detections of the photons in a pair from a +double quantum jump. Second, the retroactive Wheeler "Delayed Choice" +experiment using a Mach Zender interferometer by Hellmuth et-al at the Max +Planck Institute for Quantum Optics in Garching reported in June 1985 at the +EPR conference in Finland. The debate now emerging is whether or not nonlocal +quantum action at a distance can be controlled for communication, space +propulsion, and SDI beam weapons. + +Research in this cutting edge of New Physics will have a profound impact on +SDI. For example, untappable unjammable retroactive quantum action at a +distance command control communications and beam weapons. + + One may also anticiapte application of the Salam-Weinberg-Glashow electroweak +unification to create a new type of SDI beam weapon to render nuclear weapons +"impotent and obsolete" via stimulated beta decay. The idea is to create a +lasing action in which d-quarks flip to u-quarks causing a neutron to become a +proton. The energy difference is only of the order of 3Mev. We would use the +self-interaction of the flavor-conserving weak part of the photon to induce +weak isospin flips of the d and u quarks via virtual flavor-changing charged W +pairs. This would lead to low energy transmutation of the elements allowing us +to clean up the radioactive wastes from nuclear reactors. + + + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/space.92 b/textfiles.com/science/space.92 new file mode 100644 index 00000000..21df917d --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/space.92 @@ -0,0 +1,1434 @@ +Newsgroups: sci.space.news +From: yee@atlas.arc.nasa.gov (Peter Yee) +Subject: 1992 seen as NASA's most productive year for science discoveries [Release 92-228] (Forwarded) +Message-ID: <1992Dec23.054547.2163@news.arc.nasa.gov> +Organization: NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA +Date: Wed, 23 Dec 1992 05:45:47 GMT +Lines: 1424 + +David W. Garrett +Headquarters, Washington, D.C. December 21, 1992 +(Phone: 202/358-1600) + +RELEASE: 92-228 + +1992 SEEN AS NASA'S MOST PRODUCTIVE YEAR FOR SCIENCE DISCOVERIES + + It was a blockbuster year for NASA space science missions, with +scientific discoveries ranging from the beginning of time to black +holes to the innermost workings of the human cell. + + "Given the unprecedented return on science information and the +robust launch record, 1992 was the most productive year in the +history of space science," said Dr. Lennard A. Fisk, Associate +Administrator for NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications in +Washington, D.C. + + "NASA is leading the way in a worldwide resurgence of space +sciences and exploration with 31 space science missions in operation +and returning science. This year is one for the record books," said +NASA Administrator Daniel S. Goldin. + + "Because of the successes of our operational spacecraft and the +new missions undertaken this year, we can look forward to an +exciting and increasingly productive future," Goldin said. + + Highlighting 1992 were a number of major science discoveries as +well as eight successful Space Shuttle missions providing an on- +orbit life sciences and microgravity research facility. + + Environmental research included studies which indicated the +1992 ozone hole was larger than any previously seen. International +cooperation in space missions increased in 1992, and the the ninth +NASA Administrator, Daniel S. Goldin, was appointed on April 1. + +Secrets Yielded + + The Big Bang -- the primeval explosion that began the universe +15 billion years ago -- yielded some of its secrets to the Cosmic +Background Explorer spacecraft in 1992. The orbiting observatory +detected temperature variations within the glow from the initial +expansion of the universe following the Big Bang. + + Astronomers came closer this year to understanding mysterious +black holes when the Hubble Space Telescope uncovered evidence that +there might be massive black holes in the core of two galaxies. The +orbiting telescope also provided the first direct view of an immense +ring of dust which may fuel a massive black hole at the heart of +another galaxy. + + Six scientific spacecraft were launched during 1992 to explore +the universe, the solar system, the Earth and the Earth-sun +environment. Among these was the Mars Observer, America's first +mission to the Red Planet since Viking 17 years ago. + + Five Spacelab missions aboard the Space Shuttle advanced human +understanding of how to live and work in space. + + A number of microgravity experiments tested various methods of +growing protein and zeolite crystals in space. The results could +have major commercial potential and medical applications. + + Space technology research in 1992 stressed new methods that +robots and humans may eventually use to explore the moon and Mars, +including "telepresence" technology that lets a person, wearing a +video headset, see remote locations through cameras mounted on a +robot. The technology could be used by future astronauts to control +robotic explorers on planetary surfaces. + + International cooperation was highlighted by the flight of the +first Swiss astronaut and the first Italian payload specialist on +STS-46 and the first Japanese payload specialist flew on the STS-47 +Spacelab mission. + + Also, NASA signed a contract with the Russian firm, NPO +Energia, focusing on possible use of the Russian Soyuz-TM vehicle as +an interim Assured Crew Return Vehicle for space station astronauts. + + Dr. Mae C. Jemison became the first African American female +astronaut to fly in space in September aboard STS-48. + + These subjects and other 1992 NASA activities are covered in +the following background release. + +- end general release - + +EDITORS NOTE: The annual NASA yearender provides a comprehensive +review of all major space and aeronautics programs. The entire 1992 +document can be obtained by calling the NASA Headquarters newsroom +at 202/358-1600. + +NASA MANAGEMENT + + Daniel S. Goldin became the ninth Administrator of NASA on +April 1, appointed by President Bush to succeeded Richard H. Truly. +Prior to joining the agency, Goldin was Vice President and General +Manager of the TRW Space & Technology Group which built 13 +spacecraft during his tenure. + + The new Administrator assumed command at a time of shrinking +financial resources caused by the recession, the deficit reduction +effort and growing demands in other areas such as education, medical +care and housing. + + Forecasts indicted that NASA would not receive appropriations +sufficient to support outyear development of projects initiated +prior to the recession, when the outlook for funds was more +positive. + + Goldin initiated a series of efforts to respond to this +situation with the goal of preserving essential space exploration +and aeronautics research programs despite necessary cost reductions, +while permitting the nation to undertake new projects in both areas. + + Simultaneously, he launched campaigns to reform the agency's +procurement process, introduce greater cultural diversity into the +workforce and contracting, renew the NASA's commitment to quality +and stimulate public support for the program. + +"Cheaper, Faster, Better" + + Constantly urging NASA employees and contractors alike to do +things "cheaper, faster and better," the Administrator created a +group of blue and red teams to review major NASA projects and their +organizational settings. + + The blue teams consisted of persons who would examine their +own programs for creative ways to reduce cost without compromising +safety or science. The red teams were composed of people +unconnected with programs who might bring fresh insights or insure +that none were stiffled. + + This review began in May and has led to significant changes in +a number of major projects, with a 17 percent reduction in costs +thus far. The process is intended to be on-going. + + In a closely related effort, Goldin constantly stressed the +adoption of the approaches and tools of Total Quality Management +(TQM) which calls for a continuous effort to improve quality, reduce +cost and speed production. + + NASA, he declared in a talk to employees, is a "world class" +organization whose people must meet the most stringent standards for +excellence measured on a worldwide basis. They were responsible, he +said, for increasing efficiency, saving money, improving quality and +shortening the time to project fruition - all without compromising +safety. + + + + +A "Shared Vision" of the Future + + Soon after the formation of the blue and red teams, Goldin +called on NASA employees to submit their ideas for a NASA "shared +vision of what we, as a nation, should strive to accomplish in +space." Closely coupled with this was a series of well-attended +"town meetings" held in cities throughout the country to give the +general public the opportunity to state its view about the future of +the space program. + + Goldin said the ultimate goal of these activities was to +produce a vision of America's future in space that would be shared +and support by NASA, Congress, the President and executive branch, +academia, the space community and the general public. + + In another major effort aimed at insuring quality and +controlling cost, the Administrator announced a series of +procurement reforms. Awards would be made on the basis of well +demonstrated adherence to quality, cost control and schedule +maintenance. Award fees would be determined on the same basis, with +opportuity for greater gain by staying on schedule and within +estimates. + + The reforms placed substantial emphasis on opportunity for +small and disadvantaged businesses, including culturally diverse +businesses. The agency said it would step up deadlines for prime +contractors to meet their quota of awards to subcontractors in this +category. Incentive fees would stimulate the effort. Paperwork, +which discouraged many small firms, was to be reduced substantially. + + The Administrator also underscored the need for greater +cultural diversity in the agency's workforce, requiring the head of +each NASA facility to submit a plan to increase minority hiring. "I +am personally and deeply committed to making NASA a model for the +nation in building a culturally diverse workforce at every level," +he said in a speech. He said he wanted NASA to reflect the nation's +"wonderful mosaic of diverse people," and to signal opportunity to +young people of all races. + + In October, Goldin announced a series of structural changes in +the agency's organization designed to focus greater attention on +certain projects critical to the nation's future. Mission to Planet +Earth to aid the environment would become an individual office, as +would planetary science and astrophysics, or Mission From Planet +Earth, to explore the solar system and look beyond into the +universe. + +Concern About America's Aeronautics Industry + + Aeronautics and space technology development, which were +combined in a single office, were to be separated. Goldin stated in +a speech that the nation's aeronautics industry was loosing ground +to aggressive foreign competitiors to such a degree that it was in a +crisis. He declared that NASA would place substantially greater +emphasis on aeronautics and that this would be the sole +responsibility of the Aeronautics Office. + + Technology was joined to the commercial development function +in a "one-stop shopping" concept to serve both NASA and private +industry. The goal is speed the introduction of new technology +throughout the space program and to enhance the process of spinoff +to American industry which, in the past, has led to thousands of new +commercial products and processes. + + Goldin maintained an aggressive schedule of speaking +throughout the country on a large variety of subjects. Of +particular prominence was the effort to explain and win support for +a return to the moon and exploration of Mars; to win anew +congressional funding for Space Station Freedom; to explain the +value of the space program as a national investment to rebuild +technological leadership and hone a competitive edge, and to +proclaim the need for far greater international cooperation in space +to continue the exploration of the universe beyond planet Earth. + + In the latter regard, the Administrator represented the nation +in signing historic new agreements with the Soviet Union that will +expand considerably space cooperation between the two nations. The +agreements provide for the exchange of astronauts and cosmonauts on +space flights, study of a Russian vehicle for possible emergency +crew return from Space Station Freedom, a Shuttle-Mir Space Station +link-up, and life sciences and robotic exploration activities. + +SPACE SCIENCE + +EXPLORING THE UNIVERSE + + NASA's astrophysics program delivered new and important results +about the fundamental nature of the cosmos in 1992. Discoveries +throughout the year increased human understanding of the origin and +fate of the universe, the laws of physics and the evolution of +galaxies, stars and planets. + + Highlights of 1992 discoveries made by the Hubble Space +Telescope (HST), Compton Observatory, Cosmic Background Explorer +(COBE), Roentgen Satellite (ROSAT), Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer +(EUVE) are listed below, by astronomical object. + +Planets + + * Conducting long-term observations of global weather changes on +Mars (HST). + + * Measured the extent of the atmosphere of the Jovian moon Io +and looked for surface changes (HST). + +Stellar Evolution + + * Provided the first clear view of one of the hottest known +stars (360,000 degrees Fahrenheit), which lies at the center of the +Butterfly Nebula, NGC 2440 (HST). + +Star Clusters + + * Discovered a cataclysmic variable star in the core of globular +cluster 47 Tucanae, the first known optical counterpart to an x-ray +source in a globular cluster (HST). + + +Stars + + * Detected several sources of extreme ultraviolet light through +interstellar gas and dust, including the corona of a star, a white +dwarf companion star and red dwarf stars (EUVE). + + * Discovered unexpected "gamma ray afterglow" on the sun. A +strong emanation of high-energy gamma rays persisted for more than 5 +hours after a solar flare explosion (Compton). + +Pulsars + + * Solved 20-year old mystery about the power source of Geminga, +a gamma ray pulsar, which was found to be a 300,000 year-old +rotating neutron star (ROSAT, Compton). + +Galaxies + + * Uncovered circumstantial evidence for the presence of a +massive black hole in the core of the neighboring galaxy M32 as well +as the giant elliptical galaxy M87 (HST). + + * Provided the first direct view of an immense ring of dust +which may fuel a massive black hole at the heart of the giant +elliptical galaxy NGC 4261 and the spiral galaxy M51 (HST). + + * Detected for the first time high-energy gamma rays from a +class of active galaxy similar to quasars and possibly powered by a +black hole (Compton). + + * Found three new gamma-ray quasars, detected more than 200 +cosmic gamma ray bursts and captured the best ever observation of +the glow of gamma radiation from the disk of the Milky Way galaxy +(Compton). + +Cosmology + + * Detected the long-sought variations within the glow from the +Big Bang -- the primeval explosion that began the universe 15 +billion years ago. This detection is a major milestone in a 25-year +search and supports theories explaining how the initial expansion +happened (COBE). + + * Determined more accurately the expansion rate of the universe +by detecting 27 "Cepheid variable" stars in a faint spiral galaxy +called IC 4182. Cepheid variables are used to estimate distances to +galaxies (HST). + +EXPLORING THE SOLAR SYSTEM + +Mars Observer + + "Launched Sept. 25 aboard a Titan III ELV, "Mars Observer will +examine Mars much like Earth satellites now map our weather and +resources," said Dr. Wesley Huntress, Director of NASA's Solar +System Exploration Division, Washington, D.C. + "It will give us a vast amount of geological and atmospheric +information covering a full Martian year. At last we will know what +Mars is actually like in all seasons, from the ground up, pole to +pole," Huntress said. + + On Aug. 24, 1993, the spacecraft will begin orbiting the planet +Mars. Mars Observer will provide scientists with an orbital +platform from which the entire Martian surface and atmosphere will +be examined and mapped by the seven science instruments on board. +The measurements will be collected daily from the low- altitude +polar orbit, over the course of 1 complete Martian year -- the +equivalent of 687 Earth days. + +High Resolution Microwave Survey (HRMS) + + Initiated on Columbus day, 500 years after the explorer landed +in America, the HRMS project began searching for signals transmitted +by other civilizations. The search will be conducted in two modes - +- a sky survey that will sweep the celestial sphere for signals and +a targeted search that will look at about 800 nearby "sunlike" +stars. NASA's Deep Space Network, in Goldstone, Calif., and the +Aericibo Observatory in Puerto Rico will conduct most of the survey. + +Cassini + + A comprehensive examination of the Cassini spacecraft and +mission, was successfully completed Dec. 11. Cassini is scheduled +for launch in Oct. 1997 with an arrival at Saturn in June 2004. +Cassini will fly by Venus and twice by Earth and Jupiter before +arriving at Saturn to begin a 4-year orbital tour of the ringed +planet and its 18 moons. + + In addition to the 12 instruments aboard the orbiter, the +Huygens probe, built by the European Space Agency, will penetrate +the thick atmosphere of Titan (the largest of Saturn's moons) in +Nov. 2004. + +Ulysses + + The Ulysses spacecraft received a gravity assist as it flew by +Jupiter on Feb. 8 at 280,000 miles from the planet's center. +Ulysses, designed to study the sun's magnetic field and solar wind, +used Jupiter's gravity assist to gain the momentum needed to break +out of the plane of the ecliptic and into a solar polar orbit. +During the hazardous Jupiter fly-by, scientists investigated the +interaction of the giant planet's magnetic field and the solar wind. + +Pioneer Venus + + As expected, after the Pioneer Venus orbiter's maneuvering fuel +ran out, it made a fiery entry into Venus' upper atmosphere on Oct. +8. Pioneer Venus had been orbiting the planet since 1978 and over +the past 14 years, has returned numerous data about Venus' +atmosphere and surface topography. + + The first topographic maps of the cloud-shrouded surface of the +planet were made using the radar instrument on Pioneer Venus. + +Magellan + + The Magellan spacecraft, mapping the hidden surface of Venus +with radar since August 1990, lowered its closest altitude to Venus +on Sept. 14, when it began a full 243-day cycle of gravity mapping. + + Magellan has completed three cycles of mapping with its radar, +covering 99 percent of the surface of Venus. The objective of cycle +4, which extends to May 15, 1993, is to obtain a global map of the +Venus gravity field from the elliptical orbit. + +Galileo + + NASA's Galileo spacecraft flew by the Earth on Dec. 8 at an +altitude of 189 miles (304 kilometers) above the South Atlantic +Ocean, completing a 3-year gravity-assist trajectory. + + This latest gravity-assist added about 8,300 miles per hour +(13,300 kilometers per hour) to the spacecraft's speed in its solar +orbit and changed its direction slightly, to put it on an elliptical +trajectory directly to the orbit of Jupiter, about 480 million miles +(780 million kilometers) from the sun. The spacecraft will arrive +at Jupiter on Dec. 7, 1995. + + At Jupiter, Galileo will relay data from a probe launched into +the planet's atmosphere to obtain direct measurements of that +environment for the first time. Over a 23-month period, the +spacecraft will fly ten different elliptical orbits of Jupiter, +making at least two close passes by each of its four major +satellites and carrying out extended observations of the planet +atmosphere and magnetosphere. + +UNDERSTANDING THE EARTH - SUN ENVIRONMENT + +SAMPEX + + The Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer was +launched July 2, is the first of a new series of Small Explorer +missions which will enable scientists to develop less costly +astronomy and space science experiments in a shorter period of time. + + The spacecraft's peculiar 342-by-419-mile-high elliptical orbit +will enable the onboard instruments to use the Earth as a giant +magnetic shield. By doing this, the 4 instruments can determine if +particles are coming from the sun, from the Milky Way Galaxy, or +whether they are the anomalous cosmic rays. + + SAMPEX is expected to contribute new knowledge and improve +understanding of the evolution of the sun, solar system and +galaxies. + +Geotail + + Launched July 24, 1992, Geotail is investigating the +interactions of the solar wind and the Earth's magnetosphere, +providing scientists with new information on the flow of energy and +its transformation in the region called the magnetotail. + + The Geotail mission -- a joint U.S./Japanese project -- is the +first in a series of satellites in an international program to +better understand the interaction of the sun, the Earth's magnetic +field and the Van Allen radiation belts. + + The solar wind, interacting with the Earth's magnetic field, +can cause disruptions in short-wave radio communications and power +surges in long transmission lines. + +LIVING AND WORKING IN SPACE + + During the past year, several opportunities to work in a +laboratory in space, perform life and material sciences experiments +and learn more about how humans adapt to the space environment have +afforded scientists with vital information that may lead to useful +commercial and medical applications on Earth. + +Microgravity Science + + Three spacelab missions were flown to explore the effects of +space on protein crystals, electronic materials, fluids, glasses and +ceramics and metals and alloys. + + Missions flown aboard the Space Shuttle this year include the +International Microgravity Laboratory, flown in January; United +States Microgravity Laboratory-1, June, and United States +Microgravity Platform-1, October. The September flight of Spacelab- +J, the Japanese Spacelab, also included NASA-sponsored microgravity +experiments. + + A total of 45 NASA sponsored microgravity experiments flew on +these missions. They were exposed to the microgravity environment +for an average of approximately 10-days. These flights represented +more peer-reviewed, hands-on microgravity research than had been +conducted by the United States since Skylab in 1974-75. + +Life Sciences + + The International Microgravity Laboratory-1 carried 29 life +sciences experiments and Spacelab-J, the Japanese Spacelab, seven. +The United States Microgravity Laboratory-1 (USML-1) mission, +although dedicated to microgravity science, supported a series of +medical investigations as part of the Extended Duration Orbiter +Medical Project. + + The longest Space Shuttle mission to date, USML-1 proved to be +an excellent laboratory for these investigations. Many of the other +Space Shuttle missions also included life sciences experiments. + + During the winter of 1992, life sciences experiments were +conducted in the most unearthly place on the planet -- Antarctica. +NASA and National Science Foundation sponsored several unique +science and technology projects developed under a joint effort +called the Antarctic Space Analog Program. + + NASA also is participating in a cooperative life sciences +mission with Russia. Late in December, Russia will launch COSMOS +'92 "biosatellite," a recoverable, unpiloted spacecraft that carries +plant and animal experiments. +Flight Systems + + In March, the ATLAS-1 mission used two Spacelab pallets to +conduct investigations into the sun's energy output, the chemistry +of the Earth's atmosphere, space plasma physics and astronomy. A +core set of six instruments will fly repeatedly to study the +interaction of the Sun and the Earth's atmosphere. + + In cooperation with the Office of Aeronautics and Space +Technology, the division managed NASA's contribution to the national +High-Speed Computing and Communications program. + + In October, 29 supercomputing proposals were selected to +advance substantially how computers can be used to study problems +ranging from the environment to the evolution of the universe. +These projects will use "parallel processing" computers, machines +that use up to thousands of processors to work simultaneously on a +problem. + + In January, the NASA Science Internet (NSI) helped implement +the world's first high-speed computer network link to Antarctica, +providing voice and data links between the continental United States +and the U.S. base at McMurdo Sound. In November, NSI staff set up +the first video link between Antarctica and the United States to +transmit images between the Ames Research Center and a remotely +operated vehicle maneuvering under ice-covered lakes. + + In January, the National Space Science Data Center's Data +Archive and Dissemination System became operational. User interest +in these electronically available astrophysics and space physics +data sets has been high, with recent access rates running at 700 +remote user sessions per month. + +UNDERSTANDING THE EARTH + + In its first full year, NASA's Mission to Planet Earth +encompassed three flight programs, a series of ground-based and +airborne expeditions and ongoing research and analysis to better +understand the Earth as a global environmental system. + +TOPEX/POSEIDON + + The U.S.-French satellite TOPEX/POSEIDON, launched in August, +will help define the relationship between the Earth's oceans and +climate. By measuring the sea-surface height with unprecedented +accuracy, TOPEX/POSEIDON will provide scientists with global maps of +ocean circulation. + + The oceans transport heat from the Earth's equator toward the +poles, and TOPEX/POSEIDON data will provide a better understanding +of how this mechanism works. TOPEX/POSEIDON is a joint mission +between NASA and CNES, the French space agency. + +LAGEOS II + + A passive satellite, the Italian LAGEOS II is covered with +reflectors that send laser beams back to the ground stations that +sent the beams. Measurements over the years and over wide +geographic areas show how the techtonic plates that make up the +Earth's crust are moving. Since most earthquakes and volcanoes +occur where these plates meet, LAGEOS II will help geologists +understand how these cataclysmic events occur and where they are +likely to happen. + +Earth Observing System + + The centerpiece of Mission to Planet Earth, the Earth Observing +System (EOS) continued to progress to the launch of its first +satellite in June 1998. Internal teams reviewed the program with +the goal of reducing funding requirements through FY 2000 by +approximately 30 percent while retaining the essence of the +instrument complement and science plan. + +Ozone Research + + Continuing its leading effort in the study of ozone depletion, +NASA cooperated with NOAA and other organizations to mount the +second Airborne Arctic Stratospheric Expedition from November 1991 +through March 1992. + + The campaign discovered record-high levels of chlorine +monoxide, a key chemical in the ozone depletion cycle, over Eastern +Canada and New England. This finding was complemented by data from +the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS), which observed high +concentrations of chlorine monoxide over Europe and Asia. + + In the Antarctic, the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer, which +has been observing global ozone levels for 14 years, indicated the +1992 ozone hole was 15 percent larger in area than any previously +seen. Earlier, UARS had observed chemicals involved in ozone +depletion in the Antarctic atmosphere as early as June, 3 months +before significant ozone depletion begins. + + NASA's ozone research expanded with the first of a new series +of Space Shuttle missions in April. Titled the ATLAS program, these +missions study the sun's energy output and the atmosphere's chemical +makeup, and how these factors affect ozone levels. ATLAS' +instruments are precisely calibrated before and after flight, +providing a check on data gathered by similar instruments on free- +flying satellites. + + To distinguish natural global change from human-induced change +and to understand how humans are changing their environment, Mission +to Planet Earth provides scientists with data on how the Earth's +large environmental components - air, water, land and life - +interact. Several NASA-sponsored airborne and ground expeditions +studied these complex relations. + + + + + +Search and Rescue + + NASA's Earth Science and Application program also was involved +in a technology test that already has significant down-to-Earth +dividends. A hand-held transmitter, used in conjunction with +Search-and-Rescue equipment flying aboard NASA-developed weather +satellites, allowed rescuers to locate an Alaska hunter immobilized +by abdominal cramps on Alaska's largely uninhabited North Slope. + +EXPENDABLE LAUNCH VEHICLES + + For the fifth consecutive year, NASA's expendable launch +vehicles provided 100-percent successful launches. Five expendable +vehicles were launched this year. + + The first was on June 7, when a Delta 2 placed the Extreme +Ultraviolet Explorer, an astrophysics satellite, into low-Earth +orbit. On July 3, a Scout placed SAMPEX, a small-explorer class +space physics satellite, into low-Earth orbit. + + A Delta 2 carried the Japanese Geotail satellite into space on +July 24. On Sept. 25, a Titan III lifted the Mars Observer into +Earth orbit where the Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS) ignited, sending +the spacecraft on to Mars. This was the maiden flight of the TOS. +The final launch of the year was on Nov. 21 when a Scout placed a +Strategic Defense Initiative Office payload into orbit. + +OFFICE OF SPACE FLIGHT + +Space Shuttle + + This was a banner year for the Shuttle program as it +demonstrated its maturity and reliability in the missions flown, a +reduction in the program's operational costs, and the addition of +significant hardware upgrades that improved the overall system. + + In January, the manifest showed eight flights scheduled and at +year's end, all eight had been flown. Seven of the eight mission +launched on the day set at the flight readiness review and the +eighth was 1 day late. The Shuttle system flew so trouble free that +two missions were extended for additional science gathering. This +year also saw the longest mission ever flown to date, STS-50, which +lasted 14 days. + + Highlighting the missions conducted was Endeavour's maiden +voyage in May on the STS-49 mission. The crew rescued a wayward +satellite and in the process, set three new records for space flight +- 4 spacewalks on a single mission, the longest spacewalk ever +conducted (8 hours, 29 minutes) and the first 3-person spacewalk +ever performed. + + Three Shuttle missions, STS-42 in January, STS-50 in June and +STS-47 in September, carried the pressurized spacelab module. +Experiments conducted on those flights previewed the activities that +will be undertaken on Space Station Freedom. + + The Shuttle system showed its versatility though out the year. +In March it served as an orbiting observatory for the STS-45/ATLAS +mission. The STS-46 mission in July demonstrated new technology in +space with the Tethered Satellite System payload. Columbia and the +STS-52 crew in October showed the orbiter's ability to fly a +combination mission as they deployed the LAGEOS satellite and then +conducted microgravity research with the United States Microgravity +Payload. + + The year also saw the last dedicated Department of Defense +mission flown by the Shuttle during the STS-53 flight in early +December. + + Safety remained the Shuttle program's top priority. Space +Shuttles Columbia and Discovery completed major structural +inspections and modifications. Structural inspections and +modifications of Space Shuttle Atlantis, including work to allow it +to dock with the Mir Space Station, began in October. When Atlantis +returns to flight status in 1993, all of NASA's orbiters will have +incorporated modifications to the braking system and drag chutes. + + During the year, a detailed budget review resulted in +significant cost reductions. The total reduction achieved for +fiscal year (FY) 1992 was $368 million or 9 per cent of the FY 1992 +baseline budget. A budget reduction plan is in place that will +result in over a billion dollars in cost savings in FY 1996, again, +as compared to the FY 1992 baseline budget. + + A new class of 19 astronaut candidates was named in March. +During the year astronauts Vance D. Brand, Bruce E. Melnick, John O. +Creighton, Kathryn D. Sullivan, David C. Hilmers, James C. Adamson, +James F. Buchli and Daniel M. Brandenstein left the agency. + +OFFICE OF SPACE SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT + +Space Station Freedom + + Moving ever-closer to the first element launch of Space Station +Freedom, 1992 was the year of the critical design review (CDR). +CDRs for each individual work package, leading to a design review +for the entire human-tended configuration, are on schedule to be +completed by June 1993. Completion of the CDR marks the point at +which the design is 90 percent completed and the contractor is given +authority to proceed with development of the flight hardware. + + At the Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala., prime +contractor Boeing Defense and Space Group began a series of hardware +tests demonstrating how space station components will be joined in +orbit. Among the tests were "berthing" tests of a full-size +pressurized module to a node. Other tests included thermal and +structural loads simulating conditions the hardware will be exposed +to in space. + + At the Johnson Space Center, Houston, responsible for major +space station systems, several milestones were achieved in the Work +Package 2 program. Nineteen detailed design reviews examining the +JSC-managed space station subsystems have been completed with the +remaining 15 scheduled for completion prior to the April 1993 Work +Package 2 CDR. + + More than 400 pieces of development hardware now exist and 50 +percent of prime contractor McDonnell Douglas' development test +program is complete. Examples include development of the pre- +integrated truss (PIT) segments 1 and 2 used in underwater testing +at JSC's Weightless Environment Training Facility which allows the +astronauts to conduct critical assessment of orbital replacement +unit positioning. + + Integrated truss assembly segments S1 and S2 vibroacoustic and +thermal vacuum test articles were built and tested for use in +assessing structural integrity during launch operations and exposure +to the space environment. The propulsion module development unit +was constructed and tested under similar conditions and the test +article is currently undergoing cold and hot-flow tests at the White +Sands Test Facility in New Mexico. + + The segment-to-segment attach systems development test was +conducted verifying the connections required to join the individual +PIT segments on-orbit. In the Data Management System, DMS kits, an +integrated set of electronic units functionally equivalent to the +station's data management system, were delivered to the Johnson +Space Center and to the Kennedy Space Center. Releases of DMS +software were delivered to NASA on or ahead of schedule. + + At the Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, responsible for the +system that supplies Freedom's electrical power, nearly one-half of +the critical design reviews for the various components that comprise +the Photovoltaic Module and the Power Management and Distribution +System were completed. Development testing of the solar array +panels and extensive fault current tests also were successfully +completed. + + "More than 24,000 flight solar cells have been delivered (75 +percent of an array) and cell production is proceeding quite well," +said Lewis's Space Station Freedom Project Manager Ron Thomas. +Battery testing is underway with this year's accumulation giving 3 +years of cycle testing on some cells. + + In the power management and distribution area, Work Package-4 +engineers have completed the first three phases of system tests in +the Solar Power Electronics Laboratory at prime contractor +Rocketdyne's facility in Canoga Park, Calif. These included steady- +state, transient, stability, battery control and communications +tests. + + In addition to the manufacturing and testing activities, +construction began on modifications to Lewis's Power Systems +Facility. The modifications are necessary to support the +integration, checkout and assembly of the flight hardware before it +is shipped to the launch site at the Kennedy Space Center, Fla. + + Preparations for on-orbit assembly and maintenance were +highlighted by several neutral buoyancy tests of the PV module cargo +element mockup as well as robotic tests on replacement of several +orbital replacement unit boxes. + + In October, Administrator Goldin announced changes to Space +Station Freedom management that would "ensure NASA's top talent is +working on the program." + + + + Marty Kress, previously the Assistant Administrator for +Legislative Affairs, was named Deputy Program Manger for Policy and +Management. Tom Campbell was named Chief Financial Officer for +Freedom. Campbell had been serving as the NASA Comptroller. + + In December, NASA announced plans to consolidate management of +the Space Station Freedom program in Reston, Va. "Reston will +remain the focal point for the space station program for the +foreseeable future," said Associate Administrator for Space Systems +Development Arnold Aldrich. + + The Space Shuttle continued to play a critical role in paving +the way for space station assembly, utilization and operations in +1992. + + Four Space Shuttle missions carried up Spacelab hardware, +demonstrating human interaction in the conduct of science in space +and bridging the gap between the first small steps taken in +microgravity research in space started in Apollo to its full-blown +maturity on Freedom. + + A number of space station precursor research facilities were +flown on STS-50, the first United States Microgravity Laboratory, +such as a glovebox and a crystal growth furnace. In addition, space +station hardware - two foot restraints - were flown for evaluation +by USML crew members. + + On STS-49, the maiden flight of Endeavour, astronauts Kathy +Thornton and Tom Akers performed a space walk to demonstrate +assembly techniques for Freedom. The experiment, called Assembly of +Station by EVA Methods, or ASEM, evaluated such things as +construction techniques and the ability of astronauts to move large, +heavy objects around in space. + + The first major conference devoted to describing Freedom's +capabilities and services to the user community was held in +Huntsville, Ala., in August. Administrator Goldin gave the keynote +address, calling Freedom "NASA's 10th research facility, as well as +well as a national and international program." Goldin challenged +NASA to increase the participation by the user community to 200 to +300 real researchers at the next conference. + + In Congress, Freedom's future was debated in three separate +measures over a 13 month period. In each case, the Congress voted +to maintain America's commitment to build the space station and +preserve U.S. leadership in space. A final conference bill resulted +in NASA's securing $2.1 billion for space station in Fiscal Year +1993, $150 million less than the President's request. + +ASRM + + In 1992, Congressional direction and budgetary shortfalls were +driving factors in the restructuring and termination of two other +major activities. + + Congress determined that the Advanced Solid Rocket Motor (ASRM) +program should proceed but at a reduced level of funding for FY +1993. Consequently, the program was restructured during the year +resulting in a 22-month delay for the first launch, now scheduled +for December 1998. + During the past year, ASRM facilities design reached 100 +percent and construction of facilities passed the 50 percent mark. +Construction of case production facilities in Southern Indiana was +completed; two of a total of four large ASRM segment transporters +were delivered to NASA by the German contractor in December. + +NLS + + Also in 1992, the Congress voted to terminate the joint +NASA/Air Force New Launch System (NLS) which was to have been a new +family of vehicles designed to meet both civil and military launch +requirements after the turn of the century. $10 million was +appropriated to the Air Force for accomplishing the termination; an +additional $10 million was appropriated to NASA for continuation of +development work, begun under NLS, for a new Space Transportation +Main Engine. + +AERONAUTICS + + In 1992, NASA's aeronautics research took on a higher profile, +with major advances in high-speed research, subsonic transports, +high-performance aircraft and the creation of a new, separate Office +of Aeronautics. + + Early in the year, NASA's Lewis Research Center, General +Electric Co. and Pratt & Whitney teamed up in a unique government- +industry partnership to develop advanced materials for a next- +generation U.S. supersonic transport. The 5-year, $88 million +effort, part of NASA's High-Speed Research Program, focuses on +composite materials for high-temperature, low-emissions engine +combustion chambers. + + In July, construction began on a high-flying, lightweight +unpiloted research aircraft called Perseus that NASA will use to +measure ozone levels and gather other atmospheric data for the High- +Speed Research Program. When it begins science missions in 1994, +Perseus will carry up to 110 pounds (49.5 kilograms) of instruments +as high as 82,000 feet (25 kilometers). + + The highlight of NASA's subsonic research in 1992 was a +dramatic series of flights to evaluate airborne windshear sensors +under actual severe weather conditions. NASA's Boeing 737 research +plane, based at Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va., tested a +laser radar (lidar) system, an infrared sensor and a microwave radar +at the Denver and Orlando, Fla. airports. It was the first flight +test of the lidar system. + + During the year, NASA and the Army began a 5-year program to +increase helicopter agility and maneuverability. The effort at +NASA's Ames Research Center, Mountain View, Calif., uses a modified +UH-60A helicopter as a flying laboratory. The experiments focus on +computer software that determines how helicopters respond to pilots' +commands, improved navigation systems and pilot displays. + + A NASA F-15 based at Ames-Dryden Flight Research Facility, +Edwards, Calif., started supersonic flight tests of a Performance +Seeking Control system that may make future high-speed aircraft more +fuel-efficient and reliable. + + In 1992, Dryden also became home to tests with the X-31 +Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability aircraft. NASA is part of an +international group flying the X-31 to show the value of coupling +thrust vectoring (directing engine exhaust flow) with advanced +flight control systems to increase maneuverability in nose-high +forward flight. + +National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) + + The nation got a preview of tomorrow's space transportation in +June when a 50-foot mockup of the National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) +rolled out of its hanger at Mississippi State University, +Starkville, Miss. Senior engineering students at the school won the +chance to build the mockup in a nationwide competition sponsored by +NASA and the Department of Defense (DoD). + + NASP is a joint NASA/DoD effort to develop advanced +technologies for future vehicles that could take off like an +airplane, fly into Earth orbit using supersonic combustion ramjets +(scramjets) and minimal rocket propulsion, then return through the +atmosphere to land on a runway. + +SPACE TECHNOLOGY + + NASA's research on space technology in 1992 stressed new +methods that robots and humans eventually may use to explore the +moon and Mars. + + A pair of experiments evaluated telepresence technology that +lets a person, wearing a video headset, see remote locations through +cameras mounted on a robot. The technology could be used by future +astronauts to control robotic explorers on planetary surfaces. + + Beginning in October, NASA scientists employed telepresence to +direct the mini-sub during explorations of ice-covered Lake Hoare on +Antarctica's Ross Island. A 5-person research team studied the +physical and biological nature of the lake to obtain clues about +organism that may once have lived on Mars. + + In June, NASA's Jet Propulsion laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., +unveiled Rocky IV, the latest in a series of planetary mini-rovers. +Rocky IV is a prototype of a robot that may go to Mars in 1996 as +part of the Mars Environmental Survey (MESUR) mission. The 16.5- +pound (7.4-kilogram) testbed is helping NASA researchers learn how +to integrate planetary landers and their science instruments under +Mars-like conditions. + + Around the same time, NASA-Langley engineers assembled a large- +scale parabolic (double-curve) antenna in a huge water tank at +NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala. The tank's +buoyancy simulated the microgravity environment that astronauts must +work in while putting together large objects in space. The tests +helped to establish assembly times and work procedures for antennas +that are too large to fit inside a space vehicle in one piece. + + In October, NASA chose 29 supercomputing research proposals +that will pave the way for revolutionary advances in Earth and space +science. The projects will try to achieve computer capabilities far +beyond those of today's machines, allowing scientists to produce +realistic computer models of phenomena such as the interactions of +Earth's oceans, air and land masses and the evolution of the +universe. + + In October, NASA Administrator Goldin announced that the +agency's space technology work would be combined with commercial +space activities in a new Office of Advanced Concepts and +Technology. + +ADVANCED CONCEPTS AND TECHNOLOGY + + The new Office of Advanced Concepts and Technology (OACT) was +established to improve the way in which NASA approaches the +development and transfer of advanced technology, as well as the +commercialization of space and space technologies. + + An interim organizational structure was established and an +Organizational Process Action Team was formed to develop an +integrated plan for combining the two offices. The team -- +comprising personnel from the two offices, as well as other NASA +program offices and field installations -- will present its initial +recommendations to the NASA Administrator sometime this month. + +Commercial Flight Activities + + Throughout 1992, OCP sponsored more than 20 commercial payloads +aboard the Space Shuttle. In June, OCP participated in the flight +of the U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1 (USML-1) -- aboard STS-50 -- +with the Office of Space Science and Applications. Five commercial +payloads, consisting of more than 30 investigations in materials, +fluids and biological processes, were flown on the record-breaking, +2-week mission. + + One USML-1 payload specialist was Dr. Lawrence J. DeLucas, +the first scientist from a NASA Center for the Commercial +Development of Space (CCDS) to fly aboard the Space Shuttle. +Successful results obtained from protein crystal growth experiments +conducted during the mission are directly attributable to the +involvement of DeLucas. + + Forty percent of the proteins flown on the mission produced +larger and higher quality crystals than their groundbased +counterparts, compared to 20 percent on previous flights. Other +commercial investigations on USML-1 provided promising results, +including the growth of zeolite crystals; a 98 percent success rate +in the flight hardware used to process more than 20 separate +biomaterials, biotechnology and life sciences experiments; and +successful demonstration of a safe and reliable way of providing +water and nutrients to plants for indefinite periods of time in a +microgravity environment -- an international first. + + In October, four commercial payloads, comprising more than +30 investigations, were flown aboard STS-52 to evaluate a compound +being developed to treat osteoporosis; to further study protein +crystal growth for drug research and development; to test a furnace +to learn more about growing larger and more uniform industrial +crystals; and to learn more about how microgravity can aid research +in + +drug development and delivery, basic cell biology, protein and +inorganic crystal growth, bone and invertebrate development, immune +deficiencies, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences. + + Other commercial experiments were flown aboard the Space +Shuttle during 1992 to study the influence of microgravity on the +processing of gelled sols; to investigate the physical and chemical +processes that occur during the formation of polymer membranes in +microgravity; to further investigate and develop the bases for +materials processing in space; to study the effects of the low-Earth +orbit environment on space structure materials; and to assess the +utility of an Electronic Still Camera. + +Technology Transfer + + 1992 marked the 30th anniversary of NASA's Technology Transfer +Program, established under congressional mandate to promote the +transfer of aerospace technology to other sectors of the U.S. +economy. + + In January, NASA, as part of a major initiative to upgrade its +technology transfer program, established six Regional Technology +Transfer Centers (RTTC) to directly serve the commercial sector +through the transfer and commercial use of NASA and other federal +technologies. The RTTCs, closely aligned with state-level programs, +operate as industry-driven catalysts for federal technology transfer +throughout their regions. + + Also in 1992, the National Technology Transfer Center (NTTC) -- +sponsored by NASA in cooperation with other federal agencies -- +initiated operations in conjunction with the RTTCs and other +technology transfer programs. The RTTCs and NTTC, along with +affiliated federal and state programs, now form the basis of the +innovative National Technology Transfer Network. + + In February, the National Technology Initiative (NTI) was +launched by NASA and the Departments of Commerce, Energy and +Transportation to spur U.S. economic competitiveness by promoting a +better understanding of the opportunities for industry to +commercialize new technology advances. The NTI consisted of a +series of regional meetings to highlight the federal government's +investment in advanced technologies, much of which has commercial +potential. + + In May, a pair of computer-driven glasses that can help +millions of Americans afflicted with certain low vision problems was +introduced. The Low Vision Enhancement Project is derived from NASA +technology and is a product of NASA's Technology Transfer Program in +cooperation with the NASA Stennis Space Center, Miss., and the Johns +Hopkins Wilmer Eye Institute, Baltimore, Md. + + The third national technology transfer conference and +exposition, TECHNOLOGY 2002, took place Dec. 1-3, at the Baltimore +Convention Center in Baltimore, Md. Sponsored by NASA, "NASA Tech +Briefs" magazine and the Technology Utilization Foundation, the +conference featured exhibits from NASA's nine field centers, other +government agencies, universities, government research centers and a +diverse array of high-tech companies. + +Communications and Remote Sensing + + In July, NASA selected 30 experiments proposed for inclusion in +the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) program. +The experiments represent the work of an impressive cross section of +industry and academic investigators. Ten experiments also were +selected to conduct propagation research at Ka-band. + + During the year, the ACTS Experiments Program signed memoranda +of understanding with three agencies: + + * The National Telecommunications and Information +Administration/Institute for Telecommunication Sciences will test +and evaluate the ACTS unique capabilities and technology to gain +knowledge of advanced communication satellite system performance. + + * The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is developing a +high data rate satellite research testbed network. + + * The U.S. Army Space Command will use the ACTS to conduct +demonstrations of technology and applications which involve +interoperation between ACTS and the Army communications facilities. + +Small Business Innovation Research + + From December through March 1992, the Small Business Innovation +Research (SBIR) Division selected 138 research proposals for +negotiation of Phase II contract awards in NASA's SBIR program. +Included were 126 small, high technology firms located in 28 states. + + The selection of 348 research proposals for negotiation of +Phase I contracts in the 1992 SBIR program was announced in +November. Proposals selected were submitted by 256 small, high +technology firms in 34 states. + +EXPLORATION + + Early in the year the Office of Exploration conducted a +workshop with the Lunar and Planetary Institute in Houston to define +the scientific requirements for the first lunar orbital precursor +missions. Instruments to fly on these missions were selected based +on recommendations and input from the workshop. + + In addition, Exploration program officials conducted an in- +depth technical study of a First Lunar Outpost concept intended to +be the baseline architecture to return humans to the Moon. The +program currently is evaluating trade-offs and options for this +baseline, which is expected to evolve and be modified before it is +flown. + + The Office of Exploration also initiated conceptual studies of +possible mission scenarios for human exploration of Mars. + + + + +INTERNATIONAL + + The year 1992 was probably the most active international space +cooperation in NASA's history. Highlights included increased +cooperation with the Russian Space Agency; the launch of +international spacecraft/payloads; flight of foreign payload +specialists and an ESA mission specialist on the Space Shuttle and +the culmination of the Space Agency Forum on International Space +Year activities. + + Other highlights of 1992 include: + + * Scientists from NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), the +Canadian Space Agency (CSA), the French National Center for Space +Studies (CNES), the German Space Agency (DARA) and the National +Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) cooperated in the +International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-l) Space Shuttle STS-42 +mission launched on Jan. 22. More than 200 scientists from 16 +countries participated in the investigations. Dr. Robert Bondar, +M.D. and Ph.D., of the CSA, and Dr. Ulf Merbold of ESA flew as +payload specialists. + + * The first Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science +(Atlas-l), carried 12 instruments and investigations from the United +States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, The Netherlands and +Japan. These instruments and investigations studied the chemistry +of Earth's atmosphere, solar radiation, space plasma physics and +ultraviolet astronomy on board the March STS-45 Space Shuttle +mission. Dr. Dirk Frimout, an ESA scientist, flew as the first +Belgian payload specialist. + + * President George Bush and Russian President Boris Yeltsin +signed a U.S./Russian space agreement in June which expanded +bilateral cooperation in space science, space exploration, space +applications and the use of space technology. + + * In July, NASA signed a contract with the Russian firm NPO +Energia, focusing on possible use of the Russian Soyuz-TM vehicle as +an interim Assured Crew Return Vehicle. + + * Geotail, a Japanese built-spacecraft, was launched from the +Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Fla., on a Delta II expendable +launch vehicle on July 24, 1992. This joint U.S./Japanese project +is the first in a series of five satellites with significant +participation from NASA, ESA and Japan to better understand the +interaction of the sun, the Earth's magnetic field and the Van Allen +radiation belts. Geotail was developed by the Japanese Institute +for Space and Astronautical Science, in Sagamihara, Japan. + + * The Topex/Poseidon satellite was successfully launched on an +Ariane IV launch vehicle from the Guiana Space Center in Kourou, +French Guiana on August 10. Topex/Poseidon is a joint NASA/CNES +program to study ocean circulation and its role in regulating global +climate. + + * The July/August STS-46 Space Shuttle mission included the +flight of the NASA-Italian Space Agency (ASI) Tethered Satellite +System and deployment of the European Retrievable Carrier platform. +Dr. Claude Nicollier, ESA mission specialist and first Swiss +astronaut, and Dr. Franco Malerba, ASI payload specialist and the +first Italian payload specialist, were members of the crew. + + * During the last meeting of the Space Agency Forum on +International Space Year (SAFISY) in Washington, D.C., in late +August, the participants decided to create a Space Agency Forum as a +follow-on to SAFISY. A planning group, including the United States, +Japan, Europe, Russia, Canada, Brazil and China, has been formed to +work out details for the operation of the proposed new +organization, which will hold its first meeting in 1993. + + * The 50th Space Shuttle (STS-47) mission launched in September +was a joint U.S./Japanese Spacelab mission: 34 Japanese +experiments, collectively called Fuwatto '92, were flown on a +reimbursable basis and shared the Spacelab module with 7 from the +United States and 2 joint experiments. Dr. Mamoru Mohri flew as the +first Japanese payload specialist aboard the Shuttle. + + * In October, NASA and the Russian Space Agency signed an +agreement for the flight of a Russian cosmonaut on the U.S. Space +Shuttle, the flight of a U.S. astronaut on the Russian Mir Space +Station and a joint mission including the rendezvous and docking of +the Space Shuttle with the Mir Space Station. Another agreement +also was signed in October for the flight of two U.S./NASA +scientific instruments on the Russian Mars '94 mission. + + * The STS-52 mission in October included the ASI's Laser +Geodynamics Satellite (LAGEOS) II launched on an Italian IRIS upper +stage, CSA's CANEX-2 payload and the CNES/French Atomic Energy +Commission's Mephisto instrument on the U.S. Microgravity Payload. +Steve MacLean flew as a payload specialist and the third Canadian +citizen to fly aboard the Space Shuttle. + +OFFICE OF SPACE COMMUNICATIONS + +Space Network + + The on-orbit Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) +provided continuous communications coverage to NASA Space Network +customers for up to 85 percent of each orbit, performing at a +proficiency in excess of 99.8 percent. A 33 percent increase in +Space Shuttle flights, the addition of the Extreme Ultraviolet +Explorer (EUVE) and Ocean Topography Experiment satellites, and +continued heavy support for the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory and +Hubble Space Telescope contributed to the TDRSS's added workload. + + In addition, commercial use of the TDRSS C-band resources +started, via a lease of those capabilities, to a small business +private sector firm. + + Since becomming operational in late 1983, TDRSS has relayed +approximately 3.5 million minutes of data to the ground, and its +resources have been required by every subsequent Space Shuttle +mission. + + The TDRSS Continuation Program moved closer to the completion +of the ground terminal modifications required to maintain Space +Network user services and meet the evolving needs for satellite +tracking and communications through the first decade of the 21st +Century. Construction of the Second TDRSS Ground Terminal at the +White Sands Complex, N.M., was completed and hardware/software +integration testing is underway. + +Ground Data Systems + + The data processing program received and processed over 8 +trillion bits of scientific data containing space acquired images +and measurements from both free-flyer low Earth-orbiting spacecraft +and Shuttle payloads. The captured data was converted to forms the +science community could interpret and distributed to world-wide +science facilities. With the advent of EUVE and SAMPEX data, a new +all-time record of 1 trillion bits of data a month was processed. + +OFFICE OF SAFETY AND MISSION QUALITY + + Frederick D. Gregory, NASA Astronaut and Colonel, USAF, was +named to the position of Associate Administrator. Gregory is +responsible for the safety and mission quality for all NASA programs +and activities and for the direction of reporting and documentation +of problem identification, problem resolution and trend analysis. + + The Office of Safety and Mission Quality (SMQ) made significant +contributions to the successful operation of this year's Space +Shuttle and expendable launch vehicle missions. SMQ provided +independent safety oversight, technical assessments, safety +assurance engineering, policy development, risk assessment and +mishap investigations. + + A NASA Mechanical Parts Control Program Implementation Plan was +initiated to assure the integrity of NASA spaceflight hardware +components critical to protect human lives and programs. The +program is based on the Total Quality Management concept and +stresses continual improvement of mechanical parts. The program +will increase the reliability and quality of NASA hardware, thereby +providing assurance necessary to launch crews and vehicles on more +lengthy and complex missions. + + A Safety, Reliability and Quality Assurance Working Group was +established to assure that both NASA's and the USSR's space plans +for joint missions and operations will meet all safety, reliability +and quality assurance needs. Also, the group is working to get a +better understanding of Russian Space programs safety issues, +particularly when applied to crewed flights for joint missions. The +Working Group participants include representatives from NASA +Headquarters, Washington, D.C.; Johnson Space Center, Houston; +Kennedy Space Center, Fla.; Marshall Space Flight Center, +Huntsville, Ala.; and Rockwell International Corp., Calif. + + Over 2500 safety professionals, program personnel, and managers +throughout NASA were trained at the newly implemented NASA Safety +Training Center. + + Established at the Johnson Space Center, training is conducted +via satellite or by center visits, with areas of training including +Safety Requirements, Payload Safety, Manager Safety, and +Occupational Safety and Heath Administration issues. + +EDUCATION + + During the International Space Year (ISY) kick-off celebration, +NASA and the Young Astronaut Council announced an ISY student space +art contest, called Outer Sight. Over 1,800 school children in +grades K through 9 entered the competition to capture ISY's spirit +of world-wide celebration of space cooperation and discovery by +expressing their vision of future space exploration and discovery. + + July 22 marked a major milestone for aerospace education by +expanding the National Space Grant College and Fellowship Program to +include all 50 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. +The addition of Kentucky, Nebraska, Puerto Rico, Vermont and +Wyoming, along with their 26 colleges and universities, brings the +total number of participating institutions to more than 320 +nationwide. + + The first student managed and built payload flown on a NASA +sounding rocket was launched successfully on Sept. 21, from the NASA +Goddard Space Flight Center's Wallops Flight Facility, Wallops +Island, Va. The pilot project, known as the Colorado Student Ozone +Atmospheric Rocket was developed to demonstrate the use of sounding +rocket flight as a valuable educational tool for undergraduate and +graduate students. + + Coinciding with the historic first flight of an African +American female astronaut, Dr. Mae C. Jemison, in September, NASA +Administrator Goldin, Congressman Louis Stokes (D-OH), and NAACP +Chairman Dr. William Gibson participated in a symposium to expand +education and career opportunities for minorities in science, +engineering and technology. Over 100 representatives of +organizations dedicated to expanding education and career +opportunities for underrepresented groups in science, engineering +and technology attended. + + During STS-52, the Earth-orbiting crew of Space Shuttle +Columbia talked with the sea-voyaging crew of the historic Hawaiian +canoe Hokule'a on Oct. 28. At the same time, students throughout +Hawaii, plotting the course of the canoe's historic voyage, watched +the televised conversation. Selected students asked both crews +about flight and sail plans, weather, procedures for navigating both +vessels and about exploration. + + Tens of thousands of students in more than 20 nations +interacted with scientists, engineers and astronauts to learn about +activities in space exploration and Mission to Planet Earth through +a series of satellite video conferences. To observe International +Space Year, NASA conducted the first of two live, interactive +satellite videoconferences. The first broadcast on Oct. 21 featured +"Space Exploration." + +FY 1993 NASA APPROPRIATIONS + + Under the constraints facing all domestic discretionary +programs in 1992, congressional action on NASA's FY 1993 budget +request produced a budget for the civil space program lower than FY +1992, marking the first decrease in NASA appropriations (not +counting inflation) since 1974. However, given earlier indications +that congressional budget cuts in NASA programs would be much +deeper, possibly including the deletion of funding for Space Station +Freedom, the final congressional outcome for FY 1993 was +significantly better than expected. + + The FY 1993 VA-HUD-Independent Agencies Appropriations Bill +cleared Congress on September 25 and was signed by President Bush on +October 5. NASA's funding was set at $14.330 billion, $663 million +less than the President's FY 93 request, and a $4 million decrease +from FY 92. + + Among the most significant issues was the proposed cancellation +of the Advanced Solid Rocket Motor (ASRM) program due to budgetary +constraints. In the final appropriations bill, however, Congress +restored funding for ASRM, $195 million in the Space Flight, Control +And Data Communications appropriation and $165 in the Construction +Of Facilities appropriation. + + Funding for Space Science and Applications in FY 93 is $130 +million less than the request, but $127 million above the FY 92 +level. Included was funding for the major science projects, +including the Earth Observing System, the Advanced X-ray +Astrophysics Facility, the Cassini mission and the Shuttle Test of +Relativity Experiment/Gravity Probe B. The Comet Rendezvous +Asteroid Flyby mission was canceled. + + The Space Station Freedom program was extensively debated again +this year in both houses of Congress. In the House, floor +challenges to the space station were rejected during both the +authorization and appropriations debates. In the Senate, an +amendment seeking to strike all funding for the space station was +defeated. Funding in the amount of $2.1 billion was appropriated, +$150 million less than the request. + + Twenty-five million dollars was added to the Research and +Development appropriation for the High Speed Civil Transport +program. The joint NASA/DoD National Aero-Space Plane program +received no funding in the NASA budget for FY 93. However, funding +was included in the DoD appropriation for continued development. + + The joint NASA/DoD New Launch System program was terminated, +although funding in the amount of $10 million was appropriated for +continued work on new engine development. + + Space Shuttle Operations was reduced by $175 million to $2.9 +billion to support a planned flight rate of eight Shuttle missions +during the fiscal year. + +-- diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/ssemp.txt b/textfiles.com/science/ssemp.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..f6ebdcd8 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/ssemp.txt @@ -0,0 +1,217 @@ + +SELF-SUSTAINED ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPULSION + +(or 'How to generate mechanical momentum from enclosed +electromagnetic energy only'). (Patent Pending). + +Michael J.G. Polonyi, +Consultant, +54-44 69th. St., +Maspeth, NY 11378 + + +According to Ref.1 and others, it is not possible to create +mechanical momentum from enclosed electromagnetic energy only : +'For it is an obvious postulate that in stationary state in which +matter is at rest and in which there are no waves escaping, there +can be no electromagnetic momentum'. + +Still, this should be possible, and simpler than originally +thought of : + +Suppose a Helmholtz coils arrangement, i.e. two flat coils, +separated a distance approximately equal to the radius of a coil. + +If an alternating current is applied on each coil, an +electromagnetic field will be generated by each one. So, an +attraction and repulsion effect will appear at the frequency of +the applied currents and fields, on each coil, due to the field +generated by the other coil. + +Now, the question arises: is it possible that, instead of the +coils attracting and repelling each other, both will experiment a +force in the same direction? In other words: if you mount them +on a cart, will the cart move in one direction ? + +Apparently it is possible after all, at least theoretically, +because it is not the current but the FIELD generated by the +said current that reacts with the other coil, and, since it takes +a certain amount of time for the field to cross the space between +the coils, it is just a matter of finding an arrangement that +will create a unidirectional force condition. + +Is there such a force condition ? Yes, and it is very simple : + +If, (a) the frequency is sufficiently high so that the distance +'D' between the coils will be a quarter of a wavelength, (b) both +fields are of the same frequency, and (c) are in phase when they +meet at one coil (they will be in opposite phase when they reach +the second coil), then, a force will appear alternating on each +coil but this force will always point in the same direction, +since, one of the coils (the leading one) will always be 'pushed' +by the field of the lagging one, which in turn will always be +'pulled' by the leading coil field. + +For clarity, see the following chart that corresponds to the +schematic further down : + + + | FIELD | FIELD | FIELD | FIELD | DIREC. | FORCE + Time| COIL1 | COIL1 | COIL2 | COIL2 | OF | ON + | POS.1 | POS.2 | POS.1 | POS.2 | FORCE | COIL # +------------------------------------------------------- + | | | | | | + 0 | MAX | | | 0 | | + | | | | | | + D/C | 0 | MAX | 0 | MAX | + | 2 + | | | | | | +2D/C | MIN | 0 | MAX | 0 | + | 1 + | | | | | | +3D/C | 0 | MIN | 0 | MIN | + | 2 + +and so on ... + + C : speed of the magnetic vector + + D/C : quarter-wavelength travel time. + +Now, to avoid electromagnetic radiation the assembly CAN BE +ENCLOSED. The enclosure will also affect the wavelength and +force, depending on the particular shape and quality of the +enclosure. But this also means that the electromagnetic energy is +not radiated (other than termal losses) and CAN BE RECIRCULATED +i.e. an 'electromagnetic wheeling' effect. + +This arrangement is similar to a directional coupler in microwave +technology, in which the electromagnetic energy propagates in one +direction only. + +If the energy can propagate in one direction only in a closed +waveguide, then both ends of the waveguide can be joined in a +ring-shape, and consequently angular mechanical momentum can be +generated at will. + +Obviously: + + (a) Any two electromagnetic sources, out-of-phase + in time and space will give you this effect. + The force will be maximum when the sources are + a quarter of a wavelength appart, in space and + time. + + (b) It can be enclosed in a metal box of any shape, + something very similar to a resonant cavity, + which in turn SHOULD BE ABLE TO MOVE. + + (c) When the fields are in-phase there is no + resultant force but an increase in + electromagnetic mass ! + + +As far as the calculations go, here is some preliminary: + + coil1 coil2 +------------|----------------------|------------------------> x + x=0 x=c/4f + + + c = field propagation velocity + f = field frequency + + +coil 1 : H1 = I1 sin wt + +coil 2 : H2 = I2 cos wt + ___ +distance : c/4f = // /2 ; i.e. quarter-wavelength + + ___ +Field H1 at coil 2: H12 = I1 sin (wt - // /2) = I1 (-cos wt) + + 2 +Force at coil 2 F2 = u H12 * H2 = - u I1 I2 cos wt + +This expression says that coil2 will always feel attracted, or +pulled by coil 1. + + ___ + Field H2 at coil 1: H21 = - I2 cos(wt - // /2) = -I2 sin wt + + is negative because it travels in the opposite + direction. + + 2 + Force at coil 1 : F1 = u H1 * H21 = - u I1 I2 sin wt + +I.e.: coil1 always feels repelled, or pushed, by coil2. + +Ergo, a unidirectional force ! + +To concentrate the field and avoid magnetic lines dispersion, a +core or nucleus of magnetic material can be used to improve the +force effect. The magnetic material will then slow down the +propagation of the magnetic field waves, therefore allowing to +decrease, either the frequency or the distance between coils. +This core behaves very much like a 'resonant cavity' also. + +For enclosed electromagnetic fields, the electromagnetic force +equation in integral form can be used (Ref.2). + +The magnitude of the forces involved is very small, therefore it +is difficult to set up an experiment that will demonstrate the +principle, since very high frequencies and fields are necessary. + +For two coils mounted on a ferrite antenna core, with a relative +permeability of 10, separated 6 cm, 28.2 ampturn at 395 MHZ and +156 ohms/turn are needed to generate 1 Newton ! This is 124 kVA ! +plus losses. + +But, according to the 'Principle of Equivalence' if it is +possible to create a force, in space, from enclosed +electromagnetic energy only, it should be possible to create the +inverse, i.e. electromagnetic energy from a 'force field'. + +In a previous work by this author (Ref.3), it was suggested that +the 'electromagnetic momentum density' was the (missing) link +between mechanics and electrodynamics. This would suggest in +turn, that gravitation is nothing else than 'phase waves', +similar to the ones that develop in microwave guides and resonant +cavities. But for 'phase waves' to exist, there must be an +electromagnetic field of that frequency present already. + +This, in turn, brings back the concept of 'ether', and that all +mass, and even the whole universe is probably nothing else but a +gigantic 'resonant cavity'. A very powerful concept. + +In (4) it is claimed, that an experiment has been set-up that can +measure absolute velocities, and explains why the Michelson- +Morley experiment fails to do so. This, in turn, would be +complementary proof of the above, the existence of an 'ether'. + + + + +References : + +(1) Casimir, H.B.G., 'ON ELECTROMAGNETIC MOMENTUM AND + PONDEROMOTRIC FORCES', Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie + van Wetenschappen, Proc. B (Netherlands), Vol.75, No.1, 6- + 11, 1972. + + +(2) Paris D.T. and Hurd F.K., 'BASIC ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY. + McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969, Chapter 6, p.290. eq 6-51. + +(3) Polonyi, M.J.G., 'ELECTRODYNAMICS, INERTIA AND GRAVITATION : + a unfying approach', Speculations in Science and Technology, + Vol.10, No.2 page 145, 9/1987. + + +(4) Silvertooth, E.W., 'EXPERIMENTAL DETECTION OF THE ETHER', + Speculations in Science and Technology, Vol.10, N0.1, p.3, + 1987. + + +-end- + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/stndrds b/textfiles.com/science/stndrds new file mode 100644 index 00000000..2c4adde7 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/stndrds @@ -0,0 +1,269 @@ + + + + CONDENSED GUIDE TO SI UNITS AND STANDARDS + By Drew Daniels + + The following is a highly condensed guide to SI units, standard usage and +numerical notation for the benefit of people who have occasion to write +specifications or technical literature of any kind. + The abominable disregard for (literary and verbal) communication +standards even among engineers and highly skilled technicians makes for +needless confusion, ambiguity and duplication of effort. + Let's review the world standard means and methods for expressing the +terms we use and use them to codify our jargon and simplify our +communications. + +SI UNITS, STANDARDS AND NOTATION + + All the way back in 1866, the Metric System of units was legalized by +the U.S. Government for trade in the United States. + In 1960 the international "General Conference on Weights and Measures" +met in Paris and named the metric system of units (based on the meter, +kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin and candela) the "International System of +Units". The Conference also established the abbreviation "SI" as the official +abbreviation, to be used in all languages. + The SI units are used to derive units of measurement for all physical +quantities and phenomena. There are only seven basic SI "base units", these +are: + +NAME SYMBOL QUANTITY +------------------------------------------------- +ampere A electric current +candela cd luminous intensity +meter m length +kelvin K thermodynamic temperature +kilogram kg mass +mole mol amount of substance +second s time + +The SI derived units and supplementary units are listed here with applicable +derivative equations: + +NAME SYMBOL QUANTITY DERIVED BY +------------------------------------------------------------------ +coulomb C quantity of electricity A*s +farad F capacitance A*s/V +henry H inductance V*s/A +hertz Hz frequency s^- +joule J energy or work N*m +lumen lm luminous flux cd*sr +lux lx illuminance lm/m^2 +newton N force kg*m/s^2 +ohm (upper case omega) electric resistance V/A +pascal Pa pressure N/m^2 +radian rad plane angle +steradian sr solid angle +tesla T magnetic flux density Wb/m^2 +volt V potential difference W/A +watt W power J/s +weber Wb magnetic flux V*s + + NAME SYMBOL QUANTITY +-------------------------------------------------------------------- +ampere per meter A/m magnetic field strength +candela per square meter cd/m^2 luminance +joule per kelvin J/K entropy +joule per kilogram kelvin J/(kg*K) specific heat capacity +kilogram per cubic meter kg/m^3 mass density (density) +meter per second m/s speed, velocity +meter per second per second m/s^2 acceleration +square meter m^2 area +cubic meter m^3 volume +square meter per second m^2/s kinematic viscosity +newton-second per square meter N*s/m^2 dynamic viscosity +1 per second s^- radioactivity +radian per second rad/s angular velocity +radian per second per second rad/s^2 angular acceleration +volt per meter V/m electric field strength +watt per meter kelvin W/(m*K) thermal conductivity +watt per steradian W/sr radiant intensity + +DEFINITIONS OF SI UNITS + +(The wording used by the Conference may seem a bit stilted, but it is +carefully chosen for semantic clarity to make the definitions unambiguous.) + +The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight +parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, +and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a +force equal to 2E-7 newton per meter of length. + +The candela is the luminous intensity, in the perpendicular direction, of a +surface of 1/600,000 square meter of a blackbody at the temperature of +freezing platinum under a pressure of 101,325 newtons per square meter. + +The coulomb is the quantity of electricity transported in 1 second by the +current of 1 ampere. + +The farad is the capacitance of a capacitor between the plates of which +there appears a difference of potential of 1 volt when it is charged by a +quantity of electricity equal to 1 coulomb. + +The henry is the inductance of a closed circuit in which an electromotive +force of 1 volt is produced when the electric current in the circuit varies +uniformly at a rate of 1 ampere per second. + +The joule is the work done when the point of application of 1 newton is +displaced a distance of 1 meter in the direction of the force. + +The kelvin , the unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 +of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. + +The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the +international prototype of the kilogram. (The international prototype of the +kilogram is a particular cylinder of platinum-irridium alloy which is +preserved in a vault at Sevres, France, by the International Bureau of Weights +and Measures.) + +The lumen is the luminous flux emitted in a solid angle of 1 steradian by a +uniform point source having an intensity of 1 candela. + +The meter is the length equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the +radiation corresponding to the transition between the levels 2p sub 10, and 5d +sub 5 of the krypton-86 atom. + +The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many +elementary entities as there are carbon atoms in 12 grams of carbon 12. The +elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, +electrons, other particles or specified groups of such particles. + +The newton is that force which gives to a mass of 1 kilogram an acceleration +of 1 meter per second per second. + +The ohm is the electric resistance between two points of a conductor when a +constant difference of potential of 1 volt, applied between these two points, +produces in this conductor a current of 1 ampere, this conductor not being the +source of any electromotive force. + +The radian is the plane angle between two radii of a circle which cut off on +the circumference an arc equal in length to the radius. + +The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation +corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground +state of the cesium-133 atom. + +The steradian is the solid angle which, having its vertex in the center of a +sphere, cuts off an area of the surface of the sphere equal to that of a +square with sides of length equal to the radius of the sphere. + +The volt is the difference of electric potential between two points of a +conducting wire carrying a constant current of 1 ampere, when the power +dissipated between these points is equal to 1 watt. + +The watt is the power which gives rise to the production of energy at the +rate of 1 joule per second. + +The weber is the magnetic flux which, linking a circuit of one turn, +produces in it an electromotive force of 1 volt as it is reduced to zero at a +uniform rate in 1 second. + +SI PREFIXES + The names of multiples and submultiples of any SI unit are formed by +application of the prefixes: + +MULTIPLIER PREFIX SYMBOL TIMES 1, IS EQUAL TO: +---------- ------ ------ -------------------------- +10^18 exa E 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 +10^15 peta P 1 000 000 000 000 000 +10^12 tera T 1 000 000 000 000 +10^9 giga G 1 000 000 000 +10^6 mega M 1 000 000 +10^3 kilo k 1 000 +10^2 hecto h 100 +10 deka da 10 +0 -- -- 1 (unity) +10^-1 deci d .1 +10^-2 centi c .01 +10^-3 milli m .001 +10^-6 micro u .000 001 +10^-9 nano n .000 000 001 +10^-12 pico p .000 000 000 001 +10^-15 femto f .000 000 000 000 001 +10^-18 atto a .000 000 000 000 000 001 + + Some examples: ten-thousand grams is written; 10 kg, 20,000 cycles per +second is written; 20 kHz, 10-million hertz is written; 10 MHz, and 250 +billionths of a weber per meter of magnetic flux is written; 250 nWb/m. +Always use less than 1000 units with an SI prefix; "1000 MGS" is advertizing +hyperbole and should be written " 1 g " only. + SI prefixes and units should be written together and then set off by a +space (single space in print) from their numerators. For example; use the +form " 35 mm " instead of " 35mm " and " 1 kHz " instead of " 1k Hz ". + When writing use standard SI formats and be consistent. You should +consult National Bureau of Standards publication 330, (1977) for details on +usage. + Never combine SI prefixes directly, that is, write 10^-10 farads as 100 +pF instead of 0.1 micro-microfarads (uuF). Keep in mind that whenever you +write out a unit name longhand, the rule is that the name is all lower case, +but when abbreviating, the first letter is upper case if the unit is named +after a person and lower case if it is not; examples: V = volt for Volta, F = +farad for Faraday, T = tesla for Tesla, and so on. Letter m = meter, s = +second, rad = radian, and so on. Revolutions per minute may be written only +as r/min, miles per hour may be written only as mi./hr, and inches per second +may be written only as in./s and so on. + + In addition to the correct upper and lower case, prefixes and +combinations, there is also a conventional text spacing for SI units and +abbreviations. Write 20 Hz, rather than 20Hz. Write 20 kHz, rather than +20k Hz, and so on. Always separate the numerator of a unit from its prefix +and/or unit name, but do not separate the prefix and name. + +SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING NOTATION +(NOTE: "E" stands for power of 10 exponent.) + Scientific notation is used to make big and small numbers easy to handle. +Engineering notation is similar to scientific notation except that it uses +thousands exclusively, rather than tens like scientific notation. + + The number 100 could be written 1E2 (1*10^2) or 10^2 in scientific +notation, but would be written only as 100 in engineering notation. The +number 12,000 would be written 1.2E4 (1.2*10^4) in scientific, and written +12E3 (12*10^3) in engineering notation. Here is a partial listing of possible +Scientific and Engineering notation prefixes: + +SCIENTIFIC ENGINEERING SCIENTIFIC ENGINEERING +---------- ----------- ---------- ----------- +10^-18 = 1 a 10^1 = 10 +10^-17 = 10 a 10^2 = 100 +10^-16 = 100 a 10^3 = 1 k +10^-15 = 1 f 10^4 = 10 k +10^-14 = 10 f 10^5 = 100 k +10^-13 = 100 f 10^6 = 1 M +10^-12 = 1 p 10^7 = 10 M +10^-11 = 10 p 10^8 = 100 M +10^-10 = 100 p 10^9 = 1 G +10^-9 = 1 n 10^10 = 10 G +10^-8 = 10 n 10^11 = 100 G +10^-7 = 100 n 10^12 = 1 T +10^-6 = 1 u 10^13 = 10 T +10^-5 = 10 u 10^14 = 100 T +10^-4 = 100 u 10^15 = 1 P +10^-3 = 1 m 10^16 = 10 P +10^-2 = 10 m 10^17 = 100 P +10^-1 = 100 m 10^18 = 1 E +10^0 = 1 10^19 = 10 E + 10^20 = 100 E + + Engineering notation is used by default when we speak because the +numerical values of the spoken names of SI prefixes run in increments of +thousands such as; kilohertz, microfarads, millihenrys and megaohms +(pronounced "megohms"). The spoken term "20 kilohertz" is already in +engineering notation, and would be written on paper as 20E3 (20*10^3) hertz in +strict engineering notation and as 2E4 (2*10^4) in scientific notation if it +were not written in the more familiar form, 20 kHz. + + In either case, scientific or engineering, the rule is: for numbers +greater than 1, the En part of the figure indicates the number of decimal +places to the right that zeros will be added to the original number. For +numbers smaller than 1, the E-n part of the figure indicates the number of +decimal places to the left of the original number that the decimal point +itself should be moved. The small "n" and "-n" here stand for the digits in +the exponent itself. + + A definitive phamphlet describing SI units, conversions between SI units, +older CGS and MKS units and units outside the SI system of units is available +in the form of NASA Publication SP-7012, (1973). Inquire to the U.S. +Government Printing Office in Pueblo, Colorado or in Washington, D.C. for this +and other publications about SI units, their use and history. + +END \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/taxonomy.dat b/textfiles.com/science/taxonomy.dat new file mode 100644 index 00000000..6f123479 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/taxonomy.dat @@ -0,0 +1,989 @@ + + Asteroid Classifications +---------------------------------------------------------------- + Tholen Barucci + Minor Planet Class Class Group Notes +---------------------------------------------------------------- + 1 Ceres G G0 + 2 Pallas B B3 + 3 Juno S S0 + 4 Vesta V V0 + 5 Astraea S S0 + 6 Hebe S S0 + 7 Iris S S0 + 8 Flora S S0 + 9 Metis S + 10 Hygiea C C0 + 11 Parthenope S S0 + 12 Victoria S S0 + 13 Egeria G 1 + 14 Irene S + 15 Eunomia S S0 + 16 Psyche M M0 + 17 Thetis S S0 + 18 Melpomene S S0 + 19 Fortuna G + 20 Massalia S S0 + 21 Lutetia M M0 + 22 Kalliope M M0 + 23 Thalia S S0 + 24 Themis C + 25 Phocaea S S2 PHO + 26 Proserpina S S0 + 27 Euterpe S + 28 Bellona S S0 + 29 Amphitrite S S0 + 30 Urania S S0 + 31 Euphrosyne C + 32 Pomona S S0 + 33 Polyhymnia S + 34 Circe C C0 + 35 Leukothea C C0 + 36 Atalante C + 37 Fides S S0 + 38 Leda C C0 + 39 Laetitia S S0 + 40 Harmonia S S0 + 41 Daphne C C0 + 42 Isis S S0 + 43 Ariadne S S0 + 44 Nysa E E0 + 45 Eugenia FC C0 + 46 Hestia P C0 + 47 Aglaja C C0 + 48 Doris CG + 49 Pales CG C0 + 50 Virginia X + 51 Nemausa CU S1 + 52 Europa CF C0 + 53 Kalypso XC + 54 Alexandra C C0 + 55 Pandora M E0 + 56 Melete P C0 + 57 Mnemosyne S S0 + 58 Concordia C C0 + 59 Elpis CP C0 + 60 Echo S S0 + 61 Danae S S0 + 62 Erato BU B3 + 63 Ausonia S S0 + 64 Angelina E + 65 Cybele P C0 CYB + 66 Maja C C0 + 67 Asia S S0 + 68 Leto S S0 + 69 Hesperia M M0 + 70 Panopaea C C0 + 71 Niobe S S0 + 72 Feronia TDG + 73 Klytia S + 74 Galatea C + 75 Eurydike M M0 + 76 Freia P C0 CYB + 77 Frigga MU D2 + 78 Diana C C0 + 79 Eurynome S S0 + 80 Sappho S S0 + 81 Terpsichore C C0 + 82 Alkmene S S0 + 83 Beatrix X M0 + 84 Klio G + 85 Io FC C0 + 86 Semele C C0 + 87 Sylvia P C0 CYB + 88 Thisbe CF + 89 Julia S S0 + 90 Antiope C C0 + 91 Aegina CP + 92 Undina X M0 + 93 Minerva CU B3 + 94 Aurora CP C0 + 95 Arethusa C C0 + 96 Aegle T + 97 Klotho M M0 + 98 Ianthe CG C0 + 99 Dike C + 100 Hekate S + 101 Helena S S0 + 102 Miriam P D2 + 103 Hera S S0 + 104 Klymene C C0 + 105 Artemis C C0 PHO + 106 Dione G G0 + 107 Camilla C C0 CYB + 108 Hecuba S S0 + 109 Felicitas GC C0 + 110 Lydia M M0 + 111 Ate C C0 + 112 Iphigenia DCX + 113 Amalthea S S2 + 114 Kassandra T D3 + 115 Thyra S S1 + 116 Sirona S S0 + 117 Lomia XC C0 + 118 Peitho S S0 + 119 Althaea S S2 + 120 Lachesis C C0 + 121 Hermione C C0 CYB + 122 Gerda ST + 123 Brunhild S + 124 Alkeste S S0 + 125 Liberatrix M M0 + 126 Velleda S + 127 Johanna CX + 128 Nemesis C C0 + 129 Antigone M + 130 Elektra G G0 + 131 Vala SU S1 + 132 Aethra M M0 MC + 133 Cyrene SR + 134 Sophrosyne C C0 + 135 Hertha M M0 + 136 Austria M + 137 Meliboea C C0 + 138 Tolosa S + 139 Juewa CP + 140 Siwa P + 141 Lumen CPF + 142 Polana F B1 + 143 Adria C + 144 Vibilia C C0 + 145 Adeona C C0 + 146 Lucina C C0 + 147 Protogeneia C C0 + 148 Gallia GU S1 + 149 Medusa S + 150 Nuwa CX + 151 Abundantia S + 152 Atala D + 153 Hilda P C0 HIL + 155 Scylla XFC + 156 Xanthippe C C0 + 158 Koronis S S0 + 159 Aemilia C C0 + 160 Una CX + 161 Athor M M0 + 162 Laurentia STU + 163 Erigone C + 164 Eva CX + 165 Loreley CD + 166 Rhodope GC: + 167 Urda S + 168 Sibylla C C0 CYB + 169 Zelia S S0 + 170 Maria S S0 + 171 Ophelia C C0 + 172 Baucis S + 173 Ino C C0 + 174 Phaedra S + 175 Andromache C + 176 Iduna G + 177 Irma C: + 178 Belisana S + 179 Klytaemnestra S S0 + 180 Garumna S + 181 Eucharis S + 182 Elsa S + 183 Istria S + 184 Dejopeja X + 185 Eunike C C0 + 186 Celuta S S0 + 187 Lamberta C C0 + 188 Menippe S S0 + 189 Phthia S + 190 Ismene P HIL + 191 Kolga XC: + 192 Nausikaa S V0 2 + 194 Prokne C C0 + 195 Eurykleia C C0 + 196 Philomela S S0 + 197 Arete S + 198 Ampella S S0 + 200 Dynamene C C0 + 201 Penelope M M0 + 202 Chryseis S + 203 Pompeja DCX: + 204 Kallisto S S0 + 205 Martha C + 206 Hersilia C + 207 Hedda C + 208 Lacrimosa S + 209 Dido C C0 + 210 Isabella CF + 211 Isolda C C0 + 212 Medea DCX: + 213 Lilaea F B1 + 214 Aschera E E0 + 215 Oenone S + 216 Kleopatra M M0 + 217 Eudora X + 218 Bianca S + 219 Thusnelda S S0 + 220 Stephania XC + 221 Eos S S0 + 222 Lucia BU B0 + 223 Rosa X + 224 Oceana M + 225 Henrietta F C0 CYB + 228 Agathe S S2 + 229 Adelinda BCU C0 CYB + 230 Athamantis S S0 + 232 Russia C C0 + 233 Asterope T D3 + 234 Barbara S S0 + 235 Carolina S + 236 Honoria S S0 + 237 Coelestina S + 238 Hypatia C C0 + 240 Vanadis C C0 + 241 Germania CP C0 + 243 Ida S S0 + 245 Vera S S0 + 246 Asporina A A0 + 247 Eukrate CP + 250 Bettina M M0 + 254 Augusta S + 255 Oppavia X + 257 Silesia SCTU + 258 Tyche S S0 + 259 Aletheia CP + 260 Huberta CX: CYB + 261 Prymno B B3 + 262 Valda S + 264 Libussa S S0 + 266 Aline C C0 + 267 Tirza DU 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M0 + 349 Dembowska R V0 + 350 Ornamenta C C0 + 351 Yrsa S + 352 Gisela S S0 + 354 Eleonora S S2 + 356 Liguria C + 357 Ninina CX + 359 Georgia CX M0 + 360 Carlova C C0 + 361 Bononia DP HIL + 362 Havnia XC + 363 Padua XC + 364 Isara S S0 + 365 Corduba X C0 + 368 Haidea D D2 + 369 Aeria M M0 + 370 Modestia X + 371 Bohemia QSV + 372 Palma BFC + 373 Melusina C C0 + 374 Burgundia S S0 + 375 Ursula C + 376 Geometria S S0 + 377 Campania PD + 378 Holmia S + 379 Huenna B C0 + 380 Fiducia C C0 + 381 Myrrha C C0 + 382 Dodona M M0 + 383 Janina B B3 + 384 Burdigala S + 385 Ilmatar S + 386 Siegena C C0 + 387 Aquitania S S0 + 388 Charybdis C C0 + 389 Industria S S0 + 390 Alma DT + 391 Ingeborg S PHO + 393 Lampetia C + 394 Arduina S S0 + 395 Delia C + 397 Vienna S + 402 Chloe S S0 + 403 Cyane S + 404 Arsinoe C C0 + 405 Thia C C0 + 406 Erna P M0 + 407 Arachne C C0 + 409 Aspasia CX + 410 Chloris C C0 + 413 Edburga M + 414 Liriope C C0 CYB + 415 Palatia DP + 416 Vaticana S S0 + 417 Suevia X + 418 Alemannia M M0 + 419 Aurelia F C0 + 420 Bertholda P M0 CYB + 421 Zahringia S + 422 Berolina DX + 423 Diotima C C0 + 426 Hippo F + 429 Lotis C C0 + 431 Nephele B C0 + 432 Pythia S + 433 Eros S AMO + 434 Hungaria E HUN + 435 Ella DCX + 438 Zeuxo F: + 439 Ohio X: + 441 Bathilde M + 442 Eichsfeldia C C0 + 443 Photographica S S3 + 444 Gyptis C C0 + 445 Edna C + 446 Aeternitas A A0 + 447 Valentine TD + 448 Natalie C + 449 Hamburga C C0 + 450 Brigitta CSU + 451 Patientia CU B3 + 453 Tea S + 454 Mathesis CB + 455 Bruchsalia CP + 458 Hercynia S + 459 Signe S S0 + 461 Saskia FCX + 462 Eriphyla S + 463 Lola X + 464 Megaira FXU: + 466 Tisiphone C C0 CYB + 468 Lina CPF + 469 Argentina X + 470 Kilia S S0 + 471 Papagena S S0 + 472 Roma S S0 + 475 Ocllo X M0 MC + 476 Hedwig P C0 + 477 Italia S S0 + 478 Tergeste S S0 + 480 Hansa S S0 + 481 Emita C + 482 Petrina S + 483 Seppina S S0 CYB + 487 Venetia S + 488 Kreusa C + 489 Comacina C + 490 Veritas C + 494 Virtus C + 496 Gryphia S S0 + 497 Iva M + 498 Tokio M D3 + 499 Venusia P C0 HIL + 502 Sigune S PHO + 503 Evelyn XC + 505 Cava FC + 506 Marion XC C0 + 508 Princetonia C C0 + 509 Iolanda S S0 + 510 Mabella PD + 511 Davida C C0 + 512 Taurinensis S S2 MC + 513 Centesima S + 514 Armida XC C0 + 515 Athalia I S0 4 + 516 Amherstia M + 517 Edith X + 519 Sylvania S S0 + 520 Franziska CGU + 521 Brixia C C0 + 522 Helga X C0 CYB + 524 Fidelio XC + 525 Adelaide SU + 526 Jena B C0 + 529 Preziosa S S0 + 530 Turandot F C0 + 532 Herculina S S0 + 533 Sara S + 534 Nassovia S + 535 Montague C + 536 Merapi X C0 CYB + 537 Pauly DU: + 540 Rosamunde S S0 + 542 Susanna S + 545 Messalina CD + 546 Herodias TDG + 547 Praxedis XD: + 548 Kressida S + 549 Jessonda S S0 + 550 Senta S + 551 Ortrud XC C0 + 554 Peraga FC C0 + 556 Phyllis S S0 + 558 Carmen M M0 + 559 Nanon C C0 + 560 Delila --- + 561 Ingwelde XCU + 562 Salome S S0 + 563 Suleika S S0 + 564 Dudu CDX: + 565 Marbachia S + 566 Stereoskopia C C0 CYB + 567 Eleutheria CFB: + 569 Misa C + 570 Kythera ST S0 CYB + 571 Dulcinea S S0 + 572 Rebekka XDC + 574 Reginhild S + 579 Sidonia S S0 + 582 Olympia S S0 + 583 Klotilde C C0 + 584 Semiramis S S0 + 585 Bilkis C + 586 Thekla C: + 588 Achilles DU D1 TRO + 589 Croatia CX + 591 Irmgard X + 593 Titania C C0 + 596 Scheila PCD + 598 Octavia C: + 599 Luisa S S0 + 601 Nerthus X + 602 Marianna C C0 + 606 Brangane TSD D3 + 611 Valeria S + 613 Ginevra P C0 + 615 Roswitha CX + 616 Elly S S0 + 617 Patroclus P C0 TRO + 618 Elfriede C C0 + 619 Triberga S + 620 Drakonia E + 621 Werdandi FCX: + 622 Esther S + 623 Chimaera XC + 624 Hektor D TRO + 626 Notburga CX C0 + 627 Charis XB: + 628 Christine SD + 631 Philippina S S0 + 633 Zelima S + 635 Vundtia C C0 + 639 Latona S S0 + 640 Brambilla G G0 + 642 Clara S + 643 Scheherezade P C0 CYB + 644 Cosima S + 645 Agrippina S + 647 Adelgunde X + 648 Pippa XC C0 + 650 Amalasuntha --- + 651 Antikleia S S3 + 653 Berenike S S0 + 654 Zelinda C C0 PHO + 658 Asteria S + 659 Nestor XC C0 TRO + 660 Crescentia S S0 + 661 Cloelia S S0 + 663 Gerlinde X C0 + 664 Judith XC + 669 Kypria S + 673 Edda S + 674 Rachele S + 675 Ludmilla S + 676 Melitta XC + 679 Pax I + 680 Genoveva XC + 686 Gersuind S S0 + 687 Tinette X + 689 Zita CX: + 690 Wratislavia CPF + 691 Lehigh CD: + 692 Hippodamia S S0 CYB + 693 Zerbinetta ST + 694 Ekard CP: + 695 Bella S + 696 Leonora XC + 697 Galilea C: + 699 Hela S MC + 701 Oriola C + 702 Alauda C C0 + 704 Interamnia F C0 + 705 Erminia X C0 + 708 Raphaela S + 709 Fringilla X + 712 Boliviana C C0 + 713 Luscinia C C0 CYB + 714 Ulula S S0 + 716 Berkeley S + 717 Wisibada DX: + 720 Bohlinia S + 721 Tabora D D0 CYB + 725 Amanda CSU C0 + 727 Nipponia DT + 729 Watsonia STGD + 731 Sorga CD + 733 Mocia CF C0 CYB + 735 Marghanna C + 736 Harvard S + 737 Arequipa S + 738 Alagasta CGSU + 739 Mandeville X C0 + 740 Cantabia CX C0 + 741 Botolphia X + 742 Edisona S + 744 Aguntina FX: + 746 Marlu P C0 + 747 Winchester PC + 748 Simeisa P C0 HIL + 749 Malzovia S + 750 Oskar F B1 + 751 Faina C C0 + 753 Tiflis S + 754 Malabar XC + 755 Quintilla M M0 + 757 Portlandia XF M0 + 758 Mancunia X + 760 Massinga SU + 761 Brendelia SC + 762 Pulcova F C0 + 764 Gedania C + 766 Moguntia MU + 768 Struveana X + 770 Bali S + 771 Libera X M0 + 772 Tanete C C0 + 773 Irmintraud D D0 + 775 Lumiere S S0 + 776 Berbericia C + 778 Theobalda F C0 + 781 Kartvelia CPU: + 782 Montefiore S + 783 Nora --- + 785 Zwetana M B2 + 786 Bredichina C C0 + 790 Pretoria P C0 CYB + 791 Ani C C0 + 793 Arizona DU: + 796 Sarita XD + 797 Montana S + 798 Ruth M + 800 Kressmannia S + 801 Helwerthia XC C0 + 804 Hispania PC C0 + 805 Hormuthia CX C0 + 807 Ceraskia S + 811 Nauheima S S0 + 814 Tauris C + 821 Fanny C + 822 Lalage DXCU + 824 Anastasia S + 825 Tanina SR + 828 Lindemannia XFU + 830 Petropolitana S + 834 Burnhamia GS: + 838 Seraphina P C0 + 839 Valborg S + 846 Lipperta CBU: + 847 Agnia S + 849 Ara M + 851 Zeissia S S0 + 853 Nansenia XD + 857 Glasenappia MU + 858 El Djezair S + 860 Ursina M M0 + 863 Benkoela A A0 + 864 Aase S + 868 Lova C: + 872 Holda M + 873 Mechthild PC C0 + 876 Scott S + 877 Walkure F C0 + 880 Herba F C0 + 883 Matterania S + 884 Priamus D TRO + 887 Alinda S AMO + 888 Parysatis S + 890 Waltraut CTGU: + 893 Leopoldina XF + 895 Helio FCB + 897 Lysistrata S S0 + 899 Jokaste XB + 901 Brunsia S + 907 Rhoda C C0 + 909 Ulla X C0 CYB + 911 Agamemnon D TRO + 914 Palisana CU D3 PHO + 920 Rogeria DTU + 924 Toni CX + 925 Alphonsina S S0 + 927 Ratisbona CB: + 931 Whittemora M M0 + 932 Hooveria CB + 937 Bethgea S S2 + 939 Isberga S + 940 Kordula FC: CYB + 941 Murray CX + 943 Begonia ST + 944 Hidalgo D + 945 Barcelona S S0 + 946 Poesia FU C0 + 951 Gaspra S S0 + 954 Li FCX + 958 Asplinda --- HIL + 962 Aslog S S0 + 963 Iduberga S + 966 Muschi S + 968 Petunia S + 969 Leocadia FXU: B2 + 974 Lioba S S0 + 975 Perseverantia S + 976 Benjamina XD: + 977 Philippa C + 978 Aidamina PF + 980 Anacostia SU S3 + 981 Martina CFU: + 983 Gunila XD + 991 McDonalda C: + 996 Hilaritas B C0 +1001 Gaussia PC C0 +1004 Belopolskya PC CYB +1011 Laodamia S MC +1012 Sarema F +1013 Tombecka XSC +1015 Christa C +1019 Strackea S S2 HUN +1021 Flammario F C0 +1023 Thomana G +1025 Riema E HUN +1028 Lydina C C0 CYB +1029 La Plata S +1031 Arctica CX: +1036 Ganymed S S0 AMO +1038 Tuckia DTU: HIL +1043 Beate S +1047 Geisha S +1048 Feodosia XC +1052 Belgica S +1055 Tynka S +1058 Grubba S +1061 Paeonia C +1075 Helina SU +1076 Viola F B1 +1078 Mentha S +1079 Mimosa S +1080 Orchis F B1 +1082 Pirola C +1087 Arabis S S0 +1088 Mitaka S +1093 Freda C +1102 Pepita C +1103 Sequoia E HUN +1105 Fragaria ST S0 +1108 Demeter CX PHO +1109 Tata FC +1111 Reinmuthia FXU: +1112 Polonia S +1124 Stroobantia X M0 +1127 Mimi CX +1129 Neujmina S +1133 Lugduna S +1139 Atami S MC +1140 Crimea S +1143 Odysseus D TRO +1144 Oda D HIL +1146 Biarmia X M0 +1148 Rarahu S +1154 Astronomia FXU: C0 CYB +1162 Larissa P M0 HIL +1167 Dubiago D D0 CYB +1170 Siva S S0 PHO +1171 Rusthawelia P C0 +1172 Aneas D D0 TRO +1173 Anchises P C0 TRO +1177 Gonnessia XFU C0 CYB +1180 Rita P HIL +1185 Nikko S +1186 Turnera S +1199 Geldonia CGTP: +1208 Troilus FCU C0 TRO +1210 Morosovia MU: +1212 Francette P M0 HIL +1215 Boyer S +1216 Askania S +1223 Neckar S +1224 Fantasia S +1235 Schorria CX: HUN +1236 Thais T D3 +1241 Dysona PDC +1245 Calvinia S S0 +1247 Memoria CXF +1249 Rutherfordia S +1251 Hedera E +1252 Celestia S +1256 Normannia D D0 HIL +1263 Varsavia X +1266 Tone P C0 CYB +1268 Libya P C0 HIL +1269 Rollandia D D0 HIL +1274 Delportia S +1275 Cimbria X M0 +1277 Dolores C C0 +1280 Baillauda X CYB +1284 Latvia T D3 +1286 Banachiewicza S +1289 Kutaissi S +1306 Scythia S +1307 Cimmeria S +1310 Villigera S PHO +1314 Paula S +1317 Silvretta CX: +1326 Losaka CSU +1328 Devota X CYB +1329 Eliane S +1330 Spiridonia P +1331 Solvejg BC: +1336 Zeelandia S S0 +1339 Desagneauxa S +1341 Edmee XB +1342 Brabantia X PHO +1345 Potomac X HIL +1350 Rosselia S +1355 Magoeba X HUN +1357 Khama XCU +1359 Prieska CX: +1362 Griqua CP GRI +1364 Safara --- +1390 Abastumani P C0 CYB +1391 Carelia S +1392 Pierre DX +1401 Lavonne S +1415 Malautra S +1416 Renauxa S +1418 Fayeta S S0 +1422 Stromgrenia S +1434 Margot S +1437 Diomedes DP TRO +1439 Vogtia XFU B2 HIL +1442 Corvina S +1445 Konkolya C +1449 Virtanen S +1453 Fennia S HUN +1456 Saldanha C: +1461 Jean-Jacques M M0 +1467 Mashona GC C0 CYB +1474 Beira FX MC +1477 Bonsdorffia XU +1479 Inkeri XFU +1493 Sigrid F C0 +1500 Jyvaskyla S +1504 Lappeenranta S +1508 Kemi BCF +1509 Esclangona S S0 HUN +1512 Oulu P M0 HIL +1529 Oterma P: HIL +1532 Inari S +1533 Saimaa S +1547 Nele TD +1556 Wingolfia XC M0 CYB +1564 Srbija X +1566 Icarus --- APO +1567 Alikoski PU +1576 Fabiola BU B0 +1578 Kirkwood D D1 HIL +1579 Herrick F C0 CYB +1580 Betulia C AMO +1581 Abanderada BCU B0 +1583 Antilochus D D0 TRO +1584 Fuji S S0 PHO +1595 Tanga C: +1601 Patry S +1602 Indiana S +1604 Tombaugh XSCU D3 +1606 Jekhovsky C C0 +1615 Bardwell B C0 +1619 Ueta S +1620 Geographos S APO +1621 Druzhba S +1625 The NORC C +1627 Ivar S AMO +1636 Porter S +1639 Bower C +1644 Rafita S +1645 Waterfield XDC +1648 Shajna S +1650 Heckmann F B1 +1655 Comas Sola XFU +1656 Suomi S HUN +1657 Roemera S PHO +1658 Innes AS +1665 Gaby S +1669 Dagmar G: +1681 Steinmetz S +1685 Toro S APO +1691 Oort CU C0 +1693 Hertzsprung CBU C0 +1694 Kaiser GC +1700 Zvezdara X C0 +1702 Kalahari D +1707 Chantal S +1711 Sandrine S +1717 Arlon S +1723 Klemola S +1724 Vladimir FBCU:: B0 +1727 Mette S HUN +1740 Paavo Nurmi F +1746 Brouwer D HIL +1747 Wright AU: MC +1748 Mauderli D HIL +1750 Eckert S HUN +1754 Cunningham P C0 HIL +1755 Lorbach S +1765 Wrubel DX +1767 Lampland XC +1768 Appenzella F +1792 Reni C: +1794 Finsen C C0 +1796 Riga XFCU C0 CYB +1815 Beethoven F C0 +1827 Atkinson DU +1830 Pogson S +1842 Hynek S +1862 Apollo Q APO +1863 Antinous SU APO +1864 Daedalus SQ APO +1865 Cerberus S APO +1867 Deiphobus D D0 TRO +1902 Shaposhnikov X HIL +1911 Schubart P C0 HIL +1915 Quetzalcoatl SMU AMO +1916 Boreas S AMO +1919 Clemence X HUN +1920 Sarmiento X HUN +1931 1969 QB C +1943 Anteros S AMO +1952 Hesburgh CD: +1963 Bezovec C C0 PHO +1980 Tezcatlipoca SU AMO +1990 Pilcher S +2000 Herschel S PHO +2001 Einstein X HUN +2010 Chebyshev BU: +2035 Stearns E MC +2048 Dwornik E HUN +2050 Francis S PHO +2052 Tamriko S S0 +2060 Chiron B +2061 Anza TCG: AMO +2062 Aten S ATE +2067 Aksnes P M0 HIL +2081 Sazava F B1 +2083 Smither X HUN +2089 Cetacea S +2090 Mizuho S S0 +2099 Opik S MC +2100 Ra-Shalom C ATE +2111 Tselina S S0 +2131 Mayall S S0 MC +2134 Dennispalm DSU: +2139 Makharadze F +2156 Kate S S2 +2196 Ellicott CFXU C0 CYB +2207 Antenor D D0 TRO +2208 Pushkin D D0 CYB +2212 Hephaistos SG APO +2223 Sarpedon DU TRO +2241 1979 WM D D0 TRO +2246 Bowell D D0 HIL +2260 Neoptolemus DTU: D1 TRO +2266 Tchaikovsky D D0 CYB +2272 1972 FA S HUN +2274 Ehrsson SG +2278 1953 GE FC +2279 Barto F +2311 El Leoncito D D0 CYB +2312 Duboshin D D0 HIL +2340 Hathor CSU ATE +2345 Fucik S S0 +2357 Phereclos D D0 TRO +2363 Cebriones D TRO +2368 Beltrovata SQ AMO +2375 1975 AA D +2379 Heiskanen C C0 +2405 Welch BCU: B3 +2407 1973 DH C +2411 Zellner S +2430 Bruce Helin S PHO +2449 1978 GC E HUN +2491 1977 CB X HUN +2501 Lohja A +2510 Shandong S +2577 Litva EU HUN +2608 Seneca S AMO +2674 Pandarus D TRO +2735 Ellen SDU:: HUN +2744 Birgitta S MC +2760 Kacha X HIL +2791 Paradise SU PHO +2809 Vernadskij BFX +2830 Greenwich S PHO +2893 1975 QD D TRO +3102 1981 QA QRS AMO +3123 Dunham F +3124 Kansas CG +3169 Ostro TS HUN +3199 Nefertiti S AMO +3200 Phaethon F APO 5 +3288 Seleucus S AMO +3551 1983 RD V AMO 6 +3552 1983 SA D AMO 6 + 1975 EA CSU + 1975 GB S + 1975 U2 S 7 + 1977 VA XC + 1978 CA S AMO + 1979 VA CF APO + 1980 WF QU APO + 1982 XB S AMO + 1984 BC D MC 6 + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/taxonomy.txt b/textfiles.com/science/taxonomy.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..cbbd9970 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/taxonomy.txt @@ -0,0 +1,65 @@ + + + TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATIONS OF ASTEROIDS + + David J. Tholen + Institute for Astronomy + 2680 Woodlawn Drive + Honolulu, HI 96822 + + +Since the last Asteroids book was published, there have been two taxonomic +classification schemes developed and applied to the body of available color +and albedo data (Tholen, 1984; Barucci et al., 1987). Asteroid taxonomic +classifications according to these schemes are reproduced in the table. The +Barucci et al. classifications have been copied directly from the paper they +published in Icarus. Their classifications are based on a combination of +eight-color photometry and IRAS albedos. The Tholen classifications are +essentially the same as those supplied to the IRAS Asteroid Advisory Group +in November, 1983, and as such, are not based on the IRAS albedos. This list +consists of the classifications tabulated in Tholen (1984), but extended by a +rigorous application of the classification scheme to those objects with UBV +colors (Bowell et al., 1979), and a non-rigorous application to those objects +with 24-color spectra (Chapman and Gaffey, 1979). A few of the classifications +given here disagree with the ones given by Tholen (1984). These discrepancies +are flagged in the Notes column. In some cases, the classifications of objects +in the X and C spectral classes are based on unpublished albedos provided by +Tedesco and Gradie. Although IRAS albedos are available that would permit the +elimination of some classification ambiguities, caution is advised when +applying IRAS albedos, because in many cases the IRAS fluxes have been +overestimated, resulting in underestimated albedos. + +Two differences between Tholen's 1984 list and this list are apparent. The +letter X has been used to stand for E or M or P. Tholen (1984) used EMP, +which could be misinterpreted as meaning E is most likely, M is next most +likely, and P is least likely. Note that the E, M, and P classes are +spectrally degenerate, so in the absence of albedo information, their similar +spectra can be represented by a single letter. Also, the letter I has been +introduced to stand for Inconsistent data. In Tholen (1984), 515 Athalia was +given a stand-alone U classification, due to its S-type spectrum but uniquely +low albedo. However, because of the desire to use U as only a suffix, the +letter I was introduced. + +The following notation appears in the classifications: + U suffix indicating an unusual spectrum; falls far from cluster center + : suffix indicating noisy data + :: suffix indicating very noisy data + --- indicates data that are too noisy to permit classification + (essentially all types would be allowed) + +Due to popular demand, orbital group designations have been included in this +table. The 2- or 3-letter abbreviations stand for the following groups: + ATE Aten + APO Apollo + AMO Amor + MC Mars crosser + HUN Hungaria + PHO Phocaea + GRI Griqua + CYB Cybele + HIL Hilda + TRO Trojan + +Explanatory notes and references are given in file TAXONOMY.NOT. This list +was revised as of 1988 March 20 and therefore supercedes earlier tabulations. + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/teller-ulam.txt b/textfiles.com/science/teller-ulam.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..4c9a5d46 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/teller-ulam.txt @@ -0,0 +1,359 @@ +This note is currently being revised in the light of new information +supplied by Lindl's ICF paper. 24/11/1995 + +TELLER-ULAM CONSTRUCTION + +"... it is my judgement in these things that when you see something that + is technically sweet you go ahead and do it and you argue about what to + do about it only after you have had your technical success. That is the + way it was with the atomic bomb. I do not think anyone opposed making it; + there were some debates about what to do with it after it was made." + + Robert J. Oppenheimer + on the H-bomb + +"Don't bother me with your conscientious scruples. After all, the thing's + superb physics." + + Enrico Fermi on the H-bomb + +The basic problem of the H-bomb is to use the energy and particles +released in a fission device to firstly compress and secondly heat +a mass of fusion fuel. Fusion can only occur under temperatures, +pressures, and densities at, or exceeding, those found at the centre +of the sun. The latter is the case for a H-bomb since the reactions +in the bomb occur on a much shorter scale than those in the sun. + +You have to have extremely fast moving nuclei to overcome +electrostatic repulsion of the positive proton charges. You need +about 1 trillion atmospheres (8,000,000,000 tonnes/square inch) or +about 1 million megabars. This leads to extremely densely packed +atoms and molecules, which increases the likelihood and frequency +(rate) of collisions. High compactification of fissile material +also reduces the mean free path of fast neutrons. To achieve these +goals, you have to configure the secondary just right. The Teller- +Ulam multistage configuration does precisely this. It is thought +that three main concepts are involved in this design. + +You should think of a H-bomb as a multistage engine, with 3 explosive +stages. Since the explosions occur so quickly, it seems like only +one flash occurs, whereas 3 actually do. These correspond to the +initial fission of the primary, the fusion of the secondary, and the +fission of the casing or fusion tamper. In the case of a neutron +bomb, the casing may be made out of a non-fissionable material like +lead, so you would only get two explosions. + +Separation of Stages + +Much detail as to what goes in inside a H-bomb was gained in 1954 +during the Ivy Mike fallout. By a careful analysis of the fallout +products, you could work out roughly where the energy came from. +In particular, you looked at the ratio of higher Z radioisotopes in +the fallout. You tried to find evidence as to whether these products +had been exposed to unusually high neutron fluxes. Compression of +the U-235 sparkplug in the secondary would increase the probability of +multiple neutron exposure. Hence the formation of elements like +transuranic Einsteinium and Fermium, which were first detected in the +Ivy Mike fallout. See the references for evidence of massive Li6D compression +and multiple neutron exposure. + +The British designed their first H-bomb after examining American supplied +Russian fallout from the Joe-4 test. + +Around 50% of the H-bomb energy comes from fusion. The other 50% is +from fission of the U-238 fusion capsule tamper or weapons casing. +The fusion-boosted implosion core just serves as a trigger, and gives +at most a few hundred kT of energy. Ted Taylor has done calculations +showing it is possible to get into the megaton range for extremely +efficient fusion-boosted imploders. Tritium gas is injected into the +core during implosion to achieve boosting. + +For a given volume of Pu or U, you would find an equivalent volume of +Li6D to be 25 times less massive, due to differing densities. If you +fused this amount of Li6D, you would get 3 times as much energy as +you would fissioning the equivalent amount of Pu or U, taking into +account the energy released per reaction. Note that although a single +fission releases more energy than a single fusion event, the fission +releases the binding energy of 235 nucleons, whereas the fusion does +the same for five or six nucleons. If you had 235/6 = 40 fusions, you +would release more energy overall than fission of 235 nucleons. In a H-bomb +it follows you need about 10x the volume of Li6D than Pu or U, to +achieve a 50% energy release ratio. In other words, H-bombs have +a small mass of U or Pu, and a much larger mass of Li6D. In a reaction, +100% of the material never fuses. With experience, 10% is an outstanding +result. For a beginner, 1% is a good start. + +The Failed Classical Super Design + +Historically, the first theoretical designs for a H-bomb began with the +classical Super. This was a boosted trigger surrounded by a mass of fusion +fuel. When the trigger went off, the heat and shockwave were supposed to +set off an outwardly propagating thermonuclear reaction in the fusion +material. This didn't work. Calculations by Ulam and von Neumann showed +that temperatures and pressures weren't high enough to sustain such a +reaction. It would 'fizzle'. The design was based on what happens in a +supernova. Here, when material collapses into a neutron star, there is +an amount of 'bouncing' off the core. When the material is reflected, a +chain thermonuclear fusion reaction is set off, releasing a good percentage +of that ever fused by the star over its lifetime. + +A new idea was called for. This is where Teller, Ulam, and de Hoffmann came +in. Rough calculations showed that sustained fusion could occur if the Li6D +mass was separated from the trigger, possibly in the form of a concentric +cylinder, surrounding a U-235 sparkplug, and surrounded itself by a U-238 +pusher. An ablation layer made up of a low-Z hydride surrounds this pusher. +It is possible that primary and secondary are at two foci of an ellipsoid. + +The main unknowns to the public are currently the design of the casing, +and the shape and size of the secondary, relative to the primary. + +Compression + +The problem then is to transfer the energy from the implosion to +this Li6D cylinder, firstly compressing it, and then heating it. +Compression must precede heating since hot materials tend to expand +more than cold ones. This energy transfer is the crucial idea in +a H-bomb. You must compress the Li6D in under a shake, or else the +expanding bomb debris will take everything apart before fusion has +substantially gone underway. + +The Greenhouse George test showed that a small quantity of D-T could +be ignited by a fission device. + +Radiation Coupled Implosion + +Ed Teller has stated that the transfer of energy from the primary to +the secondary is primarily via radiation in the form of soft X-rays, +which travel at light speed. X-rays released by the trigger travel across +the air gap separating the casing from the trigger, and strike the +heavy (high-Z) bomb casing. Radiation pressure generated by the X-rays +is decoupled from the fluid pressure of the fission fragments, which travel +much more slowly. + +We can learn a lot from Teller's statement. Mechanical (fluid) pressure isn't +the transfer mechanism. Nor are hard (MeV) X-rays straight from nuclear +reactions. Indeed, soft X-rays come from the ionization of a reasonably high-Z +material. The only place this high-Z material could be is the bomb casing, +which is responsible for most of the bomb's weight. + +It is possible that a blackbody radiation mechanism is responsible +for the tamper implosion. + +For a few millionths of a second, the insides of the bomb become like +a blackbody. Since the casing is so massive compared to the rest of +the components (including the secondary), it expands relatively +slowly. During the time the vaporised casing expands, a phenomenon known as +X-ray fluorescence causes the casing ions to generates secondary X-rays. +Since the casing atoms have been ionised, when the sea of electrons fall back +into their shells, a uniform emission of secondary soft X-rays is released. +If the casing is machined just right, it is possible to direct these +onto the secondary fuel mass from all directions, leading to a very even +compression. The X-rays act as a photon gas, which equilibriates at light +speed, much more quickly than a material gas made up of fission particles +would (this would equilibriates at the speed of sound). The problem of +the H-bomb is the calculation of the hydrodynamics, not the nuclear physics. + +It doesn't have to be soft X-rays which cause the fluorescence. Anything with +enough kinetic energy will do the job - fission fragments or neutrons can do +it. All that needs to be done is to ionise the casing atoms. + +What happens is that the secondary X-rays deposit their energy onto the +ablation layer almost instantaneously and uniformly from all sides. The +result is instantaneous heating. The surface layer of the fusion target +is vaporised, forming a surrounding plasma envelope. The layer undergoes +a blowoff with great force. This causes the inner part of the wrapper +to compress (Newton's 3rd law) due to rocket recoil. This tamper pushes against +the secondary Li6D fuel mass, and the mass is compressed to a fraction +of its original width. If there is an air gap (levitation) between tamper +and fuel, the tamper can develop more momentum to do the job. This is what +happens in the levitated cores of fission triggers. + +Since the ablator is composed of low-Z, light material, the blowoff will +put a lot of energy into the expanding plasma. This prevents preheating of +the Li6D fusion fuel before adequate compression is achieved, while still +allowing for inward momentum coupling. In other words, the impulse is high. + +By this time, the neutrons from the fission will have reached the sparkplug. +The fissioning sparkplug ignites the Li6D annular cylinder from the inside, +while compression occurs on the outside. Burning starts from the inner +edge of the Li6D and, in under 1 ns, a large fraction of the Li6D is ignited. +The core reaches 1000-10,000x the original density, igniting at 100 million +degrees C. + +The high energy neutrons (> 1 MeV) released by fusion radiate out and +strike the U-238 atoms of the pusher and expanding casing, causing more +fission. + +The casing acts as a heavy gas, whose inertia slows the expansion of the +explosion. However, it plays no part in confinement of the fusion fuel. The +compression caused by the imploding tamper does that job. The interatomic +forces between the casing atoms are negligible. + +The bomb tamper is crucial in confining the reactions until they develop +appreciably. + +To direct energy onto the secondary, you need firstly to +interact with the casing. All this happens in under 10 shakes. + +In ICF, a typical fusion sphere consists of layers of: (1) Be or LiH ablator, +(2) a high Z polymer shield, (3) the main Li6D fuel, (4) the U-238 pusher, +(5) a void, and (6) a Li6D ignitor. + +Note that it's not the fission trigger X-rays which cause the blowoff, +but the secondary X-rays due to the X-ray fluorescence of the high-Z +heavy bomb casing. The casing acts like a hohlraum target. Nothing is +reflected as such. Unlike visible light, which is coupled to optical +bandstates on the surface of metals, X-rays are absorbed due to their +much higher energy. + +The X-rays come mainly from the L->K and M->K shell transitions as the +electrons drop down into the K shell vacancy, and hence lose energy. + +Another possibility for an X-ray source is bremmstrahlung from deccelerating +electrons in the ionised plasma. + +Eventually, the X-rays manage to diffuse through the expanding bomb casing, +and are released in a huge flux. This causes the initial light burst of a +nuclear explosion, and is responsible for immediate deaths. Considering this +light is 1000x brighter than the sun, this is no surprise! The temperature +soars to over 1000 deg C in microseconds. + +The mechanism of a H-bomb bears an uncanny relation to indirect drive +ICF. Implosions driven by this method are relatively insensitive to the +nature of the primary beams (they could be lasers or ions just as well). +They are also hydrodynamically more stable. This is important, since the +fusion fuel mass must be compressed symmetrically and evenly. + +X-ray - Plasma Interactions + +This method tends to produce a large volume of target plasma through which +the X-rays must propagate, however. Although it would be more efficient if +the plasma were transparent to this radiation, it is not absolutely +necessary. A diffuse photon gas due to absorption, scattering, and re- +emission by the target plasma will do. + +A number of physical effects must be considered. These include: + + Absorption: + + - X-ray absorption by target + - inverse bremsstrahlung (generates collisional low temp + electrons) + - parametric instabilities (bremsstrahlung induced + collisionless hot electrons) + - resonance absorption (collisionless hot electrons) + +Hot electrons lead to target expansion, which is not good for compression, +for it takes more energy to compress a hot gas than a cold one. + +Other undesirable effects include: + + - stimulated Brillouin scattering + - stimulated Raman scattering + +These also generate preheat and hot electrons in the target. + +We also need to look at: + + - thermal conduction (energy absorbed in a critical layer can be + inihibited from flowing into the ablation region) + +Conversion Efficiences + +For planar hohlraums, about 70-80% of the incident energy can be +converted into X-rays. You get better target coupling at short wavelengths. + +Other Forms of Compression + +Instead of radiation, could it be a material shockwave which does +the compression? Or a combination of both? It is known that at the +centre of the earth, iron is compressed to 30% its volume, subject to +about 5 Mbars. So we are way beyond the non-compressible regime, into +nonlinear effects. In fact, Ulam proposed using shock waves, but this +would have resulted in less even compression. Compression of the fusion +fuel can get as high as 1000x solid density, at 100 million degrees C. + +Ulam is said to have come up with the solution to the energy transfer +problem when he was looking at ways to improve the efficiency of the +trigger. The joint Teller-Ulam paper talked about "hydrodynamic lenses +and radiation mirrors". Could there be some sort of lensing or baffle +system inside the hohlraum, which focusses radiation onto the Li6D via the +casing? I find this highly unlikely. Note that the shorter the wavelength, +the less refracted light gets. It is very hard to bend X-rays, let alone +gamma rays. Also, wouldn't the lens system vaporise before enough radiation +was focussed? "Hydrodynamic lenses" is reminiscent of the shaped charges +used in achieving a spherical shockwave in the trigger implosion. + +Possible focussing systems include hohlraums shaped like ellipsoids, or +parabaloids with the primary at the focus. It is very difficult to shape +the secondary like a cylinder, and get a compression wave travelling just +before fast neutrons from the sparkplug cause fission - although not +impossible. Another problem with the cylindrical shape is that compressing +from the sides is like squeezing a tube of toothpaste. If the compression +is not fast enough, the material will squirt out the ends. + +Laser fusion using X-rays to compress pellets of D-T fuel is used in +Livermore's NOVA. Ten pulsed lasers give a temperature of about 10^8 K, and +increase particle density by a factor of 10^3. Each pellet is smaller than +a grain of sand, and absorbs about 200kJ of energy in < 1 ns. Delivered +power is about 2 x 10^14 W, about 100 times the entire world's electric +power generating capacity. This is a peaceful example of inertial confinement +fusion. + +Neutrons Causing Compression? + +Neutrons expand out at a slightly greater rate as the fission fragments. +Can they compress the Li6D in time, before the fragments tear everything +apart? A shockwave is just a longitudinal compression of the propagation +medium. Energy is transferred in collisions between the atoms or molecules. + +If this worked (a classical super design), then the most efficient +way to capture these fission neutrons would be to surround a fission +bomb with fusion fuel, and hope to cause an outward propagating shock wave. +If you didn't surround it, then you'd be wasting lots of neutrons. +The fact that H-bombs don't look like this (big, fat, and round) is evidence +against he idea. + +Other Theories + +From: merlin + +The basic idea is the primary is detonated -- neutrons escape in all +directions -- the secondary could be a hollowed out sphere of U-238 +with a Li6D core -- though usually the secondary is elongated to hold +more Li6D. The neutrons convert Li6D to TD. They also cause fast +fissions in the U-238 wrapper around the Li6D -- these fast fissions +release an enormous amount of energy -- the energy causes the U-238 +to expand (about 2/3 of energy causes expansion outward from center +of the sphere -- but about 1/3 of energy goes into inward compression +-- thereby compressing the TD core) -- the shock compression and +heating of the TD core reaches thermonuclear temperature and pressure +-- then a recursive reaction begins -- fast neutrons from the TD core +cause fast fissions in the U-238 wrapper -- fast fissions in the U-238 +wrapper cause additional shock compression and heating of the core -- +if optimum fusion temperature or pressure are exceeded the fusion +reaction slows down, fewer neutrons are produced, fewer fast fissions +occur, the U-238 wrapper releases some pressure -- until optimum +fusion temp and pressure is reached again and the recursive reaction +stabilizes (at least until you run out of TD to burn). This is why +in the traditional hydrogen bomb about half of the yield is fusion +and half of the yield is fission -- the energy has to be balanced in +order to hold the device together long enough to burn as much of the +TD fuel as possible. In the neutron bomb you get more waste tritium +because most of the U-238 mantle has been stripped away -- and the +device disassembles faster -- with much lower explosive yield. + +The following diagram is adapted from Matt Kennel's : + + ------------------------------------------------------- + / | | + / oooooo |===========fusion fuel======================== +| oa-bombo --fission spark plug--------------------------- + \ oooooo |============================================== + \ | | + ------------------------------------------------------- +<----------><---------------------------...> +implosion repetition of fusion cells clad in U-238 tampers + primary + +1994 diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/tesla1.asc b/textfiles.com/science/tesla1.asc new file mode 100644 index 00000000..03990841 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/tesla1.asc @@ -0,0 +1,175 @@ +HOW TO BUILD A TESLA COIL + +by Steve Gantt +(713) 684-6269 (VOICE) +(713 688-2058 (FAX) + + + +I like alot of other folks seem to be driven to explore the +uses of high voltage devices. I do not know why exactly. Hey, +maybe I was abducted by aliens, and realize that by the +understanding of how high voltage and frequency react on +matter we might be able to beat the impending alien +invasion... Or, then again I might just find this fascinating +. At any rate, I thought that I might share my experience in +building a tesla coil, and give you some pointers. + +Question : +Building your own tesla coil is about as difficult; + +A. as baking your first cake +B. rebuilding your first automobile engine +C. A final exam on "Nuclear Fusion as it relates to Electro- + dynamic Variations in Adjacent Ferrous Materials as + Opposed to Standard Electromagnetic Pulses" + +( The answer is A ) + +You should be able to complete this project in your spare +time in about a week. Five days you will be required to watch +the DISCOVERY Channel or any other channel that will help you +through the boredom of winding the tesla coil (often called +the secondary). + +First you will need about $ 70 to get all the materials (see +the attached parts list). After you have purchased everything +you need to build the coil, start on that first. +The Tesla coil itself is constructed from a 3 foot piece of +4" PVC pipe (if you go the hardware store & want to impress +them, tell them you need 3 feet of 4 inch Schedule 40). + +Next you will need about 1 & 1/3 pounds of # 26 AWG magnet +wire. By wire by the pound ? Yes ! that is how this wire is +usually sold. Get two pounds it's not that expensive, and +besides you might want to experiment with it later. Now CAN +use #30 AWG or # 28 AWG or # 24 AWG but if you use other wire +the coil won't work as well ( the coils is based on some +complicated algebraic formulas, and is dependant on # of +turns, length of wire, etc.). + +Now drill a small hole each end of the PVC about 1/2 inch +from the top and bottom. Shove one end of the wire thru one +of the holes and leave about a foot of wire on the inside. +Take some tape and put it over the wire so you don't pull it +out like some dummy I know did (me). Now comes the winding... + +Place the PVC on the floor in front of the TV, turn the +channel to some movie, the Discovery Channel or something +else, get you something to drink, and have a roll of tape a +pencil and paper within reach. Now start turning the pcv +allowing the wire to wind around it. Count ten full turns. +Move all the wire down so that it looks real pretty and that +no wire has jumped on top of another. Kinda pull it tight, +place some tape over it, and mark down ten on your piece of +paper. You are now 1/160 th's the way there. You will need a +total of 1600 turn on this PVC. Make sure that no wire is on +top of another, be sure to pull it tight ( but DON'T BREAK +THE WIRE !). If you DO break the wire or you run out in the +middle of the 1600 turns then... + +Use some sandpaper to get the enamel off the end of the wire +and solder the two loose ends together. Make it a real pretty +solder job, no sharp edges, no blobs of solder, etc. then +coat the solder joint with your favorite high voltage dope, +or non-metallic fingernail polish, whichever you have +handiest. Keep winding, keep counting. Keep putting that tape +on so it doesn't unravel on you. When you finish counting to +1600 then ... + +Cut the wire so that you have about 24 inches of wire left, +place it through the other hole in the pvc. DON'T take the +tape off yet. Secure the wire on the inside with another +piece of tape. Now take your almost finished tesla coil +outside and start spaying it with "Non-conductive Fast-Drying +Clear-plastic acrylic paint" ( Go down to the hardware store +& get a couple of cans of clear acrylic spay paint). and put +about three coats of paint on the coil. Now take the tape +off, check for loose wire and wire that has gotten on top of +other wire (Take time to do this right. It's not difficult, +just time consuming). Now spay about another 6 coats on. If +you have finished with the six coats, just use up the rest of +the paint with extra coats. Be sure to let this stuff dry +well between coats. + +Okay now we can start on the Driver... + +If you can solder & read schematics then go to it & skip +ahead to the OPERATION Section... + +If you have never soldered before, or have never built any +circuits before, then I suggest you practice first. + +Take the perfboard and place the LM567 in the top third of +the board about four rows from the top. The LM567 will have +either a notch in the top or a dot over pin 1. Now bend over +pin # 8 ( it is not used and will help hold it in place for +you. Next take your .1 MFD caps and put then in place one +hole over next to pins 1,2 & 4. +Solder one leg to those pins. Now hook up everything else +as shown in the schematic. + +To make T1 you will need to take the AMIDON ferrite core. +Remove the bobbin and wrap 15 turns of the # 26 AWG , spaced +evenly, leaving about a foot of wire at both ends. Then wrap +it with tape. Now mark the ends of the wire so that you know +what they are. Now take the other piece of the ferrite coil +and wrap about 120-150 turns on it leaving about a foot of +wire on each end ( yes, use the same #26 AWG wire). Cover +that with tape. Now put the bobbin back in. Now wrap the +entire thing with a few layers of tape, making sure you know +which wires cane off of the bobbin (primary 15 turns) and the +other (secondary 120-150 turns). + +After you have completed everything, co back and check all of +your connections. Check them again. Then get a friend to +check them. + +If you don't have a 18-24 vdc power source you will have to +build one. Use the package called 24VPOWER. This file is with +this package. + +OPERATION SECTION + +Set up the TESLA coil so that it stands vertically on a +table. Remove everything from around it, especially +diskettes, VCR tapes, credit cards, etc. hook the bottom wire +from the coil to the tesla coil driver. The upper wire should +remain inside the PVC, taped to the side. Put the switch on +TUNE (if you don't do this you will blow the LM567) and apply +power ( turn it on ). Adjust the trimpot so that both LED's +are about the same brightness. Now you can switch off the +tune switch. + +You should be operating now. Hold a florescent tube up to the +top portion of the coil and it will glow. You will see some +little sparks if you touch the coil on the top portion. You +now have an operating Tesla coil. + +What to do if you run into trouble. + +1. Check all your connections +2. Have a friend check all the connections. +3. Call you mother and have her check all the connections. +4. Use a multimeter & check the voltage between ground & pin + # 4 of the LM567. It should read about 8 VDC. If not and + step 5 checks okay then replace the 7808 +5. Check the voltage between ground and the input of the + 7808. It should be between 18-24 VDC. if there is no + voltage then you have a bad power source. +6. Check voltage ( frequency if you have it) on pin #5 of + LM567. If there is any voltage or frequency, then the + IRF511 is bad, replace it. +7. Other things to check after the above. + a. Make sure the primary and secondary of T1 are not + reversed. + b. If the LED's glow, then everything is operating ok up + to that point. Use a multimeter & check OHMS between + the upper and lower wires of the tesla coil. It + should read about 0 ohms. + + c. Pray + d. Spit on it + e. Use abusive language + f. call me + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/teslacoil.txt b/textfiles.com/science/teslacoil.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..37bdf2ae --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/teslacoil.txt @@ -0,0 +1,861 @@ + + + + +To: tesla-at-grendel.objinc-dot-com +Subject: Tesla's RF Ground +From: richard.quick-at-slug-dot-org (Richard Quick) +Date: Thu, 6 Jul 1995 04:12:00 GMT +>Received: from ns-1.csn-dot-net (root-at-ns-1.csn-dot-net [199.117.27.21]) by uucp-1.csn-dot-net (8.6.12/8.6.12) with SMTP id RAA07493 for ; Fri, 7 Jul 1995 17:06:18 -0600 + +-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +In re-reading the first fifty pages of The Colorado Springs Notes +(CSN), I have retraced again the construction and measurement of +the grounds that Tesla used there. In discussing this material +will quote Tesla's actual notes whenever possible. + +On the first day that Tesla began coiling inside the building +at Colorado Springs (June 15, 1899), he had two metal to earth +connections available, the water pipe and the lightning arrestor +ground. Tesla notes: + + "Sparks went over the lightning arrestors instead of going to +ground. This made it necessary to change the connection to the +ground, separating that of the secondary of the oscillator from +the ground of the arrestors. By connecting the secondary to a +water pipe, and leaving the ground of the arrestor as before, the +sparks ceased. This indicates a bad ground on the arrestors. THE +LATTER WORKED EXCEEDINGLY WELL. The ground connection was made by +driving in a gas pipe about 12 feet deep and gammoning coke +around it. This is the usual way as here practised." + +First note that arcing was occuring from the earth connection +over the arrestors. This shows that the lightning arrestor +ground, an iron gas pipe driven twelve feet into the earth, was +insufficient for even a low power test. Tesla clearly recognizes +the differences between the two grounds he has available. The +capitalized sentence above was in italics in the original. His +setup is brand new. His tune is rough. + +The following day, June 16, 1899, he had workmen going full tilt +on a dedicated RF ground for his experiments. + + "A new ground connection was made by digging a hole 12 feet +deep and placing a plate of copper 20" x 20" on the bottom and +spreading coke over it again, as customary. Water was kept +constantly flowing upon the ground to moisten it and improve the +connection but in spite of this the connection was still bad and +to a remarkable degree. It is plain that the rocky formation and +dryness is responsible and I think that the many cases of damage +done by lightning here are partially to be attributed to poor +earth connections. By keeping the water constantly running the +resistance was finally reduced to 14 ohms between the earth plate +and the water main." + +Tesla clearly notes the indivuality of the water pipe and the +earth plate, just as earlier he noted the difference between the +arrestor ground and the water pipe. I will call the earth plate +the "dedicated RF system ground" or simply "system ground". +In text following the quote above, Tesla next refers to using a +"sensitive device" to determine the presence of a ground current +around the lab. I have used resonate pickup coils with a small +neon indicator bulb on the air terminal, or even a low pressure +gas tube to detect ground currents. + +Apparently the water was turned off that night, for on the +following day, June 17, 1899: + + "Measurements of resistance between ground wire and water main +showed the surprising fact that it was 2960 ohms, and even after +half an hour watering it still was 2400 ohms, but then by +continued watering it began to fall rapidly. Evidently the soil +lets the water run through easily and being extremely dry as a +rule it is very difficult to make a good connection. This may +prove troublesome. The water will have to be kept flowing con- +tinuously. The high resistance explains the difficulty, from a +few days before, of getting the proper vibration of the second- +ary. The first good ground was evidently at the point where the +water main feeding the laboratory connected to the big main +underground and this was several hundreds of feet away. This +introduced additional length in the secondary wire which became +thus too long for the quarter of the wave as calculated. The +nearest connection to earth was as measured about 260 feet away +and even this one was doubtful." + +OK, Tesla has said a mouthful. First his measure of resistance +when the water is off overnight skyrocketed. Though the water +expense was unbudgeted, it ran 24-7. (The bill was finally paid +when the wood used in construction was sold after the building +was dismanteled.). This shows that Tesla was determined that no +expense was to be spared in obtaining the lowest resistance +ground connection possible. + +Tesla then notes that the first true electrical ground point +occurs on the water main at the junction to the laboratory supply +pipe. He notes at the end of the quote that even this ground +point is doubtful, possibly because his equipment is powerful +enough to push the center of the "true electrical ground point" +further up the main. + +Tesla also notes that the ground path leading to the true +electrical ground point must be considered as a parasitic +conductor length in all secondary calculations. This distance +between the base of the secondary coil and the "true ground" +affected his ability to determine the resonate frequency of the +grounded coil and kept him from establishing a sharp tune in the +system. Add the fact that the location of the true electrical +ground point on the pipe may not be stable, and would possibly +move farther away with increasing power levels, meant that the +water pipe would be completely unsatisfactory for use as the +system RF ground. + +To jump ahead to page 125, the section notes indicate that +stationary standing waves were observed on the water pipe, and +the exact electrical distance from the ground plate to the +electrical node on the pipe was determined to be 550 feet. This +would be an unpleasant amount of uncoupled conductor to add to +any secondary coil. + +In conclusion, Tesla recognized the need for a dedicated RF +ground in his coil systems. His specifications were such that the +true electrical ground point for the system ground had to lay as +close as possible to the base of the secondary coil. He +recognized the need for a highly conductive pathway adapted for +low frequency high-voltage RF. + +Reference: + +> THE COLORADO SPRINGS NOTES, 1899-1900 +By Nikola Tesla... Hardcover, 440pp, Published by NOLIT, Beograd, +Yugoslavia, 1978. Prefaced and annotated by Aleksandar Marincic, +Assoc. Prof. of EE Beograd Univ. and advisor to the Nikola Tesla +Museum, Yugoslavia + +Richard Quick + +... If all else fails... Throw another megavolt across it! +___ Blue Wave/QWK v2.12 + + + RF GROUNDING FOR TESLA COILS + +I get a lot of questions about safety, radio and TV interference, +performance, and tuning problems in reference to Tesla coiling. +Nearly every one of these areas is affected by the quaility +and proper use of a dedicated RF grounding system. + +A small coil can fire off a radiating counterpoise (insulated metal +plate) a few feet square. But when you overload a counterpoise, you +get a really wicked corona display around the counterpoise, and the +coil will produce no additional spark at the discharger. Having set +up various experiments to study this effect, including tracing the +ground current, and using a current transformer to measure the RMS +amps coming from the base of a Tesla secondary, I can tell you this. + +There is no such thing as a RF "system" ground that is too heavy. + + Not in Tesla coils! + +This is another thing that Tesla went on and on about. But my +follow up experiments in this area, which have been quite +extensive, show that he knew what he was talking about. + +I got extremely lucky in that I had a hydraulic car lift in our +back driveway. This consisted of a 5' steel cylinder 14" in diam.. +In addition to the giant piston, there are buried oil and air +tanks with all of the associated plumbing. The lift controls are +sunk right where the house foundation drains, and it is in the +lowest spot in rear of the house. There are no electrical +connections made to this lift, air being supplied when needed by +a hose. This was my Tesla ground. + +A good Tesla RF ground is usually developed, not happened upon. +It will require some digging and post driving. It needs to be +kept moist. Drive deep with copper pipe, or copper clad rod, and +keep adding to it. Metal culverts, metal sewer drain pipe should +be connected if available. Spread out! Do not drive rod or pipe +close together. Four or five 8' rods driven in a long row, or in a +"cross" pattern with posts set 8' apart will work. A ground that +you are absolutely sure will ground a bolt of natural lightning, +will be heavy enough to ground most coils. DON'T CHINCH! + +People have asked me if I get complaints about RFI. The answer is +no. The reason is that I isolate my coil (system) ground from the +copper water pipe and from the utility ground (which in my house +are the same). Here is a basic list of things that you DO NOT +CONNECT to the system RF ground: WATER PIPE, GAS PIPE, UTILITY +GROUND, ANYTHING THAT STICKS UP IN THE AIR (fences, gutters, +downspouts) TELEPHONE GROUNDS, & CABLE GROUNDS. Most anything +else is fair game, but use common sense. + +You build or find a heavy ground and you ground your coil system +to it. The connections made to this RF ground are as follows: +SECONDARY COIL, SAFETY GAP, STEP UP XFRMR CORE, BYPASS CAPACITORS +(if using a center tap grnd xfrmr), SPARK GAP MOTOR HOUSINGS, +SPARK SHIELDS, AND ANY OBJECT SUBJECT TO BE STRUCK WITH DISCHARGE + +I don't usually use my caps lock, but this is important. This +technique prevents RFI complaints, and will save valuable +electronic equipment in your area from destruction. It may save +you from the last shock of your life. + +You ground your variac housing to your neutral wire. All other +coil controls, relay housings, control xfrmr cores, line RFI +filters (run backwards) are grounded to the variac housing. Strap +is taken from the variac housing to a well grounded water pipe. +This protects the coil operator and the control circuits from +kickback that may come down the line from the step up xfrmr. + +Two 60 cycle cables are run from the variac, through reversed +line filters, out to the step up xfrmr. No ground connection is +made anywhere between the 60 cycle cabinet ground and the RF +system ground. Hot wires only are given to the primary of the +step up xfrmr, as well as any gap motors or other utility for the +coil tank circuit. + +This is called the "two ground system" and it is highly recom- +mended. The idea of the two ground system is to send all of the +RF to a dedicated ground, and prevent bleedover into your house +wiring, control cabinet and/or water pipe. It also protects the +operator with two low potential grounds from the lethal possi- +bilities of a coil misfire or similar "incident". + +People have told me I am crazy for messing with all of this HV. +I take NO CHANCES with my ground. The ground strap is literally +the "bottom line" in coil safety or any other HV apparatus. If an +accident occurs; a core shorts out, a capacitor blows, or the +secondary decides to dump a 10' spark back to the tank circuit; +I know my safety gap - RF ground will handle the load. My 60 +cycle cabinet ground is my backup. With tank circuit energies in +the megawatt range you can't afford to have a weak point. + +Keep the physical distance between the base of the secondary coil +and the system RF ground as short as possible. I try never to go +further than 20 feet for low power stuff, and 15' or less for the +high powered work. Use the heaviest strap possible. I run two +heavy straps; one from the base of the secondary directly to +system ground, the second snakes around and grounds everything +else. It is recommended that the grounding path be wired with +solid smooth straps, such as the strips of aluminum or copper +used for gutter and downspout flashing. Woven braid ground strap +has a much higher impedance in this application than does the +solid smooth strap. You will find the smooth strap is also +more cost effective. This is a high Q Tesla grounding system. It +gives the best coil performance, the most safety for the coil +operator, and guess what? + +People in my house, and the neighbors next door, can watch TV or +listen to the radio, with no snow or static! Even during high +power operation! I never get spark from my coil controls. All of +the RF currents that are not expended in spark are directly, +positively, grounded through a high Q ground path to a high Q +ground that is electrically isolated from all other equipment. + +********************************************************************* +EDITED FROM DISCUSSIONS OF RF GROUNDING TESLA COILS. A LOT OF +INFORMATION WAS TAKEN FROM A HAM RADIO DISCUSSION, BUT THE +METHODS OUTLINED HERE DO APPLY TO BUILDING DEDICATED RF GROUNDS +FOR TESLA TANK CIRCUITS AND RESONATORS. +********************************************************************** + +Quoting Richard Quick + +I grounded to a hydraulic vehicle lift buried deep in moist clay. The +lift was situated just feet from a foundation drain. My connection +was made at the lift controls where my straps were clamped to both a +hard copper air pressure pipe and a 3" galvinized hydraulic pipe, +both of which went down through a concrete pad and connected to +underground metal holding tanks. The tanks were also pressure plumbed +to the 14" diameter by 8' long piston housing. This hydraulic lift +was powered from a remote air compressor. Since the air was fed to +the lift controls by a rubber hose, there were no electrical con- +nections of any type made to it. When it was used as an RF ground, it +was electrically isolated from the 60 cycle wiring, and any other +condutors as well. I am moving, so read it and weep with me. + +July 2, 1995 + +For the better part of an hour today I was scrounging for copper. +I came with about 35 pounds of assorted tubing, pipe, and strap. +I also came up with about fifty feet of aluminum flashing. Off +to the new lot! + +July 3 Building my new Tesla Ground + +I got out to the new home site yesterday afternoon. Supplies that +I brought along included a shovel, large hammer, some large steel +gutter nails, propane torch, solder, sheet metal screws and a +permanent marker. I picked up a couple of shanks of rebar that +were laying about. + +With half of the foundation already backfilled in I focused on +the remaining trench. The soil is mostly rock, but the clay +filling in the gaps is a very rich red and very moist. I tried +digging, but a pickaxe would have been a better tool... + +After about an hours work, I had only suceeded in trenching in +one 10 foot section of 14" inch aluminum flashing. Too much time, +too few results. I decided to unroll a heavy copper strap that I +had dropped into the copper salvage box. This had been a strap +primary, unrolled it was fifteen feet long by three inches wide. +It was made up from three thicknesses of 10 mil copper sheet that +are spot soldered to prevent separation. + +The deepest section of the foundation trench is about eight feet +below the ground and near the northwest corner. The corner was +carved out of decaying limestone by the heavy equipment, but the +stone is layered with the pasty clay, and the backfill dirt they +are using is trucked in. Using a length of rebar and the heavy +hammer, I chiseled out a vertical groove to fit my copper strap. +The top of the strap reaches the ground level about a foot from a +marked surveyors flag. I placed the strap in the groove, and +using the gutter nails I hammered it securely into place in the +rotting stone. Then I split the laminations of the strap open, +and where possible I drove a couple of rebar shanks into the +crumbling rock to further hold the strap into place. I wrote the +lot number on the top of the strap with the marker, and labeled +it as an "RF GROUND" and added "DO NOT REMOVE". + +At the bottom of the foundation trench I unrolled about forty +feet of aluminum flashing. I folded it over once to get around +the foundation corner. Where it passed over the copper strap I +used a large nail as a punch, then screwed the two together with +sheet metal screws. I finished off by chopping up large lumps of +clay and burying the entire length of flashing. + +Today it is raining and I am nursing sore muscles and a few +blisters on my palms. My clothes were all but runined... But +hey! I have got a pretty decent RF ground. If I recover before +the holiday is over I will head back out and pull up the end of +the copper strap and solder on some radials made from sections of +soft copper tubing. + +Richard Quick + +************************************************************************** +Richard Quick to Steve Roys about RF grounds: + + > At the bottom of the foundation trench I unrolled about forty + > feet of aluminum flashing. + + SR> We are having an in-ground pool installed Real Soon Now, and + SR> I had been thinking about the best way for me to use this to + SR> get a decent RF ground good for multi-kVA experimentation + SR> installed. I thought about laying down aluminum flashing + SR> like you did, but I didn't think that the current-carrying + SR> aluminum would last vZ _ong buried in the ground? + +Copper is by far the preferred conductor of choice for RF +grounding. Aluminum works fine for awhile, then begins to +oxidize. This is in addition to the problems of electrolysis +when aluminum/copper connections are made without using a oxide +inhibitor. Still, my experience is that aluminum is cost +effective for the amateur coiler in RF ground applications where +the expected life span of the ground system is not much in excess +of five years, or where badly oxidized conductors can be easily +replaced. However, I do not rely on aluminum alone. My new ground +employs a significant amount of copper already, and I plan on +driving in some 8' copper pipes into the fill areas around the +property as soon as the grading is completed. But when it comes +to bang for the buck, any aluminum flashing you can throw down a +hole or trench will help. +*************************************************************************** +From Chip Atkinson +RE: RF Grounds + +I was looking at a magazine and saw a little blurb in the handy tips +from readers. This blurb described how a guy puts in ground rods. His +method works best in clay rich soils. Here's what he does: + +Dig a hole about a shovel wide and a shovel deep. Fill this with water +and push the ground rod in as far as you can. This will be only about +3" or so. Then pull the rod out of the hole and let the water fill it up. +Then push the rod back into the hole. From then on, don't pull the rod +completely out of the hole, but just work it up and down, pushing it in +a little farther each time. He says that he can put in 8' ground rods +by hand without pounding. I'll have to try that technique myself some- +time soon. + +Chip +**************************************************************************** +From K. Gakis: + +The best grounding method I've heard of is to bury a 3'x3' piece of sheet +metal about 3-4 feet into the ground, then drive a 8 ft stake down the +center. One of my fellow hams used this at his station and I've never +heard of any problems. + +***************************************************************************** +From Mark Conway +RE: RF GROUNDS + +Hi everyone, + +Heres some more info on putting in ground rods etc that I got from +rec.radio.antennae* + +Michael Marmor, mmarmor@pluto.njcc.com, +Subject: Re: Best way to install ground rods? + +>I recently bought an 8 foot copper ground rod to be used as my +>station ground. Does anyone have any advice or tips on ways to +>install the rod? I am concerned that it might bend if hit with a +>sledgehammer. Also, does the 8 foot rod need to be driven all the +>way in to have an effective ground. (I do not know how the soil +>conductivity is at the QTH here in Princeton, New Jersey; I imagine +>conductivity dictates how deep the rod must be to function +>effectively) +> +>73 +>Michael, AA2UJ +>mmarmor@pluto.njcc.com + +I received many replies to my post about installing ground rods. +Since this info may be of use to other amateurs installing antenna +systems I will post some of the replies I received. + +Michael +______________________________________ + +From gsparks@ix.netcom.com Thu Jan 12 10:25:28 1995 + +I don't know your soil. I work in a clay Gumbo soil in Houton, Tx. + +The way I install ground rods, I have 6 in a 1x3 meter square, is to +take a water hose and soften the soil a bit, then just start pushing the +rod a little, then lift it out of the hole, fill with water and repeat. +Don't go over 4 or 5 inches at a time making sure the water lubricates +the hole and rod. This takes about 30 minutes, don't use to much water, +you don't want to wash the hole out. + +If this doesn't work build a driver for the rod, to do this take a peice +of steel or iron pipe about 4' long, put a cap on one end, slip over the +ground rod and use this to drive the rod, when you get to the 4' level +you can use a shorter piece of heavier pipe, or a real good friend and a +large hammer. I dig a hole and bury my rods complete, along with the +ground wire just for mowing and tripping reasons, in fact if I can't get +the rod clear in, I cut if off with a torch. I also Braise, not solder +the ground wire and use #4 fine strand wire. + +Sparky KI5GY + +----------------- +From: tigger@prairienet.org (Sean E. Kutzko) + +Hi, Michael- + +I was skeptical with this ground rod installation tip, until I tried it +out. It REALLY does work: + +Dig a little hole (say 6") where you want the rod to go in place. Get a +large bucket of water and fill the freshly-dug hole with it. Jam the rod +into the water-filled hole. Lift out and jam back in. Repeat as needed. + +The secret here is to make sure the hole for the ground rod is kept VERY +wet. This way, the water is doing all the work for you. I slapped an +8-footer into the ground in 5 minutes this way; no sledge hammer needed. + +Depending on the type of soil you have, you might need a sledge for the +last foot or so. Once you hit it with a sledge, the back-and-forth +jamming process won't work any more, so be sure you REALLY want to use a +sledge on it. + +BTW, get that sucker as far into the ground as you can. If it's an +8-footer, then sink it 7 and a half feet. + +Good luck, + +Sean +_____________________ + +From: HarrisR@yvax.byu.edu (Richard Harris) + +I drove my 8' ground rod using a fence post driver. The post driver +that I used is one that is made to drive T type metal fence posts. +This allowed me to drive the post in about 6 feet or so and then I used +a sledge to finish driving the rod. I would drive it in all the way +and make sure that it is at least 6 inches below grade. I hope yours +goes in better than mine. I have very rocky soil and it took me 2-3 +hours. I have put rods in soil without rocks in 10 minutes. + +good luck and 73 + +Richard Harris +KJ7CU +____________________ + +From spikes@hpscit.sc.hp.com Thu Jan 12 13:10:17 1995 + +You put it in with a ~2 foot piece of pipe with an end cap and a handle +or two on it. You can rent 'em from rental places or sometimes the local +home Honey-Do Emporium. Wear the thickest, foamiest gloves you have so +you'll be able to feel your hand when done pounding. How far in depends +on your year-around soil moisture conditions....yup, all the way in, +unless you hit an aquafer! :) Leave about 6" out for connecting your +wire and then spray paint it to keep the oxidation down. On the same day, +once a year,when you change the batteries in your smoke detectors, go out +and check/tighten it. + +I put a BLUNT point on mine to help go arount the rocks and hardpan. A +sharp point makes it wander too much. + +The latest one was for 240VAC hot tub gounding. It has GOTTA work! + +Bill +wb6rzg +_________________________ + +From hamilton@BIX.com Thu Jan 12 13:43:10 1995 + +You should be able to drive the ground rod directly with a sledge +hammer unless when you say it's a copper rod, you mean REALLY +copper (pretty unlikely), not copper-clad steel. It's best if +you pick a day when the ground is somewhat wet as that'll make +it easier. + +The only really tough part comes if you hit a big rock. You may +be able to break right thru it if you keep banging with the sledge +but depending on what you've hit, you may be forced to pull the +rod back out and try somewhere else. If you're already down 4 +or 5 feet, pulling it out can take some real work! You may have +to dig it out! + +In answer to your other question, yes, you do want to get it down +all the way into the ground, but part of that's just because having +it stick up out of the ground looks terrible. :-) + +I just moved so I've been redoing my grounding also. In my case, +I went with the solid brass rods from I.C.E. These are available +only in 6' lengths (they're cut from 12' stock), so to make up for +that, I got 4 of them, which I arranged as one in the center and +the others every 120 degrees at a roughly 2' radius then joined +with 1/2" copper tubing to the center, where other connections +are made. (Actually, btw, I am curious if others have comments on +the I.C.E. ground rods. I was attracted by the non-corroding aspect +of a solid brass rod but disappointed not to be able to buy it in +an 8' length. OTOH, if it's sold by I.C.E., I was hopeful they +should know what they're doing.) + +Also, in my case, I wanted to but my rods under some decking right +behind the house since that'd be both closest to the shack and +out-of-sight and not a hazard someone might trip on. But since +the deck only allows about 5' of headroom under it, I first just +used a shovel to dig down about 3' before driving the rods with +a sledge; once they were in far enough, I could push the soil +back in place. Digging out that first few feet had the side +benefit of giving me some idea of how much rock I was likely to hit. + +Regards, +Doug Hamilton KD1UJ hamilton@bix.com Ph 508-440-8307 FAX 508-440-8308 +_________________________ + +From rossi@VFL.Paramax.COM Thu Jan 12 15:02:27 1995 + +Is this by chance a Radio Shack 8 ft ground rod? + +I bought 2 of them. Not bad, but a few weeks later I found virtually +the same thing at the new Home Depot for less than 1/2 the price :-) + +Anyway... I drove 2 of them in but in both cases, they had a 2-3 foot +head start (started from the bottom of a hole). I got up on my 8 ft +step ladder at the beginning and used an 8 lb sledge hammer. + +It is kind of hard to get them started since after each wack they tend +to >>> boing / wobble <<< around after they are hit. Makes aiming the +next wack a bit difficult. I did it all by myself. I certainly would +be easier with a helper to hold the rod (then I can hit his hands when +I miss :-) ) + +One thing I have read, and I did once before (I expect to try this +for the 4 more that I have to drive in) is to get a short section of +threaded steel pipe with an ID just large enough to fit over the ground +rod, and put an end cap on the steel pipe then slide it over top of the +ground rod. It will give you a slightly larger target to hit. + +Once you get the rod started you just have to keep at it. Take your +time. Try not to miss. You will feel it go in with each wack but you +will also feel it when it hits a rock (very rocky soil around here). +But I kept wacking away and it would start to go down again.. I got +both of them in the full 8 feet. My goal is to have 4 8 footers at the +base of my tower and at least 2 more 8 footers where the cables enter +the house. + +I would do what you can to go the full 8 feet if you really want them +to do the job. If you really can't go 8 feet then (and you know this +in advance) the next best thing would be to go with twice as many 4 +footers (or 6 foot). If necessary buy/borrow/rent/steal:-) a bigger +sledge hammer. I would say 8 pound is minimum. A 12 or 16 pounder +should drive a rod through almost anything short of thick concrete :) + +One more thing. The radio shack ground rods had a reasonably nice point +on the ends. The ones at Home Depot did not. You should try to grind a +point on them if you can ESPECIALLY IF YOU HAVE ROCKY SOIL. + +It goes without saying. Don't drive in any ground rods if there is +any chance of hitting anything below. Saftey glasses are not a bad +idea too :-) + +Pete Rossi - WA3NNA +--------------------------- + + > I have considered jetting down a ground rod but I don't think + > the contact with the ground would be as good as a driven rod. + +I have heard exactly this. In fact, the ARRL made mention of it in a +past issue, that in many types of soils, most of what is left after +using water pressure to make the hole, is stones. All of the con- +ductive earth is washed away, and the worse conductors are left in +contact with the ground pipe. Measured ground conductivity is worse +after using the water method. The other thing is that pipe tends to +clog, then freeze, and split open. I much prefer the 5/8" galvanized +ground rods that are commercially sold. Yes, you have to beat on them +for 10 minutes to getone in, but unlike pipe, they don't buckle under +the beating, and they last. + +Bruce N9EHA + +Remember that a lightning bolt has a surge current of around +8,000 amperes. You have to size and bond your conductors to +handle this load. The duration of the pulse is short, however, +only about 20 coulombs of charge is exchanged in the typical +strike, so the conductors don't have to be large enough to +handle the surge *continously*. Copper conductors equivalent +to #6 solid wire are sufficient. + +Lightning is RF, though most of its energy falls below 2 MHz, +so the skin effect must be considered. That's why solid strap +is preferred over round wire. Strap has a larger surface area, +pound for pound, than round copper wires. Copper pipe can also +be used, but it's surface area will be half that of copper +strap with a width equal to the pipe circumfrence. That's +because the *inner* surface of the pipe forms a waveguide +beyond cutoff for the lightning RF currents, and isn't effective +at carrying away the surge. Strap, on the other hand, can fully +exploit *both* surfaces. (Pipe *does* have somewhat lower inductance, +so there is a tradeoff here.) + +Woven braid conductors should be avoided for grounding runs because +braid has about 5 times the impedance of smooth solid strap on a +pound for pound of copper basis. There are a couple of reasons +for this. First, the braid strands weave in and out, adding inductance, +and second, because the skin effect tries to force currents to the +surface, while the individual strands keep diving into the middle +of the bundle, the currents try to flow from strand to strand along +the outside of the braid. Since the mechanical connections of one +strand to another are fairly loose, a high resistance path is formed. +Fully *tinned* braid is better, since the strands are now bonded +to each other better. However, solder *will* melt during a strike, +and you should plan to depend only on mechanically bonded connections, +IE clamps or cadwelding. + +Since you are building your house, you have an opportunity now to +install a *Ufer ground*. Mr. Ufer developed this technique during +WWII for army ammo bunkers. The NEC approves its use for commercial +and home grounding systems. In essence, a Ufer ground is just rebar +in concrete. When the builder is preparing to pour your slab, make +sure all the rebar in the slab is bonded together, either cadwelded +or mechanically clamped, before the pour. And make sure to leave a +convienent attachment point exposed. A rule of thumb for a Ufer +ground is that it takes about 20 feet of 0.5 inch rebar to absorb +8,000 amperes of surge. More is better. The rebar should be embedded +in at least 4 inches of concrete. + +The way a Ufer ground works is through two paths. First it forms +a large capacitance to Earth. This is an excellent RF coupling. +Second, concrete's ions generally are more conductive than native +soils, so you have a large number of virtual resistors in parallel +connected to Earth that offer a lower resistance than would a +smaller collection of driven rods. Earth is actually a lousy +conductor. Most currents are dissipated through Earth by capacitive +coupling and arcing from soil grain to soil grain. Concrete is a +better conductor since the grains are tightly bound together. + +Gary +************************************************************************** +Quoting Richard Quick to Mark Conway: + +This was some excellent information. Thanks Mark for posting this +up. More than a few people here are either building coil systems, +or upgrading to higher power levels. I have always said that +Tesla coils literally have to be hand built from the ground up. + + MC> Over on the radio amateur echo somebody was saying that this + MC> method is not the best for putting in + MC> ground rods as the soil does not make good contact with the + MC> rod as the water washes the soil away from the rod. + +Just a heavy soaking is not going to hurt. The practice that I +think was specifically being advised against was pressurizing +a pipe with water and then using the water flow to assist in +getting the pipe into the soil. + +Bruce N9EHA said: + + > the ARRL made mention..., that in many types of soils, most of + > what is left after using water pressure to make the hole, is + > stones. All of the conductive earth is washed away. + +But, a good soaking brings particulate dirt and clay in close +contact to the conductor. + +Then quoting Gary Coffman KE4ZV + + > Lightning is RF, though most of its energy falls below 2 MHz, + > so the skin effect must be considered. That's why solid strap + > is preferred over round wire. Strap has a larger surface area, + > pound for pound, than round copper wires. Copper pipe can also + > be used, but it's surface area will be half that of copper + > strap with a width equal to the pipe circumfrence. + +This is why I used 15 foot long by 3 inch wide copper strap for +the center of my new ground. Again quoting Gary Coffman: + + > Woven braid conductors should be avoided for grounding runs + > because braid has about 5 times the impedance of smooth solid + > strap on a pound for pound of copper basis. There are a couple + > of reasons for this. First, the braid strands weave in and + > out, adding inductance, and second, because the skin effect + > tries to force currents to the surface, while the individual + > strands keep diving into the middle of the bundle, the + > currents try to flow from strand to strand along the outside + > of the braid. Since the mechanical connections of one strand + > to another are fairly loose, a high resistance path is formed. + +This is a pretty good argument for using wide smooth strap in the +ground path. I have known for some time that strap performs +significantly better than round wire, and have said that the +widest possible strap is better than the skinny stuff (this is +easily experimentally verified). + +One other thing that I thought someone might mention, but +considering the different applications that grounding is used for +perhaps not; the use of salt in RF grounding applications. Rock +salt or water softener salt can be buried around the ground +conductor. A depression in the surface of the ground is left and +the area is given a good soaking before firing. A section of PVC +pipe could be partially buried around the ground conductor, +filled with salt, and then soaked before firing. The other way is +to perforate the end of a grounding pipe before planting it and +then rig up a simple gravity pump with a saturated saline +solution. + +Salt plumes are fairly inexpensive and easy to build up in the +subsoil. They are non-toxic, with the exception perhaps of a tree +root passing directly through it. The presence of an established +salt plume will really increase the local conductivity. Watering +the ground before firing makes an excellent connection between +the ground conductor and the salt plume. + +Richard Quick +************************************************************************** + +Richard Quick on the salt pipe RF ground. + +This is one of the easiest, cheapest, and most effective RF grounding +techniques for Tesla coilers. This ground is not cost effective for use +24-7, but when used occasionally (daily for a few hours) for RF ground- +ing tank circuits and secondary coils you will get a lot of "bang for +the buck". This ground also improves over time. + +It is best to select a low spot or natural drainage area that is as +close as possible to the base of the Tesla coil. Try to get the inital +placement within 15 - 20 feet of the Tesla lab. You will need the +following materials: +---------------------------------------------------------------------------- +TWO, 8 FOOT COPPER CLAD STEEL GROUND RODS, (good) +OR +TWO, 8 FOOT LONG BY 3/4 INCH DIAM. HARD COPPER WATER PIPES (better) +or +ONE, 8 FOOT LONG BY TWO INCH DIAMETER GALVINIZED STEEL PIPE (best) +----------------------------------------------------------------------- +TWO HUNDRED POUNDS OF ROCK SALT OR WATER SOFTENER SALT +----------------------------------------------------------------------- +ONE HUNDRED POUNDS OF COARSE SAND AND A FEW BUCKETS OF GRAVEL +----------------------------------------------------------------------- +A FOUR FOOT LENGTH OF VERY LARGE DIAMETER PIPE (10 INCHES DIAM. MIN) +----------------------------------------------------------------------- +ONE ROLL OF FOUR INCH or SIX INCH WIDE ALUMINUM STRAP (gutter flashing) +----------------------------------------------------------------------- +ELECTRICAL OXIDE INHIBITOR +----------------------------------------------------------------------- +HOSE OR OTHER CLAMPS FOR THE ROD OR TUBE CONDUCTORS +----------------------------------------------------------------------- +DIGGING AND TRENCHING TOOLS +---------------------------------------------------------------------------- + +Start by digging a hole at least four feet deep that will accept the +large diameter pipe. It is advisable that a two foot or three foot +diameter pipe be used. PVC, corrugated culvert, concrete, iron, +really any type of pipe may be used depending on what is available. + +Once the hole is dug, case or line the hole with the pipe, then fill +with water. Do not allow too much of the casing pipe to remain above +ground level, a few inches is OK. Next, work (or drive) the rod (or +tube) conductor(s) into the earth at the bottom of the cased and water +filled hole. It is important that as much conductive rod or tube as +possible be in contact with the earth. Place the vertical conductors +near the edge of the cased hole. If two vertical conductors are used +then place them on opposite sides of the hole. + +Once the vertical conductors are in place, trench a path back to the +Tesla work area. Make the trench wide enough to accept the four inch +or six inch smooth alumium strap (gutter flashing). Make sure the +trench is below the sod level. + +Smear the top(s) of the vertical conductors with a light coat of +electrical oxide inhibitor. This compound is used to prevent +corrosion whenever electrical connections between disimilar metals +are made. Once smeared with inhibitor, wrap one end of the aluminum +strap around the vertical conductor and clamp into place with a hose +(or other) clamp. Verify the connection with a VOM. If two verticals +are used then use two separate lengths of aluminum strap. Place the +strap into the prepared trench back to the Tesla work area and back- +fill the area in. + +Next pour a few inches of gravel into the bottom of the cased ground +hole. Begin to backfill the cased hole by alternating shovels of salt +with half shovels of sand and gravel. Continue until the hole is filled. + +The ground is left dry when not in use. Before firing coils, fill the +ground hole with water. The water will dissolve the salt which then +migrates downward to form a conductive "plume" in the subsoil. The salt +will require periodic replenishment. Over time, and with continued use, +the salt plume will make contact with bedrock or the water table. + +The vertical conductors will corrode fairly quickly in the presence of +the moist salt. After a few years new vertical conductors should be +driven in and connected alongside the old ones. The alumium strap that +is used to make the run between the lab and the ground pipe will also +corrode and will need to be renewed after a few years. + +Improvements to this ground may be made by substituting copper strap +for aluminum strap in the construction. Copper will last longer and +will make a better connection to the verticals. As mentioned above +the best connection is braised. Another improvement can be made by +clamping a conductive mesh screening to the vertical conductor in +the cased ground hole. This will allow a greater surface area of +contact with the salt water. The best mesh is either copper, steel +or stainless steel harware cloth. Do not use aluminum screening. + +The purpose of the sand and gravel is to prevent caking of the salt +which will prevent water from passing through the ground hole. When +the salt is replenished it is a good idea to remove some of the sand +amd gravel or otherwise mix the sand and salt together. Dumping in +a large quantity of salt all at once without some inert filler will +cause a salt block to form that is difficult to break up or dissolve. + +The theory of operation is pretty simple. The casing pipe prevents +the salt from migrating sideways in the surface soil where grass, +bushes, and tree roots would be poisoned. The salt dissolves and +travels downwards into the moist subsoil, while at the same time +spreading out laterally. When the "plume" contacts the water table +a connection is made. If the soil is very dry and shallow the plume +will desend to the bedrock and will then expand laterally which forms +an underground plane. In either case the ground that is formed is +high quality, and is ideal for even very high powered Tesla coiling +without modifications. + +Richard Quick + +********************************************************************* diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/theory1.txt b/textfiles.com/science/theory1.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e61e7bb0 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/theory1.txt @@ -0,0 +1,461 @@ + WIRELESS TRANSMISSION OF POWER + Resonating Planet Earth + + by + + Toby Grotz + + Theoretical Electromagnetic Studies and Learning Association, Inc. + 522 West Third Street + Leadville, CO 80461 + (719) 486-0133 + + Abstract + + Many researchers have speculated on the meaning of the phrase "non + Hertzian waves" as used by Dr. Nikola Tesla. Dr. Tesla first began to + use this term in the mid 1890's in order to explain his proposed system + for the wireless transmission of electrical power. In fact, it was not + until the distinction between the method that Heinrich Hertz was using + and the system Dr. Tesla had designed, that Dr. Tesla was able to + receive the endorsement of the renowned physicist, Lord Kelvin.1 + To this day, however, there exists a confusion amongs researchers, + experimentalists, popular authors and laymen as to the meaning of non + Hertzian waves and the method Dr. Tesla was promoting for the wireless + transmission of power. In this paper, the terms pertinent to wireless + transmission of power will be explained and the methods being used by + present researchers in a recreation of the Tesla's 1899 Colorado + Springs experiments will be defined. + + Early Theories of Electromagnetic Propagation + + In pre-World War I physics, scientists postulated a number of + theories to explain the propagation of electromagnetic energy through + the ether. There were three popular theories present in the literature + of the late 1800's and early 1900's. They were: 1. Transmission + through or along the Earth, 2. Propagation as a result of terrestrial + resonances, 3. Coupling to the ionosphere using propagation through + electrified gases. + We shall concern our examination at this time to the latter two + theories as they were both used by Dr. Tesla at various times to + explain his system of wireless transmission of power. It should be + noted, however, that the first theory was supported by Fritz + Lowenstein, the first vice-president of the Institute of Radio + Engineers, a man who had the enviable experience of assisting Dr. Tesla + during the Colorado Springs experiments of 1899. Lowenstein presented + what came to be known as the "gliding wave" theory of electromagnetic + radiation and propagation during a lecture before the IRE in 1915. + (Fig. 1) + Dr. Tesla delivered lectures to the Franklin Institute at + Philadelphia, in February, 1983, and to the National Electric Light + Association in St. Louis, in March, 1983, concerning electromagnetic + wave propagation. The theory presented in those lectures proposed that + the Earth could be considered as a conducting sphere and that it could + support a large electrical charge. Dr. Tesla proposed to disturb the + charge distribution on the surface of the Earth and record the period + of the resulting oscillations as the charge returned to its state of + equilibrium. The problem of a single charged sphere had been analyzed + at that time by J.J. Thompson and A.G. Webster in a treatise entitled + "The Spherical Oscillator." This was the beginning of an examination + of what we may call the science of terrestrial resonances, culminating + in the 1950's and 60's with the engineering of VLF radio systems and + the research and discoveries of W.O. Schumann and J.R. Waite. + The second method of energy propagation proposed by Dr. Tesla was + that of the propagation of electrical energy through electrified gases. + Dr. Tesla experimented with the use of high frequency RF currents to + examine the properties of gases over a wide range of pressures. It was + determined by Dr. Tesla that air under a partial vacuum could conduct + high frequency electrical currents as well or better than copper wires. + If a transmitter could be elevated to a level where the air pressure + was on the order of 75 to 130 millimeters in pressure and an excitation + of megavolts was applied, it was theorized that; + "...the air will serve as a conductor for the current produced, and + the latter will be transmitted through the air with, it may be, even + less resistance than through an ordinary copper wire".2 (Fig. 2) + Resonating Planet Earth + Dr. James T. Corum and Kenneth L. Corum, in chapter two of their soon + to be published book, A Tesla Primer, point out a number of statements + made by Dr. Tesla which indicate that he was using resonator fields and + transmission line modes. + 1. When he speaks of tuning his apparatus until Hertzian radiations + have been eliminated, he is referring to using ELF vibrations: "...the + Hertzian effect has gradually been reduced through the lowering of + frequency."3 + 2. "...the energy received does not diminish with the square of the + distance, as it should, since the Hertzian radiation propagates in a + hemisphere."3 + 3. He apparently detected resonator or standing wave modes: "...my + discovery of the wonderful law governing the movement of electricity + through the globe...the projection of the wavelengths (measured along + the surface) on the earth's diameter or axis of symmetry...are all + equal."3 + 4. "We are living on a conducting globe surrounded by a thin layer of + insulating air, above which is a rarefied and conducting + atmosphere...The Hertz waves represent energy which is radiated and + unrecoverable. The current energy, on the other hand, is preserved and + can be recovered, theoretically at least, in its entirety."4 + As Dr. Corum points out, "The last sentence seems to indicate that + Tesla's Colorado Springs experiments could be properly interpreted as + characteristic of a wave-guide probe in a cavity resonator."5 This was + in fact what led Dr. Tesla to report a measurement which to this day is + not understood and has led many to erroneously assume that he was + dealing with faster than light velocities. + + The Controversial Measurement; + + It does not indicate faster than light velocity + The mathematical models and experimental data used by Schumann and + Waite to describe ELF transmission and propagation are complex and + beyond the scope of this paper. Dr. James F. Corum, Kenneth L. Corum + and Dr. A-Hamid Aidinejad have, however, in a series of papers + presented at the 1984 Tesla Centennial Symposium and the 1986 + International Tesla Symposium, applied the experimental values obtained + by Dr. Tesla during his Colorado Springs experiments to the models and + equations used by Schumann and Waite. The results of this exercise + have proved that the Earth and the surrounding atmosphere can be used + as a cavity resonator for the wireless transmission of electrical + power. (Fig. 3) + Dr. Tesla reported that .08484 seconds was the time that a pulse + emitted from his laboratory took to propagate to the opposite side of + the planet and to return. From this statement many have assumed that + his transmissions exceeded the speed of light and many esoteric and + fallacious theories and publications have been generated. As Corum and + Aidinejad point out, in their 1986 paper, "The Transient Propagation of + ELF Pulses in the Earth Ionosphere Cavity", this measurement represents + the coherence time of the Earth cavity resonator system. This is also + known to students of radar systems as a determination of the range + dependent parameter. The accompanying diagrams from Corum's and + Aidinejad's paper graphically illustrate the point. (Fig. 3 & Fig. 4) + We now turn to a description of the methods to be used to build, as + Dr. Tesla did in 1899, a cavity resonator for the wireless transmission + of electrical power. + + PROJECT TESLA: + + The Wireless Transmission of Electrical Energy Using Schumann Resonance + It has been proven that electrical energy can be propagated around + the world between the surface of the Earth and the ionosphere at + extreme low frequencies in what is known as the Schumann Cavity. The + Schumann cavity surrounds the Earth between ground level and extends + upward to a maximum 80 kilometers. Experiments to date have shown that + electromagnetic waves of extreme low frequencies in the range of 8 Hz, + the fundamental Schumann Resonance frequency, propagate with little + attenuation around the planet within the Schumann Cavity. + Knowing that a resonant cavity can be excited and that power can be + delivered to that cavity similar to the methods used in microwave ovens + for home use, it should be possible to resonate and deliver power via + the Schumann Cavity to any point on Earth. This will result in + practical wireless transmission of electrical power. + + Background + + Although it was not until 1954-1959 when experimental measurements + were made of the frequency that is propagated in the resonant cavity + surrounding the Earth, recent analysis shows that it was Nikola Tesla + who, in 1899, first noticed the existence of stationary waves in the + Schumann cavity. Tesla's experimental measurements of the wave length + and frequency involved closely match Schumann's theoretical + calculations. Some of these observations were made in 1899 while Tesla + was monitoring the electromagnetic radiations due to lightning + discharges in a thunderstorm which passed over his Colorado Springs + laboratory and then moved more than 200 miles eastward across the + plains. In his Colorado Springs Notes, Tesla noted that these + stationary waves "... can be produced with an oscillator," and added in + parenthesis, "This is of immense importance."6 The importance of his + observations is due to the support they lend to the prime objective of + the Colorado Springs laboratory. The intent of the experiments and the + laboratory Tesla had constructed was to prove that wireless + transmission of electrical power was possible. + Schumann Resonance is analogous to pushing a pendulum. The intent of + Project Tesla is to create pulses or electrical disturbances that would + travel in all directions around the Earth in the thin membrane of non + conductive air between the ground and the ionosphere. The pulses or + waves would follow the surface of the Earth in all directions expanding + outward to the maximum circumference of the Earth and contracting + inward until meeting at a point opposite to that of the transmitter. + This point is called the anti-pode. The traveling waves would be + reflected back from the anti-pode to the transmitter to be reinforced + and sent out again. At the time of his measurements Tesla was + experimenting with and + researching methods for "...power transmission and transmission of + intelligible messages to any point on the globe." Although Tesla was + not able to commercially market a system to transmit power around the + globe, modern scientific theory and mathematical calculations support + his contention that the wireless propagation of electrical power is + possible and a feasible alternative to the extensive and costly grid of + electrical transmission lines used today for electrical power + distribution. + + The Need for a Wireless System of Energy Transmission + + A great concern has been voiced in recent years over the extensive + use of energy, the limited supply of resources, and the pollution of + the environment from the use of present energy conversion systems. + Electrical power accounts for much of the energy consumed. Much of this + power is wasted during transmission from power plant generators to the + consumer. The resistance of the wire used in the electrical grid + distribution system causes a loss of 26-30% of the energy generated. + This loss implies that our present system of electrical distribution is + only 70-74% efficient. + A system of power distribution with little or no loss would conserve + energy. It would reduce pollution and expenses resulting from the need + to generate power to overcome and compensate for losses in the present + grid system. + The proposed project would demonstrate a method of energy + distribution calculated to be 90-94% efficient. An electrical + distribution system, based on this method would eliminate the need for + an inefficient, costly, and capital intensive grid of cables, towers, + and substations. The system would reduce the cost of electrical energy + used by the consumer and rid the landscape of wires, cables, and + transmission towers. + There are areas of the world where the need for electrical power + exists, yet there is no method for delivering power. Africa is in need + of power to run pumps to tap into the vast resources of water under the + Sahara Desert. Rural areas, such as those in China, require the + electrical power necessary to bring them into the 20th century and to + equal standing with western nations. + As first proposed by Buckminster Fuller, wireless transmission of + power would enable world wide distribution of off peak demand capacity. + This concept is based on the fact that some nations, especially the + United States, have the capacity to generate much more power than is + needed. This situation is accentuated at night. The greatest amount + of power used, the peak demand, is during the day. The extra power + available during the night could be sold to the side of the planet + where it is day time. Considering the huge capacity of power plants in + the United States, this system would provide a saleable product which + could do much to aid our balance of payments. + + MARKET ANALYSIS + + Of the 56 billion dollars spent for research by the the U.S + government in 1987, 64% was for military purposes, only 8% was spent on + energy related research. More efficient energy distribution systems + and sources are needed by both developed and under developed nations. + In regards to Project Tesla, the market for wireless power transmission + systems is enormous. It has the potential to become a multi-billion + dollar per year market. + + Market Size + + The increasing demand for electrical energy in industrial nations is + well documented. If we include the demand of third world nations, + pushed by their increasing rate of growth, we could expect an even + faster rise in the demand for electrical power in the near future. + In 1971, nine industrialized nations, (with 25 percent of the world's + population), used 690 million kilowatts, 76 percent of all power + generated. The rest of the world used only 218 million kilowatts. By + comparison, China generated only 17 million kilowatts and India + generated only 15 million kilowatts (less than two percent each).7 If + a conservative assumption was made that the three-quarters of the world + which is only using one-quarter of the current power production were to + eventually consume as much as the first quarter, then an additional 908 + million kilowatts will be needed. The demand for electrical power will + continue to increase with the industrialization of the world. + + Market Projections + + The Energy Information Agency (EIA), based in Washington, D.C., + reported the 1985 net generation of electric power to be 2,489 billion + kilowatt hours. At a conservative sale price of $.04 per kilowatt hour + that results in a yearly income of 100 billion dollars. The EIA also + reported that the 1985 capacity according to generator name plates to + be 656,118 million watts. This would result in a yearly output of + 5,740 billion kilowatt hours at 100% utilization. What this means is + that we use only about 40% of the power we can generate (an excess + capability of 3,251 billion kilowatt hours). + Allowing for down time and maintenance and the fact that the night time + off peak load is available, it is possible that half of the excess + power generation capability could be utilized. If 1,625 billion + kilowatt hours were sold yearly at $.06/kilowatt, income would total + 9.7 billion dollars. + + Project Tesla: Objectives + + The objectives of Project Tesla are divided into three areas of + investigation. + 1. Demonstration that the Schumann Cavity can be resonated with an + open air, vertical dipole antenna; 2. Measurement of power insertion + losses; 3. Measurement of power retrieval losses, locally and at a + distance. + + Methods + + A full size, 51 foot diameter, air core, radio frequency resonating + coil and a unique 130 foot tower, insulated 30 feet above ground, have + been constructed and are operational at an elevation of approximately + 11,000 feet. This system was originally built by Robert Golka in 1973 + 1974 and used until 1982 by the United States Air Force at Wendover AFB + in Wendover, Utah. The USAF used the coil for simulating natural + lightning for testing and hardening fighter aircraft. The system has a + capacity of over 600 kilowatts. The coil, which is the largest part + of the system, has already been built, tested, and is operational. + A location at a high altitude is initially advantageous for reducing + atmospheric losses which work against an efficient coupling to the + Schumann Cavity. The high frequency, high voltage output of the coil + will be half wave rectified using a uniquely designed single electrode + X-ray tube. The X-ray tube will be used to charge a 130 ft. tall, + vertical tower which will function to provide a vertical current + moment. The mast is topped by a metal sphere 30 inches in diameter. + X-rays emitted from the tube will ionize the atmosphere between the + Tesla coil and the tower. This will result in a low resistance path + causing all discharges to flow from the coil to the tower. A + circulating current of 1,000 amperes in the system will create an + ionization and corona causing a large virtual electrical capacitance in + the medium surrounding the sphere. The total charge around the tower + will be in the range of between 200-600 coulombs. Discharging the + tower 7-8 times per second through a fixed or rotary spark gap will + create electrical disturbances, which will resonantly excite the + Schumann Cavity, and propagate around the entire Earth. + The propagated wave front will be reflected from the antipode back to + the transmitter site. The reflected wave will be reinforced and again + radiated when it returns to the transmitter. As a result, an + oscillation will be established and maintained in the Schumann Cavity. + The loss of power in the cavity has been estimated to be about 6% per + round trip. If the same amount of power is delivered to the cavity on + each cycle of oscillation of the transmitter, there will be a net + energy gain which will result in a net voltage, or amplitude increase. + This will result in reactive energy storage in the cavity. As long as + energy is delivered to the cavity, the process will continue until the + energy is removed by heating, lightning discharges, or as is proposed + by this project, loading by tuned circuits at distant locations for + power distribution. + The resonating cavity field will be detected by stations both in the + United States and overseas. These will be staffed by engineers and + scientists who have agreed to participate in the experiment. + Measurement of power insertion and retrieval losses will be made at + the transmitter site and at distant receiving locations. Equipment + constructed especially for measurement of low frequency electromagnetic + waves will be employed to measure the effectiveness of using the + Schumann Cavity as a means of electrical power distribution. The + detection equipment used by project personnel will consist of a pick up + coil and industry standard low noise, high gain operational amplifiers + and active band pass filters. + In addition to project detection there will be a record of the + experiment recorded by a network of monitoring stations that have been + set up specifically to monitor electromagnetic activity in the Schumann + Cavity. + + Evaluation Procedure + + + The project will be evaluated by an analysis of the data provided by + local and distant measurement stations. The output of the transmitter + will produce a 7-8 Hz sine wave as a result of the discharges from the + antenna. The recordings made by distant stations will be time + synchronized to ensure that the data received is a result of the + operation of the transmitter. + Power insertion and retrieval losses will be analyzed after the + measurements taken during the transmission are recorded. Attenuation, + field strength, and cavity Q will be calculated using the equations + presented in Dr. Corum's papers. These papers are noted in the + references. If recorded results indicate power can be efficiently + coupled into or transmitted in the Schumann Cavity, a second phase of + research involving power reception will be initiated. + + Environmental Considerations + + The extreme low frequencies (ELF), present in the environment have + several origins. The time varying magnetic fields produced as a result + of solar and lunar influences on ionospheric currents are on the order + of 30 nanoteslas. The largest time varying fields are those generated + by solar activity and thunderstorms. These magnetic fields reach a + maximum of 0.5 microteslas (uT) The magnetic fields produced as a + result of lightning discharges in the Schumann Cavity peak at 7, 14, 20 + and 26 Hz. The magnetic flux densities associated with these resonant + frequencies vary from 0.25 to 3.6 picoteslas. per root hertz + (pT/Hz1/2). + Exposure to man made sources of ELF can be up to 1 billion (1000 + million or 1 x 109) times stronger than that of naturally occurring + fields. Household appliances operated at 60 Hz can produce fields as + high as 2.5 mT. The field under a 765 kV, 60 Hz power line carrying 1 + amp per phase is 15 uT. ELF antennae systems that are used for + submarine communication produce fields of 20 uT. Video display + terminals produce fields of 2 uT, 1,000,000 times the strength of the + Schumann Resonance frequencies.9 + Project Tesla will use a 150 kw generator to excite the Schumann + cavity. Calculations predict that the field strength due to this + excitation at 7.8 Hz will be on the order of 46 picoteslas. + + Future Objectives + + The successful resonating of the Schumann Cavity and wireless + transmission of power on a small scale resulting in proof of principle + will require a second phase of engineering, the design of receiving + stations. On completion of the second phase, the third and fourth + phases of the project involving further tests and improvements and a + large scale demonstration project will be pursued to prove commercial + feasibility. Total cost from proof of principle to commercial + prototype is expected to total $3 million. Interest in participation + in this project may be directed to the author. + + REFERENCES + + The following four papers were presented at the 1984 Tesla Centennial + Symposium and the 1986 International Tesla Symposium. + "The Transient Propagation of ELF Pulses in the Earth-Ionosphere + Cavity", by A-Ahamid Aidinejad and James F. Corum. + "Disclosures Concerning the Operation of an ELF Oscillator", by James + F. Corum and Kenneth L. Corum. + "A Physical Interpretation of the Colorado Springs Data", by James F. + Corum and Kenneth L. Corum. + "Critical Speculations Concerning Tesla's Invention and Applications + of Single Electrode X-Ray Directed Discharges for Power Processing, + Terrestrial Resonances and Particle Beam Weapons" by James F. Corum and + Kenneth L. Corum. + + FOOTNOTES + + 1. Tesla Said, Compiled by John T. Ratzlaff, Tesla Book Company, + Millbrae, CA, 1984. + 2. Dr. Nikola Tesla: Selected Patent Wrappers, compiled by John T. + Ratzlaff, Tesla Book Company, 1980, Vol. I, Pg. 128. + 3. "The Disturbing Influence of Solar Radiation on the Wireless + Transmission of Energy", by Nikola Tesla, Electrical Review, July 6, + 1912, PP. 34, 35. + 4. "The Effect of Static on Wireless Transmission", by Nikola Tesla, + Electrical Experimenter, January 1919, PP. 627, 658. + 5. Tesla Primer and Handbook, Dr. James T. Corum and Kenneth L. Corum, + unpublished. Corum and Associates, 8551 ST Rt 534, Windsor, Ohio 44099 + 6. Colorado Springs Notes, 1899 - 1900, Nikola Tesla, Nikola Tesla + Museum, Beograd, Yugoslavia, 1978, Pg. 62. + 7. Van Nostrands Scientific Encylopedia, Fith Edition, Pg. 899. + 8. "PC Monitors Lightning Worldwide", Davis D. Sentman, Computers in + Science, Premiere Issue, 1987. + 9. "Artificially Stimulated Resonance of the Earth's Schumann Cavity + Waveguide", Toby Grotz, Proceedings of the Third International New + Energy Technology Symposium/Exhibition, June 25th-28th, 1988, Hull, + Quebec, Planetary Association for Clean Energy, 191 Promenade du + Portage/600, Hull, Quebec J8X 2K6 Canada + + FURTHER INFORMATION ABOUT TESLA + + The Tesla Memorial Society The Tesla Coil Builders Association + % Nicholas Kosanovich % Harry Goldman + 453 Martin Road RD #6 Box 181 + Lackawanna, NY 14218 Glenns Falls, NY 12801\ + (716) 822-0281 (518 792-1003 + + The Tesla Book Company High Voltage Press + PO Box 1649 PO Box 532 + Greenville, TX 75401 Claremont, CA 91711 + + ABOUT THE AUTHOR + + Mr. Grotz, is an electrical engineer and has 15 years experience in + the field of geophysics, aerospace and industrial research and design. + While working for the Geophysical Services Division of Texas + Instruments and at the University of Texas at Dallas, Mr. Grotz was + introduced to and worked with the geophysical concepts which are of + importance to the proposed project. As a Senior Engineer at Martin + Marietta, Mr. Grotz designed and supervised the construction of + industrial process control systems and designed and built devices and + equipment for use in research and development and for testing space + flight hardware. Mr. Grotz organized and chaired the 1984 Tesla + Centennial Symposium and the 1986 International Tesla Symposium and was + President of the International Tesla Society, a not for profit + corporation formed as a result the first symposium. As Project Manager + for Project Tesla, Mr. Grotz aided in the design and construction of a + recreation of the equipment Nikola Tesla used for wireless transmission + of power experiments in 1899 in Colorado Springs. Mr. Grotz received + his B.S.E.E. from the University of Connecticut in 1973. + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/theory2.txt b/textfiles.com/science/theory2.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..2ace4db3 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/theory2.txt @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ + TESLA COIL THEORY + + LINE VOLTAGE IS STEPPED UP BY THE HIGH-VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER TO A + MAGNITUDE SUFFICIENT TO CHARGE THE CAPACITOR AND FORCE THE SPARK GAP TO + BREAK DOWN. THIS ACTION IS REPEATED AT THE 60 HERTZ LINE FREQUENCY. + EFFICIENT ENERGY TRANSFER IS ENHANCED BY CHOOSING A CAPACITOR WHOSE + IMPEDANCE IS EQUAL TO THAT OF THE SECONDARY WINDING. + ESSENTIALLY, THE CAPACITOR AND TESLA COIL PRIMARY FORM ONE PAIR OF + TANK CIRCUTS: WHEN THE SPARK GAP ARCS, THE MOMENTARY SHORT CIRCUT + CREATED DUMPS THE CAPACITOR'S CHARGE INTO THE COIL'S PRIMARY. THE + RESULTING L-C CIRCUT RINGS AS THE CHARGE OSCILLATES BACK AND FORTH + BETWEEN THE CAPACITOR AND THE COIL. THE OSCILLATIONS DECREASE IN + AMPLITUDE AS THE CHARGE IS DISSIPATED BY RESISTANCE. THE RINGING + GENERATES WHAT IS REFFERRED TO AS A "DAMPED WAVE". THE NEXT HALF-CYCLE + OF 60-HZ RECHARGES THE CAPACITOR, STARTING THE PROCESS ANEW. A TRAIN OF + HI-FREQUENCY WAVES, SPACED AT 60-HZ INTERVALS, IS THE PRODUCT. + RESONANCE MUST BE ACHIEVED TO EFFECT RINGING: THIS DEMANDS THE + CAPACITOR AND PRIMARY HAVE THE SAME REACTANCE: + X(L) = X(C) THE CIRCUT RESISTANCE (CAPACITOR, COIL AND INTERMEDIATE + WIRING) LIMITS THE OVERALL EFFICIENCY OF THE TANK CIRCUT. EFFICIENCY IS + RATED IN TERMS OF "QUALITY FACTOR", REPRESENTED AS 'Q': + Q = W(L)/R = X(C)/R + + INCREASING RESISTANCE REDUCES Q, THEREBY REDUCING EFFICIENCY. THE + EFFECT IS MINIMIZED BY WINDING THE PRIMARY WITH A FEW TURNS OF HEAVY + CONDUCTOR, WELL-SPACED, OVER A LARGE RADIUS FORM - THE LARGER THE + BETTER. THE CAPACITOR SIZE AND CONSTRUCTION ALSO BEAR UPON Q: THE + PHYSICAL SIZE AND AREA SHOULD BE MINIMIZED. THIS, HOWEVER, WORKS + AGAINST LARGE CAPACITANCE VALUES AND DICTATES THE COIL BE WOUND WITH + MORE TURNS. THE GOAL, THEN, IS TO ACHIEVE A WORKABLE RANGE OF COMPONENT + SPECIFICATIONS RATHER THAN TO STRIVE FOR OVERLY CLOSE TOLERANCES. COILS + OFTEN ARE WOUND WITH TAPPED PRIMARIES TO FACILITATE FINE TUNING. + THE SECONDARY COIL IS SITUATED BOTH ELECTRICALLY AND PHYSICALLY WITHIN + THE PRIMARY. THE SECONDARY AND ITS DISCHARGE ELECTRODE, GENERALLY A + SPHERE OR TOROID, MAKE UP THE SECOND TUNED CIRCUT. THE WINDING SUPPLIES + INDUCTANCE; THE CAPACITOR IS CREATED BY THE ELECTRODE AND THE (EARTH) + GROUND-PLANE. AIR IS THE DIELECTRIC. MOST TESLA COILS EMPLOY + SECONDARIES OF 1/4-WAVELENGTH AT THEIR OPERATING FREQUENCIES. THIS + ESTABLISHES A CONFIGURATION WITH MAXIMUM CURRENT AT ZERO VOLTAGE WITH + MINIMUM CURRENT AT THE ELECTRODE. THIS SITUATION PROVES TO BE + BENEFICIAL, IN THAT IT ENHANCES COUPLING WITH THE HIGH CURRENT PRIMARY, + AVOIDS ARCHING BETWEEN THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY AND GENERATES THE + DESIRED HIGH VOLTAGE AT THE TOP END. + THE "OUDIN COIL IS A 1/2-WAVE VARIATION ON THE TESLA COIL. IT + POSSESSES THE ESSENTIAL TESLA COIL OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS, BUT IT + EMPLOYS A HORIZONTALLY PLACED SECONDARY WITH DISCHARGE ELECTRODES AT + BOTH ENDS AND A PRIMARY AT THE CENTER. THE OUDIN PRIMARY SOMETIMES IS + MERELY A PAIR OF TAPS ON THE SECONDARY (AN AUTOTRANSFORMER). THE 1/2- + WAVE ARRANGEMENT AFFORDS A COIL WITH MAXIMUM DISCHARGE AT EACH END AND + A VIRTUAL GROUND AT THE MIDPOINT OF THE WINDING(S). + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/trigfunc.txt b/textfiles.com/science/trigfunc.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..75f996f1 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/trigfunc.txt @@ -0,0 +1,170 @@ + + TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND EQUIVALENTS + (TRIGFUNC.TXT) + + This is a summary of numerous functions and their equivalents + necessary when working with the language limitations of BASIC + and others which do not include pre-programmed functions beyond + sine, cosine, tangent, arctangent and others. + + Many are uncommon and seldom encountered but nevertheless + valuable under specialized conditions. Indeed, some solutions + are rarely mentioned in most references. + + Implementations here are presented in typical BASIC format but + are readily translated to any other keeping in mind the + nuances of your working language. A final section sets forth + a few programming hints, and tips which help avoid run-time + errors. + +I - Common Functions +-------------------- + +Secant SEC(X) = 1 / COS(X) + +Cosecant CSC(X) = 1 / SIN(X) + +Cotangent COT(X) = 1 / TAN(X) + +Inverse Sine ARCSIN(X) = ATN(X / SQR(1-X*X)) + +Inverse Cosine ARCCOS(X) = - ATN(X / SQR(1-X*X)) + PI/2 + +Inverse Secant ARCSEC(X) = ATN(SQR(X*X-1)) + (SGN(X) -1) * PI/2 + +Inverse Cosecant ARCCSC(X) = ATN(1 / SQR(X*X-1)) + (SGN(X) -1) * PI/2 + +Inverse Cotangent ARCCOT(X) = PI/2 - ATN(X) | or | PI/2 + ATN(-X) + + +II - Hyperbolic Functions +------------------------- + +Sine SINH(X) = (EXP(X) - EXP(-X)) / 2 + +Cosine COSH(X) = (EXP(X) + EXP(-X)) / 2 + +Tangent TANH(X) = -2 * EXP(-X) / (EXP(X) + EXP(-X)) + 1 + +Secant SECH(X) = 2 / (EXP(X) + EXP(-X)) + +Cosecant CSCH(X) = 2 / (EXP(X) - EXP(-X)) + +Cotangent COTH(X) = 2 * EXP(-X) / (EXP(X) - EXP(-X)) + 1 + +Inverse Sine ARCSINH(X) = LOG(X + SQR(X*X+1)) + +Inverse Cosine ARCCOSH(X) = LOG(X + SQR(X*X-1)) + +Inverse Tangent ARCTANH(X) = LOG((1+X) / (1-X)) / 2 + +Inverse Secant ARCSECH(X) = LOG((1+SQR(1-X*X)) / X) + +Inverse Cosecant ARCCSCH(X) = LOG((SGN(X) * SQR(X*X+1) + 1) / X) + +Inverse Cotangent ARCCOTH(X) = LOG((X+1) / (X-1)) / 2 + + +III - Hints and Tips +-------------------- + +The comments related here apply specifically to QuickBasic v4.0 and +lower and MS GWBasic, unless otherwise mentioned. Other Basic +implementations may be better or worse in certain idiosyncrasies +which should be determined by users before placing total faith in any +suggested anomoly trapping. + +These fundamental needs should be acceptable in all cases: + + PI = 4 * ATN(1) + + J = PI / 180 + + J is a facilitiation constant for Degrees - Radians - Degrees + conversion, thusly: + + Variable (Xd) * J = Variable (Xr) ..... degrees to rads + Variable (Xr) / J = Variable (Xd) ..... rads to degrees + + +The question of single or double-precision use may be one of importance +to your application. With MS QB, final precision deteriorates significantly +when the above trig transformations are employed. In other words, don't expect +single precision (7-8 digits) when using s-p or 15-16 digits in d-p. + +Depending on vector position, the end result can be as poor as 1/2 the +expected accuracy. Also, if one wants highest accuracy, it is +essential that low digit numerics (eg: 0.815) be declared as d-p +(.815#) otherwise they will be treated as single precision even though +attached in a series to a variable which has been declared as d-p. + + CAUTIONS + -------- + +1. Entering arguments at or very near ñ1 can produce attempts to + divide by zero. Some form of trapping is essential to avoid program + stoppage. Appropriate filtering with bypasses, alternate paths + are suggested. + +2. In complex trigometric manipulations it is possible for the end + result to exceed ñ1. This may be due to binary quirks or + simply erroneous procedures. Some form of trapping is also + needed to avoid crashes when such are used as entering arguments. + +3. Similarly, trapping is required for 0 and -X values when entering + some functions using LOG. Also note that a few functions with SQR + have other invalid ranges for entering arguments. + + +IV - Acknowledgement + + Source material for Sections I and II from Texas Instruments, + TI Extended BASIC handbook for the TI-99/4, 1981. + + +-------------------- + +Prepared by Anthony W. Severdia : San Francisco, CA : FEB 1989 +This file is in Public Domain + +-------------------- + + For QUality and Excellence in bbs'ing, visit & join QU-AN-TO + + QUantitative ANalytic TOols + ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ + (415) 255-2981 ÄÄ 24 Hours ÄÄ 3/12/2400 Baud + Sysop - Dr. Ken Hunter San Francisco, CA USA + + û Mathematics û Statistics û Decision Support û Finance + û Sciences û Engineering û Programming Languages û More + + û Celestial Navigation Forum (W) Tony Severdia (Ass't Sysop) + + +--End + +Downloaded from Just Say Yes. 2 lines, More than 500 files online! + Full access on first call. 415-922-2008 CASFA + + + + + Another file downloaded from: + + ! + -$- & the Temple of the Screaming Electron + ! * Walnut Creek, CA + + /^ | + ! | |//^ _^_ 2400/1200/300 baud (415) 935-5845 + /^ / @ | /_-_ Jeff Hunter, Sysop + |@ _| @ @|- - -| + | | | /^ | _ | - - - - - - - - - * + |___/____|_|_|_(_)_| Aaaaaeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee! / + + Specializing in conversations, E-Mail, obscure information, + entertainment, the arts, politics, futurism, thoughtful discussion, + insane speculation, and wild rumours. An ALL-TEXT BBS. + + "Raw data for raw minds." + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/unifid_f.iel b/textfiles.com/science/unifid_f.iel new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3afbb381 Binary files /dev/null and b/textfiles.com/science/unifid_f.iel differ diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/venus.sur b/textfiles.com/science/venus.sur new file mode 100644 index 00000000..931c3637 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/venus.sur @@ -0,0 +1,792 @@ +From: news@fedfil.UUCP (news) +Newsgroups: talk.origins +Subject: Ginenthal on Venus' Surface Phenomena +Message-ID: <200@fedfil.UUCP> +Date: 12 Jan 93 05:30:44 GMT +Organization: HTE +Lines: 788 + + +The following is from Charles Ginenthal's article, "THE SURFACE OF +VENUS", AEON III/I, winter 92/93. Ginenthal appears to not be hung up +over copyrights, as some catastrophist authors have been, and if this +article (of mine) begins to look like large-scale plagiarism, you can +relax; Mr. G. himself told me it was cool. He, like myself, is +primarily concerned that this information simply gets out. I have +removed all footnotes from the following material... anybody that +serious can subscribe to AEON. Comments of mine will begin all the +way to the left. + + + "In 1950, Immanuel Velikovsky claimed that the testimony of + ancient peoples from all parts of the globe described + Venus as a giant, brilliant comet. Based on Velikovsky's + analysis of this data he drew the conclusion that Venus was + a newborn planet in the early cool-down stage of its + development. Therefore, if his understanding of the + evidence was correct then Venus' surface should exhibit + all the conditions of a world that was very recently molten + and is most likely still volcanic and geologically active. + +Thus we have Velikovsky on record with a correct prediction of what we +would actually find on Venus as early as 1950. Ginenthal notes that ten +years later, establishment science was still in the woods: + + + "In 1985, Dr. Lawrence Colin, Chief of the Space + Science Division at NASA's Ames Research Center and + coeditor of Venus, wrote: + + + 'Our knowledge of Venus was still seriously limited in the + early 1960s prior to mankind's first rendezvous by spacecraft. + In 1961 competing views of Venus could be classified in seven + broad categories: + + + + 1. moist, swampy, teeming with life. + 2. warm, enveloped by a global carbonic-acid ocean. + + 3. cool, Earth-like, with surface water and a dense ionosphere. + + 4. water, massive precipitating clouds of water droplets with + intense lightning. + + 5. cold, polar regions with ice caps 10 kilometers thick + and a hot equatorial region far above the boiling point + of water. + + 6. hot, dusty, dry, windy global desert. extremely hot + and cloudy, with molten lead and zinc puddles at the + equator, seas of bromine, butyric acid and phenols at the + poles. + + + + 'From this list it is not obvious that scientists were all + describing the same planet. For those who are impatient + about the outcome, speculation 6 appears to represent + most closely what we now think Venus is like. + +The source from Colin and others are cited as to the state of +establishment knowledge of Venus as of 1960/61. + + + "Nowhere was it ever suggested by establishment + scientists that Venus would be found to be a + volcanic cauldron covered by immense lava flows. In + fact, as recent as 1989, Isaac Asimov, the late + popular science writer, remarked: + + 'For years astronomers had believed that Venus was a + geologically dead place. Although quakes, volcanoes and + other activity surely wracked the planet at one time, + it seemed certain that Venus was quiet today. + +Due to the 5+ billion year age of the system no doubt. If earth in no +way resembles a solid sea of lava, there would be no reason to suspect +that an entirely similar sister planet the same age would. + + + "Therefore, if Velikovsky's analysis of the ancient + testimony is correct the observations by the Magellan + spacecraft should not only contradict the previous models + of the Venusian surface but should also show + overwhelming evidence of recent stupendous volcanism on a + surface that appears to be pristine. + + "One of the first indications of this excessive volcanism was + presented in May 1990 in the Journal of Geophysical Research which + analyzed the sulfur content of the Venusian clouds. + There Na Y. Chan et al. state: + + 'Results of recent International Ultraviolet Explorer + (IUE) observations of Venus made on January 20, 1987, + and April 2 and 3, 1988, along with a re-analysis of + the 1979 observations ... are presented. The observations + indicate that the amount of sulfur dioxide at the cloud + tops of Venus declined by a factor of 8 +- 4 from + 380 +- 70 ppb [parts per billion] to 50 +- 20 ppb in 1987 and + 1988. + + "One of the researchers of this phenomenon, Larry + Esposito from the University of Boulder Colorado, + elaborated on this decrease of S02 and SO two months later in + "Astronomy": + + 'Pioneer Venus has continued to monitor these + constituents above the clouds. Over the years a + remarkable discovery has emerged: both sulfur dioxide and + the haze have been gradually disappearing. By now + only about 10 percent of the 1978 amount remains. + This disappearance has also been confirmed by the + Earth-orbiting International Ultraviolet Explorer + between 1979 and 1987 and other Earth-based + observations. The haze and the sulfur dioxide are + now approaching their pre-1978 values. + + 'Analysis of recent Earth-based radio + observations by Paul Steffes and his colleagues show less + sulfur dioxide below the clouds than was measured by + Pioneer Venus and the Venera landers, which is also + consistent with the decrease of sulfur dioxide. Inclusive + Earth-based data show that a similar phenomenon may also have + occurred in the late 1950s. + + "The best explanation right now for the decrease is that + from time to time major volcanic eruptions inject sulfur + dioxide gas to high altitudes. The haze comes from + particles of sulfuric acid, which is created by the action of + sunlight on sulfur dioxide ... Being heavy the particles + gradually fall out of the upper atmosphere, letting + conditions up there return to normal between eruptions. + + "My calculations show that this eruption of the late 1970s was + at least as large as the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa. + The explosion, equal to a 500-megaton H-bomb, was + the most violent of the last century or so shooting + vast quantities of gas into the Earth's stratosphere. + +Ginenthal cites other authors claiming massive and very recent (last +hundred years or so) volcanic activity on Venus: + + + "David Morrison and Tobias Owen put the case even more strongly: + + "Observations over the past twenty years have indicated that + large fluctuations occur in the concentration of sulfur + dioxide (SO2) in the atmosphere of Venus above the + clouds. When these observations are combined with + indications of volcanic topography and lightning + discharges for possible volcanism, the case for erupting + volcanoes on Venus becomes rather strong. + + + + "This appears to be indirect evidence that at least twice + in the 1950s and 1970s there were major volcanic + eruptions on Venus' surface. There are, of course, + questions and objections related to this analysis; + nevertheless, the Magellan spacecraft may have already + observed explosive volcanism. In the December 1990 + issue of Scientific American appears a photograph made + by Magellan which appears to exhibit exploded material + from one of its craters. The caption accompanying the + picture states: + + 'Explosive volcanism may be responsible for the + radar-bright deposit that extends roughly 10 kilometers + from the kilometer-wide volcanic crater at the center of + the image. The etched pattern of the surrounding plains + becomes more obscure closer to the crater, which + indicates that the deposit is thickest near the crater. The + shape of the deposit suggests that local winds either + carried the plume southward or else gradually eroded + away the plume material except for that part located in the + volcano's wind shadow. + +Ginenthal is essentially saying that that major volcanic activity +(Krakatoa-like) appears to be a regular feature of Venus. He goes on +to compare lava-flow features of Venus with those of Jupiter's moon, IO, +for reasons which shall shortly become apparent. + + "As lo orbits around Jupiter it is constantly being distorted + in shape by its tidal interactions with the very massive + Jupiter and its three outer Galilean satellites. As lo + is distorted and flexed, like the action produced by + bending a spoon, enormous heat is generated producing + volcanism. therefore, lo is molten at a relatively low depth + of its surface and its thin crust is floating on an + ocean of molten magma. + + "Io is the most volcanic body in the solar system. According + to Billy Glass: + + 'The volcanic eruptions [on lo] appear to + be comparable in intensity to the greatest terrestrial + eruptions which are rare on the Earth ... lo appears to be + volcanically more active than the Earth. This has made + mapping lo difficult because the active regions undergo + radical changes in short periods of time. + +Ginenthal see in IO a body very roughly comparable with Venus, assuming +Velikovsky's version of Venus' recent history. + + + "Hence, if Venus was an incandescent body 3500 years + ago and then cooled to the point where it became + molten before it arrived at its present state, it should + exhibit a topography quite similar to that of lo. In + essence the volcanic forms observed on lo should + generally be representative of the surface features + seen on Venus. There should, of course be differences + between the bodies because Io's temperature is not + decreasing whereas we presume that Venus' temperature + is. Furthermore, there will be differences in the + materials each body contains which will also affect the + appearance of their surfaces. + + +Ginenthal points out that some of what we see on Io resembles features +of more familiar bodies such as Earth or Mars. However: + + "David Morrison describes Io's volcanic features as follows: + + 'Some of lo's volcanic features look a great deal like their + terrestrial counterparts: low shield-shaped constructs with + calderas at their peaks and flows of erupted materials + on their sides. However, most of lo's calderas are not at + the tops of mountains but instead appear to be scattered + amid the plains." + + +That is in fact a feature we would expect of either a totally new planet +or of some body which was for other reasons, as is the case with Io, +being kept in a nearly totally molten state. Ginenthal notes: + + + "Io exudes its magma in this manner + because it is tremendously hot internally and has an + extremely thin crust. Therefore if Velikovsky was right + that Venus was hot internally just below its thin + crust it too should pour forth its magma after the + fashion of Io. Observations + should show evidence that lava is either presently or + has very recently been exuded from circular vents on the + plains of the Venusian surface. In New Scientist we learn that + radar shows lava flows on Venus are indeed very much + like those on Io: + + 'The flat plains of Venus consist of lava + that has flowed from the planet comparatively recently, + according to latest radar results. And an appreciable amount of + the planet's heat may escape through these lava flows, rather + than through large volcanoes and rift valleys that + geologists have known for some years. + + In the plains the + researchers found dozens of small vents, which oozed + lava without forming volcanic cones. The researchers say, + "The large number and wide distribution of vents in the + lowlands strongly suggest that plains volcanism is an important + aspect of surface evolution and contributed to heat loss on + Venus". + + "Thus, there is a basic similarity that strongly + suggests that Venus is venting its internal heat through + plains volcanism. This implies that Venus, like lo, has a + thin crust and is extremely hot not far beneath that crust. + +This, then is the reality; Super Greenhouse is a fiction. +Ginenthal goes on to point out a number of interesting similarities +between craters on Io and on Venus... for one, that they are often +irregular and misshapen due to the movement of liquid material close +under them. + + "Thus an article in Discover + states, "Even Venus' meteorite craters are intriguing. Some + have strange and irregular shapes, in puzzling contrast + to the round outline typical of most impact craters in the solar + System." + +Extreme depth of cratering appears to be a common feature of Io and of +Venus. Other evidence of massive surface re-arrangement is presented. + + + "One of the most bizarre features yet identified on Venus is + a remarkably long and narrow channel that MageHan + scientists have nicknamed the river Styx. Although it is + only half a mile wide, Styx is 4,800 miles long. What + could have caused such a channel is unclear. Water, of + course, is out of the question. Flowing lava is a possibility + but it would have to have been extremely hot, thin and + fluid. + + "On Venus it is assumed that + any crater larger than 300 km would settle by + rheological flow in about one billion years. Sulfur is the + fluid suggested as being responsible for river structures + on Io. + + "However, the River Styx runs up as well as + downhill. What is clearly implied, if this feature is a + flow, is that the surface topography has shifted greatly since + the flow ceased. + + + +Ginenthal notes other oddities common to Venus and Io, but to nothing +else in our system. + + + "PANCAKE-SHAPED DOMES AND OTHER ANOMALIES + + "Among the strangest features found on Venus is a + series of pancake-shaped domes. This surprising discovery + was recounted in the New York Times as follows: + + 'At the news conference yesterday, Dr. R. Stephen Saunders, the + [MageHan] project's chief scientist, showed pictures of ... + pancake-shaped domes which he said were "features never + seen before" on any planet. In one region, seven domes + remarkably similar in size stretch out in a line remarkably + straight for nature ... They were presumably formed by + extreme viscous lava pouring out of volcanic vents. The + pattern "is telling us something about the eruption + mechanism, the viscosity and the eruption rate.' But that was as + far as geologists ventured in the interpretation. + + + + "The unusual shape of these features should have struck + a chord somewhere among the planetary geologists + because pancake-shaped domes have also been observed on + lo. Thus Carr et al., inform us: + + 'While most calderas [on Io] do not seem to be within sharply + defined edifices, a variety of positive relief features are + recognizable. Most are puzzling and difficult to relate + to terrestrial landforrns. Among the more comprehensible + because of their resemblance to low volcanic cones, are + two pancake-like constructions ... They are nearly circular, + and surrounded by low escarpments. Each has a bright-floored + small crater in the middle. + + +Another phenomenon which is inexplicable given the Sagan +Super-Greenhouse explaination for Venus' surface heat is hot spots. + + + "For some time now it has been known that certain areas on + lo are far hotter than the surrounding surface terrain. + Such areas are described as "hot spots." Here Morrison tells + us, "In lo's case nature has aided us by channeling much of + the heat flow into a few small areas resulting in + hot-spots with temperatures far higher than the ambient + background. Alfred McEwen et al., suggest that, + "Observations ... show that most of the hot spots [on lo] + have remained relatively stable in temperature, location and + total power output at least since the Voyager encounters + and possibly for the last decade. + + + "Hotspots have been associated with surface features on Venus + for a very long time; they were originally found by + Earth-bound radar and confirmed by Venera spacecraft. + James Head asks: + + + "The question with arguably the broadest implications is simply + how has Venus chosen to get rid of its internal heat + (emphasis in original) ... Does Venus cool itself by sending + magma directly from the interior to the surface? Then we would + expect to see widespread volcanic deposits and numerous + "hot spots," like those on Jupiter's satellite Io. + + "Thus the presence of hot-spots suggests that Venus-like Io-is + venting its heat via hot-spot volcanism. This, in turn, + suggests that Venus - similar to lo - is molten at a + shallow depth. One of the great enigmas of the + is the problem of + explaining the source of Venus' high surface temperature. + Based on this analysis it now seems highly probable that + the high surface temperature has little if anything to do + with a greenhouse effect. Velikovsky's conclusion that + Venus' surface heat is derived from its molten core + appears to be correct. + + + +THE AGE OF VENUS' SURFACE + + "In Worlds in Collision Velikovsky suggested that Venus' + age was to be measured in thousands of years rather + than billions. In a recent article in Science a leading + astronomer offered the following observation regarding the + age of Venus' surface: + + 'The planetary geologists who are studying the radar + images streaming back from Magellan find that they have + an enigma on their hands. When they read the geologic + clock that tells them how old the Venusian surface is they find + a planet on the brink of adolescence. But when + they look at the surface itself, they see a + newborn babe ... (emphasis added) Magellan scientists + have been struck by the newly minted appearances of the + craters formed ... Only one of the 75 craters identified on the + 5% of the planet mapped shows any of the typical signs of + aging, such as filling in with lava of volcanic + eruptions or being torn by the faulting of tectonic disruption. + But by geologists usual measure these fresh-looking craters + had plenty of time to fall prey to the ravages of + geologic change.36 + + + "Based on the assumption that Venus is an ancient body the + scientists estimate the surface of Venus to be on the order + of 100 million to I billion years old. In short, even though + they are confronted with a surface that is pristine scientists + nevertheless interpret the evidence according to the theory that + Venus is 4.5 billion years old. + + +I refer to this sort of phenomenon as "learning to skate away from the +railing", essentially, the quandry which every beginning ice-skater +faces. The astronomers haven't fotten this far yet, the multi-billion +year thing (a "Bushism") being their version of Linus' security blanket. + +Ginenthal goes on to note that, given the standard multi-billion year +age estimates for Venus, there should be lots and lots of dust, debris, +loose soil etc. lying around all over the place, the surface heat not +being great enough to melt and fuse everything altogether. There isn't. + +This is somewhat strange. The surface winds, despite being slow, would +bowl a man over due to the very thickness of the atmosphere. The +atmosphere itself is highly corrosive. The two should have caused lots +and lots of weathering. But there is no evidence of this. + + + "THE MISSING VENUSIAN REGOLITH + + "Geophysicists, in order to explain the physical nature of + the Venusian surface, offer the supposition that between + 100 million and a billion years ago the entire planet turned + itself inside out. If one were to accept this assumption + it would require that over that period of time + between the covering of the surface with lava flows and + the present, erosional forces would break down the + surface rock into detritus to form a regolith. + + + "Venus' atmosphere is known to contain hydrochloric and + hydrofluoric acid, both of which + are very corrosive. Paolo Maffei explains further that, + "the atmosphere of Venus also contains - although + in small amounts-hydrogen chloride and hydrogen + fluoride, which reacting with sulfuric acid [known to exist + in Venus' atmosphere] could form fluosulfuric acid, a + very strong acid capable of attacking and dissolving + almost all common materials including most rocks." + + + + "According to the scientists, Venus has been subjected to + this intense weathering of its surface for at least 100 + million years. Over this period of time the planet + shouict have developed a covering of weathered material. + Nevertheless, George McGill et al., inform us that: + + + + 'Radar and Venera lander observations imply that most of the + surface of Venus cannot be covered by unconsolidated + wind blown deposits; bulk densities on near surface + materials are not consistent with aeolian sediments ... Thus + present-day wind-blown sediments cannot form a continuous + layer over the entire planct. + +And from Bruce Murray (JOURNEY INTO SPACE): + + 'Russian close-ups of Venus were surprising. I had presumed + that its surface was buried under a uniform blanket of + soil and dust. Chemical weathering should be intense in + such a hot and acid environment,...Unknown processes + of topographic renewal evidently manage to outstrip + degradation and burial. + + + "In order to explain the lack of a Venusian regolith the + scientists imagine a process that has no scientific basis + for its action to reconsolidate the detritus on Venus. + Nevertheless, let us assume that Venus' erosion rate is + extremely weak and that it is not tumed back into rock at the + surface by unknown processes. What do we find? If we + allow a tiny erosion rate of one millimeter per hundred + years, then in 100 thousand years we produce one meter + of loose material on the surface of Venus, which is equal to + about 40 inches. However, in 100 million years we + generate a kilometer of detritus, which is over 3000 feet of + this loose material. Under no known condition can this much + matter at the surface be turned to solid rock..." + + "What we find at the surface of Venus is the detritus of an erosion + rate that is only a few thousand years old. Only by ignoring this + clear evidence can the astronomers support the view that Venus' + surface reflects events tracing to processes occurring between + 100 million and one billion years ago. + + +Ginenthal mentions the curious anomoly of the pristine condition of Venus' +craters: + + "Although Magellan has cast doubt upon most of the scientific + establishment's predictions regarding the nature of Venus' + surface, a belief in a 4.5 billion year old age of the planet + Venus is still enshrined as dogma. In accordance with this + theory, it is believed by the space scientists that the degradation + of craters on Venus' surface must have occurred over hundreds + of millions of years. + + As the situation on lo proves, + however, degradation does not require long time periods. + Io's craters decay over extraordinarily short time periods + measured in weeks or months. On Venus this period might + take years. Based on the indications (cited above) that + both Venus and Io are molten at shallow depth and are highly + volcanic, Venus' craters would by no stretch of the imagination + require millions of years to degrade. How then do scientists + explain the fact that, Venus' craters look so pristine? + Here Kerr observes: + + 'MageUan scientists strove to explain the paradox of young + looking craters on a relatively old surface. They raised + the possibility that several hundred million years ago, + a planet-wide outpouring wiped the slate clean, drowning any + existing craters in a flood of lava. Then the flood would + have had to turn off fairly abruptly so the craters formed by + subsequent impacts would remain pristine. + + + "No doubt there will be other, equally imaginative, scenarios + advanced in order to explain away this dilemma of so few + craters showing signs of decay. To retum to Kerr: + + 'But surface remodeling is going on after afl, Magellan scientists + told a large crowd at the AGU [American Geological + Union] meeting. More recent images show the ravages + of time, but in a fashion that leavesfew aged craters." + + +That's like saying that your 90-year-old grandma shows her age, but in a +manner which draws wolf-whistles in a bikini. Not too likely, is it? + +Another problem with the standard view is the vast areas of Venus' +surface which show no signs of cratering at all. + + "This is not the only problem, however. Again we cite Kerr: + + 'The expanded view reveals four nearly continent-sized + areas, ranging from a few million to 5 million square + kilometers, that have no impact craters at all. According + to Magellan team member Roger Phillips of Southem Methodist + University in Dallas, the absence of impact craters- + despite a steady rain of asteroids and comets + onto the Venusian surface-means that in the recent geologic + past the craters were wiped out either by lava + flooding across these areas or by tectonic faulting, + stretching and compression. + + The volcanic activity required to resurface the crater- + free regions would be impressive by any standards, + Phillips says. For example, it took at least a million + cubic kilometers of lava over a few million years + to produce the 66-million-year-old Deccan Traps of + India... But the lava-covered areas already uncovered + on a small part of Venus by Magellan must have all + formed within the past few tens of millions of + years to have escaped being marked by impact craters. + + "So Magellan scientists are still left with an enigma. What + is clearly implied by the radar and photographic evidence + is that immense outpourings of lava have occurred over + huge areas of Venus' surface, covering over everything including + craters. The scientists still cannot explain why there + are so few craters that are degraded or flooded or why + Venus suddenly poured out its lava in oceanic amounts. But + all of this is clearly what one would expect to find + from the theory that Velikovsky advanced in Worlds in + Collision whereby Venus was only recently + subjected to tremendous stresses and participated in numerous + clashes with other planets. + + +Ginenthal cites further evidence, as if any were needed from one of the +favorite realms of several of the t.o regular crew, i.e. Chemistry. +Given standard theory, you'd not expect a lot of iron compounds lying +around on Venus' surface: + + + "As a newbom planet, Venus would not have fully differentiated + so it remains possible that all its iron has yet to sink + to its core. Accordingly, it was reported in Astronomy that: + + Maxwell Montes ... poses a big problem in interpretation. + Parts have electrical properties that indicate the surface + contains "flakes" of -some unknown mineral, most likcly iron + sulfides, iron oxides, or magnetite. Iron sulfides ("fool' + s gold") fit the observations best, but studies havc shown + that they would be quickly destroyed by the corrosive + Venusian atmosphere. Iron oxides (such as hematite) + and magnetite are also possible, but the a + presence of either is not easy to account for. + + "If indeed iron is to be found upon the surface of Venus + it would support the claim that it is a youthful planet + in the early stages of cooling. A planet that had differentiated + its iron into its central core would not be expected + to pour iron onto the surface with volcanic materials. + The reason that the iron compounds have not + completely corroded in Venus' corrosive atmosphere, + most probably, is that these outpourings of iron + are extremely recent surface coverings measured in + perhaps a few years. Iron on Venus' surface is + clear evidence that supports Velikovsky. + + +Thre is further evidence involving Argon and involving oxygen: + + + "Ultraviolet radiation photodissociates C02, S02 and H20; + over millions of years oxygen should have become + plentiful in Venus' atmosphere, but it remains a minute + constituent. Venus' water vapor cannot have escaped in + less than 20 billion years. Where then is Venus' + water? To argue Venus had no water but retains other + volatiles is a basic contradiction.... + + +This lack of water vapor becomes critical for proponents of the +so-called theory, the standard theory of +establishment astronomy for explaining the great surface heat of Venus. +As I've noted before, the CO2 atmosphere certainly acts as a blanket in +keeping heat close to the surface far longer than it might otherwise +stay there left to its own devices. This isn't what astronomers are +claiming, however. + +They ARE claiming that ALL of the huge surface energy of Venus is CAUSED +by the tiny to non-existent modicum of solar energy which finally gets +to the surface through all that CO2 via uv radiation and then cannot +escape as re-radiated ir radiation. + + + "For years the scientific community has maintained that the + great heat of Venus is derived from an atmospheric + geenhouse effect. Gary Hunt and Patrick Moore outline + the ingredients necessary to generate a large and powerful + geenhouse on Venus: + + 'C02 is responsible for about 55% of the + trapped heat. A further 25% is due to the presence of water + vapor, while S02 which constitutes only 0.02% [2/100 of a per + cent] of the atmosphere, traps 5% of remaining infrared + radiation. The remaining 15% of the greenhouse is due to the + clouds and hazes which surround the planet. + + +The problem becomes, WHAT WATER? + + "While carbon dioxide is certainly present on Venus, it can account + for only 55% of the greenhouse effect. As Barrie Jones + explains, other factors are also necessary to make the + greenhouse work: + + + "Efficient trapping [of heat] cannot be produced by C02 alone, + in spite of the enormous mass Of C02 in the atmosphere. + This is because C02 is fairly transparent over certain + wavelength ranges to planetary wavelengths. Radiation + could escape through these "windows" in sufficient + quantities to greatly reduce the greenhouse effect below + that which exists. It is by blocking of these windows by + S02, by H20 and by the clouds that greatly increases + the greenhouse effect. + + + "In short, it is crucial to the runaway greenhouse effect that + there be sufficient water, sulfur dioxide, and haze to + maintain the heat holding capacity of the planet. + Respecting water, especially in the lower atmosphere, the + scientists have been looking for this vapor for a very + long time. As late as September 1991, water vapor has + not been found in anything like that amount needed to + support the contention that the greenhouse is a + foregone conclusion. According to R. Cowan: + + + 'A research team has focused on the greenhouse puzzle ... + The absence of water vapor above Venus' cloud banks + mystifies scientists because models of the planet's + strong greenhouse effect suggest that [water] vapor plays a + key role in maintaining the warming. Researchers have + now looked for water below the cloud bank and + down to the surface-and their search has come up dry... + + + 'Evidence of a dry Venus may force researchers to + consider whether other chemicals could create and + sustain the planet's greenhouse effect, says David Crisp + of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ... who coauthored the new + report. + + + + "Now when a vapor responsible for 25% of the efficiency + of the greenhouse-effect has been sought in vain for some + 20 years it implies that a major problem exists with + the model in question. Furthermore, in our earlier + discussion of the S02 and haze in the Venusian + atmosphere we have shown that measurements indicate + that these materials are transient products and do + not sustain themselves for long periods of time. With + this additional undermining of the greenhouse effect the + process becomes more and more difficult to imagine. + + + + "One of the major theoretical supports of the greenhouse model + is the belief that Venus is in thermal balance. Over + and over we are told that measurements of the cloud + tops for infrared emissions show conclusively that the + amount of sunlight incident on the planet is equal to + the infrared radiation emitted by Venus. However, this + must also be supported by in situ measurements + throughout the atmosphere: + + + + "Radiative balance occurs [on a planet] at every level + when the amount of downward- directed solar radiation that + is absorbed is equal to the amount of infrared radiation that + is emitted upward. When local temperatures + satisfy this balance the atmospheric temperature is + maintained. (emphasis added)50 Not only must there be + thermal balance at one level of the atmosphere, this + thermal balance must exist at all levels throughout the + atmosphere to confirm thermal balance. + +As I have noted a number of times, a LACK of balance is indicated by +actual data at every level. + + + "That this is not the case upon Venus has been known for some time. + As long ago as 1980 Richard Kerr reported in Science that: + + 'When Pioneer Venus probes looked at the + temperature, each one found more energy being radiated up + from the lower atmosphere than enters it as sunlight ... + To further complicate the situation, the size of the + apparent upward flow of energy varies from place to place + by a factor of 2 which was a disturbing discovery. + +Again, a number of probes of different types and manufacture all said +the same thing; they are not all likely to be in similar error. + +Ginenthal concludes: + + "A fair reading of history will show that conventional astronomers + have a very poor record when it comes to predicting the surface + conditions of Venus. Such is not the case with regards to the + thesis outlines by Immanuel Velikovsky in 1950. As this essay has + sought to show, the evidence from Venus is fully consistent with the + thesis of its anomalous origin and tumultuous recent history as set + forth in WORLDS IN COLLISION. Indeed, it is this author's sincere + hope that the day will come when members of the scientific community + will find the courage and integrity to call for a full and proper + investigation of Velikovsky's hypothesis." + + +-- +Ted Holden +HTE + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/vgrjup.fs b/textfiles.com/science/vgrjup.fs new file mode 100644 index 00000000..dba272cb --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/vgrjup.fs @@ -0,0 +1,204 @@ +FACT SHEET: VOYAGER JUPITER SCIENCE SUMMARY + + NASA launched the two Voyager spacecraft to Jupiter, +Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune in the late summer of 1977. Voyager +1's closest approach to Jupiter occurred March 5, 1979. Voyager +2's closest approach was July 9, 1979. + Photography of Jupiter began in January 1979, when +images of the brightly banded planet already exceeded the best +taken from Earth. Voyager 1 completed its Jupiter encounter in +early April, after taking almost 19,000 pictures and many other +scientific measurements. Voyager 2 picked up the baton in late +April and its encounter continued into August. They took more +than 33,000 pictures of Jupiter and its five major satellites. + Although astronomers had studied Jupiter from Earth for +several centuries, scientists were surprised by many of Voyager 1 +and 2's findings. They now understand that important physical, +geological, and atmospheric processes go on - in the planet, its +satellites, and magnetosphere - that were new to observers. + Discovery of active volcanism on the satellite Io was +probably the greatest surprise. It was the first time active +volcanoes had been seen on another body in the solar system. It +appears that activity on Io affects the entire Jovian system. Io +appears to be the primary source of matter that pervades the +Jovian magnetosphere -- the region of space that surrounds the +planet, primarily influenced by the planet's strong magnetic +field. Sulfur, oxygen, and sodium, apparently erupted by Io'svolcanoes and sputtered off the surface by impact of high-energy +particles, were detected at the outer edge of the magnetosphere. + Particles of the same material are present inside Io's +orbit, where they accelerate to more than 10 percent of the speed +of light. It is clear to scientists from a comparison of data +from Pioneers 10 and 11 (which flew past Jupiter in late 1973 and +1974) and the Voyagers that something changed in the four and +one-half years between the Pioneer and Voyager encounters. + It is not entirely clear just how far-reaching those +changes are, or what brought them about. They may be related to +Ionian activity. It is difficult to imagine, however, that at +least some of Io's volcanoes were not erupting when the Pioneers +flew past; it is also, the Voyager scientists say, difficult to +believe the Pioneers' instruments failed to see magnetospheric +concentrations of sulfur detected by both Voyager spacecraft +(Voyager 1 saw greater concentrations than Voyager 2). + Here is a summary of the more important science results +from the Voyager encounters with Jupiter: +JUPITER'S ATMOSPHERE + Atmospheric features of broadly different sizes appear +to move with uniform velocities. That suggests that mass motion +(movement of material) and not wave motion (movement of energy +through a relatively stationary mass) was being observed. + Rapid brightening of features in the atmosphere was +followed by spreading of cloud material. That is probably the +result of disturbances that trigger convective (upwelling and + +downwelling) activity. + A pattern of east-to-west winds extends as far poleward +as 60 degrees north and south, roughly similar to the pattern +seen in more temperate areas where belts and zones are visible. +Previous investigations led scientists to believe the near-polar +regions (above 45 degrees latitude) are dominated by convective +upwelling and downwelling. Voyager showed they apparently are +not, at least up to 60 degrees latitude, and probably to 75. + Material associated with the Great Red Spot, Jupiter's +most prominent atmospheric feature, moves in a counter-clockwise +(anticyclonic) direction. At the outer edge, material appears to +rotate in four to six days; near the center, motions are small +and nearly random in direction. + Small spots appear to interact with the Great Red Spot +and with each other. + Voyager instruments observed auroral emissions, similar +to Earth's northern lights, in the polar regions, in ultraviolet +and visible light. Pioneer 10 and 11 didn't see the ultraviolet +emissions during their encounters. The auroral emissions appear +to be related to material from Io that spirals along magnetic +field lines to fall into Jupiter's atmosphere. + Voyager also saw cloud-top lightning bolts, similar to +superbolts in Earth's high atmosphere. + Atmospheric temperature at 5 to 10 millibars (1/200th +to 1/100th Earth's surface atmospheric pressure) is about 160 +Kelvins (-170 degrees Fahrenheit). An inversion layer -- a warmregion above a cold layer, similar to the phenomenon that traps +smog in the Los Angeles Basin -- exists near the 150-millibar +level. (Pressure at Earth's surface is about 1,000 millibars.) + The Voyagers observed ionospheric temperatures that +changed with altitude, reaching about 1,100 Kelvins (1,500 +degrees Fahrenheit). That was also not observed by Pioneers 10 +and 11, and Voyager scientists believe they are witnessing large +temporal or spatial changes in the ionosphere of Jupiter. + The Voyagers measured helium in the upper atmosphere; +its percentage compared to hydrogen is important to understand +composition and history of the atmosphere -- and the primordial +cloud of which the Sun and planets formed. Relative abundance of +helium to hydrogen is about 11 percent by volume. +SATELLITES AND RING + Voyager 1 identified nine currently active (erupting) +volcanoes on Io, probably driven by tidal heating. Many more are +suspected. Voyager 2 observed eight of the nine; the largest +shut down by the time Voyager 2 arrived at Jupiter. Plumes from +the volcanoes reach more than 300 kilometers (190 miles) above +the surface. The material was being ejected at velocities up to +1.05 kilometers a second (2,300 miles an hour). By comparison, +ejection velocities at Mount Etna, one of Earth's most explosive +volcanoes, hit 50 meters a second (112 miles an hour). Volcanism +is associated with heating of Io by tidal pumping. Europa and +Ganymede, two large satellites nearby, perturb Io in its orbit +and Jupiter pulls Io back again. The pumping action causes tidal + +bulging up to 100 meters (330 feet) on Io's surface, compared +with typical tidal bulges on Earth of one meter (three feet). + Voyager 1 measured the temperature of a large hot spot +on Io associated with a volcanic feature. While the surrounding +terrain has a temperature of about 130 Kelvins (-230 degrees +Fahrenheit), the hot spot's temperature is about 290 Kelvins (60 +degrees Fahrenheit). Scientists believe the hot spot may be a +lava lake, although the temperature indicates the surface is not +molten; it is, at least, reminiscent of lava lakes on Earth. + Europa displayed a large number of intersecting linear +features in the distant, low-resolution photos from Voyager 1. +Scientists at first believed the features might be deep cracks, +caused by crustal rifting or tectonic processes. Closer, high- +resolution photos by Voyager 2, however, left scientists puzzled: +The features were so lacking in topographic relief that they +"might have been painted on with a felt marker," one scientist +commented. There is a possibility that Europa may be internally +active due to tidal heating at a level one-tenth or less that of +Io. Models of Europa's interior show that beneath a thin crust +(5 kilometers or 3 miles) of water ice, Europa may have oceans as +deep as 50 kilometers (30 miles) or more. + Ganymede turned out to be the largest satellite in the +solar system. Before the Voyager encounters, astronomers thought +that Saturn's satellite, Titan, was the largest. Ground-based +observations of Titan, of necessity, had included its substantial +atmosphere. Voyager measurements of Ganymede showed it is largerthan Titan. Ganymede had two distinct terrain types --- cratered +and grooved, telling scientists that Ganymede's entire, ice-rich +crust has been under tension from global tectonic processes. + Callisto has an ancient, heavily cratered crust, with +remnant rings of enormous impact basins. The largest craters +apparently were erased when the ice-laden crust flowed during +geologic time; almost no topographic relief is apparent in ghost +remnants of the impact basins, identifiable only by their light +color and surrounding subdued rings of concentric ridges. + Amalthea is elliptical: 270 kilometers (170 miles) by +165 kilometers (105 miles) by 150 kilometers (95 miles). It is +about 10 times larger than Mars' larger satellite, Phobos, and +has 1,000 times the volume. + Voyager discovered a ring around Jupiter. Its outer +edge is 129,000 kilometers (80,000 miles) from the center of the +planet, and, though the brightest portion is only about 6,000 +kilometers (4,000 miles) wide, ring material may extend another +50,000 kilometers (30,000 miles) downward to the top of Jupiter's +atmosphere. Evidence also suggests that diffuse ring material +extends as far out as the orbit of Amalthea. The ring is no more +than 30 kilometers (20 miles) thick. Thus Jupiter joins Saturn, +Uranus, and Neptune as a ringed planet -- although each ring +system is unique and distinct from the others. + Two new satellites, Adrastea and Metis, only about 40 +kilometers (25 miles) in diameter, orbit just outside the ring. +A third new satellite, Thebe, diameter about 80 kilometers (50 + +miles), was discovered between the orbits of Amalthea and Io. +MAGNETOSPHERE + An electric current of 5 million amperes was detected +in the flux tube that flows between Jupiter and Io, five times +stronger than predicted. Voyager did not fly through the flux +tube, as planned, since the stronger current had twisted the tube +7,000 kilometers (4,300 miles) from the predicted location. + The Voyagers saw ultraviolet emissions from doubly and +triply ionized sulfur and doubly ionized oxygen. Pioneers 10 and +11 did not detect them, so hot plasma evidently was not present +in 1973 and 74. The sulfur comes from Io's volcanoes. + Plasma-electron densities in some regions of the Io +torus (an inner-tube-shaped ring of matter in the region of Io's +orbit) exceeded 4,500 per cubic centimeter. + A cold plasma, rotating with Jupiter, lies inside six +Jupiter radii (430,000 kilometers or 270,000 miles) from the +planet. Ions of sulfur, oxygen, and sulfur dioxide were found. + High-energy trapped particles were also detected near +Jupiter, with enhanced abundances of oxygen, sodium, and sulfur. + Kilometric radio emissions were coming from Jupiter. +The emissions, in the frequency range from 10 kilohertz to 1 +megahertz, may result from plasma oscillations in the Io torus. + Plasma flows in the dayside outer magnetosphere; the +plasma rotates with the planet every 10 hours. + Voyager 1 saw evidence of a transition from closed +magnetic field lines to a magnetotail on the antisolar side ofJupiter. Although such a magnetotail was never in serious doubt, +its existence had not been confirmed before. + Voyager 2 observations during its Jupiter-to-Saturn +cruise showed the magnetotail extends at least to the orbit of +Saturn, 650 million kilometers (400 million miles) away. + Scientists interpreted whistler emissions as lightning +whistlers in the atmosphere. Lightning was suspected, and it has +been proven, from the emissions and detection of bolts; lightning +is a major energy source for many activities on Jupiter. + Voyager also measured radio spectral arcs (from about 1 +megahertz to more than 30 megahertz) in patterns that correlate +with Jovian longitude. + Both Voyagers continued on to encounters with Saturn. +Voyager 1 is bound out of the solar system. Voyager 2 completed +encounters with Uranus (in January 1986) and Neptune (in August +1989). It is now also leaving the solar system. + The next mission to Jupiter will be Galileo, launched +in 1989. Galileo, an orbiter and an atmospheric probe, will +continue the exploration of Jupiter begun by the Pioneers and +continued by the Voyagers. Both the missions are managed for +NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. + ##### +5/7/90DB diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/vgrnep.fs b/textfiles.com/science/vgrnep.fs new file mode 100644 index 00000000..725aa4e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/vgrnep.fs @@ -0,0 +1,436 @@ +VOYAGER NEPTUNE SCIENCE SUMMARY + + + In the summer of 1989, NASA's Voyager 2 became the +first spacecraft to observe the planet Neptune, its final +planetary target. Passing about 4,950 kilometers (3,000 miles) +above Neptune's north pole, Voyager 2 made its closest approach +to any planet since leaving Earth 12 years ago. Five hours +later, Voyager 2 passed about 40,000 kilometers (25,000 miles) +from Neptune's largest moon, Triton, the last solid body the +spacecraft will have an opportunity to study. + Neptune is one of the class of planets -- all of them +beyond the asteroid belt -- known as gas giants; the others in +this class are Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. These planets are +about 4 to 12 times greater in diameter than Earth. They have no +solid surfaces but possess massive atmospheres that contain +substantial amounts of hydrogen and helium with traces of other +gases. + Voyager 2 is one of twin spacecraft launched more than +a decade ago to explore the outer solar system. Between them, +these spacecraft have explored four giant planets, 48 of their +moons, and their unique systems of rings and magnetic fields. + Voyager 1, launched September 5, 1977, visited Jupiter +in 1979 and Saturn in 1980. It is now leaving the solar system, +rising above the ecliptic plane at an angle of about 35 degrees, +at a rate of about 520 million kilometers a year. + Voyager 2, launched August 20, 1977, visited Jupiter in + +1979, Saturn in 1981 and Uranus in 1986 before making its closest +approach to Neptune on August 25, 1989. Voyager 2 traveled 12 +years at an average velocity of 19 kilometers a second (about +42,000 miles an hour) to reach Neptune, which is 30 times farther +from the Sun than Earth is. Voyager observed Neptune almost +continuously from June to October 1989. Now Voyager 2 is also +headed out of the solar system, diving below the ecliptic plane +at an angle of about 48 degrees and a rate of about 470 million +kilometers a year. + Both spacecraft will continue to study ultraviolet +sources among the stars, and their fields and particles detectors +will continue to search for the boundary between the Sun's +influence and interstellar space. If all goes well, we will be +able to communicate with the two spacecraft for another 25 to 30 +years, until their nuclear power sources can no longer supply +enough electrical energy to power critical subsystems. + +BACKGROUND + Astronomers have studied Neptune since September 23, +1846, when Johann Gottfried Galle, of the Berlin Observatory, and +Louis d'Arrest, an astronomy student, discovered the eighth +planet on the basis of mathematical predictions by Urbain Jean +Joseph Le Verrier. Similar predictions were made independently +by John Couch Adams. (Galileo Galilei had seen Neptune during +several nights of observing Jupiter, in January 1613, but didn't +realize he was seeing a new planet.) Still, any knowledge and +understanding of Neptune was limited by the astronomer's abilityto see the distant object, almost 4.5 billion kilometers (2.8 +billion miles) from Earth. + Scarcely a month after Galle and d'Arrest first saw +Neptune, British astronomer William Lassell spotted a satellite +orbiting the planet and named it Triton. Triton, almost the size +of Earth's Moon, is the only large satellite in the solar system +to circle a planet in a retrograde direction -- in a direction +opposite to the rotation of the planet. That phenomenon led some +astronomers to surmise that Neptune had captured Triton as it +traveled through space several billion years ago. + In 1949, astronomer Gerard Kuiper discovered Nereid, +the second of Neptune's escorts. Nereid is only about 340 +kilometers (210 miles) in diameter and is so far from Neptune +that it requires 360 days to make one orbit -- only five days +less than Earth takes to travel once around the Sun. + In 1981, astronomers leaped at an infrequent +opportunity: A star would pass behind Neptune so that observers +could measure the starlight and how it changed as it passed +through the upper layer of Neptune's atmosphere. That would +provide clues to its structure. + But the star's light winked off and on before Neptune +passed in front of it. Similar measurements were obtained during +the mid-1980s. Astronomers concluded that some material (perhaps +like that of the rings of Saturn) orbits Neptune, and was +responsible for occasional blockage of the star's light. In each +observed event, astronomers saw that the ring or rings did not +appear to completely encircle the planet -- rather, each appeared + +to be an arc segment of a ring. + The laws of physics say that, with nothing else acting +upon them, rings must orbit a planet at about the same distance +from the center all the way around. Ring material, if +unrestrained, will tend to disperse uniformly around the planet. +In order to have "ring arcs," scientists thought that some +objects -- perhaps small satellites -- must shepherd the arcs, +keeping them in their place by gravity. + Earth-based telescopic observations of Neptune over the +last few years showed tantalizing hints of dynamic cloud +structures on the distant planet, from which scientists could +estimate the speed of winds circling the planet. + Against that background, Voyager's scientists prepared +for the first encounter of Neptune, perhaps the only close-up +look at Neptune in the lifetime of many of us. What they found +will force scholars to rewrite the astronomy textbooks, and +scientists to adjust their views of the solar system's other +giant planets. + +NEPTUNE + Nearly 4.5 billion kilometers (3 billion miles) from +the Sun, Neptune orbits the Sun once in 165 years, and therefore +has made not quite a full circle around the Sun since it was +discovered. With an equatorial diameter of 49,528 kilometers +(30,775 miles), Neptune is the smallest of our solar system's +gas giants. Even so, its volume could hold nearly 60 Earths. +Neptune is the densest of the four giant planets, about 64 percent heavier than if it were composed entirely of water. + The most obvious feature of the planet in Voyager +pictures is its blue color, the result of methane in the +atmosphere. Methane preferentially absorbs the longer +wavelengths of sunlight (those near the red end of the spectrum). +What are left to be reflected are colors at the blue end of the +spectrum. + While methane is not the only constituent in Neptune's +atmosphere, it is one of the most important. Methane cycles +through the atmosphere like this: + * Solar ultraviolet radiation destroys methane high in +Neptune's atmosphere by converting it to hydrocarbons such as +ethane, acetylene and haze particles of more complex polymers. + * The haze particles sink to the cold lower +stratosphere, where they freeze and become ice particles. + * The hydrocarbon ice particles gently fall into the +warmer troposphere, where they evaporate back into gases. + * The hydrocarbon gases mix deeper into the atmosphere +where the temperature and pressure are higher, mix with hydrogen +gas and regenerate methane. + * Buoyant, convective methane clouds then rise great +distances to the base of the stratosphere or higher, returning +methane vapor to the stratosphere. + Throughout the process there is no net loss of methane +in Neptune's atmosphere. + Neptune is a dynamic planet, even though it receives +only 3 percent as much sunlight as Jupiter does. Several large, + +dark spots are reminiscent of Jupiter's hurricane-like storms. +The largest spot is big enough for Earth to fit neatly inside it. +Designated the "Great Dark Spot" by its discoverers, the feature +appears to be an anticyclone similar to Jupiter's Great Red Spot. +Neptune's Great Dark Spot is comparable in size, relative to the +planet, and at the same latitude (the Great Dark Spot is at 22 +degrees south latitude) as Jupiter's Great Red Spot. However, +Neptune's Great Dark Spot is far more variable in size and shape +than its Jupiter counterpart. Bright, wispy "cirrus-type" clouds +overlaying the Great Dark Spot at its southern and northeastern +boundaries may be analogous to lenticular clouds that form over +mountains on Earth. + At about 42 degrees south, a bright, irregularly +shaped, eastward-moving cloud circles much faster than does the +Great Dark Spot, "scooting" around Neptune in about 16 hours. +This "scooter" may be a cloud plume rising between cloud decks. + Another spot, designated "D2" by Voyager's scientists, +is located far to the south of the Great Dark Spot, at 55 degrees +south. It is almond-shaped, with a bright central core, and +moves eastward around the planet in about 16 hours. + Voyager also measured heat radiated by Neptune's +atmosphere. The atmosphere above the clouds is hotter near the +equator, cooler in the mid-latitudes and warm again at the south +pole. Temperatures in the stratosphere were measured to be 750 +kelvins (900 degrees F), while at the 100 millibar pressure +level, they were measured to be 55 K (-360 degrees F). Heat +appears to be caused, at least in part, by convection in theatmosphere that results in compressional heating: Gases rise in +the mid-latitudes where they cool, then drift toward the equator +and the pole, where they sink and are warmed. + Long, bright clouds, reminiscent of cirrus clouds on +Earth, can be seen high in Neptune's atmosphere. They appear to +form above most of the methane, and consequently are not blue. + At northern low latitudes (27 degrees north), Voyager +captured images of cloud streaks casting their shadows on cloud +decks estimated to be about 50 to 100 kilometers (30 to 60 miles) +below. The widths of these cloud streaks range from 50 to 200 +kilometers (30 to 125 miles), and the widths of the shadows range +from 30 to 50 kilometers (20 to 30 miles). Cloud streaks were +also seen in the southern polar regions (71 degrees south), where +the cloud heights were about 50 kilometers (30 miles). + Most of the winds on Neptune blow in a westward +direction, which is retrograde, or opposite to the rotation of +the planet. Near the Great Dark Spot, there are retrograde winds +blowing up to 1500 miles an hour -- the strongest winds measured +on any planet, including windy Saturn. + +THE MAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT + The character of Neptune's magnetic field is important +because it helps scientists understand what goes on deep in the +planet's interior. + To have a magnetic field, scientists believe, a planet +must fulfill these conditions: + + * There must be a region within the planet that is +liquid; + * The region must also be electrically conducting; + * There must be an energy source that sets the region +in motion and then keeps it moving. + Neptune's magnetic field is tilted 47 degrees from the +planet's rotation axis, and is offset at least 0.55 radii (about +13,500 kilometers or 8,500 miles) from the physical center. The +dynamo electric currents produced within the planet, therefore, +must be relatively closer to the surface than for Earth, Jupiter +or Saturn. The field strength at the surface varies, depending +on which hemisphere is being measured, from a maximum of more +than 1 gauss in the southern hemisphere to a minimum of less than +0.1 gauss in the northern. (Earth's equatorial magnetic field at +the surface is 0.32 gauss.) Because of its unusual orientation +and the tilt of the planet's rotation axis, Neptune's magnetic +field goes through dramatic changes as the planet rotates in the +solar wind. + Voyager's first indication of the Neptunian magnetic +field was the detection of periodic radio emissions from the +planet. The spacecraft crossed the bow shock, the outer edge of +the field that stands ahead of the planet like a shield in the +solar wind, as a shock wave stands out before a supersonic +airplane, at 7:38 a.m. August 24, and shortly thereafter entered +the planet's magnetosphere. Voyager 2 remained within the +magnetosphere for about 38 hours, or slightly more than two +planetary rotations, before passing once again into the solarwind. + Because Neptune's magnetic field is so highly tilted, +and the timing of the encounter was such that the south magnetic +pole was very nearly pointed at the Sun, Voyager 2 flew into the +southern cusp of the magnetosphere, providing scientists a unique +opportunity to observe this region of a gigantic magnetic field. + Magnetospheric scientists compared Neptune's field with +that of Uranus, which is tilted 59 degrees from the rotation +axis, with a center that is offset by 0.3 Uranus radii. After +Voyager 2 passed Uranus in January 1986, some scientists thought +they might have seen the planet as its magnetic field was +reversing direction. Others found it difficult to believe such a +coincidence just happened as Voyager passed through the +neighborhood. Scientists have no definite answers yet, but think +that the tilt may be characteristic of flows in the interiors of +both Uranus and Neptune and unrelated to either the high tilt of +Uranus' rotation axis or possible field reversals at either +planet. + Neptune's magnetic field polarity is the same as those +of Jupiter and Saturn, and opposite to that of Earth. + Neptune's magnetic field provided another clue to the +planet's structure and behavior. Observers on Earth hadn't been +able to determine the length of a Neptunian day. Cloud motions +are a poor indicator of the rotation of the bulk of the planet, +since they are affected by strong winds and vary substantially +with latitude. The best telescopic estimate was a rotation +period of approximately 18 hours. The best indicator of the + +internal rotation period of the planet is periodic radio waves +generated by the magnetic field. Voyager's planetary radio +astronomy instrument measured these periodic radio waves, and +determined that the rotation rate of the interior of Neptune is +16 hours, 7 minutes. + Voyager detected auroras, similar to the northern and +southern lights on Earth, in Neptune's atmosphere. The auroras +on Earth occur when energetic particles strike the atmosphere as +they spiral down the magnetic field lines. But because of +Neptune's complex magnetic field, the auroras are extremely +complicated processes that occur over wide regions of the planet, +not just near the planet's magnetic poles. The auroral power on +Neptune is weak, estimated at about 50 million watts, compared to +100 billion watts on Earth. + +TRITON + The largest of Neptune's eight known satellites, Triton +is different from all other icy satellites Voyager has studied. +About three-quarters the size of Earth's Moon, Triton circles +Neptune in a tilted, circular, retrograde orbit (opposite to the +direction of the planet's rotation), completing an orbit in 5.875 +days at an average distance of 330,000 kilometers (205,000 miles) +above Neptune's cloud tops. Triton shows evidence of a +remarkable geologic history, and Voyager 2 images show active +geyser-like eruptions spewing invisible nitrogen gas and dark +dust particles several kilometers into space. + Triton has a diameter of about 2,705 kilometers (1,680 +miles) and a mean density of about 2.066 grams per cubic +centimeter (the density of water is 1.0 gram per cubic +centimeter). This means Triton contains more rock in its +interior than the icy satellites of Saturn and Uranus do. + The relatively high density and the retrograde orbit +offer strong evidence that Triton did not originate near Neptune, +but is a captured object. If that is the case, tidal heating +could have melted Triton in its originally eccentric orbit, and +the satellite might even have been liquid for as long as one +billion years after its capture by Neptune. + While scientists are unsure of the details of Triton's +history, icy volcanism is undoubtedly an important ingredient. + To understand what is happening on Triton, one must +ask, "How cold is cold? How soft is soft? How young is young?" +Water ice, whose melting point is 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees +Fahrenheit), deforms more easily and rapidly on Earth than rock +does, but becomes almost as rigid as rock at the extremely low +temperatures found on Triton, more than 4.5 billion kilometers +from the Sun. Most of the geologic structures on Triton's +surface are likely formed of water ice, because nitrogen and +methane ice are too soft to support much of their own weight. + On the other hand, nitrogen and methane, which form a +thin veneer on Triton, turn from ice to gas at less than 100 +degrees above absolute zero. Most of the geologically recent +eruptions at those low cryogenic temperatures are due to the +nitrogen and methane on Triton. + + Evidence that such eruptions occur was found in Voyager +images of several geyser-like volcanic vents that were apparently +spewing nitrogen gas laced with extremely fine, dark particles. +The particles are carried to altitudes of 2 to 8 kilometers (1 to +5 miles) and then blown downwind before being deposited on +Triton's surface. + An extremely thin atmosphere extends as much as 800 +kilometers (500 miles) above Triton's surface. Tiny nitrogen ice +particles may form thin clouds a few kilometers above the +surface. Triton is very bright, reflecting 60 to 95 percent of +the sunlight that strikes it (by comparison, Earth's Moon +reflects 11 percent). + The atmospheric pressure at Triton's surface is about +14 microbars, a mere 1/70,000th the surface pressure on Earth. +Temperature at the surface is about 38 kelvins (-391 degrees F), +the coldest surface of any body yet visited in the solar system. +At 800 kilometers (500 miles) above the surface, the temperature +is 95 kelvins (-290 degrees F). + Despite remarkable differences between Triton and the +other icy satellites in the solar system, photographs reveal +terrain that is reminiscent of Ariel (a satellite of Uranus), +Enceladus (a satellite of Saturn), and Europa, Ganymede and Io +(satellites of Jupiter). Even a few reminders of Mars, such as +polar caps and wind streaks, can be seen on Triton's surface. + Triton appears to have the same general size, density, +temperature and chemical composition as Pluto (the only outer +planet not yet visited by any spacecraft), and will probably beour best model of Pluto for a long time to come. + +SMALL SATELLITES + In addition to the previously known satellites Triton +and Nereid, Voyager 2 found six more satellites orbiting Neptune, +for a total of eight known satellites. The new objects have not +yet been named, a task for the International Astronomical Union +(IAU), but were given temporary designations that tell the year +of discovery, the planet they are associated with and the order +of discovery; for example, 1989N1 was the first satellite of +Neptune found that year. The final new body was designated +1989N6. + Nereid was discovered in 1948 through Earth-based +telescopes. Little is known about Nereid, which is slightly +smaller than 1989N1. Voyager's best photos of Nereid were taken +from about 4.7 million kilometers (2.9 million miles), and show +that its surface reflects about 14 percent of the sunlight that +strikes it, making it somewhat more reflective than Earth's Moon, +and more than twice as reflective as 1989N1. Nereid's orbit is +the most eccentric in the solar system, ranging from about +1,353,600 km (841,100 miles) to 9,623,700 km (5,980,200 mi). + * 1989N1, like all six of Neptune's newly discovered +small satellites, is one of the darkest objects in the solar +system -- "as dark as soot" is not too strong a description. +Like Saturn's satellite, Phoebe, it reflects only 6 percent of +the sunlight that strikes it. 1989N1 is about 400 kilometers +(250 miles) in diameter, larger than Nereid. It wasn't + +discovered from Earth because it is so close to Neptune that it +is lost in the glare of reflected sunlight. It circles Neptune +at a distance of about 92,800 kilometers (57,700 miles) above the +cloud tops, and completes one orbit in 26 hours, 54 minutes. +Scientists say it is about as large as a satellite can be without +being pulled into a spherical shape by its own gravity. + * 1989N2 is only about 48,800 kilometers (30,300 miles) +from Neptune, and circles the planet in 13 hours, 18 minutes. +Its diameter is about 190 kilometers (120 miles). + * 1989N3, only 27,700 kilometers (17,200 miles) from +Neptune's clouds, orbits every 8 hours. Its diameter is about +150 kilometers (90 miles). + * 1989N4 lies 37,200 kilometers (23,100 miles) from +Neptune. 1989N4, diameter 180 kilometers (110 miles), completes +an orbit in 10 hours, 18 minutes. + * 1989N5 appears to be about 80 kilometers (50 miles) +in diameter. It orbits Neptune in 7 hours, 30 minutes about +25,200 kilometers (15,700 miles) above the cloud tops. + * 1989N6, the last satellite discovered, is about 54 +kilometers (33 miles) in diameter and orbits Neptune about 23,200 +kilometers (14,400 miles) above the clouds in 7 hours, 6 minutes. + 1989N1 and its tiny companions are cratered and +irregularly shaped -- they are not round -- and show no signs of +any geologic modifications. All circle the plant in the same +direction as Neptune rotates, and remain close to Neptune's +equatorial plane. + + +THE RINGS AND "RING ARCS" + As Voyager 2 approached Neptune, scientists had been +working on theories of how partial rings, or "ring arcs," could +exist. Most settled for the concept of shepherding satellites +that "herd" ring particles between them, keeping the particles +from either escaping to space or falling into the planet's +atmosphere. This theory had explained some new phenomena +observed in the rings of Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. + When Voyager 2 was close enough, its cameras +photographed three bright patches that looked like ring arcs. +But closer approach, higher resolution and more computer +enhancement of the images showed that the rings do, in fact, go +all the way around the planet. + The rings are so diffuse, and the material in them so +fine, that Earthbound astronomers simply hadn't been able to +detect the full rings. (Based on Voyager's findings, one Earth- +based observation of the ring arcs is now attributed to the +passage of a small satellite through the ring area.) + Late in the encounter, the scientists were able to sort +out the number of rings and a preliminary nomenclature: + * The "Main Ring" (officially known as 1989N1R, +following the IAU convention) orbits Neptune about 38,100 +kilometers (23,700 miles) above the cloud tops. The main ring +contains three separate regions where the material is brighter +and denser, and explains most of the sightings or "ring arcs." +Several Voyager photographs show what appear to be clumps + +embedded in the rings. Scientists are not sure what causes the +material to clump. + * The "Inner Ring" (1989N2R) -- about 28,400 kilometers +(17,700 miles) above the cloud tops. + * An "Inside Diffuse Ring" (1989N3R) -- a complete ring +located about 17,100 kilometers (10,600 miles) from Neptune's +cloud tops. Some scientists suspect that this ring may extend +all the way down to Neptune's cloud tops. + * An area called "the Plateau," a broad, diffuse sheet +of fine material just outside the so-called "Inner Ring." + The material varies considerably in size from ring to +ring. The largest proportion of fine material -- approximately +the size of smoke particles, is in the Plateau. All other rings +contain a greater proportion of larger material. + Both Voyagers have now completed all of the planetary +encounters on their itinerary, but both still have work to do. +Voyager 1 is heading out of the solar system, climbing above the +ecliptic plane in which the planets orbit the Sun. Voyager 2 is +also outbound, traveling below that plane. Both are searching +for the heliopause, a boundary that marks the end of the solar +wind and the beginning of interstellar space. Assuming both +spacecraft remain healthy, flight controllers expect to be able +to operate the spacecraft for another 25 to 30 years, +investigating magnetic fields and particles in interplanetary and +interstellar space, and observing ultraviolet sources among the +stars. + The Voyager Project is managed by the Jet Propulsion +Laboratory for NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications. +##### +12-20-89 DB/AMS diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/vgrsat.fs b/textfiles.com/science/vgrsat.fs new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d3a413d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/vgrsat.fs @@ -0,0 +1,375 @@ +FACT SHEET: VOYAGER SATURN SCIENCE SUMMARY + + The Voyager 1 and 2 Saturn encounters occurred nine +months apart, in November 1980 and August 1981. Voyager 1 is +leaving the solar system. Voyager 2 completed its encounter with +Uranus in January 1986 and with Neptune in August 1989, and is +now also en route out of the solar system. + The two Saturn encounters increased our knowledge and +altered our understanding of Saturn. The extended, close-range +observations provided high-resolution data far different from the +picture assembled during centuries of Earth-based studies. + Here is a summary of scientific findings by the two +Voyagers at Saturn: +SATURN + Saturn's atmosphere is almost entirely hydrogen and +helium. Voyager 1 found that about 7 percent of the volume of +Saturn's upper atmosphere is helium (compared with 11 percent of +Jupiter's atmosphere), while almost all the rest is hydrogen. +Since Saturn's internal helium abundance was expected to be the +same as Jupiter's and the Sun's, the lower abundance of helium in +the upper atmosphere may imply that the heavier helium may be +slowly sinking through Saturn's hydrogen; that might explain the +excess heat that Saturn radiates over energy it receives from the +Sun. (Saturn is the only planet less dense than water. In the +unlikely event that a lake could be found large enough, Saturn +would float in it.) + Subdued contrasts and color differences on Saturn could +be a result of more horizontal mixing or less production of +localized colors than in Jupiter's atmosphere. While Voyager 1 +saw few markings, Voyager 2's more sensitive cameras saw many: +Long-lived ovals, tilted features in east-west shear zones, and +others similar to, but generally smaller than, on Jupiter. + Winds blow at high speeds in Saturn. Near the equator, +the Voyagers measured winds about 500 meters a second (1,100 +miles an hour). The wind blows mostly in an easterly direction. +Strongest winds are found near the equator, and velocity falls +off uniformly at higher latitudes. At latitudes greater than 35 +degrees, winds alternate east and west as latitude increases. +Marked dominance of eastward jet streams indicates that winds are +not confined to the cloud layer, but must extend inward at least +2,000 kilometers (1,200 miles). Furthermore, measurements by +Voyager 2 showing a striking north-south symmetry that leads some +scientists to suggest the winds may extend from north to south +through the interior of the planet. + While Voyager 2 was behind Saturn, its radio beam +penetrated the upper atmosphere, and measured temperature and +density. Minimum temperatures of 82 Kelvins (-312 degrees +Fahrenheit) were found at the 70-millibar level (surface pressure +on Earth is 1,000 millibars). The temperature increased to 143 +Kelvins (-202 degrees Fahrenheit) at the deepest levels probed - +- about 1,200 millibars. Near the north pole temperatures were +about 10 degrees Celsius (18 degrees Fahrenheit) colder at 100 + +millibars than at mid-latitudes. The difference may be seasonal. + The Voyagers found aurora-like ultraviolet emissions of +hydrogen at mid-latitudes in the atmosphere, and auroras at polar +latitudes (above 65 degrees). The high-level auroral activity +may lead to formation of complex hydrocarbon molecules that are +carried toward the equator. The mid-latitude auroras, which +occur only in sunlit regions, remain a puzzle, since bombardment +by electrons and ions, known to cause auroras on Earth, occurs +primarily at high latitudes. + Both Voyagers measured the rotation of Saturn (the +length of a day) at 10 hours, 39 minutes, 24 seconds. +THE RINGS + Perhaps the greatest surprises and the most perplexing +puzzles the two Voyagers found are in the rings. + Voyager 1 found much structure in the classical A-, B- +and C-rings. Some scientists suggest that the structure might be +unresolved ringlets and gaps. Photos by Voyager 1 were of lower +resolution than those of Voyager 2, and scientists at first +believed the gaps might be created by tiny satellites orbiting +within the rings and sweeping out bands of particles. One such +gap was detected at the inner edge of the Cassini Division. + Voyager 2 measurements provided the data scientists +need to understand the structure. High-resolution photos of the +inner edge of the Cassini Division showed no sign of satellites +larger than five to nine kilometers (three to six miles). No +systematic searches were conducted in other ring gaps. + Voyager 2's photopolarimeter provided more surprises. +The instrument measured changes in starlight from Delta Scorpii +as Voyager 2 flew above the rings and the light passed through +them. The photopolarimeter could resolve structure smaller than +300 meters (1,000 feet). + The star-occultation experiment showed that few clear +gaps exist in the rings. The structure in the B-ring, instead, +appears to be variations in density waves or other, stationary, +forms of waves. Density waves are formed by the gravitational +effects of Saturn's satellites. (The resonant points are places +where a particle would orbit Saturn in one-half or one-third the +time needed by a satellite, such as Mimas.) For example, at the +2:1 resonant point with 1980S1, a series of outward-propagating +density waves has about 60 grams of material per square +centimeter of ring area, and the velocity of particles relative +to one another is about one millimeter per second. Small-scale +structure of the rings may therefore be transitory, although +larger-scale features, such as the Cassini and Encke Divisions, +appear more permanent. + The edges of the rings where the few gaps exist are so +sharp that the ring must be less than about 200 meters (650 feet) +thick there, and may be only 10 meters (33 feet) thick. + In almost every case where clear gaps do appear in the +rings, eccentric ringlets are found. All show variations in +brightness. Some differences are due to clumping or kinking, and +others to nearly complete absence of material. Some scientists + +believe the only plausible explanation for the clear regions and +kinky ringlets is the presence of nearby undetected satellites. + Two separate, discontinuous ringlets were found in the +A-ring gap, known as Encke's Gap, about 73,000 kilometers (45,000 +miles) from Saturn's cloud tops. At high resolution, at least +one of the ringlets has multiple strands. + Saturn's F-ring was discovered by Pioneer 11 in 1979. +Photos of the F-ring taken by Voyager 1 showed three separate +strands that appear twisted or braided. At higher resolution, +Voyager 2 found five separate strands in a region that had no +apparent braiding, and surprisingly revealed only one small +region where the F-ring appeared twisted. The photopolarimeter +found the brightest of the F-ring strands was subdivided into at +least 10 strands. The twists are believed to originate in +gravitational perturbations caused by one of two shepherding +satellites, 1980S27. Clumps in the F-ring appear uniformly +distributed around the ring every 9,000 kilometers (6,999 miles), +a spacing that very nearly coincides with the relative motion of +F-ring particles and the interior shepherding satellite in one +orbital period. By analogy, similar mechanisms might be +operating for the kinky ringlets that exist in the Encke Gap. + The spokes found in the B-ring appear only at radial +distances between 43,000 kilometers (27,000 miles) and 57,000 +kilometers (35,000 miles) above Saturn's clouds. Some spokes, +those thought to be most recently formed, are narrow and have a +radial alignment, and appear to corotate with Saturn's magneticfield in 10 hours, 39.4 minutes. The broader, less radial spokes +appear to have formed earlier than the narrow examples and seem +to follow Keplerian orbits: Individual areas corotate at speeds +governed by distances from the center of the planet. In some +cases, scientists believe they see evidence that new spokes are +reprinted over older ones. Their formation is not restricted to +regions near the planet's shadow, but seems to favor a particular +Saturnian longitude. As both spacecraft approached Saturn, the +spokes appeared dark against a bright ring background. As the +Voyagers departed, the spokes appeared brighter than the +surrounding ring areas, indicating that the material scatters +reflected sunlight more efficiently in a forward direction, a +quality that is characteristic of fine, dust-sized particles. +Spokes are also visible at high phase angles in light reflected +from Saturn on the unilluminated underside of the rings. + Another challenge scientists face in understanding the +rings is that even general dimensions do not seem to remain true +at all positions around Saturn: The distance of the B-ring;s +outer edge, near a 2:1 resonance with Mimas, varies by at least +140 kilometers (90 miles) and probably by as much as 200 +kilometers (120 miles). Furthermore, the elliptical shape of the +outer edge does not follow a Keplerian orbit, since Saturn is at +the center of the ellipse, rather than at one focus. The +gravitational effects of Mimas are most likely responsible for +the elliptical shape, as well as for the variable width of the +Huygens Gap between the B-ring and the Cassini Division. + +TITAN + Titan is the largest of Saturn's satellites. It is the +second largest satellite in the solar system, and the only one +know to have a dense atmosphere. + It may be the most interesting body, from a terrestrial +perspective, in the solar system. For almost two decades, space +scientists have searched for clues to the primeval Earth. The +chemistry in Titan's atmosphere may be similar to what occurred +in Earth's atmosphere several billion years ago. + Because of its thick, opaque atmosphere, astronomers +believed Titan was the largest satellite in the solar system. +Their measurements were necessarily limited to the cloud tops. +Voyager 1's close approach and diametric radio occultation show +Titan's surface diameter is only 5,150 kilometers (3,200 miles) - +- slightly smaller than Ganymede, Jupiter's largest satellite. +Both are larger than Mercury. Titan's density appears to be +about twice that of water ice; it may be composed of nearly equal +amounts of rock and ice. + Titan's surface cannot be seen in any Voyager photos; +it is hidden by a dense, photochemical haze whose main layer is +about 300 kilometers (200 miles) above Titan's surface. Several +distinct, detached haze layers can be seen above the opaque haze +layer. The haze layers merge with the main layer over the north +pole of Titan, forming what scientists first thought was a dark +hood. The hood was found, under the better viewing conditions of +Voyager 2, to be a dark ring around the pole. The southernhemisphere is slightly brighter than the northern, possibly the +result of seasonal effects. When the Voyagers flew past, the +season on Titan was the equivalent of mid-April and early May on +Earth, or early spring in the northern hemisphere and early fall +in the south. + Atmospheric pressure near Titan's surface is about 1.6 +bars, 60 percent greater than Earth's. The atmosphere is mostly +nitrogen, also the major constituent of Earth's atmosphere. + The surface temperature appears to be about 95 Kelvins +(-289 degrees Fahrenheit), only 4 Kelvins above the triple-point +temperature of methane. Methane, however, appears to be below +its saturation pressure near Titan's surface; rivers and lakes of +methane probably don't exist, in spite of the tantalizing analogy +to water on Earth. On the other hand, scientists believe lakes +of ethane exist, and methane is probably dissolved in the ethane. +Titan's methane, through continuing photochemistry, is converted +to ethane, acetylene, ethylene, and (when combined with nitrogen) +hydrogen cyanide. The last is an especially important molecule; +it is a building block of amino acids. Titan's low temperature +undoubtedly inhibits more complex organic chemistry. + Titan has no intrinsic magnetic field; therefore it has +no electrically conducting and convecting liquid core. Its +interaction with Saturn's magnetosphere creates a magnetic wake +behind Titan. The big satellite also serves as a source for both +neutral and charged hydrogen atoms in Saturn's magnetosphere. + + +NEW SATELLITES + Before the first Voyager encounter, astronomers +believed Saturn had 11 satellites. Now they know it has at least +17 and possibly more. Three of the 17 were discovered by Voyager +1. Three additional possible satellites have been identified in +imaging data since the Voyager 2 encounter. (Three others were +discovered in ground-based observations.) + The innermost satellite, Atlas, orbits near the outer +edge of the A-ring and is about 40 by 20 kilometers (25 by 15 +miles) in size. It was discovered in Voyager 1 images. + The next satellite outward, Prometheus, shepherds the +inner edge of the F-ring and is about 140 by 100 by 80 kilometers +(90 by 60 by 50 miles). Next is Pandora, outer shepherd of the +F-ring, 110 by 90 by 80 kilometers (70 by 55 by 50 miles). Both +shepherds were found by Voyager 1. + Next are Epimetheus and Janus, which share about the +same orbit -- 91,000 kilometers (56,600 miles) above the clouds. +As they near each other, the satellites trade orbits (the outer +is about 50 kilometers, or 30 miles, farther from Saturn than the +inner). Janus is 220 by 200 by 160 kilometers (140 by 125 by 100 +miles), and Epimetheus is 140 by 120 by 100 kilometers (90 by 70 +by 50 miles). Both were discovered by ground-based observers. + One new satellite, Helene, shares the orbit of Dione, +about 60 degrees ahead of its larger companion, and is called the +Dione Trojan. It is about 36 by 32 by 30 kilometers (22 by 20 by +19 miles). Helene was discovered in ground-based photographs. + Two more satellites are called the Tethys Trojans +because they circle Saturn in the same orbit as Tethys, about 60 +degrees ahead of and behind that body. They are Telesto (the +leading Trojan) and Calypso (the trailing Trojan). Both were +found in 1981 among ground-based observations made in 1980. +Telesto is 34 by 28 by 26 kilometers (21 by 17 by 16 miles) and +Calypso is 34 by 22 by 22 kilometers (21 by 14 by 14 miles). + There are three unconfirmed satellites. One circles +Saturn in the orbit of Dione, a second is located between the +orbits of Tethys and Dione, and the third, between Dione and +Rhea. All three were found in Voyager photographs, but were not +confirmed by more than one sighting. +OTHER SATELLITES + Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, and Rhea are +approximately spherical in shape and appear to be composed mostly +of water ice. Enceladus reflects almost 100 percent of the +sunlight that strikes it. All five satellites represent a size +range that had not been explored before. + Mimas, Tethys, Dione, and Rhea are all cratered; +Enceladus appears to have by far the most active surface of any +satellite in the system (with the possible exception of Titan, +whose surface was not photographed). At least five types of +terrain have been identified on Enceladus. Although craters can +be seen across portions of its surface, the lack of craters in +other areas implies an age less than a few hundred million years +for the youngest regions. It seems likely that parts of the + +surface are still undergoing change, since some areas are covered +by ridged plains with no evidence of cratering down to the limit +of resolution of Voyager 2's cameras (2 kilometers or 1.2 miles). +A pattern of linear faults crisscrosses other areas. It is not +likely that a satellite as small as Enceladus could have enough +radioactive material to produce the modification. A more likely +source of heating appears to be tidal interaction with Saturn, +caused by perturbations in Enceladus' orbit by Dione (like +Jupiter's satellite Io). Theories of tidal heating do not +predict generation of enough energy to explain all the heating +that must have occurred. Because it reflects so much sunlight, +Enceladus' current surface temperature is only 72 Kelvins (-330 +degrees Fahrenheit). + Photos of Mimas show a huge impact crater. The crater, +named Herschel, is 130 kilometers (80 miles) wide, one-third the +diameter of Mimas. Herschel is 10 kilometers (6 miles) deep, +with a central mountain almost as high as Mount Everest on Earth. + Photos of Tethys taken by Voyager 2 show an even larger +impact crater, named Odysseus, nearly one-third the diameter of +Tethys and larger than Mimas. In contrast to Mimas' Herschel, +the floor of Odysseus returned to about the original shape of the +surface, most likely a result of Tethys' larger gravity and the +relative fluidity of water ice. A gigantic fracture covers +three-fourths of Tethys' circumference. The fissure is about the +size scientists would predict if Tethys were once fluid and its +crust hardened before the interior, although the expansion of theinterior due to freezing would not be expected to cause only one +large crack. The canyon has been named Ithaca Chasma. Tethys' +surface temperature is 86 Kelvins (-305 degrees Fahrenheit). + Hyperion shows no evidence of internal activity. Its +irregular shape causes an unusual phenomenon: Each time Hyperion +passes Titan, the larger satellite's gravity gives Hyperion a tug +and it tumbles erratically, changing orientation. The irregular +shape of Hyperion and evidence of bombardment by meteors make it +appear to be the oldest surface in the Saturn system. + Iapetus has long been known to have large differences +in surface brightness. Brightness of the surface material on the +trailing side has been measured at 50 percent, while material on +the leading side reflects only 5 percent of the sunlight. Most +dark material is distributed in a pattern directly centered on +the leading surface, causing conjecture that dark material in +orbit around Saturn was swept up by Iapetus. The trailing face +of Iapetus, however, has craters with dark floors. That implies +that the dark material originated in the satellite's interior. +It is possible that the dark material on the leading hemisphere +was exposed by ablation (erosion) of a thin, overlying, bright +surface covering. + Voyager 2 photographed Phoebe after passing Saturn. +Phoebe orbits Saturn in a retrograde direction (opposite to the +direction of the other satellites' orbits) in a plane much closer +to the ecliptic than to Saturn's equatorial plane. Voyager 2 +found that Phoebe has a roughly circular shape, and reflects + +about 6 percent of the sunlight. It also is quite red. Phoebe +rotates on its axis about once in nine hours. Thus, unlike the +other Saturnian satellites (except Hyperion), it does not always +show the same face to the planet. If, as scientists believe, +Phoebe is a captured asteroid with its composition unmodified +since its formation in the outer solar system, it is the first +such object that has been photographed at close enough range to +show shape and surface brightness. + Both Dione and Rhea have bright, wispy streaks that +stand out against an already-bright surface. The streaks are +probably the results of ice that evolved from the interior along +fractures in the crust. +THE MAGNETOSPHERE + The size of Saturn's magnetosphere is determined by +external pressure of the solar wind. When Voyager 2 entered the +magnetosphere, the solar-wind pressure was high and the magneto- +sphere extended only 19 Saturn radii (1.1 million kilometers or +712,000 miles) in the Sun's direction. Several hours later, +however, the solar-wind pressure dropped and Saturn's magneto- +sphere ballooned outward over a six-hour period. It apparently +remained inflated for at least three days, since it was 70 +percent larger when Voyager 2 crossed the magnetic boundary on +the outbound leg. + Unlike all the other planets whose magnetic fields have +been measured, Saturn's field is tipped less than one degree +relative to the rotation poles. That rare alignment was firstmeasured by Pioneer 11 in 1979 and was later confirmed by +Voyagers 1 and 2. + Several distinct regions have been identified within +Saturn's magnetosphere. Inside about 400,000 kilometers (250,000 +miles) there is a torus of H+ and O+ ions, probably originating +from water ice sputtered from the surfaces of Dione and Tethys. +(The ions are positively charged atoms of hydrogen and oxygen +that have lost one electron.) Strong plasma-wave emissions +appear to be associated with the inner torus. + At the outer regions of the inner torus some ions have +been accelerated to high velocities. In terms of temperatures, +such velocities correspond to 400 million to 500 million Kelvins +(700 to 900 million degrees Fahrenheit). + Outside the inner torus is a thick sheet of plasma that +extends out to about 1 million kilometers (600,000 miles). The +source for material in the outer plasma sheet is probably +Saturn's ionosphere, Titan's atmosphere, and the neutral hydrogen +torus that surrounds Titan between 500,000 kilometers (300,000 +miles) and 1.5 million kilometers (1 million miles). + Radio emissions from Saturn had changed between the +encounters of Voyager 1 and 2. Voyager 2 detected Jupiter's +magnetotail as the spacecraft approached Saturn in the winter and +early spring of 1981. Son afterward, when Saturn was believed to +be bathed in the Jovian magnetotail, the ringed planet's +kilometric radio emissions were undetectable. + During portions of Voyager 2's Saturn encounter, + +kilometric radio emissions again were not detected. The +observations are consistent with Saturn's being immersed in +Jupiter's magnetotail, as was also the apparent reduction in +solar-wind pressure mentioned earlier, although Voyager +scientists say they have no direct evidence that those effects +were caused by Jupiter's magnetotail. + ##### +5/4/90DB diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/vgrur.fs b/textfiles.com/science/vgrur.fs new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c3042d6c --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/vgrur.fs @@ -0,0 +1,274 @@ +URANUS SCIENCE SUMMARY + + + + NASA's Voyager 2 spacecraft flew closely past distant +Uranus, the seventh planet from the Sun, in January 1986. + At its closest, the spacecraft came within 81,500 +kilometers (50,600 miles) of Uranus's cloudtops on Jan. 24, 1986. + Voyager 2 radioed thousands of images and voluminous +amounts of other scientific data on the planet, its moons, rings, +atmosphere, interior and the magnetic environment surrounding +Uranus. + Since launch on Aug. 20, 1977, Voyager 2's itinerary +has taken the spacecraft to Jupiter in July 1979, Saturn in +August 1981, and then Uranus. Voyager 2's next encounter is with +Neptune in August 1989. Both Voyager 2 and its twin, Voyager 1, +will eventually leave our solar system and enter interstellar +space. + Voyager 2's images of the five largest moons around +Uranus revealed complex surfaces indicative of varying geologic +pasts. The cameras also detected 10 previously unseen moons. +Several instruments studied the ring system, uncovering the fine +detail of the previously known rings and two newly detected +rings. Voyager data showed that the planet's rate of rotation is +17 hours, 14 minutes. The spacecraft also found a Uranian +magnetic field that is both large and unusual. In addition, the +temperature of the equatorial region, which receives less +sunlight over a Uranian year, is nevertheless about the same as +that at the poles. +Before Voyager + Nearly 3 billion kilometers (1.8 billion miles) from +Earth, Uranus is the most distant object yet visited by a +spacecraft. Uranus is so far away that scientists knew +comparatively little about it before Voyager 2 undertook its +historic first-ever encounter with the planet. + Indeed, since its discovery by William Herschel in +1781, Uranus had remained largely a mystery throughout the +ensuing two centuries. Five moons -- the first discovered in +1787, the last in 1948 -- were visible only as tiny points of +light. A system of nine narrow rings went undetected until 1977. +The planet's rate of rotation could be estimated only roughly and +was believed to be anywhere from 16 to 24 hours. Before Voyager, +there were indirect indications of a magnetic field at Uranus, +although the evidence was not conclusive. + Scientists were not sure what to expect from Uranus's +strange orientation. The planet is tipped on its side, with its +orbiting moons and rings forming a giant celestial bull's-eye. +As a result, the northern and southern polar regions are +alternatively exposed to sunlight or to the dark of space during +the planet's 84-year orbit around the Sun. +The Encounter + + Voyager 2's encounter of Uranus began Nov. 4, 1985 with +an observatory phase. Activity built to a peak in late January +1986, with most of the critical observations occurring in a six- +hour period in and around the time of closest approach. The +spacecraft made its closest approach to Uranus at 9:59 a.m. PST +on Jan. 24. + + To prepare for the flyby of this unusual planetary +system, engineers extensively reprogrammed Voyager 2's onboard +computers via radio control from the ground. They endowed the +spacecraft with new capabilities that would enable it to return +clear, close-up pictures despite the dim light and high velocity +at which Voyager would be passing its targets. (Uranus receives +about 1/400th of the sunlight that falls on Earth.) + In addition, giant antenna receiving stations on Earth +were linked electronically in order to capture and enhance +Voyager's faint radio signal. +Moons + Voyager 2 obtained clear, high-resolution images of +each of the five large moons of Uranus known before the +encounter: Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and Oberon. The two +largest, Titania and Oberon, are about 1,600 kilometers (1,000 +miles) in diameter, roughly half the size of Earth's Moon. The +smallest, Miranda, is only 500 kilometers (300 miles) across, or +just one-seventh the lunar size. + The 10 new moons discovered by Voyager bring the total +number of known Uranian satellites to 15. The largest of the +newly detected moons, named Puck, is about 150 kilometers (about +90 miles) in diameter, or larger than most asteroids. + Preliminary analysis shows that the five large moons +are ice-rock conglomerates like the satellites of Saturn. The +large Uranian moons appear, in fact, to be about 50 percent water +ice, 20 percent carbon- and nitrogen-based materials, and 30 +percent rock. Their surfaces, almost uniformly dark gray incolor, display varying degrees of geologic history. Very +ancient, heavily cratered surfaces are apparent on some of the +moons, while others show strong evidence of internal geologic +activity. + Titania, for example, is marked by huge fault systems +and canyons that indicate some degree of geologic activity in its +history. These features may be the result of tectonic movement +in its crust. Ariel has the brightest and possibly the +geologically youngest surface in the Uranian moon system. It is +largely devoid of craters greater than about 50 kilometers (30 +miles) in diameter. This indicates that low-velocity material +within the Uranian system itself peppered the surface, helping to +obliterate larger, older craters. Ariel also appears to have +undergone a period of even more intense activity leading to many +fault valleys and what appear to be extensive flows of icy +material. Where many of the larger valleys intersect, their +surfaces are smooth; this could indicate that the valley floors +have been covered with younger icy flows. + Umbriel is ancient and dark, apparently having +undergone little geologic activity. Large craters pockmark its +surface. The darkness of Umbriel's surface may be due to a +coating of dust and small debris somehow created near and +confined to the vicinity of that moon's orbit. + The outermost of the pre-Voyager moons, Oberon, also +has an old, heavily cratered surface with little evidence of +internal activity other than some unknown dark material +apparently covering the floors of many craters. + + Miranda, innermost of the five large moons, is one of +the strangest bodies yet observed in the solar system. Voyager +images, which showed some areas of the moon at resolutions of a +kilometer or less, consists of huge fault canyons as deep as 20 +kilometers (12 miles), terraced layers and a mixture of old and +young surfaces. The younger regions may have been produced by +incomplete differentiation of the moon, a process in which +upwelling of lighter material surfaced in limited areas. +Alternatively, Miranda may be a reaggregation of material from an +earlier time when the moon was fractured into pieces by a violent +impact. + Given Miranda's small size and low temperature +(-335 degrees Fahrenheit or -187 Celsius), the degree and +diversity of the tectonic activity on this moon has surprised +scientists. It is believed that an additional heat source such +as tidal heating caused by the gravitational tug of Uranus must +have been involved. In addition, some means must have mobilized +the flow of icy material at low temperatures. +The Rings + All nine previously known rings of Uranus were +photographed and measured, as were other new rings and ringlets +in the Uranian system. These observations showed that Uranus's +rings are distinctly different from those at Jupiter and Saturn. + Radio measurements showed the outermost ring, the +epsilon, to be composed mostly of ice boulders several feet +across. However, a very tenuous distribution of fine dust also +seems to be spread throughout the ring system. + Incomplete rings and the varying opacity in several of +the main rings leads scientists to believe that the ring system +may be relatively young and did not form at the same time as +Uranus. The particles that make up the rings may be remnants of +a moon that was broken by a high-velocity impact or torn up by +gravitational effects. + To date, two new rings have been positively identified. +The first, 1986 U1R, was detected between the outermost of the +previously known rings -- epsilon and delta -- at a distance of +50,000 kilometers (31,000 miles) from Uranus's center. It is a +narrow ring like the others. The second, designated 1986 U2R, is +a broad region of material perhaps 3,000 kilometers (1,900 miles) +across and just 39,000 kilometers (24,000 miles) from the +planet's center. + The number of known rings may eventually grow as a +result of observations by the Voyager 2 photopolarimeter +instrument. The sensor revealed what may be a large number of +narrow rings -- or possibly incomplete rings or ring +arcs -- as small as 50 meters (160 feet) in width. + The individual ring particles were found to be of low +reflectivity. At least one ring, the epsilon, was found to be +gray in color. Important clues to Uranus's ring structure may +come from the discovery that two small moons --Cordelia and +Ophelia -- straddle the epsilon ring. This finding lends +credence to theories that small moonlets may be responsible for +confining or deflecting material into rings and keeping it from +escaping into space. Eighteen such satellites were expected to + +have been found, but only two were photographed. + The sharp edge of the epsilon ring indicates that the +ring is less than 150 meters (500 feet) thick and that particles +near the outer edge are less than 30 meters (100 feet) in +diameter. + The epsilon ring is surprisingly deficient in particles +smaller than about the size of a beachball. This may be due to +atmospheric drag from the planet's extended hydrogen atmosphere, +which probably siphons smaller particles and dust from the ring. +The Planet + As expected, the dominant constituents of the +atmosphere are hydrogen and helium. But the amount of helium -- +about 15 percent -- was considerably less than the 40 percent +that had been suggested by some Earth-based studies. Methane, +acetylene and other hydrocarbons exist in much smaller +quantities. Methane in the upper atmosphere absorbs red light, +giving Uranus its blue-green color. + Voyager images showed that the atmosphere is arranged +into clouds running at constant latitudes, similar to the +orientation to the more vivid latitudinal bands seen on Jupiter +and Saturn. Winds at mid-latitudes on Uranus blow in the same +direction as the planet rotates, just as on Earth, Jupiter and +Saturn. These winds blow at velocities of 40 to 160 meters per +second (90 to 360 miles per hour); on Earth, jet streams in the +atmosphere blow at about 50 meters per second (110 mph). Radio +science experiments found winds of about 100 meters per second +blowing in the opposite direction at the equator. + A high layer of haze -- photochemical smog -- was +detected around the sunlit pole. + The sunlit hemisphere also was found to radiate large +amounts of ultraviolet light, a phenomenon that Voyager +scientists have dubbed "dayglow." + The average temperature on Uranus is about 60 Kelvin (- +350 degrees Fahrenheit). The minimum near the tropopause is 52 K +(-366 F) at the 0.1-bar pressure level. (The tropopause is the +boundary between the stratosphere and the troposphere, the lowest +level of atmosphere, comparable to the region on Earth where life +abounds. One bar is the average pressure at sea level on Earth.) + Surprisingly, the illuminated and dark poles, and most +of the planet, show nearly the same temperature below the +tropopause. Voyager instruments did detect a somewhat colder +band between 15 and 40 degrees latitude, where temperatures are +about 2 to 3 K lower. The temperatures rise with increasing +altitude, reaching 150 K (-190 F) in the rarified upper +atmosphere. Below this level, temperatures increase steadily to +thousands of degrees in the interior. +Magnetosphere + Radio emissions detected several days before closest +approach provided the first conclusive indication that Uranus +actually possesses an magnetosphere. + Not only does a Uranian magnetic field exist; it is +intense and skewed with its axis tilted at a 60-degree angle to +rotational axis. At Earth, by comparison, the two axes are +offset by about 12 degrees. + + The intensity of the magnetic field at Uranus's surface +is roughly comparable to that of Earth's, though it varies much +more from point to point because of its large offset from the +center of Uranus. The magnetic field source is unknown; the +electrically conductive, super-pressurized ocean of water and +ammonia once thought to lie between the core and the atmosphere +now appears to be nonexistent. The magnetic fields of Earth and +other planets are believed to arise from electrical currents +produced in their molten cores. + As at Mercury, Earth, Jupiter and Saturn, there is a +magnetic tail extending millions of miles behind Uranus. Voyager +measured the magnetotail to at least 10 million kilometers (6.2 +million miles) behind the planet. The extreme tilt of the +magnetic axis, combined with the tilt of the rotational axis, +causes the field lines in this cylindrical magnetotail to be +wound into a corkscrew shape. + Voyager 2 found radiation belts at Uranus of an +intensity similar to those at Saturn, although they differ in +composition. The radiation belts at Uranus appear to be +dominated by hydrogen ions, without any evidence of heavier ions +(charged atoms) that might have been sputtered from the surfaces +of the moons. Uranus's radiation belts are so intense that +irradiation would quickly darken (within 100,000 years) any +methane trapped in the icy surfaces of the inner moons and ring +particles. This may have contributed to the darkened surfaces of +the moons and ring particles. + Voyager detected radio emissions from Uranus that, +along with imaging data, helped narrow the planet's rate of +rotation to about 17 hours, 14 minutes. +The Next Encounter + The Uranus encounter officially came to an end on Feb. +25, 1986. Eleven days earlier, project engineers took a major +step toward the encounter at Neptune by commanding Voyager 2 to +fire its thrusters for a course-correction maneuver lasting more +than 2-1/2 hours. + Voyager 2 will fly about 1,300 kilometers (800 miles) +over the north pole of Neptune at 9 p.m. PDT on Aug. 24, 1989. +Five hours later, Voyager 2 will encounter Neptune's moon, Triton +-- the spacecraft's final destination before heading toward the +boundary of our solar system. + The Voyager project manager is Norman R. Haynes of JPL, +and George P. Textor, also of JPL, is the deputy project manager. +Dr. Edward C. Stone of the California Institute of Technology is +the project scientist. Dr. Ellis D. Miner of JPL is the deputy +project scientist. JPL manages the Voyager Project for NASA's +Office of Space Science and Applications. + ##### + + +12/21/88 +MBM \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/wcs.txt b/textfiles.com/science/wcs.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a3f40fdb --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/wcs.txt @@ -0,0 +1,157 @@ +"6_2_13.TXT" (6394 bytes) was created on 10-22-89 + +SPACE SHUTTLE WASTE COLLECTION SYSTEM + + The Space Shuttle Waste Collection System (WCS) is an +integrated multifunctional system primarily utilized to +collect and process biowastes from male and female +crewmembers in a zero gravity environment. The system is +used as a standard Earth-like facility, and performs the +following general functions: + + * Collects, stores, and dries solid wastes + * Processes urine, and transfers it to the waste water + tank + * Processes Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) + condensate water from the airlock, and transfers it + to the waste water tank + * Provides an interface for venting trash container + gases overboard + * Provides an interface for dumping Air Revitalization + System (ARS) waste water overboard in a contingency + situation + * For flights when the galley is flown, processes wash + water from the Personal Hygiene Station (PHS) and + transfers it to the waste water tank + + The Waste Collection System is located on the middeck +of the Orbiter. A door is provided on the waste management +compartment. Two privacy curtains are attached to the +inside of the WCS compartment door to provide privacy for +the crewmember. The door serves as an ingress platform +during prelaunch (vertical) operations, since the flight +crew must ingress over the waste management compartment to +enter the flight deck. The door has a friction hinge, and +must be open when the WCS is used on-orbit. + + The WCS consists of six major components as listed +below: + + * Commode + * Urinal + * Fan Separators + * Odor/Bacteria Filter + * Vacuum Vent QD + * WCS Controls + + The commode contains a single multi-layer hyrophobic +porous bag liner for collecting and storing solid waste. +When in use, the commode is pressurized and transport +airflow is provided by the fan separator. When not in use, +the commode is depressurized for solid waste drying and +deactivation. + + Solid Waste enters the commode through the seat opening +(4.0 inches), drawn in by air flowing through holes under +the seat. Waste material is deposited on the porous bag +liner. Air is drawn through the hydrophobic material to the +fan separator. The hydrophobic liner material prevents free +liquid and bacteria from exiting the collector. + + The urinal, essentially a funnel attached to a hose, +provides the capacity to collect and transport liquid waste +to the waste water tank. The fan separator provides +transport airflow for the liquid. The urinal can +accommodate both male and female crewmembers by use of a +male or female attachable cap. + + The fan separators provide transport airflow through +the commode and urinal, and separate the waste liquid from +the airflow. The liquid/air mixture from the urinal line +enters axially, and is carried into a rotating secondary +separator which throws the liquid to the outer walls of the +rotating fluid reservoir, into a stationary Pitot tube, and +finally to the waste water tank. Air is drawn out of the +rotating chamber by a blower, which also draws air from the +commode. This air passes through the odor/bacteria filter, +and reenters the Orbiter cabin. The filter can be removed +for in-flight replacement. + + The WCS vacuum vent QD provides the capability for the +crewmember to dump waste water directly overboard through +the vacuum vent system, if the waste water tank were to +fail. This is accomplished by utilizing a water transfer +hose which is connected to the waste water crosstie QD. + +WCS RESTRAINT AND ADJUSTMENT FEATURES + + The WCS employs various restraints and adjustments to +enable the user to achieve the proper body positioning in a +zero gravity environment. + + Two foot restraints are provided. One (the "toe bar") +is located at the commode base and is used for restraint for +standup urination. This restraint consists of two flexible +cylindrical pads on a shaft that can be adjusted to various +heights by releasing two locking levers. The crewmmember +restrains himself in the standing position by slipping his +feet under the "toe bar" restraint. + + The second foot restraint (footrest) allows the +crewmember's feet to be restrained while sitting. The +restraint consists of an adjustable platform with detachable +Velcro straps for securing the crewmember's feet. The +Velcro straps are wrapped crosswire over each foot and +secured around the back. The footrest can be adjusted to +various angles and heights. + + Two body restraints are provided. The primary +restraint is the padded thigh bar. The crewmember's sitting +position is secured by lifting up each thigh bar out of its +detent position, rotating over thigh, and releasing. Bar is +preloaded to exert approximately 10 pounds of force on each +thigh. + + The second restraint serves as a backup method. The +system consists of four Velcro thigh straps with a spring +hook on one end. Two of the straps are attached to the top +front surface mating attached points. The remaining two are +installed on a bracket with five holes on the upper sides of +the commode. These straps can be positioned accordingly to +provide the proper restraint. + + Two handholds are used for positioning or stabilizing +the user during WCS operation. They form an integral part +of the top cover of the WCS assembly. + +WCS IN-FLIGHT CLEANING/MAINTENANCE + + WCS cleaning is scheduled as a daily in-flight +activity. Biocidal cleanser, disposable gloves, general +purpose dry wipes, small wet wipes, and a Contingency +Scraper Tool (CST) are provided for cleaning the WCS. A +urinal screen located at the base of the urinal funnel +captures air entrained debris and is replaced at least twice +daily. The odor/bacteria filter is removed and replaced +with a spare filter when excessive odors are present. In +addition, the personal hygiene station water hose is used at +least once per day to clean or flush areas of the urinal +with water. + +POWER FOR WCS + + The WCS receives 115V ac and 28V dc power from two +middeck circuit breaker panels. The fan separator motors +use ac power. In addition, the switches to the fan +separators require dc power for operation. There are six ac +breakers and two dc breakers. + + + + + + +For a more detailed description of the Shuttle toilet, see +Main Menu option 6, submenu 2, submenu 3, submenu 13, submenu 8, +submenu 8. + diff --git a/textfiles.com/science/x15info.txt b/textfiles.com/science/x15info.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8a24133f --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/science/x15info.txt @@ -0,0 +1,81 @@ +X-15, WORLD'S FIRST HYPERSONIC RESEARCH AIRCRAFT + + + The X-15 was a small rocket-powered aircraft, 50 feet long +with a wingspan of 22 feet. It had a conventional fuselage, but +an unusual wedge-shaped vertical tail, thin stubby wings and +unique side fairings that extended along the fuselage. The X-15 +weighed about 14,000 pounds empty and approximately 34,000 pounds +at launch. The rocket engine, which was controlled by the pilot, +was capable of developing 60,000 pounds of thrust. + + The X-15 research aircraft was developed to provide inflight +information and data on aero-thermodynamics, aerodynamics, +structures, flight controls and the physiological aspects of +high-speed, high-altitude flight. A follow-on program utilized +the aircraft as a testbed to carry various scientific experiments +beyond the Earth's atmosphere on a repeated basis. + + For flight in the dense air of the usable atmosphere, the X- +15 utilized conventional aerodynamic controls. For flight +outside of the appreciable Earth's atmosphere, the X-15 used a +ballistic control system. Eight hydrogen peroxide thrust +rockets, located on the nose of the aircraft controlled pitch and +yaw. Four other rockets were located on the wings for roll +control. + + Because of the rapid fuel consumption, the X-15 was air- +launched from under the wing of a B-52 aircraft at 45,000 feet at +a speed of about 500 miles per hour. Depending on the mission +and engine throttle setting, the rocket engine provided thrust +for the first 80 to 120 seconds of flight. The remainder of the +normal 10-11 minute flight was powerless and ended with a 200 +mile-per-hour glide landing. + + Usually, one of two types of X-15 flight profiles were +flown: a high-altitude flight plan that called for the pilot to +climb steeply after launch or a speed profile that called for the +pilot to push over and maintain a level altitude. First flown +June 8, 1959, the three X-15 aircraft made 199 powered flights, +concluding with the last flight on Oct. 24, 1968. Flight +maximums of 354,200 feet in altitude and a speed of 4,520 miles +per hour were obtained. + + The airframe manufacturer was North American Rockwell, +Inc. Thiokol Chemical Corp. manufactured the power plant. The +program was a joint NASA-USAF-USN effort. + + Three X-15 aircraft were built. The number 1 aircraft now +is displayed in the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum, +Washington, D.C. Aircraft number 2 is on display at the Air +Force Museum at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. The third +aircraft was destroyed in a fatal accident in November 1967. + + Total cost of the X-15 program, including development of the +three aircraft, was about $300 million. + + - end - + + +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X + + Another file downloaded from: NIRVANAnet(tm) + + & the Temple of the Screaming Electron Jeff Hunter 510-935-5845 + Salted Slug Systems Strange 408-454-9368 + Burn This Flag Zardoz 408-363-9766 + realitycheck Poindexter Fortran 415-567-7043 + Lies Unlimited Mick Freen 415-583-4102 + Tomorrow's 0rder of Magnitude Finger_Man 408-961-9315 + My Dog Bit Jesus Suzanne D'Fault 510-658-8078 + + Specializing in conversations, obscure information, high explosives, + arcane knowledge, political extremism, diversive sexuality, + insane speculation, and wild rumours. ALL-TEXT BBS SYSTEMS. + + Full access for first-time callers. We don't want to know who you are, + where you live, or what your phone number is. We are not Big Brother. + + "Raw Data for Raw Nerves" + +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex.1 b/textfiles.com/sex.1 new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a03d05e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex.1 @@ -0,0 +1,320 @@ + +T E X T F I L E S + +

Sex, Sex Humor and Sexuality

+

+Here are all files dealing with that most universal of concepts: Sex. This +was obviously at the foremost of many a young mind using BBSes. Perhaps +surprising (or not at all), sexual activity was kind of ancilliary to the +whole online experience, since what impressed people was what you could +accomplish online, not in bed. But the longings of adolescents everywhere +is evident in all sorts of files written during this period. +

+Probably the most humorous files were the "Sex Guides", purporting to be +tracts that would guarantee sexual activity for all those who read them, +and obviously written by people who had never or seldom experienced +any activity themselves. +

+Besides the erotic stories, dirty jokes, and the Purity Tests (which are +an event in themselves), you can find articles and information about +sexually transmitted diseases, and other health issues, which are +informative about living a good life after you get over this "have sex +with anything that says yes" phase. +

+A small site note: +Obviously, with any web site mentioning sex and sexual activites, you're +guaranteed hit upon hit as people looking for some sort of "dirty pictures" +or erotic enlightment stumble upon your poor text-only page. To those people, +I take their time to say "Buy a +T-shirt". Thank you. +

+ + + + + +
+ + +
Filename
Size
Description of the Textfile
EROTICAErotic Writings, Stories, Narratives, and Just Plain Smut
 
052496h1.txt 3999
 Who, Really, is At Risk of Acquiring AIDS? By Maggie Gallagher (May 24, 1996) +
500pure.txt 58845
 The Unisex, Omnisexual PURITY TEST, Version 4.0, Final Release +
808-cass.txt 7722
 Cassandra's Adventure, by 808 State (1991) +
808-laid.txt 5694
 How to Get Laid on the First Date by 808 State (1991) +
808-lust.txt 5253
 Lust in the Chapel by 808 State (1991) +
808-next.txt 6767
 The Next Door Neighbour, by 808 State (1991) +
808-ppro.txt 6668
 Partytown Pro, by 808 State (1991) +
808-rebe.txt 4363
 Rebellion, by 808 State (1991) +
808-spoi.txt 5976
 The Spoilt Brat, by 808 State (1991) +
9_types_.gir 4602
 The 9 Types of Boyfriends and Girlfriends, from Matt Groening +
a-p_fone.txt 17402
 Erotica: The Telephone +
a-scene.txt 7670
 A Scene, by theClone (1991) +
a_friend.txt 33411
 A Friend in Need, by Phil Phantom +
a_guide_.wom 4807
 A Guide to Love and Sex for Today's Young Women +
a_ride.txt 22244
 A Ride, by Anonymous (Threesome) +
a_swap.txt 12654
 A Swap, by Anonymous (Threesome) +
aacockpt.txt 14498
 An American Airlines Cockpit, by M.A. Mohanraj (Threesome) +
aaden.txt 24077
 Aaden's Revenge by Elf Mathieu (1994) +
aadendnc.txt 31691
 Aaden's Dance, by Elf Mathieu Sternberg (1994) +
abbs9302.txt 41806
 Norman Brown's Consolidated List of AIDS/HIV Bulletin Boards 1 February 1993 +
abusebib.txt 15093
 Bibliography for Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse and Their Allies +
adam.gph 2547
 The Pirate's Cove Erotic Poem "Adam and Eve" +
affectio.txt 37545
 Cultivating Affection in Your Marriage, by Willard F. Harley Jr., Ph. D. 1987 +
aids-war.txt 35547
 AIDS as a Weapon of War by Dr. William Campbell Douglas, M.D. +
aids.mar 1444
 The AIDS Mary Urban Legend, and a Variation +
aids.sg 21526
 Understanding AIDS, a message from the Surgeon General +
aids.txt 5326
 Who's Making Money Out of AIDS? by Steve Painter +
aids02.txt 8695
 AIDS: Spread Facts, not Fear +
aids10.txt 56971
 Conspiracy Theories regarding Government Creation of the AIDS Virus +
aids2.txt 67126
 Extremely Large AIDS "Facts" File. Conclusion: We're Doomed +
aidsplot.1 35648
 AIDS as a Weapon of War, by Dr. William Campbell Douglas, M.D. (August 16, 1990) +
aidtruth.hum 30800
 Massive Rant about how AIDS will destroy the world in 1995. Oops! +
alicia.txt 14513
 STORY: The Fringe Benefits +
allwant.mag 22075
 Getting All You Want, by Roger Victor +
amanda01.txt 20300
 Massive Incest Story with Weird Explanatory Text Beforehand +
amanda02.txt 25154
 Incentual Sex File with Large Explanation Beforehand +
amanda03.txt 19123
 Amanda Takes on Dad, Poker Buddies, and Now an Entire Barroom! She must be tired. +
amerspor.hum 8903
 The Dungeon Master presents "American Sportswoman" +
ann&bob.sty 10368
 The Story of Ann and Bob +
armyaids.txt 12416
 Designer Diseases: AIDS As Biological and Psychological Warfare +
arose.sty 13888
 Ed and Rose's Adventures in Swinging +
arose2.sty 12288
 As it says "Wife is tied, fucked, and used by three horny men" +
artofsex.hum 6424
 One of the Worst: The Art of Sex, by The Cloaked Warrior +
artosex2.hum 4903
 Another One of the Worst: The Art of Sex II, by Cloaked Warrior +
asiaa_2.sty 22224
 Amy, the Thai Tease by Gerry Kanne, Part 2 +
babyhave.hum 11796
 Humorous perspective on having a baby. (Man's Perspective) +
bases.txt 4369
 A Newly Revised Guide to the Bases +
bear_cod.txt 11969
 The Natural Bears Classification System, by Bob Donahue, 3/24/1991 +
beastiality.txt 6693
 The Complete Guide to Beastiality and Necro-Beastiality by Nuclear Deth +
bedgolf.jok 1455
 The Rules for Bedroom Golf +
beefstar.hum 2965
 The only Beef Porno Story I have. +
billie.txt 129158
 Billie and her adventures in the Winnebago +
blinddates.txt 5123
 More than Fifty Ways to Get Rid of Blind Dates and Other Social Catastophies +
boat.txt 2048
 Sex Princess Sort of Writes Out Some Amount of Eroticism +
bon&disc.fun 15030
 Heidi's Stories of Bondage and Discipline +
boobs1 6951
 One Mammogram Please: Well Done, Hold the Onions, by Del Freeman +
boobs2 6313
 The Fun Never Stops, by Del Freeman (Mammogram Column) +
boobs3 12061
 Homestyle Boobs, by Del Freeman (Mammogram) +
brady.bunch 4352
 The Brady Bunch by Dick Cheese and Stu! +
brady.txt 10382
 Brady: A Special Family Story +
brother.txt 54851
 Brotherly Love (Incest) +
byeprsnt.txt 18602
 A Really Nice Goodbye Present +
camp.txt 11890
 STORY: An Experience at Camp, by The Storyteller +
camptrip.txt 11180
 The Camping Trip +
carlinis.txt 8368
 Carlinisms: Result of a Human Sexuality Survey of Sexual Slang +
celibacy.jok 659
 Man Page for Celibacy +
chateau.txt 56959
 The Chateau +
chester.fun 4546
 Chester the Molester's Guide to Picking Up Little Girls +
cindy.txt 23235
 Cindy Does Her Best Friend's Dad, by Steve Jensen +
circ.txt 3457
 Circumcision by the Associated Press +
circbook.txt 5312
 CIRCUMCISION: What It Does, by Billy Ray Boyd; +
circhst1.txt 11265
 Our British Heritage and the Sword of Islam +
circlist.txt 16140
 Large list of Celebrities and who is Circumcised and Who is Not +
circum.txt 9600
 Circumcision, an Overview, by Geoffrey Francis +
circums.hum 2121
 Information on Circumcision +
clothes.pin 17934
 Everything You Ever Want to Know about Clothespins as a Sexual Device +
colors.sex 7095
 Your Favorite Color is the Key to your Sexual Life +
comlust.txt 3293
 Computer Lust Story +
cond.txt 3316
 List of Possible Slogans for National Condom Week +
condom.stp 2560
 Condoms Stop AIDS Virus, by Bob K. +
condoms.txt 1094
 List of Possible Slogans Promoting National Condom Week +
contract.txt 1556
 The Contract of Love (To be signed by the Guy) +
cookie.txt 1744
 32 Reasons why Cookie Dough is Better than Men +
crfaq.txt 19886
 The UnOfficial Chicken Ranch FAQ Version 0.10 by Blake Wilfong (1994) +
cucumber.hum 1501
 Cucumbers are better than men! +
cucumber.jok 5739
 The "Why Cucumbers are Better than Men" List +
desperat.sit 3566
 A Man's Guide to Self-Amusement, by David Segall +
differen.jok 5897
 Men and women are NOT alike: The Proof! By Optimist Prime +
differen.txt 5726
 NEWS BULLETIN - Men and women are NOT alike +
doghow2.txt 14751
 A Women's Guide to Canine-Human Sex by Susie +
doit.txt 7410
 JUST DO IT +
eel.hum 3154
 How to Kill a South Dakota Eel +
electron.txt 1536
 The Sex Life of the Electron, by D.C. Current +
erolit5.hum 11735
 Erotic Literature #5 +
eroticbf.hum 5228
 The Erotic Buffett, from the Erotc Baker Cookbook +
eskimo.nel 8728
 The Ballad of Eskimo Nell +
evil.bondage 7424
 Evil Bondage: Phucks Phrom the Third Dimension by The Occultist (1987) (Badly Formatted) +
evilbondage.txt 7533
 Evil Bondage: Phucks From the Third Dimension by The Occultist (1987) +
exotictorture.txt 4684
 Exotic Torture Techniques: A Guide for the Beginner by Cyberpunk +
farm.hum 18560
 My Uncle's Farm, by Emily Wescott +
favorite.col 5375
 Your Favorite Colour is The Key To Your Sexual Life +
favsexpo.hum 1792
 Sexual Preferences of Users That We All Know Well by Teeny Bopper and Surf Rat +
fellatio.txt 37364
 How to Suck Cock: A 14 Lesson Tutorial With Techniques from Some of the Experts +
female.txt 15360
 JOKES: A Collection of Tastleless Jokes about Women +
female_t.est 4340
 The Female Purity Test +
finland.txt 1961
 The Official Minnesota Finlander's Sex Quiz +
foreanal.txt 4982
 Rectal Foreign Bodies: Case Reports and a Comprehensive Review of the World's Literature +
frs 10734
 Information on a Case of Scrotum Self-Repair +
fuck.your.hand 4224
 Fucking Your Hand, by Mr. Sex +
fuckdead.txt 2529
 How to Fuck the Dead (All Caps, Satire) +
fuckingyourhand.txt 4235
 Fucking Your Hand, by Mr. Sex +
galfrnds.txt 3346
 The 9 Types of Girlfriends, from Matt Groening's "Life in Hell" +
gay_laws.txt 8352
 Lesbian and Gay Rights Law Enters New Stage (April 27, 1989) +
gay_sold.law 1981
 Appeals Court Orders Reinstatment of Gay Soldier (May 5, 1989) +
gaypagan.rul 3870
 Rules for the Gay and Lesbian Pagans chat list +
gaywo 2079
 List of Gay Women from history +
gender.dic 20615
 Sexual Identity and Gender Identity Glossary +
gerbilstuffing.txt 5127
 Gerbil Stuffing, from the Straight Dope, typed by Ali Kent (May 26, 1989) +
getaids.txt 27036
 Can AIDS Threaten You? By Phoebe Courtney +
girls.guide 9310
 Sources say: A Girl's Guide To Condoms by Mimi Coucher +
girls.hum 2996
 Las Vegas Singles Expose - November 1985 +
girls.txt 1671
 Why Must Girls Squat to Pee +
glbo_lis.txt 56782
 Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Historical and Celebrity Figures (January 1993) +
golf.txt 5249
 The Rules for Indoor Golf, with Additional Comments from a Course Owner +
goodwife.hum 22976
 +
gourmet.sex 7168
 Little Oral Annie's Guide to Gourmet Sex +
gourmetsex.txt 7296
 The Little Oral Annie's Guide to Gourmet Sex +
govtaids.txt 15643
 AIDS: A Man Made Monster? by The Geheim Magazine +
guide.beastiali 6528
 The Complete Guide to Beastiality and Necro-Beastiality by Nuclear Deth +
guilt.txt 2619
 Guilt Without Sex: A Quick Guideline +
helldate.jok 6826
 The Orange County Register reports on Dates From Hell +
holmes.txt 1931
 An Ode to John Holmes, Porno Star Extrardinaire +
honeymoo.pra 2018
 PRACTICING FOR THEIR HONEYMOON by Jan Harold Brunvand (An Urban Legend) +
horse.sic 15012
 The Foremost How To on Having Sex with Horses +
hostess.txt 9033
 Party Girlie, by J. Boswell +
how.fuck.dead 3712
 How to Fuck the Dead by The Necrophiliac and the Blade of Neon Knights +
howpussy.txt 1836
 How the Pussy Was Built (You go, fellas) +
hsg.txt 8921
 High School Girls discover the infinite realm of naughty bits +
indoor.golf 2214
 The Official Rules of Indoor Golf +
indoorgf.hum 2648
 The Rules of Indoor Golf +
infert.fun 17408
 The mechanics of Infertility +
insanityc.txt 9917
 Keeping Insanity in the Closet! By The Weatherman of Metallica Mafia (April 13th, 1988) +
interace.txt 30584
 Results of an Interracial Relationship Survey +
kamasut.txt 24183
 The Love Teachings of Kama Sutra by Vatasyayana +
kamasutra.txt 23273
 The Love Teachings of the Kama Sutra +
karen.sex 15255
 Letter: Karen Fucks Her Little Brother: Is This Right? +
lambskin.txt 4416
 A Girl's Guide to Condoms by Mimi Coucher +
latrine.duty 11543
 Latrine Duty, by Mark E. Dassad (1993) +
latrineduty.txt 12301
 Latrine Duty: It's Not About Violence, it's not about Sex, it's about Violent Sex by Mark E. Dassad +
lawssex.hum 4346
 Murphy's Laws of Sex +
lay-girl.txt 16308
 The Complete Guide of Laying a Girl V1.1 +
lesbian.dic 20031
 The LesBiGay and Transgender Glossary +
libraryd.txt 1251
 They Got the Sexual Deviances Right in Order! +
linestog.txt 8954
 Collection of Pickup Lines +
lorry.hum 4619
 Lorry the Babysitter (Erotic Fiction) +
lovebyte.txt 3468
 Love Bytes, or Sex and the Single operator +
lvb.txt 21822
 A Guide to Las Vegas Brothels, by George Tews +
male_t.est 4650
 The Male Purity Test +
manhood.jok 1100
 The Road to Manhood, a List by Matt Groening +
massage.txt 17649
 ALT.SEX.WIZARDS Chimes in with Suggested Erotic Massage +
masturb.txt 5748
 Masturbation Techniques and Info (1986) +
masturbation 5760
 Masturbation Techniques and Information (1986) +
mc1.txt 12507
 The Marauding Cock of Lubbock Presents: I Fucked the South-Plains Maid of Cotton +
menstral.txt 4240
 Male Menstration: The Truth +
menvswoment.txt 12527
 Men Vs. Women: An Overview +
menwomen.txt 6054
 Men and Women are NOT Alike! +
mm-test.txt 25429
 Mortified Matchmakers Love Questionairre III (The Collegate Version) +
mojo_cha.txt 17966
 Shannon French's Sex Rant +
mormast.txt 4032
 From a Guide to Mormon Youth: Guide to Self-Control: Overcoming Masturbation +
mormon.txt 9688
 Some Steps in Overcoming Masturbation by Mark E. Petersen of the Council of the 12 Apostles +
multi.txt 26443
 More Rude Stuff from Nikolai and Kelanie: Welcome to the Team +
murfssex.txt 4075
 Murphy's Laws on Sex +
murph.sex 4279
 Murphy's Laws on Sex +
myrape.txt 6781
 The Night I became a Woman, by Joseph Wilson +
nasty.txt 1766
 The Nasty Girl: A List +
nipples.txt 6977
 Polished Nipples, or the DeKlein of Western Civilization +
oralsex1.txt 9250
 A Guide to Oral Sex, by Anonymous +
oralsex2.txt 8299
 A Guide to Oral Sex, by Anonymous (Part II) +
orson.txt 12485
 Orson Scott Card on "The Hypocrites of Homosexuality" +
paper.jok 672
 The Fax Message That Has Sex With You +
party.fun 13953
 Mike Goes Out to a Party +
peepingt.txt 3743
 You can be a peeping Tom without getting caught! By Brutus Maccabee (July 11, 1988) +
peepntom.fun 6050
 Thorough Insight on how to be a successful peeping tom. +
penthse.txt 3955
 Joining the Penthouse Petline Network +
personal.per 1290
 A Couple Personals from the HorseFeathers BBS +
pervert.lbry.1 7168
 The Perverts of Doom Present The Perverts Library #1: When Father Was Away by Leper Penis (July 5, 1989) +
pervert.lbry.2 4096
 The Perverts of Doom Present Whore Story, by Funky Fish Vagina (July 5, 1989) +
pervert.lbry.3 4992
 The Perverts of Doom Present Jism Baptism by Leper Penis (July 5, 1989) +
pervert.lbry.4 2176
 The Perverts of Doom Present Loading Zone by Leper Penis (September 15, 1991) +
pervertsofdoom2.txt 4141
 The Pervert's Library #2: Whore Story by Funky Fish Vagina (July 5, 1989) +
pervertsofdoom3.txt 4975
 The Pervert's Library #3: Jism Baptism by Leper Penis (July 5, 1989) +
pervertsofdoom4.txt 2134
 The Pervert's Library #4: Loading Zone by Leper Penis (September 15, 1991) +
phonsex.hum 3431
 Penthouse's Phone Sex Lines +
pickup.lin 6070
 The Canonical List of Male Pickup Lines +
pickup.txt 8153
 The 1984 Collection of Killer Pickup Lines +
pj.spa 11856
 Filmography of Porn Star P.J. Sparkx +
playboy.l1 6795
 Large List of Playboy Playmates from 1960-1991 +
playgirl.jok 835
 Disheartening PLAYGIRL Rejection Letter +
polyamor.txt 43596
 Very Large File on Just How Rockin' Polyamory is +
pool.txt 5385
 A little fun by the Pool by The Sex Princess +
porn 13402
 The Erotic Story of Maria +
porn.fav 8935
 The 1993 Survey for All Time Best XXX Actress +
prinnude.hum 1186
 The Princeton Naked Run a Big Success +
prostitutefaq.txt 30402
 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) List on Legal Prostitution in Nevada Version 1.0 (November 20, 1994) +
prudes.txt 8159
 Prudes and Virgins Digest (1988) +
purebred.cht 4992
 The List of Purebred Domestic Cats +
purity.100 4977
 The 100 Question Purity Test +
purity.15k 120450
 The 1500 Point Purity Test +
purity.400 54059
 The Unisex, Omnisexual Purity Test Version 3.5A 1985 +
purity.500 57216
 The Unisex, Omnisexual Purity Test Version 4.0 (500) 1988 +
purity.txt 77430
 The Omnisex Unisexual Purity Test Version 5.2 Final Release (September 15, 1992) +
reasons4.jok 9182
 Some Reasons to Have Sex +
rectum.txt 1832
 Looking for Love In all The Wrong Places... +
rest.in.pieces 2432
 Rest In Pieces, from the Carrion AE +
rocksex.hum 4427
 OH GOD WE HAD SO MUCH SEX +
sam.fox 8495
 Filmography of Samantha Fox, Porn Star +
samfox.txt 18271
 Samantha Fox: The Life Story! +
sayno.txt 5150
 101 Easy Ways to Say No +
seduce.hum 4326
 Three Places to Easily Seduce Your Girlfriend +
seminars.2 2214
 Seminars Offered for the Female Staff +
seminars.3 2065
 MORE Seminars for the Female Staff +
seminars.wom 3574
 Seminars for the Male Staff +
sex-cars.faq 8905
 Dekhyr Dragon's Guide to Sex with Cars (for males) +
sex.for 10522
 Sexual Consent Form for Two Individuals, Version 1.0.2 +
sex_and.cal 3243
 The Dieter's Guide to Weight Loss During Sex +
sexcolor.txt 5972
 Your Favorite Color is the Key to your Sexual Life +
sexdrur&.hum 2657
 Pointdexter Smallpecker's Guide to Sex Drugs and Rock and Roll +
sexedprm.txt 2641
 Sex Education Not Linked to promiscuity, December 16, 1993 +
sexhar.txt 2721
 The Sexual Harassment Consent Form +
sexquiz.txt 12800
 The Roble Hall Purity Test +
sexsata2.hum 7351
 Cock of Flame: Sex with Satan part II +
sexsatan.hum 8979
 Sex with Satan, by Psychoe. +
sextest.txt 53151
 The Unisex Omnisexual Purity Test Version 3.5A (400) (April 13, 1985) +
sextxt.hum 1655
 What NOT to name your dog +
sexual_t.qui 2167
 The Sexual Tension Quiz (Two Answers, Sexual and Not) +
sexwiz.faq 185341
 The Official Alt.Sex.Wizards FAQ File with Answers +
sexx.jok 7898
 The .plan File of Life +
sexy.fun 2688
 ALL YOU WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT SEX!!!11!!!! +
sexy.txt 2629
 All You Ever Wanted to Know About Sex!! +
sexydogs.txt 2878
 A Dog Named "Sex". Massively morphed file of the original (old) joke. +
shaving.txt 4132
 The Pleasures of Shaving, by GunErekt +
snagging.chicks 5632
 Snagging Chicks by Darkside 444 and White Shark +
snaggingchicks.txt 5624
 Snagging Chicks from the Flaming Toilet BBS +
solomon.sng 25963
 The Song of Solomon - Erotic poetry at its finest +
sorority.txt 7878
 The Canonical List of Sorority Girl Jokes +
squid.pur 90605
 The Official, Sanctioned DoD Squid Purity Test(tm), February 1993 +
stork_vs.rep 1809
 Ovulation Versus Cretinism: The Debate Rages On +
strip.rv 41505
 Very Large List of Nationwide Strip Clubs +
stupwife.hum 3123
 Stoopid Wives, by L.E. Pirate +
sweet16.txt 24893
 Thumper, by Dave Read +
syphilis 2816
 Syphillis: Effects and General Information by Suicidal Maniac +
syphilis.txt 2768
 Syphilis: Effects of and General Information by Suicidal Maniac of Dirty Bird's Nest BBS +
tacos.txt 2357
 27 Reasons Why Tacos Are Better Than Women +
talebdho.hum 23002
 Tales of a Bored Housewife +
test!.fun 4588
 100-Question Purity Test +
testsex.txt 6644
 The Kinky Test! +
the_date.txt 26219
 The Ultimate Date (Erotica) +
therules.txt 2589
 THE RULES: Respect the Female! +
titnames.hum 4270
 The Complete Tit File +
tits.hum 5208
 Head Honcho Presents Tits For Free +
titstard.hum 8776
 Barney Badass's Tits On The Tardis +
tortures.txt 3537
 A Few Cruel and Unusual Tortures That Women Perpetrate on Men +
toughluv.hum 14130
 Tough love For Singles, by Dr. James Dobson +
tracilords.txt 1973
 A Complete List of All of Traci Lords' Adult Films +
trojan.asc 1749
 The Trojan Condom Company Writes a Helpful Letter +
unisex.test 12322
 The Unisex Exprience Test +
unisex_t.est 12570
 The Unisex Experience Test (Seems to be a precursour to a Purity Test) +
vibrafaq.txt 17057
 The Vibrators FAQ +
waysayno.txt 5651
 100 Easy Ways to Say No +
what!.fun 3563
 Live Sex In Concert +
whodo.hum 5973
 Everybody Does It! +
whybeer.txt 1280
 Why Beer is Better than Women +
wife.txt 2625
 To My Loving Wife, The Seductions of the Past Year +
wifeslut.txt 114696
 The Wife Slut Program: A Course For Candidates To Discover Who They Are Sexually +
wifespk.txt 2589
 Wifespeak Translations +
wmnhood.jok 1052
 The Road to Womanhood, by Matt Groening +
woman.txt 4103
 Chemical Analysis of the Woman Element (WO) +
women.jok 3556
 David Crist's Truths about Women, 1989 +

There are 278 files for a total of 3,688,238 bytes.
There is 1 directory.
+ +

If you wish to have the entire directory conveniently archived and compressed into one file, please download +either sex.tar.gz (48624388 bytes) or sex.zip (53053575 bytes) instead of all the files separately.

diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/.windex.html b/textfiles.com/sex/.windex.html new file mode 100644 index 00000000..ec24d5c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/.windex.html @@ -0,0 +1,320 @@ + +T E X T F I L E S + +

Sex, Sex Humor and Sexuality

+

+Here are all files dealing with that most universal of concepts: Sex. This +was obviously at the foremost of many a young mind using BBSes. Perhaps +surprising (or not at all), sexual activity was kind of ancilliary to the +whole online experience, since what impressed people was what you could +accomplish online, not in bed. But the longings of adolescents everywhere +is evident in all sorts of files written during this period. +

+Probably the most humorous files were the "Sex Guides", purporting to be +tracts that would guarantee sexual activity for all those who read them, +and obviously written by people who had never or seldom experienced +any activity themselves. +

+Besides the erotic stories, dirty jokes, and the Purity Tests (which are +an event in themselves), you can find articles and information about +sexually transmitted diseases, and other health issues, which are +informative about living a good life after you get over this "have sex +with anything that says yes" phase. +

+A small site note: +Obviously, with any web site mentioning sex and sexual activites, you're +guaranteed hit upon hit as people looking for some sort of "dirty pictures" +or erotic enlightment stumble upon your poor text-only page. To those people, +I take their time to say "Buy a +T-shirt". Thank you. +

+ + + + + +
+ + +
Filename
Size
Description of the Textfile
EROTICAErotic Writings, Stories, Narratives, and Just Plain Smut
 
052496h1.txt 3999
 Who, Really, is At Risk of Acquiring AIDS? By Maggie Gallagher (May 24, 1996) +
500pure.txt 58845
 The Unisex, Omnisexual PURITY TEST, Version 4.0, Final Release +
808-cass.txt 7722
 Cassandra's Adventure, by 808 State (1991) +
808-laid.txt 5694
 How to Get Laid on the First Date by 808 State (1991) +
808-lust.txt 5253
 Lust in the Chapel by 808 State (1991) +
808-next.txt 6767
 The Next Door Neighbour, by 808 State (1991) +
808-ppro.txt 6668
 Partytown Pro, by 808 State (1991) +
808-rebe.txt 4363
 Rebellion, by 808 State (1991) +
808-spoi.txt 5976
 The Spoilt Brat, by 808 State (1991) +
9_types_.gir 4602
 The 9 Types of Boyfriends and Girlfriends, from Matt Groening +
a-p_fone.txt 17402
 Erotica: The Telephone +
a-scene.txt 7670
 A Scene, by theClone (1991) +
a_friend.txt 33411
 A Friend in Need, by Phil Phantom +
a_guide_.wom 4807
 A Guide to Love and Sex for Today's Young Women +
a_ride.txt 22244
 A Ride, by Anonymous (Threesome) +
a_swap.txt 12654
 A Swap, by Anonymous (Threesome) +
aacockpt.txt 14498
 An American Airlines Cockpit, by M.A. Mohanraj (Threesome) +
aaden.txt 24077
 Aaden's Revenge by Elf Mathieu (1994) +
aadendnc.txt 31691
 Aaden's Dance, by Elf Mathieu Sternberg (1994) +
abbs9302.txt 41806
 Norman Brown's Consolidated List of AIDS/HIV Bulletin Boards 1 February 1993 +
abusebib.txt 15093
 Bibliography for Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse and Their Allies +
adam.gph 2547
 The Pirate's Cove Erotic Poem "Adam and Eve" +
affectio.txt 37545
 Cultivating Affection in Your Marriage, by Willard F. Harley Jr., Ph. D. 1987 +
aids-war.txt 35547
 AIDS as a Weapon of War by Dr. William Campbell Douglas, M.D. +
aids.mar 1444
 The AIDS Mary Urban Legend, and a Variation +
aids.sg 21526
 Understanding AIDS, a message from the Surgeon General +
aids.txt 5326
 Who's Making Money Out of AIDS? by Steve Painter +
aids02.txt 8695
 AIDS: Spread Facts, not Fear +
aids10.txt 56971
 Conspiracy Theories regarding Government Creation of the AIDS Virus +
aids2.txt 67126
 Extremely Large AIDS "Facts" File. Conclusion: We're Doomed +
aidsplot.1 35648
 AIDS as a Weapon of War, by Dr. William Campbell Douglas, M.D. (August 16, 1990) +
aidtruth.hum 30800
 Massive Rant about how AIDS will destroy the world in 1995. Oops! +
alicia.txt 14513
 STORY: The Fringe Benefits +
allwant.mag 22075
 Getting All You Want, by Roger Victor +
amanda01.txt 20300
 Massive Incest Story with Weird Explanatory Text Beforehand +
amanda02.txt 25154
 Incentual Sex File with Large Explanation Beforehand +
amanda03.txt 19123
 Amanda Takes on Dad, Poker Buddies, and Now an Entire Barroom! She must be tired. +
amerspor.hum 8903
 The Dungeon Master presents "American Sportswoman" +
ann&bob.sty 10368
 The Story of Ann and Bob +
armyaids.txt 12416
 Designer Diseases: AIDS As Biological and Psychological Warfare +
arose.sty 13888
 Ed and Rose's Adventures in Swinging +
arose2.sty 12288
 As it says "Wife is tied, fucked, and used by three horny men" +
artofsex.hum 6424
 One of the Worst: The Art of Sex, by The Cloaked Warrior +
artosex2.hum 4903
 Another One of the Worst: The Art of Sex II, by Cloaked Warrior +
asiaa_2.sty 22224
 Amy, the Thai Tease by Gerry Kanne, Part 2 +
babyhave.hum 11796
 Humorous perspective on having a baby. (Man's Perspective) +
bases.txt 4369
 A Newly Revised Guide to the Bases +
bear_cod.txt 11969
 The Natural Bears Classification System, by Bob Donahue, 3/24/1991 +
beastiality.txt 6693
 The Complete Guide to Beastiality and Necro-Beastiality by Nuclear Deth +
bedgolf.jok 1455
 The Rules for Bedroom Golf +
beefstar.hum 2965
 The only Beef Porno Story I have. +
billie.txt 129158
 Billie and her adventures in the Winnebago +
blinddates.txt 5123
 More than Fifty Ways to Get Rid of Blind Dates and Other Social Catastophies +
boat.txt 2048
 Sex Princess Sort of Writes Out Some Amount of Eroticism +
bon&disc.fun 15030
 Heidi's Stories of Bondage and Discipline +
boobs1 6951
 One Mammogram Please: Well Done, Hold the Onions, by Del Freeman +
boobs2 6313
 The Fun Never Stops, by Del Freeman (Mammogram Column) +
boobs3 12061
 Homestyle Boobs, by Del Freeman (Mammogram) +
brady.bunch 4352
 The Brady Bunch by Dick Cheese and Stu! +
brady.txt 10382
 Brady: A Special Family Story +
brother.txt 54851
 Brotherly Love (Incest) +
byeprsnt.txt 18602
 A Really Nice Goodbye Present +
camp.txt 11890
 STORY: An Experience at Camp, by The Storyteller +
camptrip.txt 11180
 The Camping Trip +
carlinis.txt 8368
 Carlinisms: Result of a Human Sexuality Survey of Sexual Slang +
celibacy.jok 659
 Man Page for Celibacy +
chateau.txt 56959
 The Chateau +
chester.fun 4546
 Chester the Molester's Guide to Picking Up Little Girls +
cindy.txt 23235
 Cindy Does Her Best Friend's Dad, by Steve Jensen +
circ.txt 3457
 Circumcision by the Associated Press +
circbook.txt 5312
 CIRCUMCISION: What It Does, by Billy Ray Boyd; +
circhst1.txt 11265
 Our British Heritage and the Sword of Islam +
circlist.txt 16140
 Large list of Celebrities and who is Circumcised and Who is Not +
circum.txt 9600
 Circumcision, an Overview, by Geoffrey Francis +
circums.hum 2121
 Information on Circumcision +
clothes.pin 17934
 Everything You Ever Want to Know about Clothespins as a Sexual Device +
colors.sex 7095
 Your Favorite Color is the Key to your Sexual Life +
comlust.txt 3293
 Computer Lust Story +
cond.txt 3316
 List of Possible Slogans for National Condom Week +
condom.stp 2560
 Condoms Stop AIDS Virus, by Bob K. +
condoms.txt 1094
 List of Possible Slogans Promoting National Condom Week +
contract.txt 1556
 The Contract of Love (To be signed by the Guy) +
cookie.txt 1744
 32 Reasons why Cookie Dough is Better than Men +
crfaq.txt 19886
 The UnOfficial Chicken Ranch FAQ Version 0.10 by Blake Wilfong (1994) +
cucumber.hum 1501
 Cucumbers are better than men! +
cucumber.jok 5739
 The "Why Cucumbers are Better than Men" List +
desperat.sit 3566
 A Man's Guide to Self-Amusement, by David Segall +
differen.jok 5897
 Men and women are NOT alike: The Proof! By Optimist Prime +
differen.txt 5726
 NEWS BULLETIN - Men and women are NOT alike +
doghow2.txt 14751
 A Women's Guide to Canine-Human Sex by Susie +
doit.txt 7410
 JUST DO IT +
eel.hum 3154
 How to Kill a South Dakota Eel +
electron.txt 1536
 The Sex Life of the Electron, by D.C. Current +
erolit5.hum 11735
 Erotic Literature #5 +
eroticbf.hum 5228
 The Erotic Buffett, from the Erotc Baker Cookbook +
eskimo.nel 8728
 The Ballad of Eskimo Nell +
evil.bondage 7424
 Evil Bondage: Phucks Phrom the Third Dimension by The Occultist (1987) (Badly Formatted) +
evilbondage.txt 7533
 Evil Bondage: Phucks From the Third Dimension by The Occultist (1987) +
exotictorture.txt 4684
 Exotic Torture Techniques: A Guide for the Beginner by Cyberpunk +
farm.hum 18560
 My Uncle's Farm, by Emily Wescott +
favorite.col 5375
 Your Favorite Colour is The Key To Your Sexual Life +
favsexpo.hum 1792
 Sexual Preferences of Users That We All Know Well by Teeny Bopper and Surf Rat +
fellatio.txt 37364
 How to Suck Cock: A 14 Lesson Tutorial With Techniques from Some of the Experts +
female.txt 15360
 JOKES: A Collection of Tastleless Jokes about Women +
female_t.est 4340
 The Female Purity Test +
finland.txt 1961
 The Official Minnesota Finlander's Sex Quiz +
foreanal.txt 4982
 Rectal Foreign Bodies: Case Reports and a Comprehensive Review of the World's Literature +
frs 10734
 Information on a Case of Scrotum Self-Repair +
fuck.your.hand 4224
 Fucking Your Hand, by Mr. Sex +
fuckdead.txt 2529
 How to Fuck the Dead (All Caps, Satire) +
fuckingyourhand.txt 4235
 Fucking Your Hand, by Mr. Sex +
galfrnds.txt 3346
 The 9 Types of Girlfriends, from Matt Groening's "Life in Hell" +
gay_laws.txt 8352
 Lesbian and Gay Rights Law Enters New Stage (April 27, 1989) +
gay_sold.law 1981
 Appeals Court Orders Reinstatment of Gay Soldier (May 5, 1989) +
gaypagan.rul 3870
 Rules for the Gay and Lesbian Pagans chat list +
gaywo 2079
 List of Gay Women from history +
gender.dic 20615
 Sexual Identity and Gender Identity Glossary +
gerbilstuffing.txt 5127
 Gerbil Stuffing, from the Straight Dope, typed by Ali Kent (May 26, 1989) +
getaids.txt 27036
 Can AIDS Threaten You? By Phoebe Courtney +
girls.guide 9310
 Sources say: A Girl's Guide To Condoms by Mimi Coucher +
girls.hum 2996
 Las Vegas Singles Expose - November 1985 +
girls.txt 1671
 Why Must Girls Squat to Pee +
glbo_lis.txt 56782
 Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Historical and Celebrity Figures (January 1993) +
golf.txt 5249
 The Rules for Indoor Golf, with Additional Comments from a Course Owner +
goodwife.hum 22976
 +
gourmet.sex 7168
 Little Oral Annie's Guide to Gourmet Sex +
gourmetsex.txt 7296
 The Little Oral Annie's Guide to Gourmet Sex +
govtaids.txt 15643
 AIDS: A Man Made Monster? by The Geheim Magazine +
guide.beastiali 6528
 The Complete Guide to Beastiality and Necro-Beastiality by Nuclear Deth +
guilt.txt 2619
 Guilt Without Sex: A Quick Guideline +
helldate.jok 6826
 The Orange County Register reports on Dates From Hell +
holmes.txt 1931
 An Ode to John Holmes, Porno Star Extrardinaire +
honeymoo.pra 2018
 PRACTICING FOR THEIR HONEYMOON by Jan Harold Brunvand (An Urban Legend) +
horse.sic 15012
 The Foremost How To on Having Sex with Horses +
hostess.txt 9033
 Party Girlie, by J. Boswell +
how.fuck.dead 3712
 How to Fuck the Dead by The Necrophiliac and the Blade of Neon Knights +
howpussy.txt 1836
 How the Pussy Was Built (You go, fellas) +
hsg.txt 8921
 High School Girls discover the infinite realm of naughty bits +
indoor.golf 2214
 The Official Rules of Indoor Golf +
indoorgf.hum 2648
 The Rules of Indoor Golf +
infert.fun 17408
 The mechanics of Infertility +
insanityc.txt 9917
 Keeping Insanity in the Closet! By The Weatherman of Metallica Mafia (April 13th, 1988) +
interace.txt 30584
 Results of an Interracial Relationship Survey +
kamasut.txt 24183
 The Love Teachings of Kama Sutra by Vatasyayana +
kamasutra.txt 23273
 The Love Teachings of the Kama Sutra +
karen.sex 15255
 Letter: Karen Fucks Her Little Brother: Is This Right? +
lambskin.txt 4416
 A Girl's Guide to Condoms by Mimi Coucher +
latrine.duty 11543
 Latrine Duty, by Mark E. Dassad (1993) +
latrineduty.txt 12301
 Latrine Duty: It's Not About Violence, it's not about Sex, it's about Violent Sex by Mark E. Dassad +
lawssex.hum 4346
 Murphy's Laws of Sex +
lay-girl.txt 16308
 The Complete Guide of Laying a Girl V1.1 +
lesbian.dic 20031
 The LesBiGay and Transgender Glossary +
libraryd.txt 1251
 They Got the Sexual Deviances Right in Order! +
linestog.txt 8954
 Collection of Pickup Lines +
lorry.hum 4619
 Lorry the Babysitter (Erotic Fiction) +
lovebyte.txt 3468
 Love Bytes, or Sex and the Single operator +
lvb.txt 21822
 A Guide to Las Vegas Brothels, by George Tews +
male_t.est 4650
 The Male Purity Test +
manhood.jok 1100
 The Road to Manhood, a List by Matt Groening +
massage.txt 17649
 ALT.SEX.WIZARDS Chimes in with Suggested Erotic Massage +
masturb.txt 5748
 Masturbation Techniques and Info (1986) +
masturbation 5760
 Masturbation Techniques and Information (1986) +
mc1.txt 12507
 The Marauding Cock of Lubbock Presents: I Fucked the South-Plains Maid of Cotton +
menstral.txt 4240
 Male Menstration: The Truth +
menvswoment.txt 12527
 Men Vs. Women: An Overview +
menwomen.txt 6054
 Men and Women are NOT Alike! +
mm-test.txt 25429
 Mortified Matchmakers Love Questionairre III (The Collegate Version) +
mojo_cha.txt 17966
 Shannon French's Sex Rant +
mormast.txt 4032
 From a Guide to Mormon Youth: Guide to Self-Control: Overcoming Masturbation +
mormon.txt 9688
 Some Steps in Overcoming Masturbation by Mark E. Petersen of the Council of the 12 Apostles +
multi.txt 26443
 More Rude Stuff from Nikolai and Kelanie: Welcome to the Team +
murfssex.txt 4075
 Murphy's Laws on Sex +
murph.sex 4279
 Murphy's Laws on Sex +
myrape.txt 6781
 The Night I became a Woman, by Joseph Wilson +
nasty.txt 1766
 The Nasty Girl: A List +
nipples.txt 6977
 Polished Nipples, or the DeKlein of Western Civilization +
oralsex1.txt 9250
 A Guide to Oral Sex, by Anonymous +
oralsex2.txt 8299
 A Guide to Oral Sex, by Anonymous (Part II) +
orson.txt 12485
 Orson Scott Card on "The Hypocrites of Homosexuality" +
paper.jok 672
 The Fax Message That Has Sex With You +
party.fun 13953
 Mike Goes Out to a Party +
peepingt.txt 3743
 You can be a peeping Tom without getting caught! By Brutus Maccabee (July 11, 1988) +
peepntom.fun 6050
 Thorough Insight on how to be a successful peeping tom. +
penthse.txt 3955
 Joining the Penthouse Petline Network +
personal.per 1290
 A Couple Personals from the HorseFeathers BBS +
pervert.lbry.1 7168
 The Perverts of Doom Present The Perverts Library #1: When Father Was Away by Leper Penis (July 5, 1989) +
pervert.lbry.2 4096
 The Perverts of Doom Present Whore Story, by Funky Fish Vagina (July 5, 1989) +
pervert.lbry.3 4992
 The Perverts of Doom Present Jism Baptism by Leper Penis (July 5, 1989) +
pervert.lbry.4 2176
 The Perverts of Doom Present Loading Zone by Leper Penis (September 15, 1991) +
pervertsofdoom2.txt 4141
 The Pervert's Library #2: Whore Story by Funky Fish Vagina (July 5, 1989) +
pervertsofdoom3.txt 4975
 The Pervert's Library #3: Jism Baptism by Leper Penis (July 5, 1989) +
pervertsofdoom4.txt 2134
 The Pervert's Library #4: Loading Zone by Leper Penis (September 15, 1991) +
phonsex.hum 3431
 Penthouse's Phone Sex Lines +
pickup.lin 6070
 The Canonical List of Male Pickup Lines +
pickup.txt 8153
 The 1984 Collection of Killer Pickup Lines +
pj.spa 11856
 Filmography of Porn Star P.J. Sparkx +
playboy.l1 6795
 Large List of Playboy Playmates from 1960-1991 +
playgirl.jok 835
 Disheartening PLAYGIRL Rejection Letter +
polyamor.txt 43596
 Very Large File on Just How Rockin' Polyamory is +
pool.txt 5385
 A little fun by the Pool by The Sex Princess +
porn 13402
 The Erotic Story of Maria +
porn.fav 8935
 The 1993 Survey for All Time Best XXX Actress +
prinnude.hum 1186
 The Princeton Naked Run a Big Success +
prostitutefaq.txt 30402
 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) List on Legal Prostitution in Nevada Version 1.0 (November 20, 1994) +
prudes.txt 8159
 Prudes and Virgins Digest (1988) +
purebred.cht 4992
 The List of Purebred Domestic Cats +
purity.100 4977
 The 100 Question Purity Test +
purity.15k 120450
 The 1500 Point Purity Test +
purity.400 54059
 The Unisex, Omnisexual Purity Test Version 3.5A 1985 +
purity.500 57216
 The Unisex, Omnisexual Purity Test Version 4.0 (500) 1988 +
purity.txt 77430
 The Omnisex Unisexual Purity Test Version 5.2 Final Release (September 15, 1992) +
reasons4.jok 9182
 Some Reasons to Have Sex +
rectum.txt 1832
 Looking for Love In all The Wrong Places... +
rest.in.pieces 2432
 Rest In Pieces, from the Carrion AE +
rocksex.hum 4427
 OH GOD WE HAD SO MUCH SEX +
sam.fox 8495
 Filmography of Samantha Fox, Porn Star +
samfox.txt 18271
 Samantha Fox: The Life Story! +
sayno.txt 5150
 101 Easy Ways to Say No +
seduce.hum 4326
 Three Places to Easily Seduce Your Girlfriend +
seminars.2 2214
 Seminars Offered for the Female Staff +
seminars.3 2065
 MORE Seminars for the Female Staff +
seminars.wom 3574
 Seminars for the Male Staff +
sex-cars.faq 8905
 Dekhyr Dragon's Guide to Sex with Cars (for males) +
sex.for 10522
 Sexual Consent Form for Two Individuals, Version 1.0.2 +
sex_and.cal 3243
 The Dieter's Guide to Weight Loss During Sex +
sexcolor.txt 5972
 Your Favorite Color is the Key to your Sexual Life +
sexdrur&.hum 2657
 Pointdexter Smallpecker's Guide to Sex Drugs and Rock and Roll +
sexedprm.txt 2641
 Sex Education Not Linked to promiscuity, December 16, 1993 +
sexhar.txt 2721
 The Sexual Harassment Consent Form +
sexquiz.txt 12800
 The Roble Hall Purity Test +
sexsata2.hum 7351
 Cock of Flame: Sex with Satan part II +
sexsatan.hum 8979
 Sex with Satan, by Psychoe. +
sextest.txt 53151
 The Unisex Omnisexual Purity Test Version 3.5A (400) (April 13, 1985) +
sextxt.hum 1655
 What NOT to name your dog +
sexual_t.qui 2167
 The Sexual Tension Quiz (Two Answers, Sexual and Not) +
sexwiz.faq 185341
 The Official Alt.Sex.Wizards FAQ File with Answers +
sexx.jok 7898
 The .plan File of Life +
sexy.fun 2688
 ALL YOU WANTED TO KNOW ABOUT SEX!!!11!!!! +
sexy.txt 2629
 All You Ever Wanted to Know About Sex!! +
sexydogs.txt 2878
 A Dog Named "Sex". Massively morphed file of the original (old) joke. +
shaving.txt 4132
 The Pleasures of Shaving, by GunErekt +
snagging.chicks 5632
 Snagging Chicks by Darkside 444 and White Shark +
snaggingchicks.txt 5624
 Snagging Chicks from the Flaming Toilet BBS +
solomon.sng 25963
 The Song of Solomon - Erotic poetry at its finest +
sorority.txt 7878
 The Canonical List of Sorority Girl Jokes +
squid.pur 90605
 The Official, Sanctioned DoD Squid Purity Test(tm), February 1993 +
stork_vs.rep 1809
 Ovulation Versus Cretinism: The Debate Rages On +
strip.rv 41505
 Very Large List of Nationwide Strip Clubs +
stupwife.hum 3123
 Stoopid Wives, by L.E. Pirate +
sweet16.txt 24893
 Thumper, by Dave Read +
syphilis 2816
 Syphillis: Effects and General Information by Suicidal Maniac +
syphilis.txt 2768
 Syphilis: Effects of and General Information by Suicidal Maniac of Dirty Bird's Nest BBS +
tacos.txt 2357
 27 Reasons Why Tacos Are Better Than Women +
talebdho.hum 23002
 Tales of a Bored Housewife +
test!.fun 4588
 100-Question Purity Test +
testsex.txt 6644
 The Kinky Test! +
the_date.txt 26219
 The Ultimate Date (Erotica) +
therules.txt 2589
 THE RULES: Respect the Female! +
titnames.hum 4270
 The Complete Tit File +
tits.hum 5208
 Head Honcho Presents Tits For Free +
titstard.hum 8776
 Barney Badass's Tits On The Tardis +
tortures.txt 3537
 A Few Cruel and Unusual Tortures That Women Perpetrate on Men +
toughluv.hum 14130
 Tough love For Singles, by Dr. James Dobson +
tracilords.txt 1973
 A Complete List of All of Traci Lords' Adult Films +
trojan.asc 1749
 The Trojan Condom Company Writes a Helpful Letter +
unisex.test 12322
 The Unisex Exprience Test +
unisex_t.est 12570
 The Unisex Experience Test (Seems to be a precursour to a Purity Test) +
vibrafaq.txt 17057
 The Vibrators FAQ +
waysayno.txt 5651
 100 Easy Ways to Say No +
what!.fun 3563
 Live Sex In Concert +
whodo.hum 5973
 Everybody Does It! +
whybeer.txt 1280
 Why Beer is Better than Women +
wife.txt 2625
 To My Loving Wife, The Seductions of the Past Year +
wifeslut.txt 114696
 The Wife Slut Program: A Course For Candidates To Discover Who They Are Sexually +
wifespk.txt 2589
 Wifespeak Translations +
wmnhood.jok 1052
 The Road to Womanhood, by Matt Groening +
woman.txt 4103
 Chemical Analysis of the Woman Element (WO) +
women.jok 3556
 David Crist's Truths about Women, 1989 +

There are 278 files for a total of 3,688,238 bytes.
There is 1 directory.
+ +

If you wish to have the entire directory conveniently archived and compressed into one file, please download +either sex.tar.gz (48624388 bytes) or sex.zip (53053575 bytes) instead of all the files separately.

diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/052496h1.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/052496h1.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..f70b9ddb --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/052496h1.txt @@ -0,0 +1,88 @@ +=============================================================== +The BIRCH BARK BBS / 414-242-5070 +=============================================================== +Human Events * May 24, 1996 + +For 10 Years, Federal Government Has Lied to the American People + +WHO, REALLY, IS AT RISK OF ACQUIRING AIDS? + +By Maggie Gallagher + +So far, AIDS has killed more than 300,000 Americans. Why, after +so much time and money, are so many still dying? + +One reason, according to a damning Wall Street Journal report, +is this: For 10 years, the government has been deliberately lying +to us about who is at risk of AIDS. + +As early as 1987, Centers for Disease Control officials knew that +AIDS was likely to remain a disease of gay men and inner-city drug +users. Yet the same year, the nation's public health officials +embarked on a deliberate public-relations campaign to mislead the +American people into thinking that AIDS was spreading inexorably +into the mainstream. + +SLEAZY CDC CAMPAIGN MISSTATES RISK OF AIDS + +Remember those TV ads featuring the Baptist minister's son, who +said, "If I can get AIDS, anyone can"? Turns out he was gay. +Remember the brochures featuring a blond, middle-aged woman with +AIDS? She was an intravenous drug user. + +Surveys show that, after the PR campaign was in full swing, the +percentage of Americans who thought it "likely" AIDS would become +a full scale epidemic leaped from 51% to 69%. By 1991, most agreed +that married people who had an occasional affair had a substantial +risk of getting AIDS. + +In reality, the government's own research showed that the risk of +getting AIDS from one act of heterosexual intercourse was less than +the chance of getting hit by lightening. This was the conclusion +that Michael Fumento reached years ago in his book The Myth of +Heterosexual AIDS, for which he was unjustly and shamefully reviled. + +Even more remarkable, these government officials now publicly defend +their deceit. "We wanted to reduce the stigma," acknowledges a CDC +official. "As long as this was seen as a gay disease,...that pushed +the disease way down the ladder of people's priorities," admitted +another. + +DELIBERATELY FRIGHTENING AND DECEIVING TAXPAYERS + +What astonishing bureaucratic hubris! The first and most obvious +victims of the government's lies are the 40,000 or so Americans +who this year will become HIV-positive, overwhelmingly gay men or +poor, inner-city drug users and their sexual partners. According +to one model by epidemiologist James G. Kahn, each dollar spent on +high-risk populations prevents 50 to 70 times as many new infections +as the same money spread out among low-risk groups. Yet, of the +almost $600 million the federal government spends on AIDS prevention, +probably less than 10% is spent on high-risk groups. + +If Kahn's model is correct, redirecting the $540 million now wasted +on spreading the myth of heterosexual AIDS to high-risk groups - mostly +gays and inner-city drug users - could wipe out new infections entirely. + +The CDC knows the truth. Yet this year, its education program, "Respect +Yourself, Protect Yourself" is once again aimed at the general population. +Indeed, according to the Wall Street Journal, "A current focus of the +campaign is to discourage premarital sex among heterosexuals." + +The ultimate casualty of the CDCs lies will be Americans' faith in public- +health officials, heretofore generally exempt from our growing distrust +in government. + +Yet public health officials, afraid they couldn't honestly generate +support, deliberately frightened and deceived American taxpayers to get +them to cough up the dough. In private life, this would be known as +fraud - not only a serious sin, but a crime. In Washington, D.C., judging +from the ease and even pride with which public health officials now confess +their wrongdoing, it's business as usual. + +[end] + +Source: Human Events, p.17 + May 24, 1996 + +Subscription: 1-800-787-7557 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/500pure.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/500pure.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..57cac93c --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/500pure.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1011 @@ + THE UNISEX, OMNISEXUAL + P U R I T Y T E S T + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Version 4.0 (500) + Final Release + 23-Apr-1988 + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Public domain; no copyright. All rights wronged, all wrongs reversed. Up with + going down. The risen flesh commands: let there be love. Murphy's law on + sex: Love is a matter of chemistry; sex is a matter of physics. Chaste makes + waste. Virginity can be cured. + + This document was not sponsored by the Department of Defense Advanced Research + Projects Agency, and was not monitored by the Air Force Avionics Laboratory. + The views and conclusions contained in this document should not be interpreted + as representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the + Defense Advanced Projects Agency or the US Government. Neither should it be + interpreted nor inferred that the authors/contributors have actually performed + any of the actions contained herein. + _______________________________________________________________________________ + + Disclaimer of Liability + + The user of this test acknowledges that sex is a hazardous sport; that a person + must copulate in control, and use good judgement at all times; that partners' + conditions vary constantly and are greatly affected by weather changes and + previous use; and that dirty sheets, variations in terrain and bed surfaces, + spouses/pimps/managers, forest growth, rocks and debris, clothed obstacles, and + many other natural and man-made obstacles and hazards, including other users + and customers, exist throughout the bedroom area. Personal managers + (pimps/spouses) and sado-masochistic operations and equipment are constantly in + use and may be hazardous to those not copulating in control. Impotence, + collisions, and social diseases resulting in injury can happen at any time, + even to those copulating in control with proper sexual equipment. Inherent + risks are part of the sport and may exist within your partner. As a condition + of being permitted to use the facilities of your partner, the user of this test + agrees to copulate in control and within the limits of his/her ability, and + further acknowledges and accepts these hazards, dangers, and risks and assumes + the risk of injury or loss to person or damage to property which might result + from use of the partner's facilities. + + As a further condition of being permitted to use the facilities of your + partner, the customer understands and agrees that: (1) in the event of a + transfer of use by another or anything else in the management's opinion is + misconduct, misuse, kinky, impotence, or nuisance, this service may be revoked + without refund; (2) the partner is the property of the harem and, upon request, + s/he must be presented to any authorized representative of the pimp/spouse; (3) + sexual equipment must be visibly displayed at all times when you are in any + bedroom and when approaching the bed to copulate. Your sexual partner is not + transferable; see Theft of Services, V.S.A., sections 2581 and 2582. + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Purity Test Genesis/History: + + Version 1 (100) Created at MIT's Baker House. Two parallel versions; one for + male, and one for female. Not much is known about this + version. It was ported to CMU by ps in 1982. + Version 2 (247) Spring 1983 - CMU/jb, pd, kr, ps, ts, mt, et al. + Expanded to 247 questions. This marked the beginning of + the unisex versions. The story goes that they intended it to be + 250 questions, but got tired that night and said "we'll think + of three more tomorrow", and tomorrow never got there. + Version 3.3C.1 (400) on 05-Dec-1984 + First formal release general of this test, version 3.xx. All + former versions were short-lived and tended to be bug-ridden. + Does not discriminate against gays or bi's. Good correspondence + of scores (especially in the higher score ranges) between this + version and version 2. Added Genesis/History section. + Version 3.4 (400) on 29-Jan-1985 + Internal version; never released. Source code accidentally + destroyed, much to the consternation of one of the authors. + Cleaned up many bugs. Added sections: Disclaimer of Liability, + Instructions for Use, Scoring, and Warranty Information. + Version 3.5 (400) on 10-Apr-1985 + Rebuilt from the 3.3C.1 source and the 3.4 (only surviving + copy) Xerox X9700 laser printer hardcopy. Cleaned up same bugs + in 3.4; wiped out a duplicate question. Added in verbose + history section. + Version 3.5A (400) on 13-Apr-1985: CMU/da, fa, tc, no, dt, sv, rz, et al + Found that we had 431 questions instead of 400. + Version 3.5B (400) on 18-Mar-1986: Yale (Pierson College)/ as + Intermediate release, with footnotes integrated into main body + of text and some grammatical errors cleaned up. Begun in + Fall, 1985; finished in April for the benefit of a friend at + MIT (where it all began), who hadn't seen any versions except + the antique Version 1. + Version 3.5C (400) on 17-Jan-1988: Yale (Pierson College)/mmd (CLARINET@YALEVM) + Grammatical errors corrected. Introduction and history + cleaned up. + Version 4.0 (500) on 23-April-1988: Yale (Silliman College)/dfc, ad, dcg, mlm, + and Dartmouth (Alpha Theta)/alb. Original 400-question version + expanded to 500 questions. + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Instructions for Use: + + This is a fairly long test consisting of five hundred questions. It starts out + tame and gets progressively worse (or better, depending on your viewpoint). + There are many ways of going about taking this test. You can, of course, as + your right, guaranteed by the Constitution, be anti-social and sequester + yourself in your room and take this test all by yourself; however, we feel that + the funnest way to utilize this test is to hold a Purity Test Party. All you + need is one copy of the test, and a bunch of friends. (Lots of writing + implements and paper would be useful too.) The person with the copy of the + test is the test administrator; s/he readsd the questions out loud and + everybody else writes down their answers. We have no definite rules as to + whether the participants are required to divulge their answers; that is up to + the group to decide. However, each person's purity score should be made common + knowledge. (The person with the highest score gets to be giggled at for the + rest of his/her life.) This works great at parties and lets everybody know + who's easy and who isn't, so you'll know who to go home with. Don't leave home + without it. + + Definitions + + All questions in this test pertain to events that have happened to you + subsequent to your weaning and babyhood/infancy. Anything that may have + happened before that time is considered not standing and void. + + The term mutual masturbation refers to someone masturbating you AND/OR you + masturbating someone else, not exclusively both at the same time. + + We would also like to define having sex in the homosexual case; homosexual sex + has occurred when both partners are of the same sex and one of the partners has + an orgasm while there is some contact between the genitals of both partners. + + We would now like to bring to your attention that there is no passing nor + failing score. Therefore, one really shouldn't worry too much about getting a + high score... even if you do get giggled at for the rest of your life. + --- ALL TECHNICALITIES COUNT --- + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Section 1: Platonic Relations. 19 Questions. + For this section, if you are mostly a: + - heterosexual, then your partner in deed, often referred to + by the word "someone" or "partner", is to be someone + of the OPPOSITE gender. + - homosexual, then your partner in deed, often referred to by the + word "someone" or "partner", is to be someone of + YOUR OWN gender. + - 50-50 confirmed bisexual, then your partner in deed, often + referred to by the word "someone" or "partner", is to + be someone of the OPPOSITE gender. + + Have you ever done any of the following: + 1. kissed a friend or stranger on their hands or their head/neck region + as a friendly gesture? + 2. held hands with someone? + 3. had a date? + 4. had a date past 1 a.m.? + 5. dated someone on a regular basis? + 6. picked someone up? + 7. been picked up? + 8. gone steady? + 9. slow danced? + 10. had the symptoms of Russian fingers (rushin' fingers)? + 11. had the symptoms of Roman hands (roamin' hands)? + 12. shared a bed, sleeping bag, or sleeping accommodations with someone + without anything steamy happening? + 13. given a back or neck rub or massage with no ulterior motive? + 14. used tickling as a pick-up, get-to-know-you-better routine? + 15. directly asked someone whom you were not going out with and had + never gone out with if they were a virgin? + 16. used physical strength, physical power, or any physical prowess, or + prowesslessness as a factor in pick-up, get-to-know-you-better + routine? + 17. secretly lusted after someone without that person knowing? + 18. dropped subtle hints to someone whom you liked/loved/wanted, hoping + that they would pick up on it? + 19. written anonymous "love letters" to someone (secret admirer, etc. That + is, dropped some not-so-subtle hints). + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Section 2: Auto-erotica and Mono-sexualism. 51 Questions. + + Although this section is termed Auto-erotica and mono-sexualism, the + events herein still count even if you are with someone else at the time. + It was so named because these activities, like the harp, (and the + porcelain goddess) are predominantly solo events. + + Have you ever done the following: + 20. had an arousing dream? (Wet dreams and the like.) + 21. been sexually aroused? + 22. uttered/muttered/yelled/screamed (or in other words verbally + expressed) obscenities? + 23. fantasized about your long-term instructor, mentor, or someone who + is superior to you? (One day skydiving teachers, two hour ski + instructors, and the like do not count.) + 24. fantasized about your lawyer, doctor, nurse, psychiatrist or someone + with whom you are having a professional relationship? + 25. fantasized about someone you know personally but not closely? + 26. fantasized about anyone and masturbated at the same time? + 27. read or bought pornographic periodicals? + 28. ever had a subscription to pornographic periodicals? + 29. read sexually explicit literature? + 30. gone skinny dipping alone? + 31. made obscene phone calls? + 32. phoned up any recorded phone sex numbers? (e.g. (212)976-2626, + (212)976-2727, (212)976-2828, etc. Please note that these are fifty + cent calls in addition to toll charges and long distance charges.) + 33. phoned up any live phone sex numbers? + 34. stuffed your bra if you are female, or stuffed your pants if you are + male? + 35. shaved your genital pubic hair? + 36. shaved your genital pubic hair on a fairly regular basis? + 37. colored or bleached your genital pubic hair? + 38. shaved or shaped your genital pubic hair in a particular design? + (moons, hearts, diamonds, clovers, etc.) + 39. masturbated? + 40. masturbated at least five times in one twenty-four hour period? + 41. masturbated on a fairly regular basis of no less than once a + fortnight? + 42. masturbated where you could have been discovered? (In a crowd, in + public, city parks, gym/dorm/barrack showers, movie theater, etc.) + 43. masturbated out in the wilds or in nature with no nearby + civilization? + 44. masturbated to orgasm? + 45. masturbated while reading either pornographic or sexually explicit + materials? + 46. masturbated while driving a *moving* land vehicle? (Car, RV, truck, + motorcycle, hearse, etc.) + 47. masturbated while on the phone? (No kinky interpretations of "on the + phone". This is legit.) + 48. masturbated while in a bathroom of the opposite sex? + 49. masturbated while watching an R or X-rated show? + 50. seen any burlesque show? (Rocky Horror counts) + 51. been to a peep show? + 52. been to a private showing of a pornographic movie? + 53. seen a pornographic movie in a theater? + 54. walked around in your room/apartment/house/habitation in the nude? + (Must be a serious walk; five minutes of going around trying to find + your undies after a shower doesn't count.) + 55. walked around in a public or semi-public area with a top (shirt, + T-shirt, etc) but no bottoms (pants, shorts, etc)? (Dorm hallways, + lobby areas, etc. are acceptable; however locker rooms, bathrooms + and such places where this behavior is acceptable do not count.) + 56. bought blatant sexual objects? (This means that if you buy a bottle + of Coke and you use it as a dildo, it doesn't count. Think design and + function.) + 57. owned any erotic art pieces? (Like that phallic symbol in the cat + woman scene in "A Clockwork Orange.") + 58. written down your own stories or fantasies for masturbatory purposes? + (Your own custom-made Penthouse Forum [tm]) + 59. sculpted erotic/obscene artworks in food (bananas, carrots, apples...)? + 60. eaten any erotic food items? (Chocolate tits, banana dicks, etc.) + 61. sculpted erotic/obscene artworks in soap, wood, or any other + carvable material that isn't food? + 62. made an X- or R-rated snowman or snowwoman? + 63. tasted your own orgasmic liquids? + 64. inserted your finger into your rectum? + 65. used ben-wa balls or anal beads? (ben-wa balls: a pair of small, usually + metal, balls which are placed in the vagina or anus and are supposed to + feel good as they move around. Anal beads: a string of beads inserted + into the anus which is supposed to feel good as it is pulled out.) + 66. performed oral sex on yourself? (Yes, this is possible for most males, + and even for some females.) + 67. willingly urinated on the garments that you were wearing at the + time? (In other words: piss in your pants; wet yourself; had an + accident.) + 68. willingly urinated on any part of your body? + 69. willingly defecated on the garments that you were wearing at the + time? (In other words: shit in your pants; had a serious accident.) + 70. willingly defecated on yourself? + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Section 3: Legislative Misfits and Other Ethical Matters. 61 Questions. + + Have you ever done any of the following: + 71. administered a whole Purity Test or are in the process of + administering a whole Purity Test of any version? (That's where you + are the test administrator in a Purity Test Party. See "Instructions + for Use" for further information.) + 72. taken Purity Tests of any versions more than 5 times? + 73. lied on any previous Purity Tests? + 74. exaggerated about any sexual experiences? + 75. gone to (or escorted someone to) a Planned Parenthood Clinic? (for an + exam, to obtain birth control pills, diaphragm, etc.) + 76. broken your word, promise, or vow? + 77. lied to someone at someone else's request? + 78. lied about your sexual preference in order to avoid a date? + 79. written graffitti? + 80. plagiarized? + 81. shoplifted? + 82. stolen? + 83. made out a check that bounced? + 84. used someone else's credit card without their knowledge and/or consent? + 85. committed breaking and entering? + 86. seen a snuff film? + 87. read someone else's diary without their knowledge and/or consent? + 88. searched someone's room without their knowledge and/or consent? + 89. told someone that you loved them when you did not? + 90. told someone that you loved them strictly because you wanted to have + sex with them? + 91. fantasized about someone else other than your partner while you were + engaged in sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation? + 92. intentionally listened in on other people having sex, oral sex, or + mutual masturbation without their knowing it? + 93. used alcohol to lower someone else's inhibitions for the purpose of + sex or oral sex? + 94. used drugs to lower someone else's inhibitions for the purpose of sex + or oral sex? + 95. drugged someone without their knowledge and/or consent? (hash brownies + and the like.) + 96. forced or coerced someone into having intimate physical relations + with you? + 97. had dates with more than one person in the same night while one or + more of the people involved were NOT aware of your actions? + 98. gone steady with two or more people at the same time while one or + more of the people involved were NOT aware of what you were doing? + 99. gone steady with two or more people at the same time while all of + them WERE aware you were doing it? + 100. urinated on someone else intentionally? (Piss fights!) + 101. urinated in cup, bottle, pitcher or any such receptacle that was not + originally designed for such purpose? Urinalysis incidents don't count. + 102. urinated anywhere other than a bathroom, outhouse, tree, bush or any + commonly accepted piss hole? (in the kitchen sink, in the glove + compartment of the family car...) + 103. urinated from higher than the fifth floor, or equivalent height, + above ground level, out of a building or off a bridge or any such + permanent structure (e.g. the Grand Canyon)? + 104. defecated anywhere other than a bathroom, outhouse or any commonly + accepted shit hole? (Camping/hiking trips in which bathroom/outhouse + access are nil do not count.) + 105. stored any excretia in a refrigerator, oven, or any food + storage/preparation appliance? + 106. stored evacuated excretia anywhere else in your room, apartment, + house, habitation, office, etc? + 107. entered a bathroom of the opposite sex, unaccompanied by someone of the + opposite sex, while not involved in a search and/or rescue mission? + 108. mooned or flashed someone from the front? + 109. farted (audibly) in mixed company? + 110. streaked, flashed, or otherwise exposed pretty much totally yourself + in public before an informal, unofficial gathering of people? + 111. streaked, flashed, or otherwise exposed pretty much totally yourself + in public before a formal (official) gathering of people? (Such as a + function, stage performance, charity dinner, etc.) + 112. been arrested? (Picture taken and all that wonderful, free stuff.) + 113. received money or some favor to have sex, oral sex, or mutual + masturbation with someone? + 114. given money or some favor to have sex, oral sex, or mutual + masturbation with someone? + 115. thought you might be, or might have caused someone else to be, + unintentionally pregnant? + 116. bought a home pregnancy test? + 117. bought condoms? + 118. borrowed/stolen/taken birth control devices from your or someone else's + parents? (Condoms, spermicidal foam, diaphragms, chastity belt) + 119. had, or given someone, an unwanted pregnancy? + 120. lied about being pregnant or about having made someone pregnant? + 121. had sex while either you or your partner, but not both, were under the + legal age of consent of the state in which you were having sex? + 122. thought you had VD? + 123. had VD of any sort (VD, STD's, i.e. the clap, crabs, herpes, etc.) + 124. had an AIDS test due to reasonable suspicion or hyperactive imagination? + 125. given a sympathy fuck? + 126. initiated sex with someone for the sake of sex only? + 127. willingly committed incest? + 128. committed adultery? (you need not have been the one who was married + to get this point.) + 129. bought lingerie/undergarments of the opposite sex? + 130. stolen the underwear of someone you knew, for a purpose other than + that of a practical joke or to just ire the person? (A bunch of guys + invading the women's dorm on a mission of panty raids does not + count.) + 131. intentionally taken someone's underwear and didn't know who it + belonged to? + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Section 4: Drugs. 43 Questions. + + Have you ever done any of the following: + 132. had an alcoholic drink? + 133. been intoxicated? + 134. thrown up from having drunk too much alcohol? + 135. passed out due to having drunk too much alcohol? + 136. forgotten events that occurred while you were drunk? + 137. smoked tobacco? (cigarette, pipe, cigar, hookah) + 138. chewed tobacco? (snuff) + 139. bought controlled/illicit drugs, or any compound scheduled by the + DEA, in violation of the law? + 140. sold or re-sold controlled/illicit substances, or any compound + scheduled by the DEA, in violation of the law? + 141. taken stimulants? + 142. taken depressants excluding alcohol? + 143. inhaled nitrous oxide while not visiting a dentist? + 144. inhaled anything containing butyl nitrate? + 145. used a commercial aphrodisiac? (Spanish Fly, Magic Love Drops, powdered + rhino horn, etc.) + 146. taken valium? + 147. smoked marijuana/sensemilia? + 148. smoked marijuana/sensemilia more than four times? + 149. eaten marijuana/sensemilia? + 150. eaten marijuana or sensemilia more than four times? + 151. taken opiate in any form? + 152. taken opiate in any form more than twice? + 153. used cocaine? + 154. used cocaine more than four times? + 155. injected any drugs into your body for any other purpose other than + medical? + 156. injected any one drug into your body for any purpose other than + medical more than twice? + 157. taken Ecstasy/X? + 158. taken PCP? + 159. taken PCP more than twice? + 160. taken d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25), peyote, or psilocybin? + 161. taken LSD, peyote, or psilocybin more than twice? + 162. taken LSD more than six times? + 163. deliberately injured yourself so as to obtain medication? + 164. played any games in which there was a mystery as to who would be + getting drugs and who wouldn't, yet everybody plays in it? (e.g. + "Who's got the pill", where half the cups (of soda) have LSD in them and + the other half don't, and everybody picks a cup and drinks it and wonders + who gets lucky.) + 165. gone to class or work while under the influence of drugs? (alcohol + counts) + 166. mixed drugs? (alcohol counts. Mixed meaning being under the influence of + two or more drugs at once.) + 167. sold possessions in order to obtain drugs? + 168. had sex while under the influence of nitrous? + 169. had an orgasm while under the influence of nitrous? (difficult because of + timing) + 170. had sex while under the influence of cocaine? + 171. had sex while under the influence of marijuana/sensemilia? + 172. had sex while under the influence of Ecstasy/X? + 173. had sex while under the influence of LSD, peyote, or psilocybin? + 174. had sex while under the influence of drugs with a partner who did not + realize you were on them? + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Section 5: Non Platonic Relations. 63 Questions. + + For this section, it you are mostly a: + - heterosexual, then your partner in deed, often referred to by + the word "someone" or "partner", is someone of the + OPPOSITE gender. + - homosexual, then your partner in deed, often referred to by the + word "someone" or "partner", is to be someone of + your OWN gender. + - 50-50 confirmed bisexual, then your partner in deed, often referred + to by the word "someone" or "partner", is to be + someone of the OPPOSITE gender. + + Have you done any of the following: + 175. propositioned someone for necking or petting? + (petting is defined as any caressing, patting, stroking or fondling.) + 176. propositioned someone for sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation? + 177. pinched or patted someone else's buttocks? + 178. french kissed? + 179. been kissed below the neck but not including arms or hands? + 180. kissed someone else below the neck but not including arms or hands? + 181. necked? + 182. petted above the waist? + 183. petted below the waist? + 184. kissed on the first date? + 185. necked on the first date? + 186. petted above the waist on the first date? + 187. petted below the waist on the first date? + 188. given a hickey? + 189. received a hickey? + 190. worn specific clothes for the purpose of hiding hickeys? (i.e., + turtlenecks) + 191. fondled or stroked someone else's clothed legs? + 192. fondled or stroked someone else's bare legs? + 193. fondled or stroked someone else's frontal chest/torso region? + 194. had your frontal chest/torso region fondled or stroked? + 195. been involved with pelvic thrusting while fully clothed? + 196. had your fingers licked or sucked? + 197. had your ear or ear region licked, breathed upon, sucked, or + nibbled? + 198. licked, breathed onto, sucked, or nibbled an ear or ear region? + 199. licked or sucked someone else's finger(s)? + 200. fondled someone who was asleep? + 201. given a back massage with ulterior motives? + 202. given a back massage that led to something steamier? + 203. seen someone else completely nude when that person was under good + lighting conditions? + 204. been seen completely nude by someone else under good lighting + conditions? + 205. been in someone's company while both of you were completely nude? + 206. bathed or showered with someone? + 207. let someone else wash you while you were perfectly capable of doing + it yourself. (This means that if you were in the hospital with two + broken arms and the nurse washed you, it doesn't count, no matter how + cute s/he was.) + 208. gone skinny dipping in mixed company? + 209. been involved with the stroking or fondling of a woman's clothed + breast (as either possessor or fondler of the breast)? + 210. been involved with the stroking or fondling of a woman's bare + breast (as either possessor or fondler of the breast)? + 211. licked, sucked, or nibbled on someone else's nipple? + 212. had your nipple licked, sucked, or nibbled upon? + 213. petted, stroked, fondled, or otherwise handled someone else's + covered genitals? + 214. had your covered genitals petted, stroked, fondled, or otherwise + handled? + 215. petted, stroked, fondled, or otherwise handled someone else's bare + genitals? + 216. had your bare genitals petted, stroked, fondled, or otherwise + handled? + 217. had an orgasm while petting? + 218. given your partner an orgasm while petting? + 219. given finger scratch marks? + 220. received finger scratch marks? + 221. drawn blood by scratching during sex? + 222. drawn blood by biting during sex? (hickeys do not count as having drawn + blood) + 223. given or received *scars* from scratches or bites made during sex? + 224. performed oral sex? + 225. received oral sex? + 226. swallowed semen, or licked female liquids off of fingers? + 227. done sixty-nine ? + 228. performed mutual masturbation? + 229. had sex? (No need for orgasm; penetration counts.) + 230. had sex on the first date? + 231. had sex without the use of birth control devices? (Use of the rhythm, + prayer, and hope methods counts as "without the use of birth control + devices".) + 232. had sex with a virgin? (Not yourself.) + 233. had sex with someone whose name you did not know? (and *still* don't + know) + 234. had sex with someone whose face you never saw? + 235. had sex with someone where there was an age difference of more than 20 + years? + 236. had sex with someone not of your own race? + 237. had sex with a religious officiary? (Priest, nun, mother-superior, + cardinal, pope, deity, etc.) + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Section 6: Non Primary Choice Relations. 39 questions. + + This section of the test deals with whether you have done things with + people whom you may not be altogether comfortable, therefore in this + section of the test, if you are mostly a: + - heterosexual, then your partner in deed, often referred to by the + word "someone" or "partner", is to be someone of your + OWN gender. + - homosexual, then your partner in deed, often referred to by the + word "someone" or "partner", is someone of the + OPPOSITE gender. + - 50-50 confirmed bisexual, then your partner in deed, often + referred to by the word "someone" or "partner", is to + be someone of your OWN gender. + + Have you ever done any of the following: + 238. held hands or otherwise displayed public affection? + 239. kissed someone on the lips? + 240. french kissed someone? + 241. necked? + 242. petted? + 243. received manual sex? + 244. given manual sex? + 245. received oral sex? + 246. given oral sex? + 247. had sex? + 248. had sex with a virgin? (not yourself.) + 249. had sex with someone when there was an age difference of more than 20 + years? + 250. had anal sex? (The use of fingers or any phallic objects in this + case would also count.) + 251. been involved in fist-fucking? + 252. done 69? (simultaneous oral sex.) + 253. propositioned someone for sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation? + 254. yielded willingly to a proposition from someone for sex, oral sex, + or mutual masturbation? + 255. had sex with someone whose name you didn't know? (and still don't + know.) + 256. had sex with someone whose face you never saw? + 257. been a participant in a who's-physically-better-equipped + verification contest? (Contestants must be of same gender; + spectators, judges, umpires, and verifiers may be of different + gender.) + 258. been a judge in a contest such as above? + 259. gave money or favors for sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation? + 260. received money or favors for sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation? + 261. fondled someone who was asleep? + 262. attempted to seduce someone? + 263. allowed yourself to be seduced? + 264. had an orgasm while petting? + 265. gave your partner an orgasm while petting? + 266. had an orgasm at all? + 267. had sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation with more than 10 people? + 268. stroked or fondled the clothed legs of someone? + 269. stroked or fondled the bare legs of someone? + 270. stroked or fondled the clothed chest/torso region of someone? + 271. stroked or fondled the bare chest/torso region of someone? + 272. stroked, fondled, or otherwise handled the clothed genitals of + someone else? + 273. stroked, fondled, or otherwise handled the bare genitals of someone + else? + 274. had sex, oral sex, mutual masturbation with someone not of your own race? + 275. been in a menage-a-trois of people of the same sex? + 276. been involved in group sex, with all participants of the same sex? (4 + or more people, partners must be exchanged.) + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Section 7: Alternate Choices. 26 questions. + + For any of the questions in this section, a yes answer is in order if it + is something that you do as an alternative to other sexual gratifications + or as an aid and/or in conjunction with other means of sexual + gratification. In other words, have you done it in a serious basis? + Trying it a few times to see what it's like does not count. + + Have you ever done any of the following: + 277. been decidedly heterosexual? + 278. been decidedly homosexual? + 279. been decidedly bisexual? + 280. practiced bestiality (avec les animaux)? + 281. practiced transvesticism? + 282. practiced sadism ? + 283. practiced masochism ? + 284. practiced bondage? + 285. practiced domination? + 286. practiced submission? + 287. practiced sodomy (anal intercourse)? + 288. practiced cocrophilia (a marked interest in excrement; esp. the use of + feces or filth for sexual excitement)? + 289. practiced frotteurism (masturbation by rubbing against another's person + or the need to rub against another stranger)? + 290. practiced infantilism (a dependency on the sight or feeling of diapers + or of being diapered; a dependency on being dressed and treated as a + baby)? + 291. practiced klismaphilia (a dependency on being given an enema)? + 292. practiced necrophilia (copulation with a corpse)? + 293. practiced mysophilia (a dependency on something soiled or filthy, such as + sweaty underwear or used menstrual pads)? + 294. practiced scoptophilia (a dependency on looking at sexual organs and + watching sexual activity openly, not surreptitiously, as in voyeurism)? + 295. practiced urophilia (being dependently responsive to the smell or taste + of urine or the sight and sound of someone urinating)? + 296. practiced role-playing (nurse-patient, teacher-student, border guard- + well endowed co-ed, etc.)? + 297. owned an underwear collection of underwear not belonging to you? + 298. been a foot fetishist to any degree? + 299. been a leather fetishist to any degree? + 300. been a rubber/latex fetishist to any degree? + 301. been a voyeur? + 302. been an exhibitionist? + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Section 8: Group Sexual Relations. 27 questions. + + This section relates to what you have or have not done. Accordingly, the + group of people of which we are speaking are of both genders. In + questions where groups of people are concerned, there must be at least + one person in the group who is of the opposite gender. + + Have you ever done any of the following: + 303. listened to dirty jokes in mixed company? + 304. told dirty jokes in mixed company? + 305. discussed masturbation? (Bringing up the topic of masturbation + during Purity Testing does not cut it as discussing masturbation.) + 306. watched a porn movie in mixed company? + 307. watched a porn movie with your own or someone else's parents? + 308. played a game which may require you or others to disrobe? + 309. played a game which may require you or others to perform an + action on another participant? + 310. been in intimate contact with more than one person at the same time + while all of you were nude? + 311. had oral sex with more than 10 people? (not necessarily at one time) + 312. had sex with more than 10 people? (not necessarily at one time) + 313. had sex with more than 1 person in a 24 hour period? + 314. had sex with both genders in a 24 hour period? + 315. been in a menage-a-trois with at least one member of the opposite sex? + 316. walked in on others having sex (committed an "oops") and then joined in? + 317. had sex or oral sex with a person and his/her parent? (not necessarily + at the same time.) + 318. had sex, oral sex, mutual masturbation, necking, or petting with a + person and his/her sibling? (not necessarily at the same time.) + 319. been involved in a two (or more) in one? (oral & anal or vaginal & anal + counts. But no fingers - we're talking the real thing here.) + 320. been involved in a gang bang? (Step right up; come and get it while + it's hot.) + 321. been in a circle of fuck? + 322. been in a 69 circle? + 323. been to a (cooking, baby, Wesson) oil party? + 324. played naked Twister [tm] (with or without oil)? + 325. participated in a heterosexual orgy or been involved in group sex? + (Four people or more; partners must be exchanged.) + 326. participated in a bisexual orgy or group sex? (Four people or more; + partners must be exchanged.) + 327. propositioned a person or group of people for group sex? + 328. been propositioned for group sex? + 329. participated in a fuck-a-thon? (Where the object is to see how + many times you can do it in a certain amount of time.) + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Section 9: Non sentient objects. 62 questions. + + This section measures your kinkiness. Therefore, the questions apply to + actions and events which occurred while you were alone, as well as those + which occurred while you were with someone else. + + Have you ever done any of the following: + 330. used a bowling pin, Coke bottle, or something along those general + shapes for masturbatory or sexual purposes? + 331. masturbated using the aid of food? + 332. eaten the food used in masturbation after masturbation? + 333. eaten a lab dissection? + 334. inserted food into your or someone else's anus? + 335. eaten food after it was extracted/evacuated from your or someone else's + anus? + 336. received an enema for a purpose other than medical? + 337. received an enema consisting on a non-normal enema solution (wine, beer, + urine, windex)? + 338. actually measured your own or someone else's penis? (i.e., actually + grabbed a ruler, yardstick, tape measure, etc.) + 339. used a mechanical hand-holdable device in aiding or replacing + masturbation? (Vibrator, massager, Dustbuster(tm), vacuum cleaner, etc.) + 340. used a feather or any other tickling device for the purpose of + tickling? + 341. used tickling as a form of *arousal*? + 342. used ice for sexual purposes? + 343. used ice for something frozen as a dildo? (ice cubes don't count here - + icicles, popsicles, and the like. Penetration.) + 344. used a strap-on dildo or male extension sheath? + 345. used whipped cream for sexual purposes? + 346. used hot/melted wax for sexual purposes? + 347. had sex in front of or under a mirror? + 348. put food, gravy, syrup, salad dressing, candy, peanut butter, honey + or anything else edible on your partner's body, and then eaten it? + 349. used household syrup, sandwich spreading, oil, salad dressing, + or any like substance for sexual purposes? + 350. used ropes, chains, cuffs or any other such device for bondage + purposes? + 351. used a whip, chain, cat-o-nine-tails, or something similar for pain? + 352. worn edible underwear/lingerie? + 353. eaten edible underwear/lingerie off of someone? + 354. worn a leather/grore suit? + 355. worn diapers for a sexual or masturbatory purpose? + 356. been diapered by someone else for a sexual or masturbatory purpose? + 357. used a ball gag or other manufactured gag? + 358. worn a collar and/or leash? + 359. been completely tied down (spreadeagled, hogtied, etc.)? + 360. tied someone down completely? + 361. had sex while you or your partner was tied up? + 362. used nipple clips (clothespins count)? + 363. pierced a part of your body other than your ears or nose (nipples, + labia, head of penis)? + 364. found a prepubescent child sexually attractive/arousing? + 365. had sexual contact of any kind with a prepubescent child? + 366. used an inflatable doll? + 367. humped an inanimate object like a pillow, (dinner) liver, hole in + the wall, sausage, banana, etc? + 368. had sex or oral sex with a dead person? + 369. inserted a small animal or creature into your rectum? (Either alive + or dead.) + 370. had sex or oral sex with your (dead) dinner animal? + 371. watched animals having sex? + 372. been aroused by the sight of animals having sex? + 373. attempted to have sex, oral sex, or (mutual) masturbation with a + live animal, but failed? + 374. had sex, oral sex, or (mutual) masturbation with a smallish animal? + (Dog, cat, rabbit, lab rat, gerbil, etc.) + 375. had sex, oral sex, or (mutual) masturbation with a domesticated farm + animal? (Cow, pig, chicken, sheep, etc.) + 376. mutilated or killed any living animal or creature for your pleasures? + [The following three questions differ from those above in that ones above + measure your variation in animal choice, and the questions down here measure + what you did with the animals.] + 377. had sex with a live animal? (Any size.) + 378. received oral sex from a live animal? (Any size.) + 379. gave oral sex to a live animal? (Any size.) + 380. had sex, oral sex, or (mutual) masturbation with a single type + animal more than once? (Alive or dead.) + 381. had sex, oral sex, or (mutual) masturbation with an animal in the + presence of 1 or more other people? + 382. cross dressed in the *undergarments* of the opposite sex for a sexual + purpose? (This means that school plays, initiations, and the like + don't count.) + 383. cross dressed in the *undergarments* of the opposite sex for a sexual + purpose in the presence of 1 or more other people? (Plays and the like + still don't count - this is for a sexual purpose). + 384. stuffed your pants or bra while you were cross-dressed for your + sexual purpose? + 385. had your head inserted into a urinal or toilet bowl willingly? + (Doing this in a pristine, show-room model does not count.) + 386. worn groinal underwear on your head? (Panties, jock-strap, etc.) + 387. eaten, sucked, licked, nibbled, or otherwise inserted a used, unwashed + piece of groinal underwear into your mouth while said underwear + was not being worn at the time? + 388. deliberately sniffed or smelled a used, unwashed piece of groinal + underwear while it was not being worn at the time? + 389. been gagged with someone's underwear? (not your own) + 390. played in or with shit? + 391. worn or used a condom or any feminine hygiene contraption that has + already been used by someone else? + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Section 10: Locality. 33 questions. + + This section tries to figure out how many places you have done it. It + applies only to those situations in which you were with someone else. + + Have you ever done any of the following: + 392. necked or petted in a place of religion? (Church, temple, altar, + Grand Holy Cabbage Head Patch, etc.) + 393. had sex or been involved in oral sex or mutual masturbation in a place + of religion? + 394. necked or petted in a place of the dead? (Morgue, mortuary, cemetery, + etc.) + 395. had sex or been involved in oral sex or mutual masturbation in a place + of the dead? + 396. necked or petted in a contraption of the dead? (Coffin, hearse, body + bag, etc.) + 397. had sex or been involved in oral sex or mutual masturbation in a + contraption of the dead? + 398. had sex in/on a construction site (house, office, launch platform, etc.)? + 399. necked or petted in a moderately sized, land/road-based vehicle of LESS + THAN 30,000 pounds net unladen gross weight? (car, station + wagon, van, minivan, minibus, fuckmobile, etc.) + 400. had sex or been involved in oral sex or mutual masturbation in a + moderately sized, land/road-based vehicle of LESS THAN 30,000 pounds + net unladen gross weight? + 401. necked or petted in a land/road-based vehicle of MORE THAN 30,000 + pounds net unladen gross weight? (truck, tank, armored car, steam- + roller, crane, bulldozer, garbage truck, etc.) + 402. had sex or been involved in oral sex or mutual masturbation in a + land/road-based vehicle of MORE THAN 30,000 pounds net unladen gross + weight? + 403. had sex or been involved in oral sex or mutual masturbation in a land- + based, non road dependant vehicle? (Train, subway, roller-coaster, + monorail, Disneyland ride, etc.) + 404. necked, petted, masturbated, been masturbated, or had sex or oral sex + in a water based, manual powered vehicular transport medium? (Rowboat, + surfboard, floating bathtub, etc.) (For this question it only counts if + the thing was in the water at the time.) + 405. necked, petted, masturbated, been masturbated, or had sex or oral sex + in a water based, wind or propeller driven transport medium LESS THAN 80 + feet in length? (Yacht, PT boat, windsurfer, Sunfish, etc.) + 406. necked, petted, masturbated, been masturbated, or had sex or oral sex + in a water based, wind or propeller driven transport medium MORE THAN 80 + feet in length? (Cruise ship, battleship, aircraft carrier, nuclear + submarine, etc.) + 407. necked, petted, masturbated, been masturbated, or had sex or oral sex + in an aircraft? (Airplane, helicopter, hovercraft, balloon, zeppelin, + space shuttle, flying carpet, flying saucer, etc.) + 408. had sex in a household room other than a bedroom? + 409. had sex on the floor (but not the roof)? + 410. had sex on any furniture that is indoors but is not a bed, table, + desk, counter-top, a nor anything that is predominantly used for + sitting or as a table/desk? (Television, washer/dryer, microwave, etc.)_ + 411. had sex, participated in oral sex, or participated in mutual + masturbation in a telephone booth, voting booth, automatic + photograph taker, or any such small, non-moving enclosure that was + not designed for such activities? + 412. had sex, participated in oral sex, or participated in mutual + masturbation in an elevator, people-mover, escalator, dumbwaiter, or any + building-internal people moving device? + 413. had sex, participated in oral sex, or participated in mutual + masturbation up a tree but not in a tree house or similar structure? + 414. had sex, oral sex, mutual masturbation in a suspension device of some + kind (hammock, trampoline, tightrope, safety net, etc.)? + 415. had sex, participated in oral sex, or participated in mutual + masturbation on the roof of a building in excess of 5 floors? + 416. had sex, participated in oral sex, or participated in mutual + masturbation inside or within the confines of a hedge, bush, other + natural vegetation which can provide a wall effect, cave, rock + overhang, in a well, or any other secluded, outdoor, non-vegetative + shielding structure? + 417. had sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation in the snow? (Spring thaw is + acceptable.) + 418. had sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation in a place where the + prevailing, ambient temperature (of the air immediately surrounding + you) was below the freezing point of water? + 419. had sex, participated in oral sex, or participated in mutual + masturbation in a place where you could have been discovered? + 420. had sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation in a water-filled + bathtub, hot tub, or under a shower or other running water (waterfall, + torrential downpour, monsoon, etc.)? + 421. had sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation in a body of water? + (swimming pool, swimming hole, pond, lake, lagoon, sea, ocean, etc.) + 422. had sex on the beach (and the resultant sand in uncomfortable places)? + 423. had sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation in a bathroom of the + opposite sex? + 424. gone to a motel (however sleazy) for the sole purpose of having sex? + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Section 11: Style. 76 questions. + + Have you ever done any of the following: + 425. watched while someone else masturbated? + 426. been watched while masturbating? + 427. orgasmed on somebody? + 428. orgasmed in somebody if you are male, or had someone orgasm in you + if you are female? + 429. had more than one person orgasm on you at once, or been one of several + people orgasming on someone else? + 430. been involved in the use of a penis as a leash or bludgeoning + device? + 431. been involved in oxygen deprivation for sexual enhancement? + (Nitrous oxide does not count.) + 432. willingly made video tapes or had pictures taken while having sex, + oral sex, or mutual masturbation? + 433. physically watched others having sex? + 434. watched your partner of choice having sex, oral sex, or mutual + masturbation with someone else? + 435. taken pictures or made video tapes of your partner of choice having sex, + oral sex, or mutual masturbation with someone else? + 436. willingly made audio recordings while having sex, oral sex, or + mutual masturbation? + 437. talked dirty while having sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation? + 438. intentionally made more noise than necessary while having sex, oral + sex, or mutual masturbation so as to put on a good show for whoever + might have been listening in? + 439. intentionally made "animal" noises during sex? + 440. had a pet or domesticated animal walk over you or your partner while + you were involved in sex or oral sex? + 441. had a general emergency arise while you were steeped in sex? (House on + fire, flash flood, hurricane, private plane crash lands in your + dwelling, etc.) + 442. had your sexual technique/style/skill openly praised by someone? + 443. taken nude pictures of someone else? + 444. had nude pictures of you taken? + 445. placed a personal ad? + 446. answered a personal ad? + 447. been involved in breast fucking? (aka "The Hawaiian Muscle Fuck") + 448. participated in fist-fucking? (see "Caligula") + 449. shaved someone's genital pubic hair (or had yours shaved) as part of a + sexual activity? + 450. had sex for more than three hours in a single session of sex? + 451. been bruised during sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation? + (hickies do not count.) + 452. bruised someone else during sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation? + 453. been injured during sex, oral sex, or mutual masturbation? + 454. orgasmed more than three times in one session of sex? + 455. had sex so many times or for so long that one or both people involved + runs dry? + 456. disturbed other people by making excessive noise while having sex? + 457. had sex or mutual masturbation or received oral sex + while you were driving (the car or boat or whatever vehicle)? + 458. had sex doggie fashion? + 459. had sex in the female superior position? + 460. had sex sitting up? + 461. had sex standing up? + 462. had sex upside-down? + 463. gone through two or more sexual positions without the need for + re-entry? + 464. fallen asleep during sex? + 465. woken up to someone having sex with you? + 466. had sex while one person was passed out or unconscious? + 467. given or received a hickey on your upper inner thigh? + 468. been on the receiving of anal sex? + 469. been on the ramming end of anal sex (a dildo counts)? + 470. had sex more than 10 times with 1 person? + 471. had sex more than 5 times in a 24 hour period? + 472. had sex more than 10 times in a 24 hour period? + 473. had sex, participated in oral sex, or participated in masturbation + while someone other than your partner was watching? + 474. had sex or oral sex while one or both of you were playing a musical + instrument, hacked, watched television, read, drawn or in other + words were preoccupied with something other than sex and lust? + 475. performed oral sex after intercourse without washing or douching? + 476. kissed your partner on the lips after oral sex without brushing + teeth, nor washing/gargling/rinsing out mouth? + 477. inflicted pain during sex? + 478. been involved in cunnilingus during the woman's period? + 479. had sex during the woman's period? + 480. foot masturbated someone? + 481. been foot masturbated? + 482. tongue bathed someone? + 483. been tongue bathed? + 484. licked or sucked on someone else's feet and/or toes? + 485. had your feet and/or toes licked or sucked by someone else? + 486. licked someone's anus? + 487. licked someone's anus while they were defecating? + 488. performed oral sex while the person was urinating? + 489. drank your own urine? + 490. tasted or drank someone else's urine? + 491. drank/drained an entire bladder-full of someone else's urine? + 492. drank human blood? + 493. tasted someone else's nasal mucous? + 494. been involved in a golden shower? + 495. swallowed your partner's orgasmic secretions? + 496. used the Purity Test as a checklist of things you could do? + 497. ever done something for the sole purpose of lowering your Purity Test + score? + 498. bought/read books to enhance sexual technique? + 499. participated in Purity Testing with an ulterior motive? + 500. become interested in someone only after hearing about their Purity Test + score? + _______________________________________________________________________________ + I. Scoring + Congratulations! You are now the proud owner of a sheet of paper containing + lots of itty-bitty answers to the Purity Test. Sworn to excellence of + workmanship, we now give you directions on how to calculate your Purity score. + There are several methods; the calculator method works best. Also there is the + a la mainframe method. (A DECsystem-2060 works great as a PC.) + + Scoring method: Count "yes" answers. + Subtract that number from 500. + Divide the result by 5. + The result is your percentage purity. + + The higher the number, the more pure you are; in the same vein, the lower the + score, the more of a sleaze-bag you are. + + For your reference, we include calculator directions: + For people with real calculators (HP): + <# of NO answers> [ENTER] 5 / + For people with other (dinky) calculators: + <# of NO answers> / 5 = + _______________________________________________________________________________ + II. Warranty Information + We hope that you have enjoyed this test. It does not come with a warranty, nor + does it guarantee that it will get you laid or make you somehow somewhat better + in bed or the haystack. + The makers of this test are not responsible for any liabilities or damages + resulting from this test, including but not limited to paternity suits. Ask + your doctor or pharmacist. + Do not open back panel; no user serviceable parts inside. + Propagate (this test) at will, even without the written permission of the + publisher; just don't edit or change it. In reproducing this test, the authors + of this test may exercise droit de seigneur over you, your immediate family, or + fiance(e). You may or may not have additional rights which may vary from state + to state (i.e. inebriated, ecstacy). + Not recommended for children under twelve. Parental guidance discouraged and + frowned upon. Pencils, additional paper, and batteries not included. Some + assembly may be required. Does not come with any other figures. + _______________________________________________________________________________ + Drive carefully; 90% of the people in the world are caused by accidents. + + The above is a public service announcement of this institution. + _______________________________________________________________________________ diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/808-cass.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/808-cass.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c1471b17 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/808-cass.txt @@ -0,0 +1,130 @@ + + (C) 1991 THE FORCE AUSTRALIA + Uploaded by Raphael - The Tremendous Trio + + + C A S S A N D R A ' S A D V E N T U R E + + Written by 808 STATE + Uploaded - Raphael + Edited - Raphael & 808 State + + + +Cassandra was the type of girl that slept around. She was a great looking +girl with huge tits and a firm, round ass. She loved to fuck and she +shared herself around. Her specialty was sucking dick, and she put her +talent to great use on all the guys she met whilst hanging out at the local +nightclub. + +Cassandra, or Cassie as she was called, had long blonde hair that fell +loosely on her shoulders and hung over her tits. She had a great body +that made the guys go weak at the knees and she had a smile made in heaven. + +One day she was sitting at the bar of the club, her fingers gently +caressing her cunt through the jeans she was wearing. She was looking out +onto the dance floor staring at all the guys dancing, she watched them move +and tried to figure which ones would have what it took to ride her to an +orgasm. She loved to imagine their smooth bodies sliding over her, and +their firm cocks being rammed into her wet pussy. She liked it rough, and +loved a man who pushed her around. Her fantasy was interrupted by a man +tapping her on her shoulder. He was a tall guy with long thick black hair. +"Hi! My name's Jeff", he said, putting out his hand. Cassie took it and +smiled gently as she shook. She said, "My name's Cassie". Jeff was +looking her over, staring at the creamy white breasts that were held behind +the tight blouse. She stared at his cock, and imagined it's size and +thickness. Cassie noticed Jeff's gaze and smiled, and licked her +glistening lips. She then moved closer to him, sliding her barstool across +the floor of the bar. He smiled at her and ran his hand up and down the +seam of his jeans, as if to display the prize within. + +Cassie lifted her glass to her lips and then, eyes transfixed upon Jeff's, +sipped seductively. As she brought the glass from her lips, she dropped +it, spilling the contents across Jeff's jeans. + "Don't worry, I'll clean it up.", he said. But Cassie was +already there, her hands running across the lap of Jeff's jeans, squeezing +and poking him into an erection. + "My, this is HARD work!", she laughed, as she teased him +more and more. She got up and grabbed Jeff's hand, and said "I think we +better get you home and change into something .... ", she giggled, as she +led him out of the disco. + +Cassie led him to her car and then reached up and grabbed his cheeks. +Pulling his mouth closer to hers, they began kissing deep and passionately. +The speed got faster and Jeff's tongue ran deep into Cassie's mouth, +probing every inch. Her hand reached down and grabbed his cock, she +squeezed it and began kissing even more passionately. She stopped to take +a breath and said, "I know somewhere much more private...". She pointed to +a service alley way. They walked together down it to it's end, both +embraced, their tongues in each others mouth. + +The alley was dark and narrow. Cassie, possessed with wanton lust, grabbed +Jeff's jeans and slid them down over his ankles. His underwear was moist +with pre-cum. She grabbed it and slid it down. Jeff took her jeans and +unzipped them violently, his huge hands cupping her ass, as he stripped the +jeans from her. They fell to the ground and she stepped over them. She +ripped off her blouse, revealing a lace bra. Underneath were some of the +most wonderful tits Jeff had ever seen. He grabbed them and pulled the bra +away. The tits fell loose, and Jeff's dick stood upright, hard and +glistening in the moonlight. + +Cassie went down on her knees, and cupping Jeff's balls, she lowered her +mouth over the knob of his dick, licking and sucking, licking and sucking. +Whilst she did this, she squeezed his balls tightly, forcing the knob to +expand in ecstasy as she sucked him off into oblivion. Jeff's head was +thrown back and he gasped as he approached orgasm. He was there. + +He gasped, as cum squirted out from the head of his dick all over the face +of Cassie, dripping down her chin. She lapped it up like a cat with cream +and then began passionately kissing Jeff again. She grabbed his wrist and +pushed his hand down into the crevice of her crotch, pushing his fingers +into her pussy. She rocked, as Jeff drove his two fingers deep into her +crotch. She throw her head back and laughed in ecstasy as she came, her +eyes rolled back into her head. While she was groaning in fits of ecstasy, +Jeff removed a knife from inside the back of his jeans. It was a large +hunting knife, the kind used by fishermen for gutting fish. He pushed it +deep into Cassie's vagina, slicing through it like a knife through butter. +The screams of ecstasy turned to screams of pain as the knife shredded her +pelvis. Blood gushed forth, as her uterus gave way to the knife's ready +blade. Jeff moved the knife vertically, straight up, slicing though her +stomach. Her pelvis opened up like a bloody flower and her organs gushed +out, dangling from the open wound. + +Cassie screamed with agony. She clutched at Jeff, slowly sliding down +him, as he jerkily wrenched the knife up through her. On reaching her +chest, he had to struggle to smash her rib cage, but his brutal blows soon +drove the knife upwards. The two stood embraced, in a pool of warm fresh +blood. Jeff's penis erect, covered in Cassie's blood and fluid. Chunks of +meat sat on the shaft, glistening like red ink. Finally, Cassie stopped +struggling. Jeff pulled the knife out. She dropped to the ground, in a +mass of throbbing gristle emersed in blood. He went down on his knees, +and, taking his throbbing cock in one hand, began rolling it in her open +wounds. As he did this, he pulled his knob rhythmically, slowly driving +himself to the edge of sexual desire and wanton lust. + +As he pushed his dick into her bloody cavernous wound, he came. Shooting +hot white cum all over the bloody carcass. His eyes watered with ecstasy, +as he rubbed his cock in the meat. Mixing his cum with the fresh warm +blood. He crawled over the top of Cassie's body, spreading her legs apart, +he pushed his dick deep into her, pushing through pieces of still twitching +uteran wall. As he did this, he kissed her, ramming his tongue deep into +her mouth. As he kissed her, a flood of bloody and bile gushed up, into +his mouth. He swallowed it, all the while, humping her frenzily. He found +it hard to get satisfaction from fucking her wound, so he turned her over. +Her anus, blood trickling out from her rectum, would suffice. He placed +the knife in, and cut it open. Pushing his fat, throbbing cock into her +anus, he began fucking her hard. So hard, that with each thrust, blood +squirted from her mouth and from her wound. His hands clung to her tits, +blood stained and warm. + +He kept fucking, riding her corpse into oblivion. He came. His cum acted +as a powerful enema causing her to squirt fluid from her anus. He let it +spray on his face, grunting like an animal. He began calming down. Tired, +from his sexual conquest, he got up from the corpse. He was covered from +head to toe in blood and flesh. Cassie's body lay in a pool of blood, +still twitching. + +Jeff turned, pulled his jeans up, and walked along the alleyway slowly. He +walked around the back of the nightclub unseen and unheard, where he got in +his car, and drove away. He laughed as he thought of his sexual exploits, +and the fact that soon, very soon, he'd kill again.... diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/808-laid.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/808-laid.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..2cbaf0ab --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/808-laid.txt @@ -0,0 +1,107 @@ + _____________ ___________ ________ ________________ + / /\/ _____ /\/ ___ \ / _____________/\ + / ________/ / /\___/ / / /\__\ \ / /\____________\/ + / /\_______\/ / / / / / / / / /\/ / / /______/\ + / /_/_______/_/\ / / / / / /__/ / / / / //\_____\/ + / ___________ | / / / / // __/ /__/ / / / / + / /\_______/ \/__/ / / / / \ \_\_\__\/___ / /_/______ + /_____/ / /__________/ /___/ / \____________//__________/\ + \_____\/ \__________\/\___\/ \___________\\__________\/ + + p r e s e n t s + + H O W T O G E T L A I D O N T H E F I R S T D A T E + + Written by 808 STATE + Uploaded - Raphael + Edited - Raphael & 808 State + + + +One of the perpetual needs of the average male is sex, but sadly most women +are reluctant to give in to this on the first date. This guide will tell +you step by step, how to ensure that you get her into bed. + + +THE DATE +-------- +Take her to a restaurant, somewhere nice but cheap. I'd advice someplace +close to home, because if all goes well, you will want to get her home as +quickly as possible, before she escapes, err.. changes her mind. + +Dress for the occasion. Wear clothes that mask the real you, that being +wear a suit, or something. You want to get her to believe that you are a +gentlemen, as opposed to a sex crazed maniac, the latter being the real you. + +Take her flowers. Something so cheap, but such a powerful weapon. If you +don't want to pay for some, steal them. Anyone can pull some flowers out +of their nextdoor neighbour's yard. + +Preparation is the key to success, so before leaving, put the following in +your car (just in case): A strong nylon rope, a balaclava, a sharp +Wiltshire stay sharp filleting knife (preferably with a brown handle), a +copy of "Solider of Fortune" magazine, and a walkman. It would also be a +good idea to pack a large polythene bag as well, and maybe some bricks to +match it. + +ON THE DATE +----------- +Whilst on the date, you must be polite. Try and trick the bitch into +believing that you are honest, kind, considerate of others, and a "new +age" male. Get her believing this and you are half way there to getting the +slag in the bag. + +Talk about things of culture, music, art, theatre. Don't talk about things +like "The time you bit the head of your mother's budgie", "Or how you +murdered a million tibetan monks, but we're excused because you were a +freemason", or "How many men you killed in Vietnam". No, ladies don't like +that sort of talk, despite the fact it is far more interesting. Tell them +about how you are a fan of good music, and have a great record collection. +Make sure you gear everything you say around their interests. If you find +out that she is a fan of "The National Bulgarian Potplant Orchestra", tell +her you have got all their albums at home, and maybe one day she could come +over and have a look (at the records). + +Use humour, be funny and make her laugh. While she is laughing, you can +order more drinks. The more intoxicated you get her, the better. Aim to +have her vomiting bilious fluid by the end of the night and success is +assured. Don't order beer, order expensive wines. Ladies like wine, and +if you pour drinks at a 4:1 ratio, you should only be tipsy by the nights +end. + +As the night progresses, slowly but steadily, start telling her how much +you like her, and how much you have in common. Women love this sort of +crap. Act like you mean it, and she will be putty in your sweaty hands. +Don't go overboard though and start licking her feet, but pay her lots of +subtle compliments. + +Towards the end of the night, tell how you would really like to see her +again. By now, she should be totally pissed. If not, tell her anyway. It +is now time to play the final card. Tell her that she is too pissed to +drive, and so you'll take her home. + +Stop off at your house, and invite her inside for a coffee. Hopefully, she +will accept, if not then it's time to get mean. Remember, fear and threats +the greatest aphrodisiac. If she refuses, try and convince her with words. +If words fail, lock the doors. Central locking is beaut for this. She will +probably get scared and start screaming now. If not now, then she probably +will when you begin to rape her. Take the nylon rope and tie her neck to the +headrest. Do it tightly in a slipknot, so that the more she moves, the more +she'll choke. Rip off her dress, and taking the knife in one hand hold it +to her. Then get on top of her, and rape her. You should be able to take +it from here. + +Once you're done and you've told her how good she was. Give a kiss, and +tell her how much you'd like to see her, and maybe even her family, again. +Then take the knife and kill her. Put her body in the bag and dump it +somewhere, a good place being in X-Club, the nightclub in King Street +Melbourne, because no-one ever goes there. + +If she decides to come into your home, you have won. Shut the door behind +her, then take out the knife. It is your house, and you are a male, so it +should be no problem to bash the fuck out of the bitch and then rape her. +Aim to knock her unconscious, but not into a coma. In case you didn't know, +a woman's cunt tenses up in a coma, and thus entry may be difficult. + +Once done, discard of her. A dead bitch is environmentally friendly, so +have no hesitation in burying her someplace. Your backyard? Why not. diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/808-lust.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/808-lust.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..7fd58b7c --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/808-lust.txt @@ -0,0 +1,92 @@ + + (C) 1991 THE FORCE AUSTRALIA + Uploaded by Raphael - The Tremendous Trio + + L U S T I N T H E C H A P E L + + Written by 808 STATE + Uploaded - Raphael + Edited - Raphael & 808 State + + + +Father Benny, was the parish priest. He was a tall man, balding, but still +retained the youthful looks of one twenty years his junior. He was an +amiable character, and was a popular community figure, always having a +smile and a greeting for everyone who passed. + +His church, St Raphael's, was a small chapel, with a congregation of only +about 30 of the village's devout catholics. Despite it's small size, it +had a number of choirboys, and choirgirls. + +Father Benny had a secret. He was gay. He would stay awake late into the +night, masturbating over pictures of young males. He maintained a +collection of pornographic material relating to sex with young boys, in +their early teens. He would take the material, and with his throbbing cock +in one hand, wank, till he came. He would then smear his creamy white cum, +over the picture, dreaming of fucking the young boy till his rectum +prolapsed from the friction. + +One day, after church, as always, he helped the boys clean up. As he moved +around the chapel putting the wine and bread back, he rubbed against the +boys. Not hard enough to notice, but hard enough to give him an erection. +One of the boys, a handsome young lad, the son of a farmer, was Benny's +favourite. His name was Jake, and he had big muscles, and a physique of a +fully developed man. Benny silently lusted after Jake. He dreamt of being +able to bend Jake over the altar, and like a sacrifice, fuck him up the +arse. "Stay afterwards, can you Jake.", Benny said. Jake nodded politely, +not knowing what surprise the good father had intended. The other boys went +home. + +"What is it, Father?", asked Jake innocently. Benny moved to the big +wooden door of the chapel and locked it. He then turned around to face +Jake. He then spoke, "Jake, I want you to do something for me." As he +said, this he removed his robe and hung it upon the wall. He was wearing a +pair of overly tight dress pants, a white shirt, and a brown tie. Jake +noticed that Father Benny was rubbing his hand against his penis, arousing +it to a state that protruded. "Come here, Jake", asked Benny. Jake moved +towards him reluctantly. As he did, Benny grabbed him, and planted a wet +kiss on his lips. Saliva dripped down Jake's chin. Jake looked shocked and +stepped back, but before he could, Father Benny grabbed him. His huge +hands clasped onto Jake's shoulders. Jake fell back, stumbling onto the +alter. Benny, unzipped his fly, and with one hand, removed the huge 8 inch +cock. Veins bulged from it's throbbing surface. Taking a nearby rope, he +tied Jake's hands to the altar's corners. Despite Jake's struggling, +Father Benny managed to tie him down. Benny began removing Jake's pants. +Pulling them down violently, to reveal Jake's genitals, untainted by pubic +hair. Benny began crawling onto Jake. His huge hairy, throbbing meat +rubbing against Jake's bald penis excited him. He became an animal, +consumed with lust, to corrupt this young boy. He saw young Jake, as a +sheep, ready to be slaughtered. + +Taking his bulbous knob in his hands, Father Benny, began pulling it. All +the time, rubbing it against Jake's face and genitals. Jake was crying. +Benny loved it and only got more excited. After a few moments, he came, +shooting a load of hot cum all over Jake's smooth face. He wanted to get +inside Jake's tight, moist and ready anus so much. His cock glistened with +pre-cum just contemplating it. As he undid the rope, he feared Jake's +escape, but his huge torso covered him, preventing any retaliation or +escape. Turning Jake onto his stomach, he squeezed his cock into his anus, +violently. It hurt Jake and he cried louder. Benny began feeding it in, +slowly but surely squeezing it deeper into the shit lined tunnel of love. +As it got deeper, he got more aroused, as he saw Jake's naked buttocks +moved apart, and little drops of blood dripped from his torn anus. It gave +him much pleasure. + +After fucking Jake like a buggerizing beast, he came. Shooting a load of +hot cum far up Jake's tight, 13 year old, anus. He began withdrawing his +cock, it hurt Benny as his expanded knob came loose, but he learned to like +the pain. + +On removing it, he saw Jake was unconscious, knocked out by the intense +pain and the shock. Benny knew that he would be caught if Jake told +anyone. So he knew he had to do something. He panicked. He grabbed a +knife from the small kitchen at the rear of the chapel, and holding it high +in the air. Drove it through the base of Jake's spine. Blood spurted up, +like water from a whale. Jake reeled in pain, as the knife severed his +spinal cord. Slowly, he died, spewing blood and bile out all over the +alter. Benny, naked, and covered in blood, laughed as Jake slowly died in +agonizing pain. It satisfied him. + +Benny laughed as he through Jake's body into the river. Afterall, who +would suspect the local CATHOLIC priest??? diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/808-next.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/808-next.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..76cb648f --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/808-next.txt @@ -0,0 +1,105 @@ + + (C) 1991 THE FORCE AUSTRALIA + Uploaded by Raphael - The Tremendous Trio + + T H E N E X T D O O R N E I G H B O U R + + Written by 808 STATE + Uploaded - Raphael + Edited - Raphael & 808 State + + + +A new family had moved in next door and my mother had sent me around to +deliver a cake to them. I knocked on the door and a women of about 35 +answered it. She was dressed in this tight miniskirt and was wearing a +very tight t shirt that displayed these lovely tits nicely. I smiled +shyly and offered her the cake. She took it and said, "My name is Sally!". +I smiled and replied, "I'm Nick!". She took my hand and led me into the +house. It was a mess with boxes everywhere, obviously they hadn't +finished moving in yet. She told me to sit down whilst she got some tea. +Whilst I was waiting for her to bring me a cup of tea I noticed a stack of +books beside me.. they were porno's! I didn't take too much notice until I +reached one book that had a man on the cover being sucked off by this +women. I began reading it. As I was reading it, Sally came back in. + +When she saw what I was doing she pretended not to notice. As she +approached me she seemed to trip forward, spilling tea all over my lap. +"Oh! I'm sorry!", she said. She leaned over and began mopping it up. +As she did I stared down her blouse and saw this great tits. Whilst she +was mopping it up with her hand she seemed to grope at my cock and in a +matter of seconds it was bulging through my pants. She then looked up at me, +smiled wickedly, and said, "I think you had better get out of these young +man!". She urged me up and in an instance she had pulled my trousers down +and had placed them on a table. She saw me standing there in my underwear +with my cock bulging out from under my pants. She was staring at it. I +looked at her, she was licking her lips. For a boy of my age this was +quite embarrassing. I sat back down and stared out the window trying to +ignore her prying eyes. I felt this hand grab my cock and I saw her dive +her hands into my underwear and pull them down. She grabbed my dick in +her smooth cool hands and began pulling it, it became harder and harder... +I stared at her in surprise. + +She then lowered her mouth over the end of it and began sucking +violently, my cock filling her tight little mouth. After a short while I +shot come down her mouth. She pulled down her skirt and removed her panties. +I saw her pussy all soaked with juice and I just had to suck it....I pushed +my face into her thighs and began sucking on it, my tongue darting deep +inside her. She moaned with ecstasy as my tongue stabbed her cunt. She came, +a stream of juice flowing down my face. I was overcome with lust, I grabbed +her firm ass and turned it around to face me. I pulled her onto the couch +and rammed my firm dick deep into her ass, she screamed and moaned with each +thrust. My hip drove it deep into her. We both came at the same time, both +screaming and moaning in mutual ecstasy! After a hard fuck, we both collapsed +into the chair, our two naked bodies lying motionless. After a few moments +she got up and began putting back on her clothes. I put mine back on as +well. She smiled at me, and said, "My husband will be back from the Pub +soon...you had better get going....but you are welcome back here ANYTIME!". +As she said this, she patted me on the still bulging cock that protruded +through my trousers. I turned to the door. As I walked out, she grabbed my +shoulder, spinning me around violently. Before I had a chance to move, her +face came down on mine, and her tongue entered my mouth. She pulled me +back, virtually throwing me onto the couch. I was stunned, she had only +seconds ago said her husband would return. She ripped her clothes off, +revealing once again her wonderfully rounded tits, and her tightly pursed +cunt, still wet with cum. Her petite hands led mine into her crotch, +pushing my trembling fingers deep into her clit, as she did this she +groaned and rocked backwards and forwards. I responded by unzipping my +fly. I pulled out my cock, already erect and throbbing with wanton +desire. + +As I fingered her, she wanked me off brutally, showing no mercy for +this young and inexperienced penis. It was ecstasy, I shot cum all over her +naked chest and watched her moan as it dripped down her, all over my hands, +still buried deep in her. Our lovemaking was interrupted by a knock on the +door. She kept on bucking and fucking. The door swung open. It was her +husband, a large man with a robust figure and a build most would kill for. +He saw us together, both red faced with lust, lying on the couch, my hands +in his wife's cunt. He smiled, laughed, and said, "Don't let me interrupt +you...". I was shocked by his lack of anger. He sat on the sofa next to +us, and began loosening his belt. His wife smiling at him, took my pants +and pulled them down. I felt a little embarrassed by the cum that filled my +underwear. She lifted my balls in her hand, and placed her wet, warm mouth +over the bulb of my dick, rhythmically sucking it. I stared at her, she was +possessed to fuck, like a wild animal, we both went bazerk. Her husband +now had his own dick in his hand and was masturbating wildly. Thrashing +his hand against his huge erect cock. I came. My eyes rolled back, and my +knob flung cum into the mouth of this wicked women. She swallowed it. + +I no longer cared about anything, I just wanted to be inside this women. +I pushed her down, and she responded by spreading her legs, and using two +fingers, she opened her pussy for me to invade. I drove it in. Deep into +her, my pelvic motion driving it so far into her, that she screamed with +ecstasy. I began pumping her. In, out, in out, continuously driving it +deeper with each thrust. I rotated my hips, sending her into a wild frenzy +of lust and desire. I came, and as I did, she screamed out. My dick went +into a spasm, and I watched with satisfaction as cum dripped from her wet +cunt. I looked over at her husband. He was still wanking away, staring at +us. He came, shooting cum all over himself. He smeared it on his hairy +chest, groaning. After a few moments, he got up, and crawled towards us. +We were passionately kissing, our tongues in each others mouths. The +husband pulled me away, and moved to his wife, still exhausted. He turned +her over, and taking his huge knob in his rough hands, began fucking her up +the anus. I got up, put my clothes back on and left them to it. The next +day, she came round and thanked me, inviting me back anytime I liked. She +was 35 and I was just 17. diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/808-ppro.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/808-ppro.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d731f261 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/808-ppro.txt @@ -0,0 +1,122 @@ + + (C) 1991 THE FORCE AUSTRALIA + Uploaded by Raphael - The Tremendous Trio + + + P A R T Y T O W N P R O + + Written by 808 STATE + Uploaded - Raphael + Edited - Raphael & 808 State + + + +Kate was a partytown pro. She worked the party circuit, constantly going out, +taking drugs, and having wild, uninhibited sex with all cumers. To the +women she was a slut, but to the men she was a love machine, capable of +prolonging the male orgasm for up to five minutes. + +In appearance, she was stunning. Long, thick black hair, that fell loosely +over her dark, exotic features. She had a mildely oriental appearance, +with a lovely olive complexion, most women can only dream of. + +As always, Kate was working the circuit. And she was at a party in the +eastern suburbs, it was wild, with people packing out the small house in +which it was held. She was a familiar face, everyone who was anyone knew +her. She was dressed in a tight black dress that allowed all to see the +firm little ass that was her trademark. She wore a low-necked top, that +gave an inkling of what glorius treasures lurked within. As always, she +looked stunning. Angelic. + +Kate sat down on the sofa, with a glass of champagne in her hand. She was +waiting. Waiting for a man. As men walked past her, she looked them up +and down, trying to evaluate their size. She had grown tired of small +cocks, and now lusted for a big, thick one, one that would make her scream +when the man pushed it into her cavernous love clam. She liked sex rough, +and hard, with men who dominated her. All her life she had been the +dominate one, as a prefect at her girls school, right the way through to +business. + +After a flurry of men had passed her, one caught her wicked eye. He was +tall, of incredibly large build and had a rough look, probably a tradesmen, +she thought. She looked him up and down. He had shortly cropped hair, +spiked roughly, and had some growth on his face. She knew that this man +would be the one to satisfy her tonight. + +"Hi there gorgeous!", she said, winking at the man. He smiled back, and +walked over to her. "Hi! How are ya?", he replied. She smiled again, then +patted on the seat next to her. He sat down. + +"I've been watching you all night,", she said, "and I wanted you to meet +me.". He smiled back, then said coolly, "Well, now you've met me!!!". She +gave a sly grin, then replied, "I spelt meet, M-E-A-T!" The man looked a +bit shocked, then smiled, whispering,t me!!!". She +gave a sly grin, then replied, "I spelt meet, M-E-A-T!" The man looked a +bit shoc's go somewhere a little more +private". "My sentiments exactly", Kate laughed. + +The two walked out of the house, and into the garden. It was dark, and was +quiet. They moved to the end of the garden, next to a large gum tree. +Before the man had a chance to say anything, Kate had removed her skirt, +and was rubbing against him, her two legs straddling his thigh. He was +obviously getting aroused by this erotic motion, and his hand crept down +into his pants. Kate said huskily, "I like it rough... I want you to beat +me..." + +The man began removing his trousers. He was wearing y-fronts, and withing +lurked a cock of huge proportions. Kate almost gasped at it's size. It +was so thick that the man, Ken, could only just manage to put his hand +around it. Grabbing Kate, he pulled her to the ground. She fell, hitting +her head on a stone. Ken, got on top of her. Snarling, he started to hit +her, across the face, over and over again. Kate cried, not with pain, but +with sexual satisfaction, as his huge hands crashed into her petite face. +Taking his huge cock in his hands, he began rubbing it against her. Slowly +working himself into a frenzied state. All the time, pushing her around. + +Ken moved his posistion further up her body, till he was sitting on her +chest. He took his cock, and fed it into her mouth. She almost got sick, +as it rubbed against the back of her throut. It was moist and warm, and +her saliva stuck to the shaft of his dick. His huge balls swung against +her chin, as he began humping her face with a violent fury. Her eyes +rolled back into her head, as he drove his turgid cannon deep. Eventually +he came, a wild burst of white lightning sprang from his knob, leaping down +her throut. She got sick. Throwing up, she got up from under him. + +Ken was not going to stop now. He put a hand on each of her hips and spun +her around so that her naked ass was facing him. He wasn't gonna fuck her +into her cunt, no way, he wanted to go from behind, take her up the anus, +and make her cum, the rough way. + +His cock was now bulging with blue veins, as he placed a finger in her tight +anus, to loosen it up for what was soon to come. She wasn't even wet and +he didn't have any vaseline, but who cares. He literally fucked her like a +dog, in and out violently, his scrotum recoiling as he shot his load. He +laughed. Kate cried. It hurt. His cock was all of 9 inches long and it's +thickness was unmeasurable. It was so thick, that she could feel the veins +rubbing against her anus passage. She loved it. She loved the way the cum +shot up her arse, and she loved it when she could feel a man's testicles +banging against her upper thighs. + +Ken was not done yet. She had unleashed him, and it was time for her to +pay. He turned her over, she offered no resistance. He mounted her again, +his huge cock sitting between her ample tits. He was going to tit fuck +her. She closed her tits around his cock, it clung well. He began +thrusting, rubbing his erection against her tits. She started becoming +aroused, excited as the tip of his knob touched her hot, wet, toungue. She +licked it, licking the precum from his foreskin. + +Ken came. A load shot up into her face. She lapped it up like a cat with +cream, savouring every last drop. She reached down into her crotch, and +spread her clitoris apart with her two index fingers. She wanted him to +fuck her. To make her cum. + +Ken, took heed, but wanted to fist fuck her. He pushed his huge fist into +her, inch by inch. Slowly pushing. In and Out. She was screaming, both +with pain and ecstasy as his motion drove her to a filthy orgasm. Fluid +gushed out of her, trickling from her cunt onto the wet grass. Ken kept on +ramming his fist in and out, till she past out. + +The two just lay there, static, not moving, exhausted from the constant +fucking.... + +Another day in the life of a partytown pro... diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/808-rebe.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/808-rebe.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..273741e8 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/808-rebe.txt @@ -0,0 +1,79 @@ + + (C) 1991 THE FORCE AUSTRALIA + Uploaded by Raphael - The Tremendous Trio + + + R E B E L L I O N + + Written by 808 STATE + Uploaded - Raphael + Edited - Raphael & 808 State + + + +Tom was a rebellious teenager. He spat on his mother, raped his sister, +and jaywalked. Basically, you could say he was somewhat naughty. One day +he was sitting in the lounge wanking in front of his favourite porno. His +mother was doing the ironing, trying not to look at the hideous scene on +the TV, a naked women having a garden hose pushed up her cunt. Anyway, Tom +was shooting cum all over the new lounge suite. "Don't do that +Tom...err...please", asked his mother in a timid voice. Tom turned around +to face her, his cock in his hand. "Look you fuckin bitch, don't tell me +what to do, or I'll ram my cock so far down ya fuckin throut, you'll vomit, +mum.." His mother went back to ironing. + +Tom then got up, his tracksuit pants hanging down, and said to his mum, "If +you're so worried about it! You can clean it up, slut!". He then wanked +all over the coffee table. Squirting hot cum over the wedding photos. His +mum became enraged, and grabbed Tom. Tom dodged her. As she swung at him, +he grabbed her hand, and twisted it around. Tom was strong for a 13 year +old, and soon had his mother crying with pain, as he twisted the cartlidge. +"I'll treat you like the bitch you are", laughed Tom, as he pushed her onto +the carpet. Taking his wet cock in his hands, he pushed it against her face, +rubbing it up and down her wrinkled skin. Laughing, his dick soon got +hard. His mother was scared, she sat motionless, not moving, as her son +rubbed it against her cheek. Tom spread his legs so he towered over her. +His poor mum was crying. + +He grabbed her dress and in one blow ripped it off, throwing it to the +ground. Tom spat in her face, laughing sickly. He would teach the slut a +lesson she would NEVER forget. Tom began struggling with her, trying to +get her underwear down so he could at least fuck her. Pulling them down, +it revealed a furry, cunt. Taking his dick in his hands, Tom fed it into +her. She was as dry as a bucket of sand, and it hurt him, but he was a +hard boy and his fists were well trained. After a few hits, his mother +stopped resisting and Tom began to hump her. In and out, he fucked her. +In and out. Tom was fuckin hard, his pelvis thrusting in and out, as he +held his mother down like a wrestler. After a few moments Tom came, +shooting cum deep into his mother's pussy. + +He liked the feeling of fuckin his mother, it excited him. He took his +dick out and then began rubbing it against her tits. He wanted his mother +to suck it, but he couldn't force her. Instead he wanted to cum on her. +Wanking he pushed cum from the glistening tip of his nob, shooting cum onto +his mothers face. He laughed as it dripped down her face, sticking to her +lipstick. + +His mother was crying. Tom turned around, to get catch his breath. As he +did he saw his mother reach for the phone sitting on the coffee table. Tom +suddenly changed. He went sick. He grabbed his mother by her neck and +pulled her to her feet. Tom's eyes were red with anger, as he began +beating his mother against her head. Over and over, his fists pounded her, +smashing against her face. He wanted to kill her. After a few fierce and +brutal blows, she dropped, static. + +Tom checked her pulse, she was dead. Laughing, he then began to feed his +already hard cock into her. Deep into her arse, till it touched the top of +her intestine. He rode her, like in a rodeo. Her anus was tight, and dry, +but he enjoyed it. He came, in a flaming blue orgasm, shooting cum into +his mum's filthy arse. + +After filling her arse, he decided he wanted to get in her mouth. Her +mouth was still warm with saliva, and it felt good against the blueveined +expanding cave dwelling love saber that Tom wielded. He smiled in ecstasy, +as he saw his dead mother swallowing his big hard cock. Her stale lipstick +rubbing off onto his cock's shaft. + +When Tom finished his lovemaking, he got up, and laughed. Spitting a huge +blob of phlegm onto his mum, he turned and walked away into the kitchen to +make a milkshake. diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/808-spoi.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/808-spoi.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..80d268b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/808-spoi.txt @@ -0,0 +1,112 @@ + + (C) 1991 THE FORCE AUSTRALIA + Uploaded by Raphael - The Tremendous Trio + + T H E S P O I L T B R A T + + Written by 808 STATE + Uploaded - Raphael + Edited - Raphael & 808 State + + + +Once upon a time boys and girls, in a far away land, there lived a little +boy by the name of Dion. He was a nasty little boy, having been sexually +abused as a child, it had left an indelible mark on his fragile young mind. +After being raped persistantly by his father, and his mates at the lodge, +he withdrew from society, not wanting to mix with other people because he +felt as if it was his fault, that he was so brutally and constantly abused. + +It was this that drew him to computers. They enabled him to talk to +others without showing his face. He was scared of everyone, and had a huge +inferiority complex that he was subhuman and dirty. This was what +influenced him to develop a character called Future Man, a role he played +in the computer world. He was a loser in real life, but he found that if +he acted "c00l" in the computer world, he could be a winner, and people +would respect him. + +He didn't have much of an education, having left school in year nine after +his father raped him so badly that it left Dion mentally and emotionally +paralysed. But, he found that in the computer world, the bbs world, he +could pretend to be cool and intelligent. + +After a while, he formed a group. He needed to have people around him that +he could turn to, when he felt like scum. He needed to feel as if he was +important. That is why he founded a group called X-NET, a group that Dion +secretly used to make himself look powerful and dangerous, whilst in fact +he was just a stupid, acne faced, brat who's only claim to fame was that he +had had an incestuous relationship with his father. + +Anyway, as time went on, people started to get scared of Dion in the +computer world, because he talked big, and would threaten everyone. The +reason why he felt he had to use and abuse people, was that he knew that he +was vermin. He knew that the cycle of abuse would continue, and when he +got older he too would abuse his children, this scared him. He was angry, +and used others to vent it on. + +After a while, things started to change. Dion threatened too many people +and people started to hate him, some even wanted to kill him. Dion got +scared, very scared. He never thought that he would get in so much +trouble, because to him it was just a game, a ploy to trick himself into +believing his own worth in the world. He had no-one to turn to, his mom +worked nights as a prositute and slept during the day, and his father was +kept away as a result of a court order. He could only turn to his +grandmother, a slimy hag who spent her time collecting cans from garbage +bins in the city. He turned to her, but she just laughed at him, telling +him that he was nothing but scum. Dion cried, and cried. He was only a +little boy in a big man's world, and this was too much. + +He finally turned to the federal police. They offered him their sticky +hand and brought Dion into their family. At last he felt like he had a +real mother and father. The federal police told Dion that if he busted +local phreaks and hacks, they would keep looking after him. Dion was +scared, and at first didn't know what to do. But when they told him that +for every phreak he busted they would give him a marsbar, he agreed. + +Dion went around busting people, laughing in their face. This went on for +some time, till one day, whilst Dion lay awake at night, thinking about the +IBM wares he would soon import from the states, there was a knock on the +door. He got out of bed, pushing Fido aside. Opening the door, before he +had a chance to see who it was, a knife entered his slimy scabous stomach, +ripping it open like a sack of blood. Dion screamed aloud, his eyes +rolling back into his head. The masked assassin, stepped out of the +darkness into the light. He was wearing a black balaclava with a teenage +mutant ninja t-shirt. He was holding a huge knife, dripping with Dion's +blood. + +Dion lay motionless on the floor, not moving. Blood dripped from his +wound, spilling out onto the floor. The assassin stepped forward, lifting +the knife above his head. He drove it down, laughing hysterically, as the +knife drove into Dions thin, pale neck. It entered his neck, ripping his +oesophagus apart and shattering his spine, spilling spinal fluid across the +floor. Dion clutched his throut, trying to stop the spillage, but it was +to no avail, the flow of blood and bilous gray matter was too much. He +began vomiting, but the vomit failed to reach his mouth, simply dripping +from the gaping wound. + +The assailent was merciless in his violence, swinging the knife against +Dion's face. Slicing into his cheek, cracking the bone of his cheek. Dion +slumped down further towards the ground. He tried to get to his feet, but +couldn't, the masked killer was a proffessional and did his job with deadly +accuracy. The knife flew with almost sickening brutality into Dion's flesh, +ripping his heart out. It pulsated on the floor, veins and capillaries +hanging off it, all jumping, spraying blood across Dion's cum stained +carpet. + +Dion was dead. His heart was on the ground. His head was split open, and +brain fluid dripped down his ugly, disgusting, face. The assassin laughed +to himself as he kicked Dion over. Taking out a sack, he filled it with +his body parts to take home and feed to his dog. + +As he left the house, he removed his programmable calculator from his +pocket. Flicked it open, and said softly to himself..."Hmmm, next stop, +Andre's..." + +If you would like to make the above fantasy fact, then here's Dion's +address and phone number: + + 560 Mountain Leech + Bloodwater + 3153 + + PH: 381-4027 diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/9_types_.gir b/textfiles.com/sex/9_types_.gir new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8ba73845 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/9_types_.gir @@ -0,0 +1,115 @@ + The 9 Types of Boyfriends + + Joe Sensitive - "After I wash the dishes, let's cuddle, OK?" + Also known as: Mr. Nice Guy, Family man, Honey, Darling, Soft-boiled Egg, + Snugglepup + Advantages: Well-behaved; irons own shirts + Disadvantages: Irritatingly compassionate, wimpy + + Old Man Grumpus - "People are stupid. The world can go to hell. Let's + stay home and watch TV." + Also known as: Grumbles, Sour puss, Stick-in-the-mud, Old Fogey, Slow + Mover, Jerk + Advantages: Stays put; predictable + Disadvantages: Royal pain in the ass + + Flinchy - "I--I'm sorry for whatever it was I did." + Also known as: Trembly, Creampuff, Hey you + Advantages: Jumps entertainingly when startled + Disadvantages: Easily spooked; surrenders without a struggle + + Bigfoot - "Shut yer trap, I'm thinkin'." + Also known as: Chunk-style, Lummox, Ignoramus, Galoot, the Hulk, Big 'n' + Dumb + Advantages: Can tote bales; is easily fooled + Disadvantages: Can break you in half, sweats like a pig + + Lazybones - "Zzzzzz" + Also known as: Lucky Dog, Parasite, Bum, Sponge, Snoozebucket, Drug Addict + Advantages: Well rested; easy target + Disadvantages: Unlikely to fulfull your dreams + + The Sneak - "Who, me?" + Also known as: Love Pirate, Snake, Rat, Slime, G-D Son of a Bitch + Advantages: May feel pangs of guilt + Disadvantages: May be having time of his life + + Ace of Hearts - "After I wash the dishes let's make love like crazed + weasels, OK?" + Also known as: The Sizzler, Handyman, Dreamboat, Casanova, Monster + Advantages: Perpetually aroused + Disadvantages: Perpetually aroused + + The Dreamer - "Someday I'm going to be rich and famous. I don't know how, + but--" + Also known as: Struggling artist, Philosopher, Buffoon, Bag of Wind, Fool + Advantages: Tells good stories + Disadvantages: Will turn into "Old Man Grumpus" + + Mr. Right - "While the servants wash the dishes, let's make love like + crazed weasels in my new yacht, ok?" + Also known as: Mr. Perfect, Jim Dandy + Advantages: Answer to a woman's prayer + Disadvantages: Hunted to extinction + + + The 9 Types of Girlfriends + + Ms. Nice Guy - "Tickets to the boxing match? Oh Darling, you shouldn't + have" + Also known as: What a gal, precious, one of the boys, my main squeeze, + doormat + Advantages: Cheerful, agreeable, kindly + Disadvantages: May wise up someday + + Old Yeller - "You G-D spineless good-for-nothing drag-ass no-talent son of + a bitch! Can't you see you're making me miserable??" + Also known as: She-Devil, Sourpuss, the Nag, My Old Lady, Warthog from + Hell + Advantages: Pays attention to you + Disadvantages: Screeches, throws frying pans + + Sickly - "Oh, my head. My head. My feet. My cramps. My cellulite" + Also known as: Whiner, Mewler, Glumpy + Advantages: Predictable + Disadvantages: Contagious + + The Bosser - "Stand up straight. Put on a different tie. Get a haircut. + Change your job. Make some money. Don't give me that look." + Also known as: Whipcracker, The Sarge, Ms. Know-it-all, Ball and Chain, yes + Mom + Advantages: Often right + Disadvantages: Often right, but so what? + + Ms. Vaguely Dissatisfied - "I just can't decide. Should I switch my + career, goals, home, and hair color?" + Also known as: The Fretter, Worrywart, Typical, Aw c'mon Honey + Advantages: Easily soothed + Disadvantages: Even more easily perturbed + + Wild Woman out of Control - "I've got an idea. Lez get drunk an' make love + onna front lawn. I done it before. S'fun." + Also known as: Fast girl, freewheeler, goodtime charleena, passed out + Advantages: More fun than a barrel of monkeys + Disadvantages: Unreliable; drives off cliffs + + Huffy - "I see nothing humorous in those silly cartoons you keep snickering + at" + Also known as: No fun, humorless prig, Cold fish, Chilly proposition, + iceberg, Snarly + Advantages: Your friends will feel sorry for you + Disadvantages: You will have no friends + + Woman from Mars - "I believe this interpretive dance will explain how I + feel about our relationship" + Also known as: The Babbler, Spooky Girl, Screwball, Loony, Bad News, + Artistic + Advantages: Entertaining, unfathomable + Disadvantages: Will read her poetry aloud + + Ms. Dreamgirl - "I am utterly content with you just the way you are, my + handsome genius of a boyfriend. I think we must make love like crazed + weasels now" + Also known as: Ms. Right, Goddess, Knockout, Perfection, Gorgeous + Advantages: Funny, intelligent uninhibited + Disadvantages: Will have nothing to do with you diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA.1 b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA.1 new file mode 100644 index 00000000..f160d347 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA.1 @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ + +T E X T F I L E S + +

Sex, Sex Humor and Sexuality: Erotica

+

+A logical flow from the encouragement of writing on BBSes, people have been writing +some form of erotica or sexual narrative for others for quite some time. With the +advent of Fidonet and later Usenet, these stories achieved wider and wider +distribution. Unfortunately, the nature of erotica is that it is often uncredited, +undated, and hard to fix in time. As a result, you might be looking at stories +much older or much newer than you might think. +

+A VERY Large amount of these stories came to textfiles.com in the memory of Universal +Joint BBS, which had collected many thousands of them before it went down. +

+With literately thousands of files coming into this section, I have been forced +to separate the section into sub-directories, classified by letter. I apologize for +this, but there's no way I'm going to read thousands of stories to "classify" them +according to subject matter. + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Filename
Size
Description of the Textfile
0Erotica Beginning with Numbers
AErotica Beginning with the letter "A"
BErotica Beginning with the letter "B"
CErotica Beginning with the letter "C"
DErotica Beginning with the letter "D"
EErotica Beginning with the letter "E"
FErotica Beginning with the letter "F"
GErotica Beginning with the letter "G"
HErotica Beginning with the letter "H"
IErotica Beginning with the letter "I"
JErotica Beginning with the letter "J"
KErotica Beginning with the letter "K"
LErotica Beginning with the letter "L"
MErotica Beginning with the letter "M"
NErotica Beginning with the letter "N"
OErotica Beginning with the letter "O"
PErotica Beginning with the letter "P"
QErotica Beginning with the letter "Q"
RErotica Beginning with the letter "R"
SErotica Beginning with the letter "S"
TErotica Beginning with the letter "T"
UErotica Beginning with the letter "U"
VErotica Beginning with the letter "V"
WErotica Beginning with the letter "W"
XErotica Beginning with the letter "X"
YErotica Beginning with the letter "Y"
ZErotica Beginning with the letter "Z"
 

There are 27 directories.
+ diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/.windex.html b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/.windex.html new file mode 100644 index 00000000..d581d6fc --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/.windex.html @@ -0,0 +1,55 @@ + +T E X T F I L E S + +

Sex, Sex Humor and Sexuality: Erotica

+

+A logical flow from the encouragement of writing on BBSes, people have been writing +some form of erotica or sexual narrative for others for quite some time. With the +advent of Fidonet and later Usenet, these stories achieved wider and wider +distribution. Unfortunately, the nature of erotica is that it is often uncredited, +undated, and hard to fix in time. As a result, you might be looking at stories +much older or much newer than you might think. +

+A VERY Large amount of these stories came to textfiles.com in the memory of Universal +Joint BBS, which had collected many thousands of them before it went down. +

+With literately thousands of files coming into this section, I have been forced +to separate the section into sub-directories, classified by letter. I apologize for +this, but there's no way I'm going to read thousands of stories to "classify" them +according to subject matter. + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Filename
Size
Description of the Textfile
0Erotica Beginning with Numbers
AErotica Beginning with the letter "A"
BErotica Beginning with the letter "B"
CErotica Beginning with the letter "C"
DErotica Beginning with the letter "D"
EErotica Beginning with the letter "E"
FErotica Beginning with the letter "F"
GErotica Beginning with the letter "G"
HErotica Beginning with the letter "H"
IErotica Beginning with the letter "I"
JErotica Beginning with the letter "J"
KErotica Beginning with the letter "K"
LErotica Beginning with the letter "L"
MErotica Beginning with the letter "M"
NErotica Beginning with the letter "N"
OErotica Beginning with the letter "O"
PErotica Beginning with the letter "P"
QErotica Beginning with the letter "Q"
RErotica Beginning with the letter "R"
SErotica Beginning with the letter "S"
TErotica Beginning with the letter "T"
UErotica Beginning with the letter "U"
VErotica Beginning with the letter "V"
WErotica Beginning with the letter "W"
XErotica Beginning with the letter "X"
YErotica Beginning with the letter "Y"
ZErotica Beginning with the letter "Z"
 

There are 27 directories.
+ diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0.1 b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0.1 new file mode 100644 index 00000000..84b2f9a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0.1 @@ -0,0 +1,165 @@ + +T E X T F I L E S + +

Sex, Sex Humor and Sexuality: Erotica: Numbers

+

+ + + + + +
+
Filename
Size
Description of the Textfile
01anniv.txt 24031
 EROTICA: A True (And Fun) Story +
1-3some.txt 5917
 EROTICA: First Threesome +
100.txt 13181
 EROTICA: I Gotta Wash That Man Right Outta My Hair, by Rich Humus (1997) +
10comand.txt 19586
 EROTICA:The Ten Commandments, by Akai (1993) +
11sex-01.txt 23478
 EROTICA: Patty +
11sex-04.txt 19261
 EROTICA: Patty Chapter 2 +
11sex.txt 71007
 EROTICA:The Storyteller +
13.txt 23983
 EROTICA: A Priest goes Bad (Corrupted) +
18bday 11264
 STORY: An 18th Birthday Celebration +
19virgin.txt 19501
 STORY: A Virgin at 19 +
19years.txt 19228
 EROTICA: The 19-Year-Old Virgin +
19years2.txt 19231
 EROTICA: The 19-Year-Old Virgin +
1buttfly.txt 5978
 EROTICA: My First Button Fly +
1dad.txt 18485
 EROTICA: An Incestual Slumber, by D-Man +
1donna.txt 137213
 EROTICA: Donna's Humilation (1997) +
1fineday.txt 40843
 EROTICA: One Fine Day, by Pussy Barber +
1fineday2.txt 37510
 EROTICA: One Fine Day, by Pussy Barber +
1heather.txt 17813
 EROTICA: Heather, by Big Daddy (1997) +
1nitestd.txt 5780
 EROTICA: Another One-Night Stand +
1shot.txt 7936
 EROTICA: The Best Weekend of my Life, by William Bloom +
1st-dat1.txt 6278
 EROTICA: First Date +
1st-dat2.txt 5558
 EROTICA: First Date: Chapter 2 +
1st-tie.txt 11002
 EROTICA: The First Tie, by John +
1st-time.txt 17994
 EROTICA: My First Time, by The Unknown Wanderer +
1st-time2.txt 6689
 EROTICA: My First Time, by The Unknown Wanderer +
1st.txt 40887
 EROTICA: My First Time, by Marlissa +
1st3some.txt 5854
 EROTICA: First Threesome +
1st_dat2.txt 5504
 EROTICA: The 1st Date Continues +
1st_date.txt 6272
 EROTICA: The Spring of 1962 +
1st_date2.txt 12222
 EROTICA: The Spring of 1962 +
1st_love.txt 4786
 EROTICA: My First Love +
1st_mare.txt 8671
 EROTICA: My First Mare +
1st_time.txt 29221
 STORY: The First Time, by Demon Slave +
1stbirch.txt 8598
 EROTICA: My First Birching in the Woods, by Laylah Martelli +
1stblack.txt 7502
 EROTICA: My First Black Experience, by Bad Michel (1997) +
1stcousn.txt 20497
 EROTICA: First Cousin +
1stexper.txt 2452
 STORY: My First Experience +
1stfist.txt 8832
 EROTICA: My First Fist, by Bud Clark +
1stfuck.txt 3273
 EROTICA: First Fuck +
1stimenc.txt 12527
 EROTICA: My First Time (1994) +
1stlady.txt 14117
 EROTICA: Tehe First Lady's State Punishment, by Dave Caracappa +
1stmeet.txt 7053
 EROTICA: First Meeting +
1stnight.txt 23552
 EROTICA: First Night, by Julie Woodcock (1991) +
1story.txt 10351
 EROTICA: My First Story, by AnonX (1998) +
1stparty.txt 19257
 EROTICA: First Party +
1stshot.txt 8561
 STORY: The Best Weekend of My life, by William Bloom +
1stsight.txt 13131
 EROTICA: First Sight, a Secondary Love Story +
1ststory.txt 4855
 STORY: My First Story: The Grounding Strap +
1stswng.txt 203352
 EROTICA: The First Swing +
1sttime.txt 12863
 EROTICA: First Time +
1sttime2.txt 12931
 EROTICA: First Time +
1sumnite.txt 3029
 STORY: One Summer Night +
1watch.txt 29453
 EROTICA: One Watch +
1watch2.txt 33024
 EROTICA: One Watch +
2-sister.txt 162185
 EROTICA: The Sisters' Story +
2-sistrs.txt 159085
 EROTICA: The Sisters' Story +
2-sistrs2.txt 158854
 EROTICA: The Sisters' Story +
23_days.txt 13478
 EROTICA: 23 Days to Go, by Famin Paramour +
26women.txt 1495
 EROTICA: 26 Women in Bondage, by Peri +
2am.txt 22117
 EROTICA: 2am, by Nevyn +
2b18_1.txt 17658
 EROTICA: To Be Eighteen, by Conure (1996) +
2b18_2.txt 24565
 EROTICA: To Be Eighteen Part 2, by Conure (1996) +
2b18_3.txt 16892
 EROTICA: To Be Eighteen Part 3, by Conure (1996) +
2b18_4.txt 11448
 EROTICA: To Be Eighteen Part 4, by Conure (1996) +
2b18_5.txt 22268
 EROTICA: To Be Eighteen Part 5, by Conure (1996) +
2b18_6.txt 22860
 EROTICA: To Be Eighteen Part 6, by Conure (1996) +
2birds.txt 2265
 EROTICA: Two Birds +
2company.txt 19618
 EROTICA: Two is Company and Four is Just Completely Out of Hand, by Midnight +
2couples.txt 32042
 EROTICA: A Tale of Two Couples +
2girls.txt 5851
 EROTICA: Another 2 Girl Story +
2grlfant.txt 12998
 EROTICA: A Man's Fantasy About Two Women, by Mark O. Zorro +
2headed.txt 15204
 EROTICA: The Two-Headed Monster +
2heather.txt 15643
 EROTICA: Heather Chapter 2, by Big Daddy (1997) +
2ladies.txt 3456
 EROTICA: A Tale of Two Ladies, by Anonymous +
2loving.txt 24771
 EROTICA: Two Loving Daughters, by Eros +
2nd_shot.txt 14336
 EROTICA: Out in the Woods, by William Bloom +
2ndkittn.txt 18577
 The Second Kitten +
2ndtime.txt 9441
 STORY: The Second Time, by Pussy Barber +
2s2l.txt 187271
 EROTICA: Wicked Lovemaking Seris I: Two Sons, Two lovers +
2shot.txt 12032
 EROTICA: Out in the Woods, by William Bloom +
2sisters.txt 160139
 EROTICA: The Sisters' Story +
2sistr3.txt 70992
 EROTICA: One Sister's Introduction +
2titty.txt 18582
 EROTICA: A Tale of Two Titties, by G.I. Lovecunt +
2virgins.txt 8257
 EROTICA: Two Virgins +
2virgins2.txt 6578
 EROTICA: Two Virgins +
2women2.txt 11264
 EROTICA: It Started When I was in Junior High School +
2worship.txt 15266
 EROTICA: To Worship You +
3-some.txt 5334
 EROTICA: The Threesome Variation, by Huggy Bunny +
3941.txt 254654
 EROTICA: Perverted Passions (1997) +
3947.txt 89171
 EROTICA: My Brother's Girl, by DevoSpudC (1997) +
3dognite.txt 22784
 EROTICA: Three Dog Night, by Nine Ball +
3for-all.doc 23280
 EROTICA: The 3 For All +
3for-all.txt 22977
 STORY: 3 For All +
3for_all.txt 23552
 EROTICA: Three For All +
3forall.txt 22860
 EROTICA: Three For All +
3friends.txt 15128
 EROTICA: Three Friends +
3friends2.txt 15417
 EROTICA: Three Friends +
3g&m&me.txt 29024
 STORY: Gary, Mike and Me, by Heather Dawson +
3gmme.txt 19229
 EROTICA: Intimate Affairs, by Heather Dawson: Gary, Mike and Me +
3men&me.txt 22517
 EROTICA: Three Men and Me +
3naspree.txt 90851
 STORY: Three on a Spree, by C.K.O. +
3ofus.txt 1978
 EROTICA: The Three of Us +
3ofus2.txt 27807
 EROTICA: The Three of Us +
3onbed.txt 4398
 EROTICA: Three on a Bed +
3onjuli1.txt 15360
 EROTICA: Three on Julie, Part 1 +
3play.txt 5378
 EROTICA: The Threesome Variation I by Hugbank +
3playrm.txt 16384
 EROTICA: Three in the Playroom +
3playrm2.txt 16400
 EROTICA: Three in the Playroom +
3some.txt 13675
 EROTICA: Threesome +
3some2.txt 14659
 EROTICA: Threesome +
3sumfun.txt 27080
 EROTICA: Three's Definitely Not a Crowd, by Doc Holiday +
3today.txt 8858
 EROTICA: Three Men in a Day, by David Lee +
3toplay.txt 15081
 EROTICA: Three to Play, by Eros (1997) +
3way.txt 31594
 EROTICA: Three Way, by Janice +
3wayxxx.txt 31053
 EROTICA: Three Way +
3wayxxx2.txt 31488
 EROTICA: Three Way +
3women.txt 19584
 EROTICA: Women Loving Women +
3women2.txt 12800
 EROTICA: Women Loving Women +
4535.txt 149565
 EROTICA: The Family Swappers (1997) +
487658.txt 6903
 EROTICA: My Friends, the Allens, by Mark Aster +
4893.txt 11795
 EROTICA: Hypno Celeb 13: The Craft, by MAQ +
49.txt 46751
 EROTICA: Mercedes +
4949.txt 55576
 EROTICA: My Sister's Diary, by Reason Run Riot +
4daddy.txt 8147
 EROTICA: Present for Daddy +
4daddy2.txt 9216
 EROTICA: Present for Daddy +
4exposur.txt 22483
 EROTICA: Four Exposures, by Rachel Taylor +
4grantd1.txt 31421
 EROTICA: Four Granted, by Dats Him +
4grantd2.txt 50688
 EROTICA: Four Granted Part II, by Dats Him +
4grantd22.txt 50125
 EROTICA: Four Granted Part II, by Dats Him +
4lena.txt 19328
 EROTICA: For Sweet Lena, Who Is Just Beginning to Explore Her Full Sexuality +
4lena1.txt 35968
 EROTICA: A Story Just for Lena +
4lena2.txt 30592
 EROTICA: A Special Story Just for Lena, Part II +
4lena3.txt 36992
 EROTICA: A Special Story, Just for Lena, Part III +
4nbbs.txt 17490
 STORY: Sex on the Minitel BBS +
4some.txt 8266
 EROTICA: My Only Foursome, a Tale in Several Acts +
4some2.txt 15616
 EROTICA: My Only Foursome, a Tale in Several Acts +
4tclb_04.txt 14563
 EROTICA: The Forty Plus Club +
4thring.txt 47312
 EROTICA: The Fourth Ring, by Hunter Jackson (1995) +
5154.txt 248425
 EROTICA: Friendly Neighbors, by D. Abby (1997) +
5ofakind.txt 11578
 EROTICA: Five of a Kind +
5thswing.txt 41728
 EROTICA: 5th Swing, by Sue +
6shooter.txt 13153
 EROTICA: Six Shooter +
6some.txt 78977
 EROTICA: A Day on the Island +
7heaven.txt 19173
 EROTICA: 7th Heaven: One Stormy Night, by Carnal Quill +
7inabarn.txt 53733
 EROTICA: Seven in a Barn +
7thswing.txt 38016
 EROTICA: The 7th Swing +
8-ball.txt 6307
 STORY: Behind the 8 Ball +
8weeks_1.sty 26624
 EROTICA: Eight Weeks +
8weeks_2.sty 12288
 EROTICA: Eight Weeks Part II +
8weeks_3.sty 15360
 EROTICA: Eight Weeks Part III +
8weeks_4.sty 9216
 EROTICA: Eight Weeks Part IV +
90210.txt 56479
 EROTICA: 90210 +
9thswing.txt 42880
 EROTICA: The 9th Swing +

There are 153 files for a total of 4,751,951 bytes.
\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/.windex.html b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/.windex.html new file mode 100644 index 00000000..38c31745 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/.windex.html @@ -0,0 +1,174 @@ + +T E X T F I L E S + +

Sex, Sex Humor and Sexuality: Erotica: Numbers

+

+ + + + + +
+
Filename
Size
Description of the Textfile
0
 +
01anniv.txt 24031
 EROTICA: A True (And Fun) Story +
1-3some.txt 5917
 EROTICA: First Threesome +
100.txt 13181
 EROTICA: I Gotta Wash That Man Right Outta My Hair, by Rich Humus (1997) +
10comand.txt 19586
 EROTICA:The Ten Commandments, by Akai (1993) +
11sex-01.txt 23478
 EROTICA: Patty +
11sex-04.txt 19261
 EROTICA: Patty Chapter 2 +
11sex.txt 71007
 EROTICA:The Storyteller +
18bday 11264
 STORY: An 18th Birthday Celebration +
19virgin.txt 19501
 STORY: A Virgin at 19 +
19years.txt 19228
 EROTICA: The 19-Year-Old Virgin +
19years2.txt 19231
 EROTICA: The 19-Year-Old Virgin +
1buttfly.txt 5978
 EROTICA: My First Button Fly +
1dad.txt 18485
 EROTICA: An Incestual Slumber, by D-Man +
1donna.txt 137213
 EROTICA: Donna's Humilation (1997) +
1fineday.txt 40843
 EROTICA: One Fine Day, by Pussy Barber +
1fineday2.txt 37510
 EROTICA: One Fine Day, by Pussy Barber +
1heather.txt 17813
 EROTICA: Heather, by Big Daddy (1997) +
1nitestd.txt 5780
 EROTICA: Another One-Night Stand +
1shot.txt 7936
 EROTICA: The Best Weekend of my Life, by William Bloom +
1st-dat1.txt 6278
 EROTICA: First Date +
1st-dat2.txt 5558
 EROTICA: First Date: Chapter 2 +
1st-tie.txt 11002
 EROTICA: The First Tie, by John +
1st-time.txt 17994
 EROTICA: My First Time, by The Unknown Wanderer +
1st-time2.txt 6689
 EROTICA: My First Time, by The Unknown Wanderer +
1st.txt 40887
 EROTICA: My First Time, by Marlissa +
1st3some.txt 5854
 EROTICA: First Threesome +
1st_dat2.txt 5504
 EROTICA: The 1st Date Continues +
1st_date.txt 6272
 EROTICA: The Spring of 1962 +
1st_date2.txt 12222
 EROTICA: The Spring of 1962 +
1st_love.txt 4786
 EROTICA: My First Love +
1st_mare.txt 8671
 EROTICA: My First Mare +
1st_time.txt 29221
 STORY: The First Time, by Demon Slave +
1stbirch.txt 8598
 EROTICA: My First Birching in the Woods, by Laylah Martelli +
1stblack.txt 7502
 EROTICA: My First Black Experience, by Bad Michel (1997) +
1stcousn.txt 20497
 EROTICA: First Cousin +
1stexper.txt 2452
 STORY: My First Experience +
1stfist.txt 8832
 EROTICA: My First Fist, by Bud Clark +
1stfuck.txt 3273
 EROTICA: First Fuck +
1stimenc.txt 12527
 EROTICA: My First Time (1994) +
1stlady.txt 14117
 EROTICA: Tehe First Lady's State Punishment, by Dave Caracappa +
1stmeet.txt 7053
 EROTICA: First Meeting +
1stnight.txt 23552
 EROTICA: First Night, by Julie Woodcock (1991) +
1story.txt 10351
 EROTICA: My First Story, by AnonX (1998) +
1stparty.txt 19257
 EROTICA: First Party +
1stshot.txt 8561
 STORY: The Best Weekend of My life, by William Bloom +
1stsight.txt 13131
 EROTICA: First Sight, a Secondary Love Story +
1ststory.txt 4855
 STORY: My First Story: The Grounding Strap +
1stswng.txt 203352
 EROTICA: The First Swing +
1sttime.txt 12863
 EROTICA: First Time +
1sttime2.txt 12931
 EROTICA: First Time +
1sumnite.txt 3029
 STORY: One Summer Night +
1watch.txt 29453
 EROTICA: One Watch +
1watch2.txt 33024
 EROTICA: One Watch +
2-sister.txt 162185
 EROTICA: The Sisters' Story +
2-sistrs.txt 159085
 EROTICA: The Sisters' Story +
2-sistrs2.txt 158854
 EROTICA: The Sisters' Story +
23_days.txt 13478
 EROTICA: 23 Days to Go, by Famin Paramour +
26women.txt 1495
 EROTICA: 26 Women in Bondage, by Peri +
2am.txt 22117
 EROTICA: 2am, by Nevyn +
2b18_1.txt 17658
 EROTICA: To Be Eighteen, by Conure (1996) +
2b18_2.txt 24565
 EROTICA: To Be Eighteen Part 2, by Conure (1996) +
2b18_3.txt 16892
 EROTICA: To Be Eighteen Part 3, by Conure (1996) +
2b18_4.txt 11448
 EROTICA: To Be Eighteen Part 4, by Conure (1996) +
2b18_5.txt 22268
 EROTICA: To Be Eighteen Part 5, by Conure (1996) +
2b18_6.txt 22860
 EROTICA: To Be Eighteen Part 6, by Conure (1996) +
2birds.txt 2265
 EROTICA: Two Birds +
2company.txt 19618
 EROTICA: Two is Company and Four is Just Completely Out of Hand, by Midnight +
2couples.txt 32042
 EROTICA: A Tale of Two Couples +
2girls.txt 5851
 EROTICA: Another 2 Girl Story +
2grlfant.txt 12998
 EROTICA: A Man's Fantasy About Two Women, by Mark O. Zorro +
2headed.txt 15204
 EROTICA: The Two-Headed Monster +
2heather.txt 15643
 EROTICA: Heather Chapter 2, by Big Daddy (1997) +
2ladies.txt 3456
 EROTICA: A Tale of Two Ladies, by Anonymous +
2loving.txt 24771
 EROTICA: Two Loving Daughters, by Eros +
2nd_shot.txt 14336
 EROTICA: Out in the Woods, by William Bloom +
2ndkittn.txt 18577
 The Second Kitten +
2ndtime.txt 9441
 STORY: The Second Time, by Pussy Barber +
2s2l.txt 187271
 EROTICA: Wicked Lovemaking Seris I: Two Sons, Two lovers +
2shot.txt 12032
 EROTICA: Out in the Woods, by William Bloom +
2sisters.txt 160139
 EROTICA: The Sisters' Story +
2sistr3.txt 70992
 EROTICA: One Sister's Introduction +
2titty.txt 18582
 EROTICA: A Tale of Two Titties, by G.I. Lovecunt +
2virgins.txt 8257
 EROTICA: Two Virgins +
2virgins2.txt 6578
 EROTICA: Two Virgins +
2women2.txt 11264
 EROTICA: It Started When I was in Junior High School +
2worship.txt 15266
 EROTICA: To Worship You +
3-some.txt 5334
 EROTICA: The Threesome Variation, by Huggy Bunny +
3941.txt 254654
 EROTICA: Perverted Passions (1997) +
3947.txt 89171
 EROTICA: My Brother's Girl, by DevoSpudC (1997) +
3dognite.txt 22784
 EROTICA: Three Dog Night, by Nine Ball +
3for-all.doc 23280
 EROTICA: The 3 For All +
3for-all.txt 22977
 STORY: 3 For All +
3for_all.txt 23552
 EROTICA: Three For All +
3forall.txt 22860
 EROTICA: Three For All +
3friends.txt 15128
 EROTICA: Three Friends +
3friends2.txt 15417
 EROTICA: Three Friends +
3g&m&me.txt 29024
 STORY: Gary, Mike and Me, by Heather Dawson +
3gmme.txt 19229
 EROTICA: Intimate Affairs, by Heather Dawson: Gary, Mike and Me +
3men&me.txt 22517
 EROTICA: Three Men and Me +
3naspree.txt 90851
 STORY: Three on a Spree, by C.K.O. +
3ofus.txt 1978
 EROTICA: The Three of Us +
3ofus2.txt 27807
 EROTICA: The Three of Us +
3onbed.txt 4398
 EROTICA: Three on a Bed +
3onjuli1.txt 15360
 EROTICA: Three on Julie, Part 1 +
3play.txt 5378
 EROTICA: The Threesome Variation I by Hugbank +
3playrm.txt 16384
 EROTICA: Three in the Playroom +
3playrm2.txt 16400
 EROTICA: Three in the Playroom +
3some.txt 13675
 EROTICA: Threesome +
3some2.txt 14659
 EROTICA: Threesome +
3sumfun.txt 27080
 EROTICA: Three's Definitely Not a Crowd, by Doc Holiday +
3today.txt 8858
 EROTICA: Three Men in a Day, by David Lee +
3toplay.txt 15081
 EROTICA: Three to Play, by Eros (1997) +
3way.txt 31594
 EROTICA: Three Way, by Janice +
3wayxxx.txt 31053
 EROTICA: Three Way +
3wayxxx2.txt 31488
 EROTICA: Three Way +
3women.txt 19584
 EROTICA: Women Loving Women +
3women2.txt 12800
 EROTICA: Women Loving Women +
4535.txt 149565
 EROTICA: The Family Swappers (1997) +
487658.txt 6903
 EROTICA: My Friends, the Allens, by Mark Aster +
4893.txt 11795
 EROTICA: Hypno Celeb 13: The Craft, by MAQ +
49.txt 46751
 EROTICA: Mercedes +
4949.txt 55576
 EROTICA: My Sister's Diary, by Reason Run Riot +
4daddy.txt 8147
 EROTICA: Present for Daddy +
4daddy2.txt 9216
 EROTICA: Present for Daddy +
4exposur.txt 22483
 EROTICA: Four Exposures, by Rachel Taylor +
4grantd1.txt 31421
 EROTICA: Four Granted, by Dats Him +
4grantd2.txt 50688
 EROTICA: Four Granted Part II, by Dats Him +
4grantd22.txt 50125
 EROTICA: Four Granted Part II, by Dats Him +
4lena.txt 19328
 EROTICA: For Sweet Lena, Who Is Just Beginning to Explore Her Full Sexuality +
4lena1.txt 35968
 EROTICA: A Story Just for Lena +
4lena2.txt 30592
 EROTICA: A Special Story Just for Lena, Part II +
4lena3.txt 36992
 EROTICA: A Special Story, Just for Lena, Part III +
4nbbs.txt 17490
 STORY: Sex on the Minitel BBS +
4some.txt 8266
 EROTICA: My Only Foursome, a Tale in Several Acts +
4some2.txt 15616
 EROTICA: My Only Foursome, a Tale in Several Acts +
4tclb_04.txt 14563
 EROTICA: The Forty Plus Club +
4thring.txt 47312
 EROTICA: The Fourth Ring, by Hunter Jackson (1995) +
5154.txt 248425
 EROTICA: Friendly Neighbors, by D. Abby (1997) +
5ofakind.txt 11578
 EROTICA: Five of a Kind +
5thswing.txt 41728
 EROTICA: 5th Swing, by Sue +
6shooter.txt 13153
 EROTICA: Six Shooter +
6some.txt 78977
 EROTICA: A Day on the Island +
7heaven.txt 19173
 EROTICA: 7th Heaven: One Stormy Night, by Carnal Quill +
7inabarn.txt 53733
 EROTICA: Seven in a Barn +
7thswing.txt 38016
 EROTICA: The 7th Swing +
8-ball.txt 6307
 STORY: Behind the 8 Ball +
8weeks_1.sty 26624
 EROTICA: Eight Weeks +
8weeks_2.sty 12288
 EROTICA: Eight Weeks Part II +
8weeks_3.sty 15360
 EROTICA: Eight Weeks Part III +
8weeks_4.sty 9216
 EROTICA: Eight Weeks Part IV +
90210.txt 56479
 EROTICA: 90210 +
9thswing.txt 42880
 EROTICA: The 9th Swing +
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There are 162 files for a total of 4,727,968 bytes.
diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/01anniv.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/01anniv.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..1a55f897 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/01anniv.txt @@ -0,0 +1,363 @@ + +A True (and fun) Story + + + I knew my wife was bisexual before I married her. She and her best +friend had been to bed several times in high school, and even +shared a boyfriend a few times. I hadn't had the pleasure of both +of them before we were married, although I did come home one night, +and after kissing Darlene, could tell that they'd been to bed +earlier. Our first wedding aniversary was comming up, and Darlene +asked me what we were going to do to celebrate. I had planned a +nice dinner, perhaps a stage show or dancing, then back home to +screw our brains out. When I explained, and asked why she wanted +to know several weeks in advance, she simply smiled and suppressed +a giggle, her grey eyes twinkling with an impish gleam. Luckily, +our first anniversary fell on a Friday, and reservations made, we +dolled ourselves up and went out for the evening. Dinner at a fine +resturant and dancing at a local hot-spot kept us laughing and in a +good mood. As we drove home, Darlene sitting next to me, leaned +over and caressed my thigh with her fingernails, sending a shiver +through me. "You still want to fuck my brains out tonight?" She +cooed. I said yes, I would happily keep her wet and jumping all +night long. When Darlene came, no one could doubt that she wasn't +faking. Her tendency to "let go" in bed meant that she was prone +to outbursts of very erotic (and sometimes downright dirty) talk, +as well as moaning and thrashing wildly about the bed. Arm in arm, +we climbed the stairs to our apartment, and once inside, we kissed +passionatly for several long moments, running our hands over each +other and bring desire to a boil. Darlene broke the kiss and knelt +straight down, unzipping my pants in the entry hall. She pulled my +hardening cock out of my pants and slipped it into her mouth. +Tounging the underside of the head, and teasing me, I felt my balls +tingle and her wet mouth sliding like wet velvet over my shaft. I +pulled her up to me and kissed her long and hard, my tounge +exploring her mouth, teasing her tounge to follow mine back, +squeezing her tits through her blouse. As I knelt in the hall, +lifting her dress, she leaned back against the wall, bending her +knees and spreading her thighs. I moved the hem of her dress up, +and stared straight at her naked blonde pussy. She had been +dressed in a garter belt and stockings, without panties, all night. +I looked up at her, my warm breath tickling her bush, and she +smiled that special way of hers, telling me she did it for our +pleasure. I dove into her soft moist pussy, licking the glistening +drops of cream from her bush. My tounge parted her moist lips, +feeling the warmth of her, tasting her sweet eagerness. I circled +her clit several times, holding on to her thighs when she tried to +lower herself against my tounge. She pulled me up and kissed me +long and hard, showing me how very hot her passions had become. +She pulled a scarf from her pocket, smiling at me. "Stand still." +She said. "I have a suprise for you." She used the scarf as a +blindfold and led me into the darkened bedroom. I figured she'd +gone out and bought some sexy clothes for me to take off of her. I +heard matches striking, and the fragrance of scented candles +impinged on my senses. "Setting the mood" I thought. She stood +next to my, kissing me lightly on the cheek, her bare breast +touching my arm. Slowly, she began to undress me. Making me feel +every fiber move against my skin. Telling me to stay still, not to +reach for her. She removed my shirt, gliding her hands lightly +over my chest, tickling the hairs around my nipples. She removed +the belt from my pants, slowly pulling it through the belt loops, +making a long hissing sound as it slid against the fabric. She +knelt and started untying my shoes, helping me out of them, sliding +my socks off my feet. Her hands unfastened the snap at my waist, +my zipper already undone, with my cock, hard and straight standing, +waiting to be touched. She stopped and breathed into my ear, her +tounge tracing the edge, warm and wet. "Just a second." She said +softly. I heard her climb onto the bed, moving around on the +sheets. My pants were pushed away from my hips, and I could feel +her hair against my bare thighs as she lifted one leg, then the +other out of my pants. Hands caressed my thighs, sliding up under +the legs of my boxer shorts, fingernails lightly raking under my +boxer shorts. Lips closed around the end of my shaft, with a +tounge lightly caressing the head of my cock. "Tease." I muttered. + Hands quickly pulled my shorts off, making me naked and blind in +the fragrant darkness. I moved to the bed, and her hands pushed me +back against the pillows. I could feel the warmth of her body near +me and I longed to reach out an stroke her. "Just lay back and +enjoy this." She purred. More movements as she positioned herself +on the bed. Again lips encircled the head of my cock, tounge +swirling, wet and warm. The velvety smoothness caused me to moan +softly, and I could feel her warm breath against my skin. All at +once she swallowed my cock, deeply, into her throat. She'd never +before been able to 'throat' my seven inches, and I gasped loudly +as her lips tickled the hairs at the root. Rising slowly, lips +tight against me, she flicked her tounge back and forth over the +muscular ridge under my cock. I moaned my pleasure, letting her +know I enjoyed this and wanted more. My hands reached out, only to +be slapped away. I laid back and enjoyed the sensation of my cock +being swallowed over and over. Slowly. Lovingly. She began to +move quickly, her lips lightly touching the shaft, her saliva +making moist noises as she changed directions. Using only her +mouth, she pumped my cock up and down, her efforts shaking the bed. +Several fast strokes would be followed by a long plunge. Taking me +deep into her throat, she'd pause, letting me know how deep I was, +feeling the tightness of her mouth. The velvety smooth, slick skin +in the back of her throat caressed the head of my cock, feeling +sooo very nice. Then she would pull up quickly, and repeat her +fast strokes, again, only to plunge long and deep. She didn't touch +me except with her mouth. Her hands I could feel near me on the +bed, her hair not touching me as it normally would. Lacking any +other distractions, my world consisted of my cock and her mouth, +eagerly trying to suck me off. I could feel my cock trying to +stiffen even more, as my balls tightened and tingled. + "Unnghh...I'm...gonna...cum!" I panted. Her pace quickened, her +saliva dripped onto my balls, feeding the fires in them instead of +quenching them. My hips moved up, a primitive instinct taking over +control. I want to come in her mouth, give her all of my sperm, +never wanting to stop. The dam broke, Vesuvius erupted, the floods +came. Sperm rushed from my cock as she held me about half way into +her mouth. Spasms wracked my body as come surged from me. After +the fourth surge, I felt her let go and put my spurting rod against +her chest, rubbing me back and forth until I spent myself. + Breathing heavily and moaning, I began to relax; to drift into that +warm "afterglow" of total contentment and relaxation. I felt her +hips move over mine, as she sat just over my lower stomach. Her +hands untying the blind-fold. As the scarf fell away, revealing her +slim form and pale skin in the flickering candlelight, I looked at +her smiling above me, wearing only her garter belt and stockings. +As she sat, almost grinning at me, I realized that her chest and +tits were dry, yet they should have been shiny and wet with white +drops of come. "Did you like that?" She laughed huskily. "Mmmmm, +yessss!" I replied, still feeling the "glow". I a sudden motion, +she moved off of me, laying on her side next to me. "You'd better +thank her then." Darlene laughed. I looked down, and laying +alongside my legs, I saw Karen, Darlene's best friend and lover, +naked, except for a red bow tied around her neck, her breasts +twinkling wetly in the dim light, her tounge licking her lips. She +smiled at me, her light brown hair seeming to glow as a candle's +light tried to weave its way through. "Happy Anniversary love!" +Darlene laughed, kissing me on the cheek. I grabbed her and kissed +her back, hard and rough, as much to thank her as to tell her that +I'd wished I'd known it wasn't her. Sitting up, I pulled Karen to +me and kissed her too, tasting the salty remnants of my come on her +tounge. "That, sweetheart, " I said to Karen, "is for that +tremendous headjob!" Karen laughed, telling me how much fun it was +to suck me while I thought it was Darlene going down. Darlene told +her it would be a few minutes until I was ready again, indicating +my flacid cock. "Well, I certainly got all worked up over that." +Karen said. Darlene had her lay back, and as I watched, laid +herself down between Karen's thighs. Her blonde hair and fair skin +contrasting to the darker skin tone of the brunette. She slid her +hands under Karen's thighs, as her mouth found the moistness +between them. Karen crossed her ankles over the middle of +Darlene's back as a tounge caressed her warm, damp flesh. As I +watched, I could feel my rod begin to straighten, getting harder +and fuller as Darlene moaned softly between Karen's thighs. A +candle on the headboard illuminated Darlene's creamy ass, and I +could see a glistening reflection deep between her legs. She +continued to suck, her hands reaching up to pinch Karen's dark +nipples, squeeze her full breasts, caressing the soft tender area +on their undersides with her fingers. I placed my hand on the back +of her thigh, sliding up halfway to her asscheek, stopping to give +her thigh a gentle squeeze to let her know I was enjoying her +"show". She moaned again, wiggling her ass slightly. Karen's face +was one of concentration. She was laying back, trying to +concentrate on the pleasures Darlene was giving her, her legs +locked tightly over the more delicate girl's back. I moved my hand +up, cupping Darlene's asscheek, pushing it up and away from me. +The second time I did that, I heard a wet "smack" come from between +her legs as her wet pussy lips parted stickily. I leaned over and +began to alternate lifting each asscheek, pushing them together and +pulling them apart as I did. It took only seconds to cause her +pussy to make its approval known with wet noises. The candle light +on her lips showed twinkling droplets of juice forming in her +golden bush, moist and inviting. Her lips were full and beginning +to swell as a white pearlescent drop began to peek from her cunt. + My handling of her ass was driving her crazy, as she sucked and +licked Karen's pussy. Her soft moans indicated that she liked me +feeling her ass, and that she wanted to make Karen come. Karen's +legs suddenly closed around Darlene's head as her hips lifted off +the bed, carrying the blonde covered head with them. I watched as +she stayed locked like this, her legs quivering, her breathing a +series of short loud pants, until, finally, she collapsed on the +bed. Darlene caressed the dark bush and pussy, kissing it lightly +several times in different places, causing Karen to ripple with +shudders each time. When she sat up, she crawled down toward her +friend, kissing her tenderly on the lips. "I love to eat you like +that." Darlene said softly. Karen replied lazily, "Ummmm, I love to +cum in your mouth too." Darlene slipped off the foot of the bed and +walked around to me, sitting on the edge of the bed. We grabbed +each other and kissed passionately, our tounges tasting Karen's cum +together. I licked the slick wetness from her chin and neck, +squeezing her small tits and pinching her nipples. As our mouths +parted, we looked into each other's eyes. "See what a wanton slut +you married?!" She laughed. Her use of the word "slut" told me that +she was incredibly turned on. In the year we'd been married, she +only used that word in bed when we had kept teasing each other, +increasing our lust to a franticly high level. "Yes, I can see what +a slut you are." I replied, playing on her horniness. "I saw how +wet your cunt was getting while you fucked her with your tounge." + "Oooh, yesss, I'm sooo wet. See?" Her hand rose from her moist +lips, the fingers glistening with a thick cream as she showed me +her hand. "I'm sooo wet! Having you watch me suck pussy has me +ready to cum!" She purred again, as she rubbed her own slick juice +over her nipples. I leaned down, my tounge circling her nipples, +licking her cream from the hard tips. I sucked a nipple into my +mouth, pulling hard as my hand slid between her thighs. "Hmmm, suck +my tits." She whispered. "Lick my nipples." I slipped three fingers +into her sopping pussy, feeling her warm wetness ooze down into my +hand. My cock touching her stomach caused her hands to encircle it +and begin a slow stroking. "I want to watch my wet slut rub her +pussy all over Karen's tits. Make her nipples all wet and creamy. +Watch as my slut tries to fuck those nice big tits. Can you feel +how wet they are? How wet your thighs are?" Her head tossed back +as I crooned our "bedtalk" too her, her mouth open slightly, she +moaned and hissed her reply. "Yesss. Fuck her tits...her wet +creamy tits...cumming on her titssss." I glanced at Karen, laying +back, watching us as she stroked her pussy. I kept my three fingers +in Darlene's dripping cunt as I renewed her lust. "She's watching +you now...She's watching your cunt cream in my hand...Your +girlfriend wants to lick your dripping pussy...She wants you to cum +in her mouth this time...make her face wet." Darlene looked at me +with a primal, carnal lust. She grabbed my head and kissed me +hard, her tounge shooting into my mouth barely after my lips +parted. She pulled back, and wordlessly move away, my fingers +sliding from her very wet pussy. She crawled down to Karen, +pausing to look at her naked form. She turned around, lifting her +ass and throwing one leg over Karen's body. Then, while she lowered +herself onto Karen's left breast, I could see drops of her juice +actually dripping onto the nipple, just before her blonde bush +covered it. Looking directly at me, she began to rub herself +against Karen's tit. Her pussy making wet smacking sounds as she +moved faster. "I love to see you naked," I said, "with your cunt +sooo wet and horny." "Naked? I'll show you NAKED." She said. Her +arousal was complete and high. She ripped the garterbelt from her +waist, tearing her stockings. Without lifting off Karen's nipple, +she began to tear the stocking from her thighs, shredding the +fabric. "Strip me. Strip me naked. Get me naked." She panted. Karen +pulled the stockings from Darlene's legs, as this carnal blonde +fucked at her tits. "You wanna see me cum?" Darlene said, looking +at me with glassy eyes. "You wanna see me cum on her tits? On her +face?" She slid backwards up to Karen's mouth, her nipples standing +up like small cylinders from her breasts. Her panting loud. As +she sat on Karen's face, she moaned, then commanded; "Sssuck me! +Yesss, eat my pussy. Make me cum. Make me cum in your mouth!!" I +moved over to her, her eyes half-closed, hips rocking furiously. I +kept up the taunts hoping to send her over the edge. "You're such a +hot carnal slut -- getting your twat sucked by a girl, your naked +in bed with your girlfriend's tounge in your cunt, and you're going +to cum...getting all wet for HER tounge in you...why don't you show +me what a hot slut you are and eat her cunt too?" "Ahhhnngg" +Darlene moaned as she fell down between Karen's open thighs. Her +hands pushed the tanned thighs apart, as she shoved her face +tightly against Karen's soaked pussy. She rocked her face back and +forth, tounge extened, making wet slurping noises. "Ooooh that's +sooo HOT!" I crooned to her, "Watching you rub your face in her +cunt...I'd love to have a picture of you, naked, your legs spread, +her tounge in your gushing wet pussy, while you rub her cum on your +face." She stopped sucking Karen, her head arching back, mouth +open, her eyes closed. Short sounds escaped from her lips as she +neared her moment of triumph. "Make her face wettt babee...CUM in +her mouth...make her face WET with your cum!" I encouraged. She +started comming, thrusting her ass against Karen's mouth, her body +first falling flat, arms splayed out, then she was upright, her +hips shaking and her body twitching as she received little electric +shocks through her clit. "Huh! Uh! Huh! Huh! Huh!" were the only +sounds in the room except for the wet noises Karen was making +between her soft thighs. She fell off of Karen, still shuddering +and moaning. Her lust only partly sated, her eyes fell on us. + "Quick Karen," She panted, "fuck him. I wanna watch you FUCK! See +your cunt FUCKED by his cock!" We moved together, Karen on her +knees, and I slid into her pussy easily. Karen's pussy was so wet +that I had trouble feeling anything as I pumped her hard and fast. +She ground her hips against me, trying to bury me deeper in her +smouldering cunt. We pounded each other, her cheeks rippling after +each thrust, her tits bouncing, until I felt her hole tighten +around my shaft. I plunged as deep as I could, splaying my legs +wider than hers to get some leverage as I drove it deep against her +cervix. Karen collapsed against the bed, her legs straight and +locked together tightly, her moans and cries announcing her orgasm. +I lay still until her contractions eased on my cock, then I started +slow movements, drawing my cock slowly from deep inside, then +quickly plunging back. "You're...still....hard?? Unngh." She said +as I lowered my cock back to the depths of her cunt. Darlene pulled +me off of her brunette friend, eyes still filled with lust, as my +cock slipped wetly from between Karen's cheeks. "I'M going to make +you cum and cum and cum." She announced proudly. With her +proclamation, she laid down and began to suck my cock, licking +Karen's juice from my balls with a greedy tounge. Karen looked and +made a comment about her being greedy, and a kinky idea hit me. + "You want me to fill your mouth with my jism?" I asked Darlene. Her +moaned response was a definite yes, as she laid under me, playing +with her clit. Her hands were a blur over her light bush as she +continued to suck me into her mouth. I pulled her into position +having to forcibly remove my shaft from her eager mouth. I laid +her on her back, sitting almost upright against several pillows as +I straddled her stomach. She leaned forward to suck my cock, but I +pulled back away, denying her. I had Karen sit next to us and +placed her hand around my cock, showing her the best grip with +which to jack me off. I sat back, resting not quite on Darlene's +stomach, and reached behind me to stroke her drenched pussy as +Karen began to pump my shaft. I told my wife that Karen was going +to make me cum in her mouth. That her best friend was going pump +my cock until I came in her mouth, feel me cumming as she sucks the +cum from me. I leaned forward so my cock entered her mouth, as +Karen pumped me. Karen used her thumb and forefinger, pulling +tightly around my cock, pulling the skin with her as she stroked. +My fingering of her pussy made my wife greedy and she wanted to +suck me herself. Several times Karen pulled me out, and still +pumping my cock, kept it away from this carnal blonde until she +started to behave. I reached down and stroked Karen's bush since +she was doing me, and she leaned over and sucked my nipple. +Karen's pussy was still wet and slick, her thighs wet from +Darlene's frantic licking. A look came into her eyes, and she slid +her body down to lay on her side next to us. "Mmmm. Lick the head." +She instructed. "Lick any cum from the head as I get him off. I'm +gonna pump him into your mouth...fill your mouth with his hot +spurting cum...I want to watch while he cums in your mouth." + Darlene was sucking too much into her mouth, so Karen took me out +and teased her with it, rubbing me against the side of her face, +making her swing her head from side to side while she chased it. + "Mustn't take too much." Karen warned as she slid me back into +Darlene's mouth. "C'mon you naked little bitch, let him know how +much you want him to cum. Make him cum in your mouth as much as he +did in mine. Can you feel his balls rubbing your stomach? Those +cum filled balls...rubbing on you?" I felt a well know sensation +rising from those balls too. I was getting closer as these two +teased. "After he gets hard again, I want him to fuck you from +behind while I eat your pussy. I want to taste his cum inside +you...suck it from you, drink you both.." Karen was stroking at a +steady pace, but I wanted faster and told her to go faster, to make +me cum. At the speed she was moving her hand, Darlene had to pull +back to just beyond the end of my cock to keep her lips from +getting bruised. This left me looking at my naked wife, her grey +eyes filled with a primal lust, mouth open, her tounge eagerly +awaiting the arrival of the first drop as Karen sucked at her +nipple. "Ohh God...I want to...Cum!" I panted. "Yessss!" Darlene +hissed back. "Shoot your hot thick cum in my mouth. I want you to +fill my mouth. Shoot your jism all over me! Shoot your jism... +let me drink you...drink your cum..." Karen chimed in with "That's +it...tell him...I'm going to suck your wet cunt while you swallow +his cum...suck you and make you wet and horny again. I want your +slick cum on my face while he shoots his load in your mouth... your +wet juice, his cum, all over us..." "Ohh, NOW!" I shouted, "I +gonna...CUM...NOW...CUM!" I felt a surge well up inside me, a rush +of cum flowed from the end of my cock into Darlene's open mouth. +She moved forward against the torrent, taking me into her mouth. +Karen held on to my cock, holding her hand in one place while I +bucked and worked more cum into my wife's hot mouth. Darlene was +wimpering and moaning as I shot another flood into her mouth, my +cock twitching and throbbing. Another pulse exited my cock into +her mouth. I could feel the warmth of my cum still in Darlene's +mouth, exciting me. Karen pulled my cock from Darlene's mouth, +jacking me off onto my wife's tits, while her voice dripped with +lust, "Cum on her tits...yeah...all over her tits...make her your +wet little slut..." Darlene grabbed Karen's head and pulled her +down for a kiss, cum dribbling from the one corner of her mouth. +As they kissed, more cum leaked past their lips, as Karen rubbed my +cock over my wife's chest and tits. As they parted, I heard them +both swallow, Karen pulling my wife up from the bed to wipe the cum +from her face with my softening cock, which Karen then sucked into +her mouth. I collapsed on the bed and watched as they both licked +each other off, and started touching and caressing each other. +Later, I made love to each of these wonderful women, seperately, +and together. When we were all finally sated, we cuddled and +kissed, falling asleep together, content and smiling. From that +night forward, Karen was always invited for a birthday or an +anniversary party. + + + -- Good night and wet dreams -- + The Pussy Barber + diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/1-3some.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/1-3some.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e73cab37 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/1-3some.txt @@ -0,0 +1,85 @@ +Archive-name: 3plus/1-3some.txt +Archive-author: +Archive-title: First Threesome + + + We were in her Van, parked at the top of the cliffs at Black's Beach +the first time I brought the subject up. I had always wanted to watch my +wife fuck another guy while I was watching, but she didn't want any part of +of it. Mayby my girlfriend would be more receptive to the idea. Our affair +was over a year old at the time and calming down some from the frenetic start +we enjoyed. I asked if she had ever thought about making love to two guys at +once and of course she had but had never had an opportunity to try. I told +her that I could make it happen if she was interested. From the way her +kisses increased in intensity I felt I had my answer. The first questions were +who, and how do I know he doesn't have any diseases, good questions in this +day and age. I told her I had a good friend at work that I'd known for many +years, married and not active outside of his marraige but had been talking +about how bored he was getting. Having made a couple of cruises with him +and seeing him in the shower the added bonus was he happened to be hung like +a horse. (Almost). She asked if I had said anything to him and I said that I +hadn't but if she was interested I would drop a hint and see what his reaction +would be. With her approval I did. His reaction was fairly predictable, at +first he thought I was kidding but got very interested when I assurred him it +wasn't a joke. + + About two weeks later, when our time had just about expired at our +favorite pay by the hour motel I asked if she wanted me to give Jerry a call, +I knew his wife was working and if he was home he would be alone all after- +noon. She said weeeeeeelll I don't know but what the hell, so I got dressed +and called Jerry up from the pay phone outside. He was home, I asked him if +he felt like some company, I still think he didn't believe I was serious but +he said sure, c'mon over. The ride from Pt. Loma to North County was very +quiet, a lot of silent looks back and forth. She was very nervous and so +was I. She held my hand very tightly as we walked up to Jerry's door and +rang the bell. He met us with a cold beer and after nervous introductions we +went upstairs to his computer room. I could tell he was impressed, she's a +very pretty lady and has a trim figure to match. The beer and Jerry's quick +wit soon had us relaxed. He put an X-Rated movie in the VCR and we commented +how we had been watching movies all morning. He had picked this one very +carefully, the TV screen was filled with 2 guys and 1 girl. We watched +quietly for a while, my dick was trying to rip its way out of my Levies and +the air was so thick with sexual tension you could cut it with a knife. We +were sitting on the floor in front of the TV and Jerry asked if anyone wanted +another beer. I said yes and bring back the Cuervo too. While he was gone I +leaned over and pulled her to me and we started kissing like there was not +going to be a tomorrow. By the time Jerry got back we were stretched out on +the floor and I was fumbleing with her belt. The same belt I had unhooked +a hundred times was all of a sudden giving me problems. I said please give +me a hand here man, I can't get this undone, Jerry laid down beside us and +we very slowly unsnapped her jeans. I moved down to her feet and took off +her sneakers and socks, Jerry had her jeans unfastened and she picked her +hips off the floor so he could slide them down her legs and off. I moved +back up and pulled her sweater up and over her head, now she was only +wearing white bikini panties, Her pink nipples were hard and we quickly +each started sucking on them while taking off our own clothes. When I +finished undressing I moved down and started kissing and sucking on her cunt +through her panties. When I looked up she had Jerry's dick in her hand and +was opening her mouth to take it in. He was impressive even when only +partially hard. I left her panties on and continued to eat her until the +crotch was totaly soaked, I moved over and watched her suck Jerry's dick, +I knew he was enjoying it cause she loves to have a man in her mouth, I +asked if I could have a shot of that and he pulled back to let me take his +place. By this time I knew she was ready to take him in her pussy and like +she was reading my mind she pulled her panties off and opened her legs wide. +Jerry moved between her legs and I asked him to kneel cause I wanted to watch +his dick slide into her, He rubbed the head up and down her crack several +times and then almost like he was teasing he put the head in, I watched her +lips spread as he pushed in and then close back around the shaft as he got +deeper inside her. He started pumping slowly, each time he went in farther +until finally he was buried. I watched her face as he started to slam into +her and knew she was loving it. I moved up and touched her mouth with my dick +and she took me in like a madwoman. Jerry started pumping harder and I knew +he was going to come and that was enough to bring me over the edge, as he +filled her pussy with come I filled her mouth. We kind of laid there in a +heap for a while, we were all grinning like bird fed cats. I had always +thought that a threesome would be fun and I was right. I leaned over and +sucked one of her nipples into my mouth and got it all wet, we had just fin- +ished passing the Cuervo around and I shook some salt onto her nipple, licked +it off and took another shooter, by the time came to get dressed and leave we +had salted just about every part of our bodies you could imagine. It turned +out to be the best day I have ever had with my lady, we got together pretty +regular after that, untill Jerry transfered back East, I'm still seeing her +on occassion but we never have enjoyed another 3-some. + +-- diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/100.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/100.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..da1b2b8a --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/100.txt @@ -0,0 +1,317 @@ +Copyright © 1997, Rich Humus, ALL Rights Reserved + +This story may not be reproduced in any form for profit without +the written permission of the author. This story may be freely +distributed with this notice attached. The author may be contacted +through mrdouble@airmail.net. + + + + + +I gotta Wash That Man Right Outta My Hair +by Rich Humus + + +I did a stupid thing. I bet my husband that my team would win the +Super Bowl. I should have known better. I was insistent, though, and +kept bugging him. I was so excited to see my team there, I just knew +they would win. Know I know why "fan" is from the word "fanatic". He +didn't want to bet, but I kept after him. Finally he said OK. + +"Tell ya what. If your team wins, I'll buy you that diamond necklace +you saw over at Grant's in the mall the other day. All four grand of +it." + +"Yeah! Now we're talking - " + +"But if they lose, you do anything I ask. ANYTHING. Once. Deal?" + +I thought a second. What could he want.. + +""What is it you want?" + +"I don't know yet. I'll think of something. Well, is it a bet or not?" + +I agreed. I couldn't see what he could possibly want, besides I KNEW +my team would win. I could already picture that gorgeous necklace on. + +"Sure. No problem, sucker." + +"We'll see who's the sucker...." + +I had no idea how prophetic those words turned out to be. + + +After the game, I was crushed. They lost! How could they! Arrrrrgh! +Richard was nice, though, he didn't gloat or rub it in. He didn't +really like either of the teams anyway. He didn't even mention the +bet. Until the next morning. + +"Well. You lost. Too bad." + +"Yeah. Right." + +"Now you owe me. I figured out what I want." + +"What?" I snarled at him, still pissed that I lost the bet. I hate +football! + +"Remember, you said anything. Anything at all." + +"Yeah, yeah. Out with it." + +He answered very slowly and calmly. "I want you to let some guys cum +on your face." + +"What! What're you, nuts! -" + +"Quiet! You lose, you owe." + +"How many?" Notice how my concern changed. One thing I do is honor my +bets. + +He let several rather agonizing seconds elapse before he answered. I +think he knew all along but he wanted me to squirm for a minute. + +"A hundred. An even hundred. Ninety-nine, if you wish. I'll go first." + +I just looked at him. "You're nuts. Where are you going to find that +many clean, " (and I emphasized CLEAN ) "guys. It can't be anyone we +know." + +"You let me worry about that. NO insertion. No one else gets that +pussy or ass but me. But you're gonna get wet. And I'm gonna tape it." + +I looked at him darkly. But he was right. In the past, when he'd lost, +I made him pay. I had a new XJS outside that was the result of one +rather foolish (on his part) wager. + +Don't get me wrong, though. I don't mind an occasional facial or two. +He likes that. And I'm not crazy about the taste of cum, but I've +swallowed worse. (I had some cheap Mexican beer once that tasted like +it had been strained through Pancho Villa's horse blanket a couple of +times.) + +Nothing more was said about it until about three weeks later. Friday +night, Richard announced that we were going to a city about a hundred +miles away for the weekend. He looked at me across the dinner table. +"This is it. Payback time." + +I gulped. He told me he'd made all the arrangements. He knew a guy who +ran a club there, and they'd "spread the word", so to speak. +Participants had to produce a clean bill of health, had to agree that +there would be no oral, vaginal or anal penetration, and there would +be no alcohol served that night. Oddly enough, everyone agreed. Apart +from the fact that every one of the bastards would shoot his cum on my +face, it sounded more like a Baptist prayer meeting. + +Well, to make a long story short, we arrived at the club the next +evening about 8:30. It had ha sign on the front door announcing +"Private Party - Closed to the public." That's when it really hit me. +I was in for something now. + +Richard knocked four times and his friend let us in. I was introduced +to the guy, Sam, was his name, he seemed ok. I also met the bouncers, +Hank, Thomas, and Oswald (who the hell ever heard of a bouncer named +Oswald?) who I was assured would see that nothing got out of hand. Out +of hand. That's a laugh. A hundred guys jerking off on my face, but +nothing gets out of hand. + +There was a lone spotlight shining down onto the center of the stage +with a couple of cushions and a chair nearby. + +"You can sit or kneel." I knew Richard was getting off on this +fantasy, so, even though I figured it would be more comfortable to be +sitting, I told him I'd kneel on the cushions. + +They didn't waste any time. I looked around and could see that a bunch +of guys were there already. Richard took my coat off. I'd worn a knit +top and a skirt over a bra and panties. "Take the rest of your clothes +off and get on stage." He said. I did. Once there, he pushed me down +onto the cushions, produced a set of handcuffs from I don't know +where, and cuffed my hands behind my back. + +"What's that for?" + +"Number one, so you don't try to cover your face. Number two, in case +you wanted to give anyone a helping hand, so to speak. Remember, I +said no contact." + +"Do I get a towel or anything?" + +"No. It all stays on until the end." I was gonna be a fright to look +at by then, I guess. I looked around and noticed about half a dozen +girls walking around talking to the guys. I guess they were "fluff +girls" or whatever. Helping the guys out, getting them ready. Richard +turned to the owner and said "We're ready. Door locked? Lights out?" +It was, they were. Except for the spotlight shining down on me like a +damn lighthouse beacon, of course. + +Richard came around to the front of me and unzipped. His nice cock was +already halfway hard, He pushed it at my lips. "Me, you can suck." I +gave it my best, which is quite,good, I might add. I deep throated him +for a few minutes, sucking and licking, hearing the catcalls and hoot +from the guys assembled around there, I must admit it turned me on a +little to know I was doing this in front of so many complete +strangers. I'd have been embarrassed to death in front of anybody I +knew, but these were all unknowns, and I knew we'd never see them +again. Richard didn't take long, I think he wanted to cum quickly and +start filming the whole thing. + +He pulled out and plastered me with six or seven good sized spurts, +one went right into my mouth and the rest landed on my face and neck. +I swallowed the one in my mouth. As Richard zipped up, he said "Oh +yeah - after each one, give the number and say 'I'll never be on the +Chargers again.' " I looked up at him, sperm dripping down my cheeks +and grinned. + +"One. I'll never bet on the Chargers again." + +And so it began. I won't bore you with all the details, I mean, all +it was was guy after guy stepping up to me, jerking his dick off in my +face, and moving off. A lot of them bent down to kiss the top of my +head when they were finished, and whisper "Thanks, honey" or some such +endearing words, but after a while even the top of my head got too +spermy for most of them. + +I do remember a couple of notable ones, though. Number 11 was this +huge guy who had a cock that you could pole vault with. He blasted so +much cream on me I thought I was gonna drown in the stuff. It went in +my ears, across the top of my head, up my nose (cough cough snort +snort...) and in my mouth, A LOT went in my mouth. + +Number 23 was a little shrimp of a guy, with a cock that couldn't have +been more than four inches long. But he shot a straight stream of cum +right into my face. It was weird. Most guys shoot three or four spurts +- this guy shot one big stream of it. It was hot and thick, and tasted +like cinnamon. I swear it lasted three seconds. + +After the first couple of dozen guys, my face was, naturally, a mess. +Some guys only came a couple of small spurts, some came a bit more, +and every now and then I got a gusher. But I swear every fuckin' +single drop landed on my face somewhere. My hair got sopping wet, it +was dripping down my back even. It was all across my forehead, +dripping down over my eyebrows and down my cheeks, up my nose, in my +mouth, my lips were covered it and, and it dripped from my chin like +icicles. I swallowed as much as I could, or as much as was shot in my +mouth anyway. + +After each one, of course, I had to announce the number and say I +wouldn't bet on the Chargers again. That was probably the worst part +about it, actually. I was really pissed at them for loosing. + +After the 50th guy dropped his load in my mouth, Richard came up to +me. + +"How're you doing?" + +I turned to him. Close up like that, he could see the covering of +sperm on my face. It was everywhere, I don't think I had any dry skin +from my shoulders up. "Just fine. We're not done yet, are we?" I said, +thickly, the gooey sperm in my mouth making it hard to talk with any +clarity. + +"Oh, no, no, just half way there. You look beautiful." + +"Right. I've got about six fuckin' gallons of cum on my face and I +look like a drowned rat. Lovely." I grinned back at him. + +"I've got a present for you. Her name is Delia." A girl came up on +stage and kissed me, licking some of the cum from my face. I'm not +normally bi or anything, but she laid down behind me, scooted her head +up between my thighs, and I rose up a bit. Hell, anything's better +than nothing, right? Her tongue came up and started licking my slit +and I closed my eyes and sighed. "That's nice. Thanks, dear." + +So then we started on the rest. Delia stuck her tongue so far up my +pussy I thought it'd come out my mouth. Now THAT was cool. I just +knelt there and let the guys jerk off on my face. A couple of them +came up real close with their dicks, just barely not touching my lips. +At times I really wanted to open up and suck them a bit, but I knew if +I did one, I'd have to do them all, and I don't think that was part of +the plan. + +Ever had a cock cum in your mouth from an inch away? Sometimes, you +can actually hear the jizzum hit the back of your throat. It's weird. + +Looking back at the tape later, I could scarcely recognize myself. At +one time I had at least eight big lines of cum dripping down my face +in every direction. It dripped down off my boobs and onto the top of +Delia's head, too. After a while, it was even drooling all down my +chest and into my pubes, so I imagine Delia got to taste a bit of nut +juice that night. + +You know, after fifty or so guys have spermed you, the rest seem, +well, anti-climatic. So to speak. After all, you can only get so much +cum on your face. Once you're drenched, it's all the same. And I was +drenched. I swear some of those guys hadn't cum in months, they pumped +so much sperm on me. Richard was kind enough to lean in and wipe my +eyes off when any of it got in them, but for some reason, getting it +in my eyes never stung like I've heard other girls say it does. Maybe +something about my body chemistry or something. But it wasn't so bad. + +At one point, there were eight Japanese guys in a row. Turned out they +were in town for a convention. Each one had to take fucking pictures +of the other seven guys sperming on me. I guess I'll be a porno queen +in Tokyo now. + +Finally, after at least four goddam hours of getting my face sprayed, +we were finished, The last three guys stood around me and jerked off +together and all three sprayed me from the top of my head to my tits. +I can't see how I could have looked very sexy, kneeling there with cum +covering my face and my hair dripping wet and my eyeshadow and makeup +ruined, but, hey, you guys are turned on by the strangest stuff. + +When everyone was finished, they all stood and cheered and applauded +me, I blushed then, as Richard uncuffed me and helped me stand up. My +legs were cramped like hell, and it took me a minute to straighten up. +Richard was rubbing all the cum into my skin, even my face, wringing +it out of my hair even. It felt good, actually, all the gooey creamy +stuff, it was still warm from being under the lights all night. If +you've never had a sperm massage, you might want to try it some time. +My chest glistened from it all. Then Richard really suprised me. He +reached into his back pocket and came out with a thin rectangular box. + +"Here. You earned it anyway." I opened it up and whooped - it was the +diamond necklace I'd had my eyes on from before, the one I would have +gotten if the goddam Chargers hadn't fucked up. + +"I collected 50 bucks from all the guys. The other girls split a +thousand, and here's the rest." + +I looked down at the necklace, It glittered in the strong lights. It +was exactly the one I had seen in the store window. Then I noticed +something dangling from the very bottom of it. I looked closer. + +Sunuvabitch. It was a tiny "100" in diamonds. + + + The End + + +-- + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +-- + + +Double for Nothing!! Tricks for Free!!! + +http://www.mrdouble.com + +Be There..... \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/10comand.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/10comand.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..8e1430ac --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/10comand.txt @@ -0,0 +1,399 @@ + The Ten Commandments + (c) 1993 by Akai + +"That dress looks wonderful on you," I said as she looked at herself in +the mirror, turning prettily. She was wearing a slinky form-fitting +black dress. It was one piece, coming down only to mid-thigh, with an +elaborate sleeve and collar arrangement that showed off intriguing +glimpses of shoulder. It just vaguely suggested that her neck was +bound. The one-piece little black dress was a new look for her, and it +made her nervous. + +"I could never wear this," she pouted. "I'm still too self-conscious +about my tummy." She kept turning sideways and checking to see if she +had sprouted an extra stomach recently. + +"You don't have a tummy. You look wonderful." She did look +wonderful. She has a hot body that you can break bricks on, and +everyone thinks so except her. She still sees herself forty pounds +ago. + +"I have a belt that would look great with that, back in a sec," the +sales girl said, dashing off to the accessories rack. She came back +with an elegant chrome belt made of large metal rings strung together +with short lengths of chain. She couldn't possibly have known how +appropriate that choice was. + +"I like that. Try it on, Copper." With a bit of fussing, she slung +the belt around her hips and closed the unfamiliar clasp. Even to +vanilla folk, the effect would be just stunning, but the chains made it +all the more beautiful to me. + +"No, I could never make myself go out in public like this. I'm still +too self-conscious." + +"Then I will." I took both of her hands in mine and stared into her +eyes. "You are mine, Pet, and you will follow the next ten +commandments that I give you." + +"Yes, Master," she whispered in a tentative, but excited voice. + +"The first is that you will buy these things." + +"Yes, Master," she said with a smile. + +"I love spending your money." The sales girl wandered back from helping +another customer, and I said "She'll take these." + +"Alright!" she said, chewing and popping her gum. "I like the way you +two shop: 'That one'. I wish I had a boyfriend that was that +interested in clothes." We get comments like that from sales people +all the time. We're probably the only couple around that has +mathematical-sounding discussions through the changing room door about +the merits of fashion clothing. + +"I'm always interested in my Pet's appearance," I said innocently, +doing my best to make Copper squirm without actively freaking out the +sales girl. + +Copper made her purchases, and we made our way back to the convention. +Copper put her packages down, and we showered together before getting +ready for the Saturday night festivities. I like to shower with her, +to watch her lather her slippery, wet, naked body. Makes me wish I had +a couple of bricks to try breaking on her tight buns. Besides, it +saves water. + +Watching her soap her body inspired me to use a precious second +commandment. Just as she was finishing soaping herself, I took the +shower-head from the wall and said "Stand against the back wall, Pet." + +"Yes, Master," she said. + +"Touch your breasts, but not the nipples. Trace circles around them in +the soap." She started tracing the circles, spiralling in closer, +unable to resist the temptation to touch herself. "Those spiral +patterns on your breasts are pretty. You want to touch your nipples, +don't you Pet?" + +"Oh, yes Master." she said, moaning a bit. + +"Alright, squeeze them in your fingers. Roll and pinch them, hard." +She did as commanded, and let out a loud moan. "Keep squeezing, harder +and harder," I said as I started hosing the soap off her body with the +shower head. + +"Yes, Master," she said, closing her eyes and biting her lip. + +"Tell me how you feel, Pet," I said, as I continued to hose her off. + +"I want you to touch me. Please touch my clit, Master, I want to +come." At that, I pointed the shower head at her cunt, and pushed her +legs apart so it would pound on her clit. + +"That excites you, doesn't it, Pet?" She nodded. "You look very hot, +very lusty, my Pet. Like you desperately want to be fucked." She +nodded again. "Pull your nipples outward," I said, as I played the +jets of water back and forth over her cunt. "Squeeze your nipples as +hard as you can, and if I believe that you're hurting yourself enough, +I'll let you come." + +"Thank you, Master," she said, squeezing harder. She rolled and +pinched her nipples until they were bright red, biting her lip. The +look on her face, the tense furrowed brow, told me that she was ready. +"Now you may come," I said as I jammed the vibrating head of the shower +massage up against her cunt. She tensed, shivered, and yelled +"Uhh-hUHH!" as she came. I clipped the shower head (good name for it) +back in it's holder, and held her in my arms until she stopped +twitching. + +"Your nipples will be sensitive for a while, won't they?" I said as I +turned off the water. + +"Yes, they will. Why?" she asked? + +"It'll make them easier to find them under your clothing," I said +wickedly. + +"Beast!" she spat at me with a smile. + +I handed her a towel and said "Come along, it's time to get dressed." + +When she had finished drying off, she went over to the closet, and +pulled out two of her nicer dresses. "Which do you think would be +better for running art at the auction tonight?" she asked, +alternatively holding them up for me. + +"Well, they're both lovely, but irrelevant. Your third commandment is +to wear your new dress tonight, with pumps, black fish net stockings, +and your new belt" She looked uncomfortable at the prospect. "And no +underwear. You can distract yourself from thinking about your tummy by +thinking about how exposed your cunt and ass will be, a bare six inches +from that hem line." + +"Yes, Master," she said, taking a deep breath. + +We got dressed, Copper as specified, with a bit of encouragement, and +myself in black pants and shirt, cut swashbuckler style. Pirate boots +and a riding crop in my belt completed the picture. We left the room +and were walking down the hall when I stopped her and pushed her into +the ice machine alcove. "Roll up your hem and play with yourself," I +said, standing where I would mostly block her from the view of passers +by. + +"Here?" she stammered. + +"Yes, here, where someone might see you. It pleases me to expose you. +But first turn around and present your ass for a spanking for +questioning a commandment." I gave her two hand slaps on each cheek. +Copper only made tiny gasping noises in the hopes that the ice machine +would cover the noise, but I made the slaps as loud as I could. Then +she turned to face me and started playing with herself. Being spanked +always gets her hot, but I suspect the thrill of public exposure added +to her excitement. In any case, she was already wet before she touched +herself. When she looked like she was getting close to climaxing, I +offered her a choice. "You may come if you wish, but only if you cry +out loudly." + +The prospect appalled her, but I had caught her at a point where she +couldn't refuse. She rubbed harder, hoping to get it over with before +someone came along. Just then the elevator bell rang down the hall, +and I said "You may choose not to come, but you must dab some of your +juice behind your ears. Be quick, and you might make it before they +get here." She inserted a finger deep inside herself, and dabbed a bit +behind each ear. "Plus a bit at the front of your neck," I added, "I +want everyone you snuggle with tonight to know what a wanton slut you +are." + +"I was really close to coming, so I'm really want'n, too," she said +with a smile. As the people got off the elevator and came down the +hall, I let her put her dress back down. They probably couldn't see +much, but they probably could tell what kinds of things were going on. + +When she had regained her composure, other than being a bit flushed, we +continued on down the hall. We headed straight for the Art Auction, so +as not to be late, since we were working it. I was auctioneering, and +she was running art, carrying it to potential bidders for closer +inspection. This evening, much closer. + +The auction room was just filling up when we arrived. We said hello +and chatted with our friends on the art show staff. Several people +complimented Copper on her new dress, and none of them complained about +her non-existent tummy. It turned out that there were two auctioneers, +Lou and myself, and three art runners, which meant that Copper would be +working for me every sixth time up. + +The auction proceeded fairly well. We frequently use attractive art +runners to get a little more attention, but Copper was getting quite a +bit tonight in her form-fitting short dress. The slight scent of sex +wafting from her ears, neck and crotch no doubt was getting some male +phermonal attention, as well. However, we weren't getting as high +prices as we'd like for some of the better works, so I decided to throw +in a little incentive. When my next turn up came, Copper was my +runner. The painting was a truly magnificent rendering of a couple of +Pegasus-like humanoids, rippling muscles, long blond hair, coupling in +mid flight. Something for everyone. I took a few limp bids on the +piece, and then announced "The winner of this piece also can get a kiss +from my lovely assistant." That got lots of response. Most of the +men, and a few of the women, sat up and started looking interested. + +"Hey, how come you get to use bribery?" howled Lou. + +"Because she's Mine. However, I will let you borrow her next time up," +I said. That got lots of cat calls, and start the bids flowing. In +the end, the bidding came down to two determined bidders, a handsome +looking man in the front row, and a woman hiding near the back. Most +people probably presumed that she just wanted the artwork, but when she +won it, I told Copper to go over and offer herself to the customer, +just in case. The customer welcomed Copper into her arms, who sat down +and Frenched the woman with enthusiasm. Her fifth commandment hadn't +been too tough to follow. + +When Copper's next turn came up, it was Lou's turn to use her. He said +to me "So what can I do with her?" + +"Bundle a dance with the lady with this piece," I suggested. Lou +proceeded to auction off the piece of art with fair success, this time +the guy in the front row won. After he handed over his paper work for +the art, I told him to meet us at the dance after the auction was +over. + +When the last piece was sold, Copper and I made our way to the dance. +The guy that had purchased her wasn't there yet, he was still filling +out forms, so I invited copper to join me for a slow dance. In the +comfort of the dark, she laid her head on my shoulder and cuddled up to +me. "I felt so exposed in there, running back and forth at your +bidding. I was afraid you'd order me to expose myself in there." + +I comforted her, saying "I know. I wanted you to feel exposed. Some +day I will expose you to a room full of people." She shivered. Then +my hand drifted around to her front, and found her sensitive nipple. +In the darkened room, I was able to fondle her breasts and tweak her +nipple through the fabric of her dress without too many people +noticing. She gasped, and arched her back, pressing her breast into my +hand. + +When I saw her buyer come in to the room, I caught his eye. Then my +hand drifted back around to her back, and down to her ass. "Don't +react to what I'm doing," I commanded. Then, while he watched, I +slowly pulled the hem of her dress up over her ass. I put my hand on +her naked butt, and we danced slowly in circles so that anyone and +everyone looking at us could see her naked ass. Copper buried her face +in my shoulder and shivered as the cool air tickled her, reminding her +of her exposure. + +When the dance ended, I said "For your seventh commandment, you will go +dance with him. Keep dancing until a slow dance comes along. Then +cuddle up close to him, hike the front of your dress up, and grind your +cunt into his crotch. Tell him that he can fuck you if he wants to +come back to our room with us." + +She looked over her shoulder, swallowed, and said "Yes, Master. Please +kiss me, Master." I held her close, tipped her face up to mine by +gripping the back of her hair, and kissed her. Then with a swat on the +butt, I sent her off to meet her buyer. + +I stood back and watched from a distance. They spoke briefly, and then +went out on the dance floor. The first song was fast, and so not much +happened except dancing. It was fun to watch, though, as Copper is a +consummate dancer. The second song was slow, however, and Copper had +to face up to her instructions. As she drew close to him, doing as she +was told, he looked questioningly at me. I just smiled and gestured to +urge him on. He smiled back, and held her closer. + +When the dance was over, they both came over to me. He introduced +himself, saying "Hi, uh, my name's Rick." + +"Pleased to meet you," I said. + +"Rick says that he would like to use me, Master," Copper said. + +"Yeah, like, this situation's a little new to me, but I'm game," he +concurred. "What's going on here, anyway?" + +"Copper is my pet, and it amuses me to place her in awkward +situations. She's pretty extroverted, so I have to work at it," I said +with a smile. "She's going to let you use her body because I told her +to. I assume you don't mind." + +"Hey, no problem. I'll go for a body like that anytime!" he said with +a grin. + +"Let's go," I said, and we headed for the elevator. The dance and +parties were still in full swing, but we managed to get a mostly empty +elevator. We moved to the back, since we were near the top. I pulled +her dress up over her ass again, and placed my hand on her cheek, +concealed by the wall behind her. When Rick noticed what was going on, +I winked and nodded at him, and he took the other cheek. Copper +strained not to squeak as I probed at her ass and her aching, dripping +cunt. + +When the others got off, and we were the only ones left in the +elevator, I said "Grab a handful," as I reached over with my other hand +and started fondling her breast. Rick did as I suggested. "Her +nipples are really large and sensitive, so they're easy to find," I +said as I tweaked and pinched her through the fabric. + +The elevator stopped at our floor, and we got off. There were party +noises coming from rooms part way down the hall, but no one in sight. +"Roll your hem up for the walk down the hall," I commanded. "Give the +man a preview of what he's going to get." She complied, and we set off +down the hall. I don't know whether she was hoping that no one would +come out and see, her, or that someone would, but I suspect that she +didn't really know either. When we got to our room, I made a big show +of fumbling for my key (there was *no*where she could have carried a +key), and then dropped it in front of me. "Would you get that, Pet?" I +said, forcing her to bend over and show off her ass to great effect to +Rick. + +Once inside, I commanded "Take off your clothes, Pet. All of them. I +want you to be the first naked one in the room. But be sure to give +Rick a nice show." We then sat down on the bed to watch her slowly +remove her clothing. The dress is not amenable to a graceful removal, +but once she had that off, she did an excellent job of teasing off her +bra and garter. I told her to turn around so that her ass and cunt +would face Rick when she bent over to take off her pumps, and then she +rolled down her stockings. + +"For your last command, Pet, go get the collar, wrist and ankle cuffs +and put them on yourself, and bring me the D-snaps." + +"My last command?" she asked as she returned with the items. + +While she put the cuffs and collar on, I explained "Yes, that's ten. I +don't have any more commandments, so we'll just have to make do with +what we can force on you after you're tied up." When she was done, I +pulled her hands up over behind her head and clipped them in place +behind her head so that she was bound, but could prop herself up on her +elbows if need be. Then I positioned her across the bed kneeling, with +her ass up in the air over one end, and her head down on the bed. + +"Isn't she a beautiful sight?" I asked. + +"Pretty amazing," Rick offered. + +"You've been awfully sluttish, haven't you Pet?" I said. + +"Yes, Master." + +"You need to be punished and used, don't you Pet?" + +"Yes, Master. Please punish and use me as you see fit, Master." + +"Would you like to do the honours?" I said, offering Rick her ass. +"She needs to be spanked. It gets her really hot and wet." He looked +unsure, so I explained, "Go ahead and spank her. You can't possibly +hit her as hard as I have," as I thought about the red welts the +braided black cat had raised across her ass. + +He tentatively stepped up to her and started to spank her lightly. +Copper moaned slightly. "Harder, much harder," I said, and he stepped +up the force and the pace. Copper moaned louder and louder. While +Rick beat her, I started getting undressed, and then positioned myself +on the bed above her head. Rick paused when Copper finally cried out +loud. + +"Did I hurt you?" he asked. + +"Feel her cunt. She should be practically dripping down her legs by +now." + +"Yeah, you're right. Guess she really likes that. Her ass sure is +red, though." + +"Yes, you like it, don't you Pet. Tell Rick how it makes you feel." + +"It makes me feel hot. I need to be fucked. Someone please fuck me," +she pleaded. + +"Go ahead, this is your chance. Use her cunt," I said, as he started +to open his pants. "I'll keep her quiet while you fuck her," I said, +and I lifted her head up and put my cock in her mouth. I handed Rick a +condom, which he put on, and then entered her. No matter how wet she +is, and she was plenty wet after being dominated all evening and then +thoroughly spanked by someone who had bought her, it always hurts just +a bit when she's first entered. But she likes it. She moaned onto my +cock as he entered her, and her head started bobbing up and down as he +thrust into her. Each time he pushed into her, her head would bob up +and down on my cock. As his tempo increased, so did hers on me, and so +with only a little bit of effort, I found myself about ready to climax +as he did. The thought of this stranger coming inside my Pet's cunt +was enough to push me over the edge, and I came in her mouth. Copper +is intensely attuned to her partner's orgasms, and two men coming +inside her simultaneously pushed her over the edge into a vaginal +orgasm. + +Rick pulled out and cleaned himself up, as Copper cleaned me up. I +stood up and went over to shake his hand and said "Glad to meet you. +Hope you have a good convention," and ushered him out the door. + +"Uh, yeah, this was great. Not what I was expecting from the auction! +See ya!" and he left, dazed but happy. + +I went back to Copper and undid her hands from the collar. I pulled +back the covers and tucked her into bed before crawling in with her and +holding her tight. "Thank you, Master. I feel so well used," she +said. "I could never have exposed myself like that without you, no +matter how much I wanted to." + +"You've done well, Pet. I enjoyed exposing you, making you +vulnerable. Thank you for your trust." diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/11sex-01.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/11sex-01.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..78d85f5e --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/11sex-01.txt @@ -0,0 +1,595 @@ +. +. +. +. WARNING: If you are offended by stories of sex with children, +. STOP READING THIS NOW! +. +. Remember, this is only a "STORY". This is the only +. warning provided in this file. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +.. +. +. +. +. If response to this story proves to be positive, +. I may decide to add more chapters. I might even +. consider adding graphics of some kind to go along +. with my stories (more on that at the end of this +. chapter). +. +. In the event that I do decide to continue adding +. to this story, I will write and save each chapter +. in the following format: 11SEX-01.TXT, 11SEX-02.TXT, +. 11SEX-03.TXT. etc. +. +. +. Each chapter will be saved as a plain ASCII text +. file so that it can be imported into any word +. processor in case you decide you would like to do +. some editing of your own. +. +. +. Each line will begin in column 7 and end before +. column 80. The top and bottom of each page will +. begin and end with 3 blank lines. This will assume +. you are using 8 1/2" by 11" paper in your printer +. and have it properly aligned before printing. It +. also assumes your printer is set to print at 10 +. characters per inch (which is the default for most +. printers). +. +. +. Following this procedure, you can easily print out +. each chapter and have room in the left hand margin +. for punching holes and saving them in a standard +. 3 ring binder. +. +. +. Each file can be easily printed out on any printer +. by using the DOS copy command from the DOS prompt +. as follows: +. +. +. C:\> COPY 11SEX-01.TXT PRN +. +. +. Enough technical mumble jumble, on with the story! +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +.. +. +. +. +. Chapter 1 +. +. +. +. I had been living in an apartment with my girlfriend Cathy, +. for about two years. Her family had recently moved to town from +. another state and since she had missed them, was happy to have them +. living nearby. She had two younger sisters, Patty and Kim. +. +. Patty had short brown hair, brown eyes, a cute smile, and a +. "perfect" body. I couldn't believe she was only 14. She was always +. very quiet. If you talked to her, she was friendly but would otherwise +. keep to herself. Kim who was 10, had long blonde hair, deep blue eyes, +. the cutest nose, and a smile that would melt you. Her personality was +. incredible. She was very outgoing, always smiling, always happy, and +. willing to help anyone, anytime. +. +. Once in a while, either one or the both of them would come over +. and spend the weekend with us. I never had any ideas of having sex +. with either of them, they just seemed "ok" to have around. Since Kim +. was the "baby in the family" and more outgoing, I guess I did pay more +. attention to her than I did to Patty who was again, quiet. +. +. One day, Cathy and I decided to go to a nearby lake for the day +. and phoned her sisters to see if they wanted to go with us. Excitedly, +. they said yes. We stopped by their house, picked them up, and off we +. went. +. +. After finding a picnic table under the trees, we quickly found a +. nearby spot on the sand to spread out our blankets. I had worn just my +. swim trunks, a T-shirt and sneakers so I pulled my shirt off, kicked +. off the sneaks and sat down. The girls had their suits on under their +. blouses and shorts so I watched as they began to undress. +. +. Cathy had worn a blue, one piece suit which she looked great in. +. She did have a beautiful body and I never had any complaints about our +. sex life together. Actually, she was the horniest female I've ever +. known, even to this day. +. +. Patty, the 14 yr. old, was wearing a yellow two piece suit. It +. was the first time I had seen either of the two sisters in a bathing +. suit. She started to undress by lifting off her blouse. Her breasts +. were perfect. They were firm and stood straight out. Her complexion was +. absolutely incredible. She stood there undoing the snap of her jeans +. and slowly slid them down to her ankles. Her belly was firm and flat. +. Her hips, thighs and ass were so perfectly proportioned to the rest of +. her body, I couldn't believe it. This girl was built like a "brick shit +. house" and yet she didn't seem to be aware of it. If she was, she +. certainly didn't act it. +. +. I could feel myself start to have a hard on and quickly rolled +. over onto my stomach to hide it. Cathy had already started down +. towards the water and was soon followed by Patty. +. +. Kim, the 10 yr. old, was still at the blankets with me, getting +. her towel organized and opened. She started unbuttoning her shirt as +. she kicked off her sneakers. I looked at her and teasingly said "I +. hope you have a bathing suit on under those clothes". She looked at +. me and giggling, said "Oh, I do". +. +. 1 +. +.. +. +. +. +. As she took her shirt off, she bent over to put it down on the +. blanket. I could see the beginning of another perfect body on the way. +. She was wearing a white bikini top which was a little big for her. Her +. breasts were just starting to develop, and I could see her little +. nipples protruding through the material. She then stood back up and +. started to remove her red shorts. The bottom of her bikini was also +. white with two little fish on her left ass cheek. Her legs were quite +. nice for a ten year old, but weren't yet fully developed. Her hips had +. already started to show the soft gentle sweeping curves of a young +. woman. Her complexion was also incredible. Her thighs and the upper +. backs of her legs looked so soft. +. +. As she was about to head down to the water, I said, "I love your +. fish. You look cute and sexy in that bikini". She looked at me smiling +. and again giggling, said, "thanks", then ran off to join her sisters. +. I wanted to join all three of them right away but couldn't. I had to +. wait until my hard on died down! +. +. It took about fifteen minutes or so before I dared to stand up. As +. I approached the water, I knew I was about to get splashed by all three +. of them so I decided to dive right in. They were all waiting to get me. +. Cathy suggested we play 'Tug of War'. Since she and I were larger, we +. would each hold one of the sisters on our shoulders and they would try +. and knock each other off. Cathy decided I should hold Patty on my +. shoulders since she was a little bigger than Kim. The thought of +. playing this game gave me an instant hard on again. +. +. I looked at Patty wondering if she would be embarrassed playing +. this. She didn't seem to give it a thought. I said "ok, turn around +. and open your legs a little. I'll go under water and pick you up on my +. shoulders". She did, and I did. I couldn't believe we were about to +. play this game. +. +. I held my breath and went under. I came up behind her and was +. staring at the most beautiful, tender, legs and ass I had ever seen. +. I had all I could do to prevent myself from slipping my hands on the +. inside of her thighs and grabbing that ass and pussy. My cock was as +. hard as a rock! I slowly put my head between her legs and even more +. slowly came up until the back of my neck rested up against her cunt. +. Her thighs slowly squeezed the sides of my neck as she wrapped her +. ankles behind my back. I came up for a breath of air thinking, I hope +. we play this all day. +. +. When I stood up, Cathy and Kim were already set to take us on. +. As we approached them, Patty squeezed her thighs a little harder +. against the sides of my neck and I put my hands on both her hips to +. hold her from falling off. They were so soft and warm I thought my cock +. was going to explode right then and there! Since we had the strength +. and weight advantage, we would win each time. As we knocked them over, +. I would fall over on top of them so Patty would fall into the water +. too. Each time, my mouth would find it's way to the inside of one of +. her thighs as my hand would also find it's way to the upper backs of +. one of her legs or ass. She didn't seem to notice in all the excitement. +. If she did, she certainly didn't show it, or seem to mind and either +. did I. +. +. +. +. +. +. 2 +. +.. +. +. +. +. After five or six losses, Cathy suggested we swap partners. +. Kim was all excited at the possibility of winning one by being on my +. shoulders. So was I! I said, "ok turn around, let's beat these guys"! +. +. This time when I went under and approached that cute little ass +. with the two fish on one cheek, I gently squeezed the fish as I put my +. head between her thighs. Kim must of thought I was signaling for her to +. open her legs a little because she spread them apart more. My cock was +. going "bonkers" while my heart was pounding with excitement. Again, I +. slowly raised my neck up until I could feel it touch her pussy. I then +. slowly rubbed it back and forth a little as if I were trying to find +. a comfortable position. I was a little worried she might become afraid +. and move away but she didn't. She must of been caught up in all the +. horse play because she stayed there with her legs open as I got myself +. situated. I put my hands on her hips to hold her on as I stood up. +. +. They were all laughing, giggling, and splashing one another when +. I came up. I thought I was in heaven. I couldn't believe this was +. happening. What a great game! +. +. Each team went at it again only this time it was a little harder +. for us to win. Cathy was having a harder time holding up Patty because +. she was heavier than Kim. I tried staying in deeper water to hide my +. stiff cock from the girls' view. They tugged and pushed at each other +. while Cathy and I each tried to position ourselves strategically for +. the next attack. Patty was able to push Kim off the first time. +. +. As she fell off, I went under with her, gently holding on to the +. backs of her legs right up near her suit bottom. I was getting more +. and more excited, wondering how she would react. She didn't seem to +. mind. Her legs were so soft, I couldn't believe it. Again, I thought +. my cock was going to explode. A couple of times I had rubbed my +. forearm softly against her cunt while falling under water. She didn't +. seem to mind or notice that either. +. +. We played this game for a while longer then decided to take a +. break to catch our breaths. By now, my cock was throbbing with desire. +. Cathy had started floating on her back and was moving away from us. +. Patty ended up going along with her and they started gabbing about +. the times when they were younger. Kim stayed near me, swimming around +. smiling and looking absolutely adorable. Every once in a while she +. would swim right in front of me and I would reach out and gently take +. her under my arm and hold her by her belly for a moment then toss her +. playfully up in the air a little. Naively, she didn't seem to mind me +. touching her body. +. +. Kim soon asked me to throw her high in the air and I agreed. I +. couldn't believe what this little 10 year old was doing to me. I was +. excited as hell! I said "turn around and face away from me. I'll +. hold you by your waist and count to three. On three I'll throw you". +. Smiling and giggling, she agreed and quickly turned around facing away +. from me. At first, I put my hands on her waist to throw her up in +. the air. After the first few times, I began moving my hands lower, +. and put them on her hips, telling her I'll get better leverage this +. way. I would start counting and on each count, would "bounce" her +. a little higher until I reached the number three and would then toss +. her in the air. Each time I touched her hips, I almost went nuts. God +. she was soft. We did this about five or six times before I lost +. control. +. +. 3 +. +.. +. +. +. +. The next time, I pretended my right hand slipped off her hip +. as I was counting and slid it down the front of her suit bottom +. quickly. I could feel that incredible little slit as my finger rubbed +. down and then back up it's unbelievable softness. At first, I couldn't +. believe I had done that. I was almost in a panic, thinking, that was +. it, she would start screaming or crying. I quickly looked down at her +. ready to apologize when I saw her simply smiling. I couldn't believe +. this, it didn't scare her. I caught hold of my senses, and tossed +. her a couple of more times, each time, making sure to hold her only by +. her waist. +. +. Cathy and Patty had floated back near us by this time and said +. they were going to lie down and get some sun. My cock was stiffer than +. hell so I knew I couldn't get out right then. I said I would join them +. shortly and dove under to cool off. I figured Kim would go along with +. them but when I came up, she was right there swimming around me still +. looking cute and adorable seemingly unaware of what had just happened. +. +. After a few moments, Kim asked me how far I could swim under +. water while holding my breath. I thought to myself, thank God she +. changed the subject and said "I don't know, how far can you swim"? +. She said she didn't know either. I said "well let's find out. You +. stay here". I moved away from here about 20 feet or so and said "ok, +. let's see if you can swim between my legs from there". She smiled +. and said "Oh, I can do that, that's easy". She then held her breath +. and dove under. Without thinking, I dove under right after her +. thinking I would surprise her underneath. We could see each other +. approaching one another. I thought she would surface when she saw +. me but she didn't, she kept getting closer. I swam right up to her +. and kissed her on the cheek. She smiled and we surfaced. She said +. "hey, I thought you were going to wait there for me"? I said "ok, +. ok, let's try it again". I couldn't believe what was happening, +. the little shit didn't seem to mind me kissing her. I was completely +. blown away. +. +. I looked over to the beach to see where Cathy and Patty were. +. They were lying on their stomachs, yacking away with their backs +. to us not paying any attention to what we were doing. I again went +. about 20 feet away from Kim and said "ok, this time I'll stay here. +. Try it again". She dove under and swam her way to me easily making +. it between my legs. I wondered if she would notice the bulge between +. my legs. Boy was it bulging! +. +. When she came up she said "ok, it's your turn". Before I knew +. it, she swam away from me, turned around, and yelled back "ok, you +. try it". As I began to swim towards her and could see her in the +. distance, I began to think, if nobody else was around, I would of +. taken my suit off and come up naked. I was losing it again. As I +. approached her, I was staring at those cute little legs and that +. wonderful little spot between them. I came right up to her with my +. face almost rubbing that sweet little pussy then went lower to get +. between her legs. As I passed through, I turned on my side and ever +. so slowly, rubbed my whole arm gently along her pussy, wondering +. how she would react. I again thought I was dreaming the whole thing. +. I was more excited than I could ever remember being before. Never had +. I been this turned on before! +. +. +. +. +. 4 +. +.. +. +. +. +. When I came up, I quickly turned to her to see her reaction. +. She immediately said "ha ha, you almost didn't make it". I don't +. think she realized how accurate that statement really was. She +. wanted to try it again only this time, she wanted me to get farther +. away. I happily obliged. This time, when she started going between +. my legs, I gently closed them around her for a second before letting +. her pass through. I was hoping to catch her and get her to rub +. against my cock but she stayed to close to the bottom. She came up +. smiling as usual and wanted me to try again from a greater distance. +. I again did the same thing as before. As I approached, I turned on +. my side and again, very slowly and gently, made sure my whole arm +. rubbed up against that sweet little slit. This time I also put my +. hand up on the inside of her thigh so my finger was touching the +. edge of her suit right adjacent to that heavenly slit. Again, she +. didn't even budge. She just stayed right in place. +. +. When I came up, she was smiling at me innocently again not +. seeming to mind. I floated on my back facing her, my cock bulging +. just below the water's surface. I watched her eyes to see if she +. was looking at it but she wasn't. I honestly don't think she knew +. what she was doing to me. +. +. She started to float on her back with her feet towards mine. +. I looked around and noticed nobody was anywhere near us. I reached +. forward and gently took one of her ankles in each hand and slowly +. pulled her towards me spreading her legs along my sides as I did. +. I was looking directly into those beautiful blue 10 year old eyes +. and they were looking directly back into mine. My hands slid slowly +. up to the backs of her knees and I inched her forward ever so slowly +. and ever so gently, spreading her legs wider apart as her sweet +. little cunt came ever closer to my stiff bulging cock. +. +. I was ready to let go immediately if she showed any sign of fear +. but so far she hadn't. When her sweet little pussy was about three +. inches from my swollen cock, I gently put my left hand along the +. inside of her right thigh and softly caressed it. I slid my hand down +. her leg to that sweet tender slit and gently rubbed my finger along +. it several times while staring into her eyes. I whispered "does that +. feel good"? She pulled away slowly. My hands let her slip away. +. I was really afraid of scaring her and I think I finally did at that +. point. Then I noticed she was looking at me with a curious, not +. frightened, stare. It was as if she was discovering something she had +. not known before. She went under water and came up saying she wanted +. to lie down and get some sun. I watched as she swam towards the beach +. trying to figure out what was happening to me. +. +. It took about 15 minutes of diving under water to calm down and +. cool off a little before I could get out of the water without my cock +. showing itself off to the world. My mind was spinning as I tried to +. make sense of what I was doing. I couldn't. +. +. When I got to the blanket, I laid down next to Cathy who had +. dozed off by this time. I lied on my stomach because I could feel +. myself swelling again. Cathy was on my left with Kim lying on her +. stomach to Cathy's left. Patty had her back to us and was reading. +. +. +. +. +. +. 5 +. +.. +. +. +. +. I started staring at Kim and couldn't take my eyes off of her. +. She was staring back at me and wouldn't take her eyes off of me. I +. was wondering what she was thinking about. My eyes were looking over +. every inch of that cute little body, my mind and bulging cock, were +. wondering what it would be like to make love to her. Every once in +. a while my eyes would stare towards her eyes, and her eyes would be +. there waiting to meet mine. This kid was incredible, what the hell +. was happening to me? +. +. This had gone on for about 20 minutes when Cathy woke up. She +. sat up and asked me if I wanted to have a cookout later that night +. when we got home. I said "sure". She asked her sisters if they wanted +. to come over for the cookout and spend the night sleeping over. Patty +. said she didn't want to because she was suppose to go somewhere with +. one of her girlfriends early the next morning but KIm excitedly said +. yes. Needless to say, this got me excited! I looked at her and she +. was again staring at me with a smile. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. 6 +. +.. +. +. +. +. End of Chapter 1. +. +. +. +. +. If you think this story has any potential, please +. let me know. +. +. +. If you have any ideas for how it should proceed, +. let me know about them also. +. +. +. As I stated in the introduction, I think these stories +. as well as many others would be much better if they +. were accompanied by graphics of some kind. +. +. +. If you have any suggestions for plots to the chapters +. or ideas about graphics you can contact me at the BBS +. listed below. +. +. +. Please leave COMMENTS TO THE SYSOP only. They'll see to +. it that I recieve your COMMENTS. Start your comments +. with "STORY TELLER". Make sure you let me know where you +. first read the story. +. +. The following number is a free public access node. +. You will have to register to have access to the PUBLIC +. conference but this node is, again free, 24 hrs a day, +. seven days a week. Once you're registered, simply join +. conference 4 by entering J 4 at any main prompt. +. +. The number is: 203-589-1570 +. +. +. I hope you enjoy... +. +. the STORY TELLER +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +.. + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/11sex-04.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/11sex-04.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..26eefca5 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/11sex-04.txt @@ -0,0 +1,477 @@ +. +. +. +. WARNING: If you are offended by stories of sex with children, +. STOP READING THIS NOW! +. +. Remember, this is only a "STORY". This is the only +. warning provided in this file. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. Current files to this series are: 11SEX-01.ZIP - Chapter 1 +. 11SEX-02.ZIP - Chapter 2 +. 11SEX-03.ZIP - Chapter 3 +. 11SEX-04.ZIP - Chapter 4 +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +.. +. +. +. +. If response to this story proves to be positive, +. I may decide to add more chapters. I might even +. consider adding graphics of some kind to go along +. with my stories (more on that at the end of this +. chapter). +. +. In the event that I do decide to continue adding +. to this story, I will write and save each chapter +. in the following format: 11SEX-01.TXT, 11SEX-02.TXT, +. 11SEX-03.TXT. etc. +. +. +. Each chapter will be saved as a plain ASCII text +. file so that it can be imported into any word +. processor in case you decide you would like to do +. some editing of your own. +. +. +. Each line will begin in column 7 and end before +. column 80. The top and bottom of each page will +. begin and end with 3 blank lines. This will assume +. you are using 8 1/2" by 11" paper in your printer +. and have it properly aligned before printing. It +. also assumes your printer is set to print at 10 +. characters per inch, the default for most printers. +. +. +. +. Following this procedure, you can easily print out +. each chapter and have room in the left hand margin +. for punching holes and saving them in a standard +. 3 ring binder. +. +. +. Each file can be easily printed out on any printer +. by using the DOS copy command from the DOS prompt +. as follows: +. +. +. C:\> COPY 11SEX-01.TXT PRN +. +. +. Enough technical mumble jumble, on with the story! +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +.. +. +. +. +. Chapter 4 +. --------- +. +. +. I awoke on the couch the next morning to the sound of the shower +. running. At first, I thought it had all been a dream. I lifted the +. window shade to look outside and saw daylight. Must be morning I thought +. to myself and yes, I'm alive. I got up off the couch and walked over to +. the bedroom door to see if anyone was in there. I could see Kim sound +. asleep on the far side of the bed with the blankets pulled up almost +. to her ears. The smell of hot coffee lead me to the kitchen. +. +. As I began pouring a cup, I heard the bathroom door open and Cathy +. walked into the kitchen with a towel wrapped around her, and drying her +. hair with another towel. "Hi" she said, as she gave me a kiss. "You were +. snoring up a storm when I came in last night!" "Did I keep you awake" +. I asked? "No, I just shut the bedroom door. I didn't want you to wake +. Kimmy, I'm used to it" she said. "How did the party go" I asked. "It +. was all right, but not too many girls showed up". "What time did you get +. home?" I followed. "About 12:20" she said. "Want some coffee?" I asked. +. "Please" as she went into the bedroom. +. +. I poured her a cup and in a few minutes she returned to the kitchen +. all dressed. "Boy," she said, "Kim is out like a light. I guess it was +. all that sun yesterday." Then she looked at me kind of funny. "What's +. the matter" I asked? Cathy said "I've got to tell you what happened last +. night at the party." She sat down and took a sip of her coffee. I put +. some bread in the toaster and joined her at the table. +. +. "So, what happened?" I asked. "Barbara came with a girlfriend of +. hers named Gretchen. She was the most beautiful girl I've ever seen" +. she said. "You would of come in your pants just looking at her" she +. continued. "Cathy, I've never heard you talk like that about another +. girl before!" She looked at me, a little embarrassed then continued. +. "That's because I never saw anyone like her before" she said. "So, +. what happened" I asked? "Well, we were all trying on the different +. outfits and modeling for each other. We'd take turns going in the +. bedroom, pick out a nightie, put it on, and then come out and model it +. in front of each other." +. +. "I had been watching Gretchen, more like staring at her, all +. evening. Once in a while, she would casually glance at me and I'd +. turn away, afraid she would notice me staring at her. I was actually +. getting wet in my crotch! I couldn't help it! Then it was her turn to +. try something on. She went in the bedroom for a few minutes and came out +. wearing the sexiest piece we had. Nobody else had the guts to wear it! +. When I saw her, I couldn't believe it. I started getting hot all over! +. I don't think I was the only one who was affected by her like that, +. because I noticed everyone became quiet when she first walked in the +. room. She was gorgeous!" +. +. I had never seen Cathy get this excited before, especially about +. another female. I started getting a hard on watching her as she told me +. the story. "Then it was my turn to put something on" she said. "I went +. into the bedroom and put on a pale green negligee almost completely see +. through. All I could think about was how fantastic Gretchen looked! +. My cunt was dripping and I couldn't stop it. I wanted to go out there +. and let her see me but I was too embarrassed because I was so wet! Then +. there was a knock on the door." +. +. 19 +. +.. +. +. +. +. "Are you all right?" It was Barbara. I said "yeah, I just can't +. figure out which one to put on. I'll be out in a minute" I said. "Ok +. we're waiting for you" she said. I wiped my crotch with kleenex, took +. a deep breath, and went on out. I was so nervous! At first, when I went +. out in the living room, I wouldn't even look towards Gretchen. They +. were all gabbing away when I came out so that helped a little. I walked +. around the room like everyone else did but when I got in front of +. Gretchen, something made me stop. I turned with my back to her and faced +. everyone else. All I could think was that her eyes were on me. I was +. unconscious of everyone else in the room for a few minutes. I started +. getting so hot and could feel my pussy getting wet again. +. +. At first I wanted to run and hide but something made me stay. Then +. I turned around to face her. She was looking me straight in the eyes and +. smiling. I thought I was going to die! I could feel my nipples getting +. harder and my crotch getting wetter each second. Gretchen's eyes slowly +. covered every inch of me as I stood there helpless. Just then Debbie +. came over, and put her hands on my shoulders and said, I have cake and +. coffee going in the kitchen if anyone wants any. I came back to reality! +. Embarrassed I looked again at Gretchen. Smiling at me she said, you +. look great in that." I said, "thanks", then went into the bedroom to +. change. +. +. As Cathy was telling me what happened I got so damn excited I +. almost did come in my pants. I could tell she was getting all worked +. up again and I began rubbing her thigh. Just then, we heard the bedroom +. door open. It was Kim. "Hi sleepy head" Cathy said, as I tried to +. conceal my hard on. "Hi" said Kim, looking at me. "Did you sleep ok" I +. asked? "I guess so" she said. She headed towards the bathroom and Cathy +. said she was going to make pancakes. "None for me" I said, "I have to +. run, I promised Pete I'd give him a hand with his deck today". "What +. are you two going to do today?" I asked, trying to change the subject. +. +. Cathy said she was going to go grocery shopping then take Kim +. shopping at the local mall. I was a bit concerned at the idea of them +. being alone all day together and wondered if Kim would slip and say +. something about last night. A moment later Kim came out of the bathroom, +. looked at me, and said "you snore too loud! I could hear you even with +. the door closed." We all laughed. "I'm sorry" I said. I've got to run." +. I gave Cathy a kiss then gave Kim a little hug and kiss on the cheek and +. said "see you two beauties later", then went out the door. +. +. I came home about 2 that afternoon and found a note on the table +. from Cathy saying they would be home around 5 pm. I jumped in the shower, +. cleaned up and got changed. Cathy and Kim got back around 5:30 and it +. looked like they had bought out the entire mall! I couldn't believe all +. the bags! They both had a big smiles on their faces. "Hi", they both +. said. "I guess the stores won't be able to open tomorrow" I said. "What +. do you mean" Kim asked. "You didn't leave them with any merchandise", I +. answered. They started laughing. I didn't think it was funny! +. +. They went in the bedroom and spread all the bags out on the bed. +. "Why don't you try on the new clothes and show him what we bought you" +. Cathy said to Kim. "Put on your new bathing suit first" she said. At +. first Kim said no but then looked at me and smiled then said "ok". I +. couldn't wait! They threw me out of the bedroom and closed the door. +. I could hear them giggling, then in a few minutes, they came out into +. the living room. Kim had a little two piece print bikini on. She +. +. +. 20 +. +.. +. +. +. +. looked fantastic in it! It was so tiny. I started to get a hard on +. right away so I sat down and crossed my legs immediately to try and +. hide it. "Where's the rest of it" I asked. "Your father will kill you +. for buying that for her" I said to Cathy. "Oh, what he doesn't know +. wont hurt him" she said. She looked at Kim and adjusted her straps to +. the top part of it. "I think she looks cute in it" Cathy said, smiling +. at Kim. "I think she looks sexy in it" I abruptly said, without +. thinking. +. +. "Really!", Kim said excitedly. "You sure do" Cathy said with +. a smile. Then she reached down at the sides of Kim's suit bottom and +. pulled them up a little higher saying "there, that's even sexier, it +. shows more of your hips." My cock was getting stiffer by the moment. +. I couldn't believe this! I tried changing the subject. "What else did +. you get" I asked? Cathy looked at Kim and asked "should we show him +. our new nighties?" Kim blushed and said "no way", then Cathy said "ok, +. maybe later, at bedtime, if he's good." They both laughed. +. +. I asked "you sleeping here again tonight?" "Yes", Cathy answered, +. "I asked her if she wanted to sleep over again. My parents are going +. out for the evening and Patty is staying at her girlfriends, so I asked +. her to sleep here." My mind started to wander in utter excitement at +. the thought! So did my cock! +. +. "I picked up some steaks, baked potatoes, and stuff for a salad" +. Cathy said, "why don't you light the grill and throw the potatoes on +. and we'll start making a salad." Then the two of them disappeared into +. the bedroom and started giggling again. My mind was in ecstasy as I got +. up and headed towards the back porch to light the grill. My cock was +. already on fire! +. +. The girls were already sitting down when I brought the steaks in +. from the grill. I was just going to join them when the phone rang so +. I answered it. "Hi Barb, how was the party last night", I asked. When +. Cathy realized who it was, she jumped up to try and wrestle the phone +. away from me. "Did everyone have a good time?" I asked. Cathy could +. hear Barb saying something but she couldn't make it out. "She wants to +. know if we want to go to a pool party at her house tomorrow" I said to +. Cathy, "she says Gretchen will be there." Cathy looked quickly at Kim +. who wasn't paying attention and then slapped me hard on the arm. "What +. time?", I asked Barb. I hung up, looked at Cathy and said "1 o'clock". +. She stuck her tongue out at me then went and sat down. +. +. Kim asked "who's Gretchen, have I met her before?". "She's an +. old friend of your sister's and she wants me to meet her" I quickly +. answered. I started to continue, "your sister finds her fascinating +. and"... as Cathy kicked me from under the table. I figured it was +. best to quit while I was ahead and alive! To change the subject, +. Cathy started telling me about all the different stores they went +. and spent money in earlier that day. +. +. It was then that I noticed that they both had the same tops on. +. I had been on the porch cooking and hadn't noticed they had changed. +. They both stood up together and said "do you like them?" They were +. each wearing a red and white striped halter top that stopped just above +. their belly buttons. They both came over in front of me and stood side +. by side. They each had a pair of real short satiny red jogging shorts. +. +. +. +. 21 +. +.. +. +. +. +. They were cut high on the sides and hugged their crotches very nicely. +. I couldn't believe what I was looking at. Cathy wasn't wearing a bra +. and her nipples were popping out like crazy. Kim had no reason to wear +. a bra yet but I could see, very nicely, the outline of beautiful little +. breasts starting to form on this 10 year old. +. +. They both turned slowly to give me an all around view. I could see +. Cathy wasn't wearing any underwear and her beautiful ass cheeks were +. staring me right in the face when she teasingly bent over. Kim followed +. her act teasingly but did have a pair of little satiny pink undies on +. which I could see quite nicely when she bent over. I could also see the +. bottoms of her cute little ass cheeks just below the edge of her undies. +. They were driving me nuts! It wasn't steak I felt like eating! +. +. The two of them quickly sat down again and started giggling at me. +. Cathy reached over under the table with her foot and started running it +. up and down my leg a few times then against my cock. I was hard as a +. rock! I looked at her and said "keep it up, but remember, payback is a +. bitch!" The three of us started laughing. Kim didn't know why we were +. laughing, at least I hoped she didn't. +. +. We finished eating and started to clean up when I volunteered +. to wash the dishes. The two of them pulled me out into the living +. room, told me to sit and relax and they would do the dishes. I could +. hear them talking softly and giggling every once in a while but +. figured it was girl talk. +. +. I sat there and began to fantasize about tomorrow and what this +. Gretchen looked like. I couldn't wait to meet the girl that turned +. Cathy on sexually! This was definitely going to be an experience. I got +. hard just thinking about it. Just then, Kim came in with a coffee and +. brownies on a plate and put them down on the coffee table. +. +. As she bent over, I could see those beautiful little thighs and +. the bottom of those cute little ass cheeks just underneath those satiny +. pink undies. I boldly reached over and ran my hand up the back side of +. her leg until it found the beginning of that cute little ass, then gave +. her a gentle but firm squeeze. She didn't pull away. Instead, she turned +. and looked at me, smiled, then leaned over and gave me a kiss on the lips. +. Then she turned and ran back into the kitchen. My cock was aching for her +. like I couldn't believe it could. It was aching for both of them! +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. 22 +. +.. +. +. +. +. End of Chapter 4 +. +. +. +. +. Keep sending in your suggestions, many of them are great ideas +. for future chapters! +. +. +. +. +. Many of you have called but have failed to give me some way of +. knowing that the 11SEX-XX series is what you're interested in. +. +. When asked how you heard about me, your responses have been: +. +. From a BBS listing, from a zipped text file, from such & such +. BBS, etc. +. +. Unfortunately, those kinds of responses are not helpful. They +. leave me no way of knowing what you want. There are millions +. of zipped text files, and thousands of BBS's out there. Sorry, +. but under those circumstances, I'm unable to help you. +. +. Many of you have called and left a comment, (the best way to go) +. but either you never called back to see if you had a message, or +. you didn't bother to look for a message when you did call. Sorry, +. but I'm unable to help you under those circumstances also. +. +. When calling, the best thing to do is leave a comment to the +. SYSOP and mention either the 11SEX-XX series, R&E, or The Storyteller. +. It may take a day or so, but I will respond to all my messages one +. way or another. +. +. +. +. Later folks, Enjoy! +. +. The Storyteller... +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +. +.. + +ÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍ +This quality file was leeched from... + + E X T R E M E + ------------+------------ ÚÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄ¿ + /|\ ³ ³ + / | \ ³ Portland Metro All Text BBS ³ + / | \ ³ ³ + / | \ ³ 14400: 503.775.0374 ³ + / | \ ³ SysOp: Thing One ³ + / | \ ³ ³ + / | \ ÀÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÙ + d r e a m e s + diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/11sex.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/11sex.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..5449c727 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/11sex.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1123 @@ + +Editor's Note: This file was originally broken into four seperate parts. + (One for each chapter) And was originally named 11sex**.TXT. + + + +WARNING: If you're offended by stories of sex with children, + STOP READING THIS NOW! + + Remember, this is only a "STORY." + This is the only warning provided in this file. + + + By + The Storyteller... + + Chapter 1 + + I had been living in an apartment with my girlfriend Cathy, for about two +years. Her family had recently moved to town from another state and since she +had missed them, was happy to have them living nearby. She had two younger +sisters, Patty and Kim. + + Patty had short brown hair, brown eyes, a cute smile, and a "perfect" +body. I couldn't believe she was only 14. She was always very quiet. If you +talked to her, she was friendly but would otherwise keep to herself. Kim who +was 10, had long blonde hair, deep blue eyes, the cutest nose, and a smile that +would melt you. Her personality was incredible. She was very outgoing, always +smiling, always happy, and willing to help anyone, anytime. + + Once in a while, either one or the both of them would come over and spend +the weekend with us. I never had any ideas of having sex with either of them, +they just seemed "ok" to have around. Since Kim was the "baby in the family" +and more outgoing, I guess I did pay more attention to her than I did to Patty +who was again, quiet. + + One day, Cathy and I decided to go to a nearby lake for the day and +phoned her sisters to see if they wanted to go with us. Excitedly, they said +yes. We stopped by their house, picked them up, and off we went. + + After finding a picnic table under the trees, we quickly found a nearby +spot on the sand to spread out our blankets. I had worn just my swim trunks, a +T-shirt and sneakers so I pulled my shirt off, kicked off the sneaks and sat +down. The girls had their suits on under their blouses and shorts so I watched +as they began to undress. + + Cathy had worn a blue, one piece suit which she looked great in. She did +have a beautiful body and I never had any complaints about our sex life +together. Actually, she was the horniest female I've ever known, even to this +day. + + Patty, the 14 yr. old, was wearing a yellow two piece suit. It was the +first time I had seen either of the two sisters in a bathing suit. She started +to undress by lifting off her blouse. Her breasts were perfect. They were firm +and stood straight out. Her complexion was absolutely incredible. She stood +there undoing the snap of her jeans and slowly slid them down to her ankles. +Her belly was firm and flat. Her hips, thighs and ass were so perfectly +proportioned to the rest of her body, I couldn't believe it. This girl was +built like a "brick shit house" and yet she didn't seem to be aware of it. If +she was, she certainly didn't act it. + + I could feel myself start to have a hard on and quickly rolled over onto +my stomach to hide it. Cathy had already started down towards the water and was +soon followed by Patty. + + Kim, the 10 yr. old, was still at the blankets with me, getting her towel +organized and opened. She started unbuttoning her shirt as she kicked off her +sneakers. I looked at her and teasingly said "I hope you have a bathing suit on +under those clothes." She looked at me and giggling, said "Oh, I do." + + As she took her shirt off, she bent over to put it down on the blanket. I +could see the beginning of another perfect body on the way. She was wearing a +white bikini top which was a little big for her. Her breasts were just starting +to develop, and I could see her little nipples protruding through the material. +She then stood back up and started to remove her red shorts. The bottom of her +bikini was also white with two little fish on her left ass cheek. Her legs were +quite nice for a ten year old, but weren't yet fully developed. Her hips had +already started to show the soft gentle sweeping curves of a young woman. Her +complexion was also incredible. Her thighs and the upper backs of her legs +looked so soft. + + As she was about to head down to the water, I said, "I love your fish. +You look cute and sexy in that bikini." She looked at me smiling and again +giggling, said, "thanks," then ran off to join her sisters. I wanted to join +all three of them right away but couldn't. I had to wait until my hard on died +down! + + It took about fifteen minutes or so before I dared to stand up. As I +approached the water, I knew I was about to get splashed by all three of them +so I decided to dive right in. They were all waiting to get me. Cathy suggested +we play 'Tug of War'. Since she and I were larger, we would each hold one of +the sisters on our shoulders and they would try and knock each other off. Cathy +decided I should hold Patty on my shoulders since she was a little bigger than +Kim. The thought of playing this game gave me an instant hard on again. + + I looked at Patty wondering if she would be embarrassed playing this. She +didn't seem to give it a thought. I said "ok, turn around and open your legs a +little. I'll go under water and pick you up on my shoulders." She did, and I +did. I couldn't believe we were about to play this game. + + I held my breath and went under. I came up behind her and was staring at +the most beautiful, tender, legs and ass I had ever seen. I had all I could do +to prevent myself from slipping my hands on the inside of her thighs and +grabbing that ass and pussy. My cock was as hard as a rock! I slowly put my +head between her legs and even more slowly came up until the back of my neck +rested up against her cunt. Her thighs slowly squeezed the sides of my neck as +she wrapped her ankles behind my back. I came up for a breath of air thinking, +I hope we play this all day. + + When I stood up, Cathy and Kim were already set to take us on. As we +approached them, Patty squeezed her thighs a little harder against the sides of +my neck and I put my hands on both her hips to hold her from falling off. They +were so soft and warm I thought my cock was going to explode right then and +there! Since we had the strength and weight advantage, we would win each time. +As we knocked them over, I would fall over on top of them so Patty would fall +into the water too. Each time, my mouth would find it's way to the inside of +one of her thighs as my hand would also find it's way to the upper backs of one +of her legs or ass. She didn't seem to notice in all the excitement. If she +did, she certainly didn't show it, or seem to mind and either did I. + + After five or six losses, Cathy suggested we swap partners. Kim was all +excited at the possibility of winning one by being on my shoulders. So was I! I +said, "ok turn around, let's beat these guys!" + + This time when I went under and approached that cute little ass with the +two fish on one cheek, I gently squeezed the fish as I put my head between her +thighs. Kim must of thought I was signaling for her to open her legs a little +because she spread them apart more. My cock was going "bonkers" while my heart +was pounding with excitement. Again, I slowly raised my neck up until I could +feel it touch her pussy. I then slowly rubbed it back and forth a little as if +I were trying to find a comfortable position. I was a little worried she might +become afraid and move away but she didn't. She must of been caught up in all +the horse play because she stayed there with her legs open as I got myself +situated. I put my hands on her hips to hold her on as I stood up. + + They were all laughing, giggling, and splashing one another when I came +up. I thought I was in heaven. I couldn't believe this was happening. What a +great game! + + Each team went at it again only this time it was a little harder for us +to win. Cathy was having a harder time holding up Patty because she was heavier +than Kim. I tried staying in deeper water to hide my stiff cock from the girls' +view. They tugged and pushed at each other while Cathy and I each tried to +position ourselves strategically for the next attack. Patty was able to push +Kim off the first time. + + As she fell off, I went under with her, gently holding on to the backs of +her legs right up near her suit bottom. I was getting more and more excited, +wondering how she would react. She didn't seem to mind. Her legs were so soft, +I couldn't believe it. Again, I thought my cock was going to explode. A couple +of times I had rubbed my forearm softly against her cunt while falling under +water. She didn't seem to mind or notice that either. + + We played this game for a while longer then decided to take a break to +catch our breaths. By now, my cock was throbbing with desire. Cathy had started +floating on her back and was moving away from us. Patty ended up going along +with her and they started gabbing about the times when they were younger. Kim +stayed near me, swimming around smiling and looking absolutely adorable. Every +once in a while she would swim right in front of me and I would reach out and +gently take her under my arm and hold her by her belly for a moment then toss +her playfully up in the air a little. Naively, she didn't seem to mind me +touching her body. + + Kim soon asked me to throw her high in the air and I agreed. I couldn't +believe what this little 10 year old was doing to me. I was excited as hell! I +said "turn around and face away from me. I'll hold you by your waist and count +to three. On three I'll throw you." Smiling and giggling, she agreed and +quickly turned around facing away from me. At first, I put my hands on her +waist to throw her up in the air. After the first few times, I began moving my +hands lower, and put them on her hips, telling her I'll get better leverage +this way. I would start counting and on each count, would "bounce" her a little +higher until I reached the number three and would then toss her in the air. +Each time I touched her hips, I almost went nuts. God she was soft. We did this +about five or six times before I lost control. + + The next time, I pretended my right hand slipped off her hip as I was +counting and slid it down the front of her suit bottom quickly. I could feel +that incredible little slit as my finger rubbed down and then back up it's +unbelievable softness. At first, I couldn't believe I had done that. I was +almost in a panic, thinking, that was it, she would start screaming or crying. +I quickly looked down at her ready to apologize when I saw her simply smiling. +I couldn't believe this, it didn't scare her. I caught hold of my senses, and +tossed her a couple of more times, each time, making sure to hold her only by +her waist. + + Cathy and Patty had floated back near us by this time and said they were +going to lie down and get some sun. My cock was stiffer than hell so I knew I +couldn't get out right then. I said I would join them shortly and dove under to +cool off. I figured Kim would go along with them but when I came up, she was +right there swimming around me still looking cute and adorable seemingly +unaware of what had just happened. + + After a few moments, Kim asked me how far I could swim under water while +holding my breath. I thought to myself, thank God she changed the subject and +said "I don't know, how far can you swim?" She said she didn't know either. I +said "well let's find out. You stay here." I moved away from here about 20 feet +or so and said "ok, let's see if you can swim between my legs from there." She +smiled and said "Oh, I can do that, that's easy." She then held her breath and +dove under. Without thinking, I dove under right after her thinking I would +surprise her underneath. We could see each other approaching one another. I +thought she would surface when she saw me but she didn't, she kept getting +closer. I swam right up to her and kissed her on the cheek. She smiled and we +surfaced. She said "hey, I thought you were going to wait there for me?" I said +"ok, ok, let's try it again." I couldn't believe what was happening, the little +shit didn't seem to mind me kissing her. I was completely blown away. + + I looked over to the beach to see where Cathy and Patty were. They were +lying on their stomachs, yacking away with their backs to us not paying any +attention to what we were doing. I again went about 20 feet away from Kim and +said "ok, this time I'll stay here. Try it again." She dove under and swam her +way to me easily making it between my legs. I wondered if she would notice the +bulge between my legs. Boy was it bulging! + + When she came up she said "ok, it's your turn." Before I knew it, she +swam away from me, turned around, and yelled back "ok, you try it." As I began +to swim towards her and could see her in the distance, I began to think, if +nobody else was around, I would of taken my suit off and come up naked. I was +losing it again. As I approached her, I was staring at those cute little legs +and that wonderful little spot between them. I came right up to her with my +face almost rubbing that sweet little pussy then went lower to get between her +legs. As I passed through, I turned on my side and ever so slowly, rubbed my +whole arm gently along her pussy, wondering how she would react. I again +thought I was dreaming the whole thing. I was more excited than I could ever +remember being before. Never had I been this turned on before! + + When I came up, I quickly turned to her to see her reaction. She +immediately said "ha ha, you almost didn't make it." I don't think she realized +how accurate that statement really was. She wanted to try it again only this +time, she wanted me to get farther away. I happily obliged. This time, when she +started going between my legs, I gently closed them around her for a second +before letting her pass through. I was hoping to catch her and get her to rub +against my cock but she stayed to close to the bottom. She came up smiling as +usual and wanted me to try again from a greater distance. I again did the same +thing as before. As I approached, I turned on my side and again, very slowly +and gently, made sure my whole arm rubbed up against that sweet little slit. +This time I also put my hand up on the inside of her thigh so my finger was +touching the edge of her suit right adjacent to that heavenly slit. Again, she +didn't even budge. She just stayed right in place. + + When I came up, she was smiling at me innocently again not seeming to +mind. I floated on my back facing her, my cock bulging just below the water's +surface. I watched her eyes to see if she was looking at it but she wasn't. I +honestly don't think she knew what she was doing to me. + + She started to float on her back with her feet towards mine. I looked +around and noticed nobody was anywhere near us. I reached forward and gently +took one of her ankles in each hand and slowly pulled her towards me spreading +her legs along my sides as I did. I was looking directly into those beautiful +blue 10 year old eyes and they were looking directly back into mine. My hands +slid slowly up to the backs of her knees and I inched her forward ever so +slowly and ever so gently, spreading her legs wider apart as her sweet little +cunt came ever closer to my stiff bulging cock. + + I was ready to let go immediately if she showed any sign of fear but so +far she hadn't. When her sweet little pussy was about three inches from my +swollen cock, I gently put my left hand along the inside of her right thigh and +softly caressed it. I slid my hand down her leg to that sweet tender slit and +gently rubbed my finger along it several times while staring into her eyes. I +whispered "does that feel good?" She pulled away slowly. My hands let her slip +away. I was really afraid of scaring her and I think I finally did at that +point. Then I noticed she was looking at me with a curious, not frightened, +stare. It was as if she was discovering something she had not known before. She +went under water and came up saying she wanted to lie down and get some sun. I +watched as she swam towards the beach trying to figure out what was happening +to me. + + It took about 15 minutes of diving under water to calm down and cool off +a little before I could get out of the water without my cock showing itself off +to the world. My mind was spinning as I tried to make sense of what I was +doing. I couldn't. + + When I got to the blanket, I laid down next to Cathy who had dozed off +by this time. I lied on my stomach because I could feel myself swelling again. +Cathy was on my left with Kim lying on her stomach to Cathy's left. Patty had +her back to us and was reading. + + I started staring at Kim and couldn't take my eyes off of her. She was +staring back at me and wouldn't take her eyes off of me. I was wondering what +she was thinking about. My eyes were looking over every inch of that cute +little body, my mind and bulging cock, were wondering what it would be like to +make love to her. Every once in a while my eyes would stare towards her eyes, +and her eyes would be there waiting to meet mine. This kid was incredible, what +the hell was happening to me? + + This had gone on for about 20 minutes when Cathy woke up. She sat up and +asked me if I wanted to have a cookout later that night when we got home. I +said "sure." She asked her sisters if they wanted to come over for the cookout +and spend the night sleeping over. Patty said she didn't want to because she +was suppose to go somewhere with one of her girlfriends early the next morning +but KIm excitedly said yes. Needless to say, this got me excited! I looked at +her and she was again staring at me with a smile. + + + Chapter 2 + + The end of the day finally came and we decided to leave the beach. We +packed everything up, and headed for home. Cathy wanted to drive so I sat in +the passengers seat in the front. Patty and Kim climbed in the rear seat, Patty +sitting behind me and Kim sitting behind Cathy. As we drove to the girls' house +to drop off Patty, I would periodically look into the rear view mirror to catch +a glimpse of Kim. Each time I did, she would be looking at me with a smile. I +could feel my cock getting stiff again. We had all been in the sun all day but +I couldn't tell if I was hot because of that or because of sweet little 10 year +old Kim. + + When we got to their house, Patty jumped out grabbing her beach bag, shut +the rear door, then leaned in my window a little to thank Cathy and me for a +good time. As she did, the front of her blouse fell away from her body. I could +see down the top of her blouse. She must of removed her suit top at the beach +while I was packing the car because both of her breasts were staring me right +in the face. They were incredible! They were so firm and her skin looked so +soft. I could see the complete nipple of her right breast. God how I wanted to +just reach a few inches to fondle it with my hand and caress it with my mouth +and tongue. She looked fantastic! + + My cock was pounding. I had to keep myself turned and my legs crossed to +try and hide it. As she started to pull away from the window, she leaned over +and gave me a kiss on the cheek then smiled and said "thanks." I almost lost +it. I wanted to reach over and pull her inside and make love to that 14 year +old right then and there! + + When she turned to walk toward the house, I was staring at the most +beautiful legs and ass I had ever seen. They were so perfect. She was a +knockout! God I wanted her! + + We got to our apartment and unpacked the car. The three of us were hot +and sweaty. I started the grill while the girls did the unpacking. By the time +we ate and cleaned up it was about 6:30 in the evening. I decided to jump in +the shower before them figuring if I didn't, it could be hours by the time they +finished using the bathroom. + + When I came out of the shower, I was too sunburned and hot to get dressed +so I threw on a pair of thin nylon jogging shorts, grabbed a cold soda, turned +the tv on, then plopped my ass down on the couch to relax. + + I could overhear Cathy and Kim in the bedroom whispering about something +but I didn't really pay any attention to what they were saying. Cathy took a +quick shower then put a nightgown on and went into the kitchen to do something +while Kim took a shower. I went in the kitchen to talk to Cathy about plans we +had made for the following day. + + We started talking, when she suddenly started laughing about something. I +said "what the heck's so funny?" She said "don't you dare tell Kim I told you +this" then she said "didn't you hear us whispering in the bedroom?" I said +"yea, but I didn't pay attention." She continued, "Kim didn't have anything to +wear to sleep in tonight so I gave her a pair of my underwear and a nightgown +to wear." I said "yea?" "She was worried you would see her boobs" she said as +she again laughed. "I told her not to worry, that you wouldn't look. She's only +10 and she's thinking about stuff like that already." We both chuckled about it +together then I said "ok I won't look at or say anything to her." + + Just then, the phone rang. Cathy picked it up and I went back into the +living room. A few moments later, Kim came through and went into the bedroom, +took a pillow off the bed, came back out, and threw it on the smaller couch +across from where I was sitting then laid down on her side facing me. As +always, she was smiling. I said "do you feel better after that shower?" She +said "yea, a lot better." + + She was wearing the nightgown Cathy had given her. It was a sheer light +blue satiny material, sleeveless with a little strip of white lace around the +neckline and bottom edge. When Cathy wore it, her boobs would really stick out +and it would just about reach her crotch. Kim looked so cute in it. It went +down to about half way between her hip and knee. The front neckline was really +low on her. The blue material brought out the deep blue in her eyes. Surrounded +with the blonde hair, she looked like a little angel from heaven. + + My cock was starting to swell again. With little holding it down, I +quickly crossed my legs and put them up on the coffee table and grabbed a +pillow from the couch to help hide it. Needless to say, I was getting excited! + + Cathy came into the living room and said "Becky's on the phone. She's +suppose to go do a lingerie party tonight but she's sick and wants to know if I +would go do it for her. Would you mind if I went? I should be home by +midnight." Then she looked at Kim and said "do you mind? I'll make it up to you +next weekend." Kim said "no, it's all right." + + I couldn't believe what I was hearing! Cathy was about to go out for +three or four hours and leave me there alone with the cutest little thing I had +ever seen. My cock was throbbing, my heart started pounding like a freight +train and I had to try and stay calm or at least look it. Like a dummy I said +"are you sure you want to go. Aren't you tired?" Then I asked myself "what the +hell are you saying?" She said "No, I'm ok, besides I owe Becky the favor." I +then quickly said "ok, I don't mind." She hung up the phone, went and got +changed, then gave both me and Kim a kiss and left. A few minutes later, I +heard the car pull out of the driveway. + + Kim was reading a magazine so I quickly got up and went into the kitchen +so she couldn't see my bulging cock. I took a drink of water then called out +and said "do you want a soda?" She said "no thanks." I took a few minutes to +calm down then grabbed a soda for myself and went and sat back down. As I +looked over at her, she was putting the magazine down on the coffee table. I +said "why don't you put the pillow over there so you can watch the tv." I was +pointing to the other end of the couch I was sitting on. + + I didn't even finish saying it before she jumped up and moved over to the +couch I was on. She threw the pillow down and laid with her head at the other +end of the couch. Her knees were slightly bent so she could put her feet down +next to my thigh. She pulled the nightgown down to cover her legs, as far as it +would go as she looked at me, shyly smiling. The nightgown had just made it +over the edge of her cute little knees. + + There I was, with this adorable little ten year old laying down half +naked, just to my right. My body temperature must of shot up about 10 degrees +when I felt the heat from her feet touched my naked thigh. I quickly grabbed +the pillow I had before, to cover up what the thin nylon shorts I had on, +weren't able to hide. + + I looked down at her and said "you can put your feet up on my lap if you +want." She repositioned herself a little, then lifted them up and placed them +on my lap, almost touching my aching cock. I gently put both of my hands on her +feet and massaged them a little. She smiled at me then turned back towards the +tv, closed her eyes, and seemed to really relax. + + I was having all I could do to control myself! I slowly started to gently +rub her ankles and the front and back of her lower calfs. She was so soft and +her flesh was so hot! My left hand softly rubbed her feet while my right hand +slowly moved a little higher up her calfs. I couldn't seem to be able to +control myself. My mind was trying to say no but my hands and eyes were saying +yes! + + As my right hand reached the back of her knees, I gently lifted the +bottom edge of her nightgown above them. I ever so slowly and so softly started +to touch the backs of her knees. She jerked her legs away for a moment, looked +up at me and said "that tickles." Then she put them back down exactly like they +had been. I looked down at her and said "I'm sorry, I'll try not to tickle +you." Then I started to gently rub the backs of her knees again. + + As I looked down and saw her lying on her right side, her blonde hair was +shinning in the dim light of a lamp mounted on the distant wall. The only other +light in the room was coming from the tv on the floor across the room. I looked +at her legs just above where my hand was. I could see the fine blonde hair on +the backs of them. She was so young and so beautiful. + + My hand started to slowly caress the backs of her thighs. I was getting +real nervous, afraid I would scare her. She just lied there still and relaxed. +Her leg muscles were soft not tense. My hand slowly made its way up to the +bottom edge of her undies. I was in heaven. I couldn't believe how fantastic +she felt! My finger tips were caressing every single inch of the backs of her +legs slowly and lovingly. I gently picked up the nightgown and raised it up +above her hip, just below her waist. She looked up at me as I whispered "you're +not wearing those cute little fish." Then smiling at her, I said "you still +look cute and sexy though." She smiled and giggled. + + Riiiing.... The damn phone rang and scared the hell out of both of us. We +both jumped! I immediately got up, forgetting I had the biggest hard on pushing +my shorts out like there was no tomorrow. I quickly ran into the kitchen to +answer it. It was my brother-in-law. I wanted to kill him right then and there. +"What are you doing" he said. "Nothing at the moment" I barked. "What's up. +What do you want" I asked? He wanted to borrow my scuba gear the next day so I +said ok and hung up. Man was I pissed. Here I am dying from near ecstasy and +this "jackass" who never, ever calls me, decides to call me tonight of all +nights! I couldn't believe it. + + As I went back in the living room and sat down, I noticed Kim had pulled +her nightgown back down to just below her knees and had tucked it in between +them to keep it from rising up. "Was that Cathy" she asked? "No, my idiot +brother-in-law" I replied. + + I looked over at her and thought "I must of scared her," looking at the +way she had tucked the nightgown between her knees. After a few moments of +silence, I again looked at her and whispered "come here, I have to tell you +something." She jumped up on her knees, right next to me and leaned her ear +towards me as if I was going to whisper in it. My right hand gently reached up +and pulled the shimmering soft hair off her shoulder away from her face as I +leaned forward and gave her a kiss on the cheek. "You are adorable" I softly +whispered. A big grin came across her face. I leaned forward and kissed her +cheek again this time cradling her other cheek in my left hand. + + I kissed her cheek two or three times then started kissing and nibbling +on her ear as I whispered "you have the daintiest ears, the softest and warmest +skin I've ever felt." She giggled a little and smiled. My left hand started +turning her face towards mine. I looked into her gorgeous deep blue eyes and +said "you are incredible." Then my lips found their way to her nose, forehead, +and finally her lips. I was just barely touching her lips with mine while my +left hand was caressing her right cheek and neck. I was going over the edge. + + I couldn't of stopped kissing this little girl if I wanted to. She was so +soft and warm. My lips kissed her top lip gently then her bottom lip ever so +slowly. When my tongue started to look for her lips, it was met with an +incredible surprise. The soft moist warmth of her tongue greeted it. I couldn't +believe this! Her mouth was opening and her tongue was inviting mine in. I was +again in heaven. We started gently swirling the tips of our tongues together. +My finger tips were gently rubbing her neck and right arm. My tongue was being +pulled all the way into her mouth by hers. This little ten year old was getting +hot and so was I! + + As our tongues intermingled, my left hand went slowly down her right arm, +caressing it as it did. Her skin was like silk. As my fingers found her hand, +she gently squeezed them. I lifted her hand to my face and started kissing each +of her fingers. I looked down at her and whispered "I adore you." She looked up +at me, smiled, and gave me a peck on the cheek. I slowly pulled away, and moved +back to where I was sitting before this all started. She slowly moved back down +to her pillow again. + + My cock was almost ripping right through the nylon of my shorts. I +couldn't think or didn't want to. I don't know which. This little girl had me +and didn't know it. My right hand started to fondle her calfs again. Slowly, it +made its way upward to the back of her knees. I stopped there for a moment and +tickled the backs of them. She giggled a little and smiled. Then my hand +started to slowly move its way up the back of those ever so soft, ever so +smooth, and ever so warm little legs until it reached the bottom of her undies. +I looked down at her and whispered "you've got the cutest little rear end." She +looked at me and smiled. + + My hand went up over her undies and started to gently caress that cute +little ass. I was still a little nervous about frightening her. My fingers ever +so gently, started to caress each cheek and the backs of her upper legs. After +a few moments, they were following the crack in between those adorable little +ass cheeks. She just stayed there, on her side, smiling, not moving, not in the +least bit tense. One of my fingers gently found its way under the edge of her +undies and my whole hand followed it. It began caressing the hot, soft, smooth +flesh of those little buns, hips, and legs. My finger followed the soft little +curve of the crack in her ass downward to its end until it met with an +unbelievable surprise! Her little pussy slit was soaking wet! At feeling this, +my hand slowly withdrew itself. I couldn't believe a little ten year old could +be this wet! + + My right hand came back down to the back of her left knee as my head +leaned downward until my lips found her knee top. My left hand started to move +slowly up along her shins until its finger tips found where her two knees met. +I had absolutely no control at this point. I wasn't thinking, I was just doing. +I kissed her knee and calf a little as the fingers of my left hand tried to +gently persuade her knees to open. My right hand was again caressing the bare +skin of that unbelievable little ass. + + I stopped kissing her for a moment, looked up at her and whispered "don't +be afraid, I won't hurt you. Open your legs a little." As I finished saying it, +my fingers again tried to persuade hers knees to move. This time they were met +with delight! Her upper knee started to move up, away from the lower one. I +started kissing, first the front and top, then the inside of her upper knee as +my left hand started to caress the inside of her lower knee and lower thigh. I +looked up at her for a moment and she was smiling, enjoying it. + + My mouth and tongue started to move down the inside of her upper thigh as +my left hand made its way up the inside of her lower thigh. God this little +girl was soft and warm! The finger tips of my left hand found the edge of her +underwear while my mouth and tongue started kissing the insides of both her +thighs, moving ever so closer to that ever so wonderful prize. My right hand +was cradling that soft warm little ass. The fingers of my left hand started to +gently rub the satiny material of her undies up and down, along the crease of +that exquisite little slit of joy. I was in another world! + + I could feel the material of her undies getting wetter and wetter. My +finger carefully slid its way under the edge of her undies and found its way to +that wonderful little slit. It slipped inside about and inch then quickly +pulled itself out. I couldn't believe how easy it went in! I looked up at her +again to see if she was frightened. Her eyes were closed, she was breathing +heavy. I raised my head up away from her as my right hand came out from under +her undies and started to slide them down off that unbelievable little ass. I +closed her legs for a moment as both my hands worked together to gently remove +her covering. + + I looked down at that adorable little face and found her eyes still +closed and that wonderful smile. I had lifted the nightgown above her hips up +to about her waist. My left hand slipped two fingers under the upper edge of +her undies while my right hand did the same to the lower edge. My eyes watched +her as my hands did the deed. I pulled the undies very carefully and slowly +downward until that beautiful little ass was fully exposed. + + I leaned over and began to softly kiss those adorable little buns as my +hands continued with their task. My mouth and tongue were ecstatic with joy! I +kissed downward along the backs of her legs as my hands pulled the undies +towards their goal. When my hands reached her ankles, she surprised me by +lifting her legs up and apart, as if to aid me in this marvelous attempt. I was +dumbfounded but continued. + + As I dropped her underwear on the floor, I slipped off the couch on my +knees and moved toward her. I marveled at the sight of her. She was lying on +her right side with her knees together, naked up to her waist where I had +carefully placed the bottom edge of the nightgown. Her knees were bent slightly +preventing me from getting a good view of her most precious offering. My eyes +followed the edges of those beautiful little legs, hip, and ass cheeks. Her +bellybutton was an "inner," so soft and sexy looking. I looked over at her +angelic face. Her eyes were closed, her golden hair draped over her left +shoulder. She was still breathing heavy. I noticed how flush her face was and I +could see tiny beads of sweat on her eyebrows and around her lips. I slowly +leaned over and started to kiss and lick the beads of sweat from her lips as my +right hand again started to caress the back of her upper leg while at the same +time moving upward until it found the warmth and softness of that little rear. + + Her head turned slightly causing me to open my eyes and pull away a +little. I was looking into those deep blue eyes. As I did so, I whispered +"let's go get comfortable" as my right hand started to move under her knees. +She just kept staring into my eyes and didn't say a word. My left hand started +to reach under her neck as her arms reached upward and around the back of my +neck. I slowly stood up, cradling this wonderful little angel in my arms. I +looked down at her and could now see the upper end of her wonderful little slit +tucked away in between the safety of those beautiful little legs. I looked back +into her eyes and whispered "I want you," then carried her into the bedroom. + + + Chapter 3 + + As I walked towards the edge of the kingsized bed holding this sweet +little ten year old angel in my arms, my knees began to shake. I couldn't +believe this was happening. I sat down on the edge of the bed closest to the +bedroom door. Carrying her in, cradled in my arms the way I did, unknowingly +caused her nightgown to rise up above that cute little rear end of hers. When +the warmth and softness of that incredible little ass touched my bare skin it +shot through me like wildfire going through sagebrush! My cock got so hard I +thought it was going to explode! Her right hip was up against it so I knew she +could feel it. I was afraid it would frighten her but there was nothing I could +do about it. + + I sat there just hugging her for a moment with my left arm around her +back and left side while my right hand was gently on her knees. The top of her +head was just touching the bottom of my chin as her face was looking downward +shyly. I kissed the top of her head and whispered "Kim, you are beautiful." My +right hand slowly moved up along the outside of her left hip savoring the +warmth and softness of her young skin. I found her left hand and guided it up +to my lips where I slowly kissed each finger again. Then my right hand found +her chin and slowly raised it towards me until I could see that adorable little +face. + + As her eyes met mine she smiled but didn't utter a sound. I gently kissed +her forehead several times then her nose and whispered "gosh, you have a cute +little nose." She giggled. I started kissing her right cheek. As my lips began +moving towards hers, my right hand started gently caressing her left cheek and +neck. At first, I barely touched her lips with mine. I was mesmerized by this +little girl. Never have I been so controlled by anyone or anything as I was at +that moment by her. + + I slowly and very gently kissed her lips, first the top one, then the +bottom one. As my tongue began to search between her lips it was again met by +her tongue. I gently touched the tip of it with mine and slowly moved about it +in circles. Then I stopped and started kissing her lips again. When I did, she +stopped and pulled away for a moment causing me to open my eyes. Those +beautiful blue eyes were staring into mine curiously. It was as if she was +asking me if she did something wrong, as if she was saying "hey, why did you +stop, did I do it wrong?" I looked into her eyes, smiled, and whispered "you +are incredible!" She smiled, then closed her eyes and moved her mouth towards +mine again. + + Our lips barely touched before our tongues met and became one. I could +feel the heat from her little rear and the backs of her legs against my lap and +my whole body began getting real hot. My right hand started slowly moving +downward along her left arm, then her hip and along the outside of her left leg +until it found her knee. My fingers moved to where her knees met and tried to +separate them. At first they resisted. Our tongues were moving around each +other more and more now. My fingers again tried to find their way between her +knees and this time were allowed in between them. Her skin was so hot and so +soft! My hand started to slowly move her left knee away from the other. After +about an inch of movement, her knee stopped and hesitated, as if she wasn't +sure. I again started to kiss her lips for a moment and then went back to that +fantastic little tongue. As I did, her knees began moving farther apart. + + My right hand started to slowly and gently caress the inside of her left +thigh. My hand could feel the heat flowing from her skin. I then moved it to +the inside of her right knee. I gently pulled her knee towards me pressing the +outside of her leg firmer against my bulging hard on. I was again going over +the edge! As I started to slowly move my hand up along the inside of her thigh +I entered another world. God she was soft and warm! I would move my hand up a +little then stop and move it back down a little. Each time I moved it upward, I +would go a little further up her thigh. + + Every few moments I would move my hand to the inside of her outer leg and +gently caress it, testing to see if it would stay there. Her legs began to move +farther apart, while at the same time, her tongue was really starting to move +sensuously about mine. My hand finally went back to the inner thigh of her +right leg and moved towards it's goal. My finger finally found its prize! She +was soaking wet! I couldn't believe how wonderful it felt! Ever so slowly and +ever so gently, I began to move my fingers along that incredible little slit. +As I did, her legs started to move even farther apart! + + My middle finger found the top of her sweet little slit and slowly +started to follow it downward. It gently and slowly followed it along the +outside edge just barely touching it. When it got to it's bottom, my hand moved +downward and would gently cup her whole cute little ass in it. I would give it +a gentle squeeze then slowly release it and start to slide my middle finger +back up along that incredulous little slit! After about the third time, my +finger found itself starting to enter along the outer edge of that soft warm +inviting little tunnel. As it did, her tongue would stop moving and I began to +hear her start to make a high pitched sound, almost like a little kitten would +make while searching for it's mother. I did this four or five more times before +I started to notice the tiny little beads of sweat again beginning to form +above her eyebrows and along the edges of her lips. + + I gently put my right arm underneath both her legs and bringing them +together, turned to my left slowly sliding her from my lap onto the edge of the +bed. She looked so cute and so adorable sitting on the edge of the bed like +that. The light from the tv in the living room was flickering into the bedroom +through the open door. Her blonde hair was shimmering in it's light. I could +see the tiny beads of sweat all about her face as she looked up at me flushed. +God what a little angel! I took both her cheeks into my hands, leaned over +towards her and kissed her nose then her lips. I whispered "I'll be right back, +don't go away." She looked up at me and smiled but didn't say a word. + + I went into the living room and turned the sound off on the tv but left +it on for the light. Then I shut the lamp off and turned the stereo on softly. +I then went back into the bedroom. + + When I came back in, she was still sitting on the edge of the bed but had +pulled her nightgown back down over her knees. I knelt down on the floor next +to her and took both her hands into mine. I looked into her eyes and whispered +"do you have any idea what you're doing to me? You are my little Lolita." I +didn't think she knew the story of Lolita but I didn't care. + + My cock was bulging again so I leaned up against the edge of the bed to +hide it. I cupped both of her cheeks into my hands and gently started to kiss +her lips. In a moment our tongues were swirling around each other again. + + I took both of her hands and moved them up to my shoulders as I leaned +towards her. Still on my knees, I repositioned myself directly in front of her. +My hands moved down to the backs of her calfs where I gently began to caress +them. As they moved up behind her knees, they gently moved her legs apart. She +offered no resistance this time. I moved forward in between her legs pressing +until my cock rested against the edge of the bed. My hands started to move up +along the outsides of her knees, up along the soft warm flesh of her outer +legs. + + Again, my hands would teasingly move upward a little then back downward, +each time moving a little higher up her legs. Every few moments I would stop +with the tongue and kiss her cheeks, her nose, her forehead, and her lips. Each +time, her tongue was waiting to meet mine. I could still see the beads of sweat +and the redness in her face even in the dim light of the room. As my hands +found their way up to her hips, her breathing became heavier. She started to +pull me towards her more using her hands which were now behind my neck. + + I slowly reached up behind my head and pried her fingers apart to remove +her hold on me. I whispered "lie back on the bed." As my hands guided her body +backward onto the bed, her eyes closed. When her head touched the surface of +the bed my hands started to slowly remove the nylon shorts I had been wearing. +My heart was running like a freight train. I could feel the beads of sweat +forming all over my own body as it began to shake. God I was nervous and +excited! + + When I got my shorts off, I leaned down and began kissing the top of her +right knee while gently caressing both sides of her lower leg with both of my +hands. As my hands slowly came up the sides of her knee my lips and tongue +started to move up the top of her leg a little. Every so often I would stop and +start to kiss her other knee and caress her other leg for a while. Once in a +while I would pause and look up at her. She was lying back with her head on +it's side, her eyes closed and a little smile on her face. Her arms were down +by her sides. + + As my lips and tongue continued up the inside of her left thigh, my hands +would slowly slide her nightgown up a little higher. My lips and tongue were +being satisfied beyond belief as they covered every single inch of this little +girls skin. She had the finest downlike hair on her legs. Her skin was so soft +and so warm, I couldn't stand it! My finger tips were finally caressing both of +her hips and had just pushed her nightgown up to about her belly button when it +came into full view! It was the most exquisite sight one could imagine! + + My whole body started to shake when I saw that beautiful little slit not +three inches away from my mouth and tongue. As my tongue started to get closer, +her hands touched mine and she squeezed them firmly. I softly whispered "don't +be afraid, I won't hurt you." I kissed the top and sides of her hips first just +barely letting my lips and tongue touch her flesh. I moved her hands back along +her sides in order to free mine up. My hands found their way back down to the +insides of her knees. I gently started to raise her knees and move them apart +even more as I kissed the inside of her thigh now, only an inch or so away from +it. It was so perfectly shaped and not a hair on it! Her little slit was closed +but I could see the moisture that had been building, along it's center. You +could of shot me right then and there and I wouldn't of known it! + + As my hands lifted her knees upward her legs seemed to float by +themselves as if they knew what to do and where to go. My mouth went back to +the upper inside of her left knee and again started to kiss it moving downward. +My left hand was gently caressing the inside of her right thigh. My tongue +finally came to it! It slowly started to trace along it's outer edges as my +fingers danced their way lightly around the upper backs of both her legs near +her sweet little ass. Her knees had moved all the way up and spread her legs +far apart as if she had known what to do all along. + + The tip of my tongue slowly circled the outer edge of her perfect little +slit. Every so often, I would stop at the top of it and ever so gently tickle +it's outer edge. When I did, Kim would let out a little high pitched moan. Each +time, it drove me crazy! After about the fourth or fifth time, she reached down +with both her hands and tried to push my head away. I gently took both her +hands in mine, kissed her fingers, then started to move her hands away. I +started to move them upwards towards her head. As I did, I began kissing her +belly all over, along her sides and inside her belly button. I let go of her +hands and started to rub along her sides slowly moving the nightgown upward as +I went. + + As I started to kiss her up along her belly and moved slowly higher, Kim +moved her arms above her head, as if to signal, do whatever you want. My lips +were following the bottom edge of her nightgown as my hands continued to move +it upward. Soon I was kissing those beautiful little nipples of hers. As my +tongue darted around them she started to wiggle a little and moan more. The +beads of sweat were building and her head was moving more and more. I finally +slipped the nightgown off over her head and looked down at her. Seeing her +completely naked spread out like that was absolutely unbelievable! + + Her breasts were just starting to develop but her nipples stood straight +up when I touched them! I would tickle them with my tongue then suck on them +gently. I started going wild kissing her little body. In all the excitement I +didn't realize I was off my knees as I had moved up to devour that cute little +body. Suddenly the bottom of my cock rubbed against the heat and moisture from +her love tunnel. I couldn't believe it! I pressed the bottom of my cock against +her hot moist slit. Suddenly, she stopped moving. I became scared again +wondering what had happened. Don't tell me she was going to get scared and +start crying! + + I leaned down and started kissing her cheek and neck. Then I started +kissing her ear. She and I were both sweating and breathing hard. I whispered +"I adore you with all my heart. I want to make love to you." I waited for a +moment but no response of any kind. I then started to lightly and slowly move +my hips letting the bottom of my cock again rub gently along her moist hot +little tunnel. I kept kissing her all along her neck and shoulders and licking +and sucking gently on those firm little nipples. In a few moments she started +to moan and her body started to wiggle a little. Her knees moved higher up and +apart, even more than they already had been. + + I kept gently sucking on her left nipple as I reached down to my cock +with my left hand. I slowly started to rub the head of it along that heavenly +slit stopping near its top every few moments and concentrating on where I knew +that little bud was hiding. Her pussy started getting real wet. + + She started moaning a little louder now and began wiggling more. My lips +and tongue kept enjoying her little nipples as I gently started to try and put +the head of my cock in its rightful place. I finally tried to slip the head of +it in but it was still real tight. I thought to myself, "she's wet enough!". I +was still afraid of hurting her but I couldn't stop myself. I quickly moved +down her sweaty body, kissing every inch of her as my mouth and tongue moved +downward. + + My tongue found the beginning of her little slit and I started licking +her gently. I would slide my tongue down along the outer edge of her little +slit then back up the inner edge. She kept moaning and wriggling. I had to hold +the inside of her thighs to control her movement. My tongue finally started +entering her. God, she was delicious! The tip of my tongue started moving in +and out, just a little at first. I would slip it in a little then move it up +and down her slit. After a few times, I was able to slip it further in and it +really started to drive her wild. I was starting to have a hard time +controlling her movements. + + I moved upward and went back to kissing her neck and gently sucking on +her nipples. Again I reached down and took my cock in my left hand and started +to rub it against her pussy. I placed the head of it against her slit and +started to push gently but firmly. The head started to go in this time. When I +got it in about an inch, Kim looked up at me and said "it's ok" then closed +hers eyes again. I gently moved forward a little more and in it went. She was +so tight, so moist, and so hot that I couldn't control myself! I started coming +like there was no tomorrow! The cum kept spurting out of me. I started +thrusting in and out of her. At one point she was so wet I slipped out of her +and spurted a load all over the outside of her slit and on to her stomach! + + Kim was wriggling and moaning like crazy by now. We were both sweating +and rocking back and forth. I gave another thrust and felt her maidenhead give +way. Kimmy jerked a little and we both stopped moving for a moment. I leaned +down to her ear and whispered "are you ok?" She didn't answer me. Her eyes +stayed closed. She wasn't breathing. I froze. + + I felt her arms around my neck and could see the smile, the smile that +only this sweet little angel could own. She was trying to wrap her legs around +me but couldn't, she was too small. I slowly started moving inside her again. +This time I didn't stop. I couldn't. I started thrusting in and out of her +without stopping. I could feel the surge coming. I started moving faster and +faster. Her little pussy was squeezing so tightly I thought I was going to have +a heart attack! Finally I couldn't hold it anymore. I started shooting out cum +like I had never known I could. When the first spurt left me, she jerked as she +felt it hit her insides. She became so excited I couldn't believe it! + + My left hand move up to her right nipple and started massaging it while +my mouth and tongue sucked on her left nipple. She kept making what sounded +like little squeals as she wriggled beneath me. My mouth moved up to her neck +and I started nibbling and kissing it. Then she turned her head to mine and our +tongues started working away at each other. All the time I kept thrusting my +shaft in and out of her, not ever wanting to stop. + + Suddenly, she pulled her tongue away from mine, turned her face away from +mine and let out a shriek as her whole body seemed to lift up off the bed! I +couldn't believe this! I exploded into her again as her little pussy squeezed +the hell out of my burning, throbbing cock! My little 10 year old, this blue +eyed blonde, the sweetest little girl I had ever known, was having an orgasm! + + I don't know for sure if it was her first, but I knew it was almost my +last. I thought I was going to die! After spurting everything that I had left +inside of me, I relaxed and slowed down. She was just lying there, her arms +spread out over her head, her eyes closed, all sweaty and flushed. Her legs +were still up in the air and spread apart. I could feel the swelling go down +inside of me as I began to relax a little more. Finally, I slipped out of her. +I slowly backed off of her. + + The bottom of her belly and her whole little slit and ass were soaked +with our juices. I knelt down on the floor with my head between her legs and +started to lick every single bit of cum off of her. She just stayed that way +and didn't move. Every once in a while she would let out a little moan and a +smile. I worked my way up her belly, over her little nipples and up her neck. I +softly whispered "I love you." She turned her head, opened her eyes and +whispered back "I love you to. I didn't know it would be like that." Then she +closed her eyes. I whispered "I'll be right back" and left the room. + + A few moments later, I came back into the room with a warm wet washcloth +and towel. I gently washed and dried her, helped her slip back into her +nightgown, then gave her a kiss on the cheek as she dozed off. I pulled the +blankets down and tucked her in then went into the living room and lied down on +the couch and fell asleep. + + + Chapter 4 + --------- + + I awoke on the couch the next morning to the sound of the shower running. +At first, I thought it had all been a dream. I lifted the window shade to look +outside and saw daylight. Must be morning I thought to myself and yes, I'm +alive. I got up off the couch and walked over to the bedroom door to see if +anyone was in there. I could see Kim sound asleep on the far side of the bed +with the blankets pulled up almost to her ears. The smell of hot coffee lead me +to the kitchen. + + As I began pouring a cup, I heard the bathroom door open and Cathy walked +into the kitchen with a towel wrapped around her, and drying her hair with +another towel. "Hi" she said, as she gave me a kiss. "You were snoring up a +storm when I came in last night!" "Did I keep you awake" I asked? "No, I just +shut the bedroom door. I didn't want you to wake Kimmy, I'm used to it" she +said. "How did the party go" I asked. "It was all right, but not too many girls +showed up." "What time did you get home?" I followed. "About 12:20" she said. +"Want some coffee?" I asked. "Please" as she went into the bedroom. + + I poured her a cup and in a few minutes she returned to the kitchen all +dressed. "Boy," she said, "Kim is out like a light. I guess it was all that sun +yesterday." Then she looked at me kind of funny. "What's the matter" I asked? +Cathy said "I've got to tell you what happened last night at the party." She +sat down and took a sip of her coffee. I put some bread in the toaster and +joined her at the table. + + "So, what happened?" I asked. "Barbara came with a girlfriend of hers +named Gretchen. She was the most beautiful girl I've ever seen" she said. "You +would of come in your pants just looking at her" she continued. "Cathy, I've +never heard you talk like that about another girl before!" She looked at me, a +little embarrassed then continued. "That's because I never saw anyone like her +before" she said. "So, what happened" I asked? "Well, we were all trying on the +different outfits and modeling for each other. We'd take turns going in the +bedroom, pick out a nightie, put it on, and then come out and model it in front +of each other." + + "I had been watching Gretchen, more like staring at her, all evening. +Once in a while, she would casually glance at me and I'd turn away, afraid she +would notice me staring at her. I was actually getting wet in my crotch! I +couldn't help it! Then it was her turn to try something on. She went in the +bedroom for a few minutes and came out wearing the sexiest piece we had. Nobody +else had the guts to wear it! When I saw her, I couldn't believe it. I started +getting hot all over! I don't think I was the only one who was affected by her +like that, because I noticed everyone became quiet when she first walked in the +room. She was gorgeous!" + + I had never seen Cathy get this excited before, especially about another +female. I started getting a hard on watching her as she told me the story. +"Then it was my turn to put something on" she said. "I went into the bedroom +and put on a pale green negligee almost completely see through. All I could +think about was how fantastic Gretchen looked! My cunt was dripping and I +couldn't stop it. I wanted to go out there and let her see me but I was too +embarrassed because I was so wet! Then there was a knock on the door." + + "Are you all right?" It was Barbara. I said "yeah, I just can't figure +out which one to put on. I'll be out in a minute" I said. "Ok we're waiting for +you" she said. I wiped my crotch with kleenex, took a deep breath, and went on +out. I was so nervous! At first, when I went out in the living room, I wouldn't +even look towards Gretchen. They were all gabbing away when I came out so that +helped a little. I walked around the room like everyone else did but when I got +in front of Gretchen, something made me stop. I turned with my back to her and +faced everyone else. All I could think was that her eyes were on me. I was +unconscious of everyone else in the room for a few minutes. I started getting +so hot and could feel my pussy getting wet again. + + At first I wanted to run and hide but something made me stay. Then I +turned around to face her. She was looking me straight in the eyes and smiling. +I thought I was going to die! I could feel my nipples getting harder and my +crotch getting wetter each second. Gretchen's eyes slowly covered every inch of +me as I stood there helpless. Just then Debbie came over, and put her hands on +my shoulders and said, I have cake and coffee going in the kitchen if anyone +wants any. I came back to reality! Embarrassed I looked again at Gretchen. +Smiling at me she said, you look great in that." I said, "thanks," then went +into the bedroom to change. + + As Cathy was telling me what happened I got so damn excited I almost did +come in my pants. I could tell she was getting all worked up again and I began +rubbing her thigh. Just then, we heard the bedroom door open. It was Kim. "Hi +sleepy head" Cathy said, as I tried to conceal my hard on. "Hi" said Kim, +looking at me. "Did you sleep ok" I asked? "I guess so" she said. She headed +towards the bathroom and Cathy said she was going to make pancakes. "None for +me" I said, "I have to run, I promised Pete I'd give him a hand with his deck +today." "What are you two going to do today?" I asked, trying to change the +subject. + + Cathy said she was going to go grocery shopping then take Kim shopping +at the local mall. I was a bit concerned at the idea of them being alone all +day together and wondered if Kim would slip and say something about last night. +A moment later Kim came out of the bathroom, looked at me, and said "you snore +too loud! I could hear you even with the door closed." We all laughed. "I'm +sorry" I said. I've got to run." I gave Cathy a kiss then gave Kim a little hug +and kiss on the cheek and said "see you two beauties later," then went out the +door. + + I came home about 2 that afternoon and found a note on the table from +Cathy saying they would be home around 5 pm. I jumped in the shower, cleaned up +and got changed. Cathy and Kim got back around 5:30 and it looked like they had +bought out the entire mall! I couldn't believe all the bags! They both had a +big smiles on their faces. "Hi," they both said. "I guess the stores won't be +able to open tomorrow" I said. "What do you mean" Kim asked. "You didn't leave +them with any merchandise," I answered. They started laughing. I didn't think +it was funny! + + They went in the bedroom and spread all the bags out on the bed. "Why +don't you try on the new clothes and show him what we bought you" Cathy said to +Kim. "Put on your new bathing suit first" she said. At first Kim said no but +then looked at me and smiled then said "ok." I couldn't wait! They threw me out +of the bedroom and closed the door. I could hear them giggling, then in a few +minutes, they came out into the living room. Kim had a little two piece print +bikini on. She looked fantastic in it! It was so tiny. I started to get a hard +on right away so I sat down and crossed my legs immediately to try and hide it. +"Where's the rest of it" I asked. "Your father will kill you for buying that +for her" I said to Cathy. "Oh, what he doesn't know wont hurt him" she said. +She looked at Kim and adjusted her straps to the top part of it. "I think she +looks cute in it" Cathy said, smiling at Kim. "I think she looks sexy in it" I +abruptly said, without thinking. + + "Really," Kim said excitedly! "You sure do," Cathy replied with a smile. +Then she reached down at the sides of Kim's suit bottom and pulled them up a +little higher saying "there, that's even sexier, it shows more of your hips." +My cock was getting stiffer by the moment. I couldn't believe this! I tried +changing the subject. "What else did you get" I asked? Cathy looked at Kim and +asked "should we show him our new nighties?" Kim blushed and said "no way," +then Cathy said "ok, maybe later, at bedtime, if he's good." They both laughed. + + I asked "you sleeping here again tonight?" "Yes," Cathy answered, "I +asked her if she wanted to sleep over again. My parents are going out for the +evening and Patty is staying at her girlfriends, so I asked her to sleep here." +My mind started to wander in utter excitement at the thought! So did my cock! + + "I picked up some steaks, baked potatoes, and stuff for a salad" Cathy +said, "why don't you light the grill and throw the potatoes on and we'll start +making a salad." Then the two of them disappeared into the bedroom and started +giggling again. My mind was in ecstasy as I got up and headed towards the back +porch to light the grill. My cock was already on fire! + + The girls were already sitting down when I brought the steaks in from +the grill. I was just going to join them when the phone rang so I answered it. +"Hi Barb, how was the party last night," I asked. When Cathy realized who it +was, she jumped up to try and wrestle the phone away from me. "Did everyone +have a good time?" I asked. Cathy could hear Barb saying something but she +couldn't make it out. "She wants to know if we want to go to a pool party at +her house tomorrow" I said to Cathy, "she says Gretchen will be there." Cathy +looked quickly at Kim who wasn't paying attention and then slapped me hard on +the arm. "What time," I asked Barb. I hung up, looked at Cathy and said "1 +o'clock." She stuck her tongue out at me then went and sat down. + + Kim asked "who's Gretchen, have I met her before?" "She's an old friend +of your sister's and she wants me to meet her" I quickly answered. I started to +continue, "your sister finds her fascinating and" ...as Cathy kicked me from +under the table. I figured it was best to quit while I was ahead and alive! To +change the subject, Cathy started telling me about all the different stores +they went and spent money in earlier that day. + + It was then that I noticed that they both had the same tops on. I had +been on the porch cooking and hadn't noticed they had changed. They both stood +up together and said "do you like them?" They were each wearing a red and white +striped halter top that stopped just above their belly buttons. They both came +over in front of me and stood side by side. They each had a pair of real short +satiny red jogging shorts. They were cut high on the sides and hugged their +crotches very nicely. I couldn't believe what I was looking at. Cathy wasn't +wearing a bra and her nipples were popping out like crazy. Kim had no reason to +wear a bra yet but I could see, very nicely, the outline of beautiful little +breasts starting to form on this 10 year old. + + They both turned slowly to give me an all around view. I could see Cathy +wasn't wearing any underwear and her beautiful ass cheeks were staring me right +in the face when she teasingly bent over. Kim followed her act teasingly but +did have a pair of little satiny pink undies on which I could see quite nicely +when she bent over. I could also see the bottoms of her cute little ass cheeks +just below the edge of her undies. They were driving me nuts! It wasn't steak I +felt like eating! + + The two of them quickly sat down again and started giggling at me. Cathy +reached over under the table with her foot and started running it up and down +my leg a few times then against my cock. I was hard as a rock! I looked at her +and said "keep it up, but remember, payback is a bitch!" The three of us +started laughing. Kim didn't know why we were laughing, at least I hoped she +didn't. + + We finished eating and started to clean up when I volunteered to wash +the dishes. The two of them pulled me out into the living room, told me to sit +and relax and they would do the dishes. I could hear them talking softly and +giggling every once in a while but figured it was girl talk. + + I sat there and began to fantasize about tomorrow and what this Gretchen +looked like. I couldn't wait to meet the girl that turned Cathy on sexually! +This was definitely going to be an experience. I got hard just thinking about +it. Just then, Kim came in with a coffee and brownies on a plate and put them +down on the coffee table. + + As she bent over, I could see those beautiful little thighs and the +bottom of those cute little ass cheeks just underneath those satiny pink +undies. I boldly reached over and ran my hand up the back side of her leg until +it found the beginning of that cute little ass, then gave her a gentle but firm +squeeze. She didn't pull away. Instead, she turned and looked at me, smiled, +then leaned over and gave me a kiss on the lips. Then she turned and ran back +into the kitchen. My cock was aching for her like I couldn't believe it could. +It was aching for both of them! + + + End of Chapter 4 + + +Keep sending in your suggestions, many of them are great ideas for future +chapters! + +Many of you have called but have failed to give me some way of knowing that the +11SEX-XX series is what you're interested in. + +When asked how you heard about me, your responses have been: + +From a BBS listing, from a zipped text file, from such & such BBS, etc. + +Unfortunately, those kinds of responses are not helpful. They leave me no way +of knowing what you want. There are millions of zipped text files, and +thousands of BBS's out there. Sorry, but under those circumstances, I'm unable +to help you. + +Many of you have called and left a comment, (the best way to go) but either you +never called back to see if you had a message, or you didn't bother to look for +a message when you did call. Sorry, but I'm unable to help you under those +circumstances also. + +When calling, the best thing to do is leave a comment to the SYSOP and mention +either the 11SEX-XX series, R&E, or The Storyteller. It may take a day or so, +but I will respond to all my messages one way or another. + +Later folks, Enjoy! +The Storyteller... + diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/13.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/13.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..3a9d9bea --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/13.txt @@ -0,0 +1,348 @@ +This is my letter of confession concerning the unspeakable sins wich I +have participated in. The same sins wich are now making me question my +position in life as a holy authority in the Catholic Church. I have no +one to turn to to make my confession, so I will commit it to paper +before the eyes of our holy father, and beg his forgiveness for my +weaknesses. + +It all started with the dreams. The first dream was a shock to me, I +had never thought my mind capable of such imaginings. My dream was of a +young girl at the school at wich I teach. She is only thirteen. Her +age makes all of this seem so evil, yet the beauty of her innocent age, +I believe, is what drew me in, and captivated me. I saw her for the +first time in the classroom of an associate teacher. Immediately upon +entering the room I noticed her sitting at her desk, her dark eyes +softly studying mine. I looked away quickly but was so distracted by +her lovely face I almost forgot the purpose of my having come to the +class. Wishing to see this young girl again, to see if my memory was +playing tricks on me, I played the role of hall monitor at the end of +the day. I positioned myself in the hallway a door down from her +classroom and waited. The bell rang and within a minute out came the +vision I had seen before, only this time I could see her entirely. She +didn't notice me as she left the room and headed down the hall in the +opposite direction. I watched her as she walked. Her hair was a soft +and shiny brown, almost auburn. She was taller than most of her +classmates but probably still only about shoulder hight to me. She was +wearing the typical uniform of the school, white blouse wich curved +around her firm little breasts, and plaid skirt that showed the gentle +roundness of her butt. Knee high socks covered well formed calves just +below the smooth bare skin of her thighs. Her thighs. Oh my, how they +caught my attention! I found my heart racing, my mouth dry as a +dessert, and a major problem growing in my pants. That is what started +the dreams. I couldn't help myself. That night it started very simply. +I was lying in bed in my underwear and from out of no- where she +appears. She doesn't say a thing and just starts removing her uniform. +I can feel my penis growing, stiffening, and becoming rock hard as she +kicks off her shoes, pulls off her skirt and stares into my eyes as she +slides off the knee highs. She is standing in front of me in just her +lily white panties and unbuttoned white blouse. She is not wearing a +bra underneath and I can see the inside outline of her breasts. I feel +weak as she crawls onto the bed from the end and up over my legs, coming +closer, staring into my eyes. I am at a loss, I don't know what to do. +Her head is over my penis wich is obviously stiff as an oak tree +underneath my shorts and she breaks her gaze to look down at it. With +one hand she begins to rub it, gently. A shiver runs through my entire +body and still I am afraid to do anything. She crawls up closer yet +until her face is even with mine and her crotch is directly over my +penis. The softness of her legs pressing against me fills my mind and I +lose the control I was fighting to maintain. I reach out and place my +hands along the sides of her arms. I slowly caress her as I move my +hands to her lovely face. When I run my hands across her shoulders and +neck to finally cup her face, she moves closer. My breath comes in +short gasps. Our eyes are locked together and her lips touch mine. +First a simple kiss, and I shiver again at the feel of her lips. Then +another kiss, this one deeper, then another, deeper yet. She lowers her +crotch to my penis and the soft heat of it upon me makes me lose +control. My hands begin roaming across her body in a fit of passion. +Our kisses become flames as our tongues explore each others mouths. I +can feel her pussy as the gyrations become so intense that we become +like animals. My hands slide along her back to her ass. Her butt is so +soft and firm. Suddenly, as so often happens in dreams, there seems to +be shifts, and neither of us are wearing our underwear anymore, although +she still has on her unbuttoned white cotton blouse. I can feel her +pussy right at the end of my penis. She begins to lower her hole over +it. She is so unbelievably wet and so damned tight. It rapidly becomes +obvious to me that this, being my first time, is hers also. For a +moment her downward movement slows as the tightness grows. She pushes a +little harder and the movement begins again. She gasps loudly and I can +see her eyes glaze over. A second later I'm not seeing a thing. She +slides down over me, completely engulfing my cock. I can feel every +inch inside her, all around. It's really a tight fit and the head of my +dick is touching the upper limits of her pussy. She is completely +filled. I am seeing only by touch as my brain is engulfed in the +absolute pleasure I am feeling. She begins to slide up and down, up, +and, down. Again and again. Each time my entire dick is massaged and I +can feel the pleasure beginning to focus. She is moaning loudly as she +rises and falls upon me. I have my left hand on her soft butt and my +right is squeazing her breast. I am gently pinching her rock hard +nipple and I bring my mouth to her other breast. I suck her nipple into +my mouth and tickle it with my tongue. Her moans become louder and she +begins riding me with a fury. My dick is becoming so intensly sensitive +to each thrust, I can feel the begining of the moment of truth starting. +She is out of control and screaming "father fuck me" over and over and +over. I look into her face as I my body tenses and the world becomes +slow motion. Her eyes are clamped shut and I see she is on the brink +also. She rises slowly upward, her jaw drops and she pulls in a +tremendous gasp. Her eyes open and look into mine and all I see is the +wonder that this innocent girl is experiencing as the most blissful +instant of her life begins. The floodgates open and her gasp becomes a +scream and she begins her downward thrust. Like a jackhammer my body is +slammed with my own inability to hold back and the cum starts to blast +its way upward. Her pussy slides over me completely as I begin shooting +deeply into her. I can feel her body shaking, racked with orgasm, as +she screams out her pleasure. Her juices flow over me like a flood. +We, for that instant, become one being, a being engulfed in the evil +bliss of human ectasy. My cum is shooting in massive spasmodic spurts. +The moment is so intense I could easily die. And then I awake. My bed +wet with cum, my hair wet with sweat. My desire for the girl burning +within. I have to have her and that is the way it's going to be. + +After that first dream I became obsessed. I made efforts to see her in +the hallways and I followed her, discreetly, whenever the opportunity +provided. I watched every inch of her as she glided down the hallways +and I dreamed. A couple of times a week I would have that recuring, very +lucid, dream. I had trouble thinking of anything else. I noticed one +day that her gym class was the same time as my free period. That first +day I noticed this I went in just to chat with the gym teacher who is a +friend of mine. The class was currently engaged in gymnastics and I +explained that I had been considering coaching the gymnastics team and +would like to observe this class to see what it would require. My friend +didn't seem to really buy the story, but went along with it anyway. So, +I watched this girl with a gluttonous lust as her body assumed the most +erotic positions. And through it all she calmly knew I was watching. +She would gaze at me from time to time and occasionally smile her +beautiful smile and my brain would burn with my desire for her. After +the first week of observance my friend, the gym teacher, had asked for +my assistance with spotting some of the more advanced students. The +young girl was one of them. I readily accepted the task. I had to try +to control the shaking nervousness that was coursing through my body. +My penis was on the verge of becoming erect at any moment and it took +all I had to keep it down. Until it came time to help my little beauty +with a difficult routine that she was working on. This required that I +hold her during part of it and she just gazed at me and smiled. From +the first moment that I touched her the control I had over my penis was +gone. I just could not contain the insane desire I had for her. Soon I +was lost. It was as though nobody existed there in the gym as I focused +on her body. The thrill of being near to her, to smell her perfume, the +scent of her hair, to touch her... My erection was solid concrete, my +mind, utter jello. I had this image in my mind of the dream and the +dream was carrying into life. It was all so unrealistic. My thoughts, I +mean. Here I was, helping this poor girl with her schooling, trying to +find a way to seduce her. She was so innocent. But beyond her eyes +somewhere deep I could see a spark. I could tell, or at least I +dreamed, that it was the spark of lustful interest that this girl had +for me. I had, up until that point, been taking care not to allow any +of her movements come close to my crotch. I had not wanted her to +accidently brush against my hard on and thus embarrass me. But now I +fealt this compulsion to let her know just how erotic and exciting she +was. To make her aware that I was so completely lusting after her. +That hopefully this knowledge would make her begin to think about me in +the mannor in wich I was thinking about her. It never occurred to me +that she would not reciprocate. I was sure that she would want me just +as badly, once she knew that I wanted her. I took the chance. She +twisted around in front of me, I shifted slightly forward, and her butt +rubbed across my stiff dick. I could feel her tense as the realization +suddenly struck her of what it was she had just fealt. I suddenly +became scared. Had I pushed this too far? Oh my, what if she told her +friends? A rumor like this would travel through the school in less than +a day. My heart began to sink in my chest. Then, she twisted back +again and before I could shift out of the way her butt rubbed hard +against my erection. It caused even more blood to pound into my penis. +I was shaking very badly now. She obviously knew what was up, and my +breath was becoming short. There were fifteen minutes left to class and +much to my total joy, she took advantage of every close contact to rub +against me. I was seriously hoping that she was not just taking +advantage of the situation to simply tease a horny priest. Her eyes and +body told me she was just as horny as I was, but I had my doubts about +this young woman being in such control of her excitement. I was +confused. + +The classes went on and we began to speak to each other. Every time I +was asked to assist her we would go through the same discreet routine. +My excitement was barely in control and only the dreams would allow the +release of any of the tension in my groin. The dreams were helping me +physically but mentally driving me deeper into the sinful thoughts that +I was playing in my mind. I was testing scenerios to find the solution +to my problem. I wanted to feel every inch of her slender body pressed +against mine. I wanted to fulfill my dreams and more. Only the reality +of the situation prevented me from being able to advance it any more +than I had. I could not just ask her, your place or mine, or grab her +and duck into a vacant room. I couldn't really figure out any way that +we could be alone. And once I did get her alone, how would I approach +the subject of how badly I desired her? How would I manage to convince +this innocent young lady to succumb to my wishes? I was in an absolute +turmoil. I had even considered figuring out ways to take her +forcefully, although this option I quickly discarded. + +One Saturday morning in the spring I was home mowing my lawn for the +second time of the year. It was a cool day with a slight breeze but I +was hot from the activity and went inside and stripped down completely +to put on a pair of shorts with no underwear. Five minutes after I +resumed mowing the lawn I noticed my young beauty coming down my +driveway on a ten speed bicycle. Adrenaline shot through my body. I +could feel the start of a panic. What the hell was she doing here? I +shut off the mower and approached the driveway as she rode up. She +stopped and I could tell from the way she gazed at me, deep as she did +when she was rubbing against me, the reason why she was here. I said +hello and smiled. She said nothing and smiled. I invited her into the +house. I had left the front door open earlier and she just walked right +in ahead of me. She stopped walking as soon as she was inside the house +and I shut the door quietly. She didn't move. Her back was toward me +and I took the opportunity to look her over. She was wearing a pink +pull over sweater and, in keeping with the latest styles, jeans that +were artfully torn in random locations. My eyes came to a rest on her +beautiful round ass. In just the past few seconds my heartbeat had +sped, my hormones kicked in, and my dick began to perk up. And still she +stood, unmoving, with her back to me. I wasn't fooling myself, I knew +exactly what she was here for. I stepped toward her and placed my hands +on her shoulders. She shivered. Her whole body was quivering from the +nervous fear she was enduring. I moved in closer until my entire front +was firmly pressed against her. Within seconds my erection grew against +her and she ever so gently pressed back against me as it did. I slid my +hands down her arms and slowly pushed them in front of her as I held her +in a hug. The excitement was building. I pressed a kiss to the back of +her head and her wonderful scents permeated my brain. I nuzzled my nose +to her ear and lightly kissed it. My tongue traced a small outline +around the edge causing her to shiver again. I took her lobe between my +lips and tasted it with my tongue. She was begining to shift and press +against me. I nuzzled her hair from the side of her neck and began to +slowly kiss my way along it, stopping to nibble here and there. Each +nibble brought a shiver and her knees almost buckled. She reached her +arms back and pulled my head to her neck as she began to lose her +nervousness. My hands were now free to roam the front of her body. I +slid them up over her sweater to her breasts. I ran a hand around each +breast, then over, and finally began to squeeze them. They were firm and +ripe. I could feel her nipples through the sweater as I massaged my +little beauty. Bending at the knees slightly I brought my stiff penis +against her plump solid ass. I reached for the bottom of her sweater +and pulled it upward over her breasts. I gazed at the marvelous site +before me. She had not worn a braziere and those two firm boobs begged +to be sqeezed some more. I ran my hands over them and teased her +nipples, then began to massage them once again. Her skin was so soft +and smooth. The passion between us was growing with every touch, every +gyration, every shudder. I ran my hands down her smooth sides to her +hips and rubbed the front of her thighs. I made slow circles around +until I was brushing her pubic bone. I ran my hands down her thighs +again and moved them to the inside. Then I brought them back up until I +was touching the warmth of her pussy. I took my left hand and returned +it to her breasts and with my right I started to rub her crotch. I +applied a little pressure, pulling her ass tighter to my dick, and +continued to gyrate slowly. Her breath was coming in long gasps, and +exhaling in an almost inaudible moan. I continued nibbling and kissing +along her neck. Much to my surprize she released my head and reached +down to unbutton her pants. I pulled the zipper down and slid my hand in +under her panties. My fingers wandered slowly through her soft curly +hairs over her pubic bone and down into her wetness. I rubbed the +outside and slid my middle finger along just inside her lips. When I +brought my finger to her clitorus and began to gently play her knees +almost buckled again. I became her strength and held her steady, then +ran my hand down again, pushing my finger inside. I could smell the +wonderful musk that was now drenching her panties and the scent was +tugging at my brain. I rubbed along and pushed my finger in just a +little more and found that her jeans were prohibiting any futher +movement in that direction. She seemed to come to the realization at +the same time, kicked off her shoes and helped me push her pants down. I +held her from behind as she completely removed her clothing from the +lower half of her body. Now, before me, were the succulent curves, the +soft skin, the smooth toned muscles. I carefully resumed my position +and ran my hand to her pussy once again. Now my erection was pushing +not against course jeans, but her naked luscious butt. As I slid one +finger into her pussy and slowly wiggled it around, I began to remove my +shorts with the other. I worked them to my knees and kicked them down +and off. I pressed against her butt again and the feeling almost drove +me wild. It was so fantastic to just rub my penis against her and she +seemed to enjoy it as much as I did. Struggling to not just continue +with my own pleasure I pushed my finger farther into her pussy. It was +tight for my finger and I knew that once I got my dick in there it would +be a very major chore to keep from cumming instantly. She looked up and +glanced around the room. When she noticed the doorway to my bedroom she +took my hand in hers and turned to gaze once again into my eyes for a +moment, telling me where she wanted to go. I looked upon her entire +nude form and soaked my mind in the elegance of it. She was so +beautiful, and my dream was finally coming to fruition, I just couldn't +believe it. We went to my bedroom and lay on the bed. I pressed +against her and we began to kiss. The kisses were exactly as they were +in my dream. First gentle slow kisses, then they worked thier way into a +passionate exploration as our tongues wandered excitedly. I caressed +her body from her shoulders to her bottom, to her thighs and back up +again. I moved my hand to her breast and began to squeeze it again. She +was very responsive to this and I could feel her excitement growing. I +moved away from her mouth and down to her breast. As I gently sqeezed I +brought my lips to her nipple and sucked ever so slightly. I kissed and +licked her breast, then moved to the other and gave it equal treatment. +She pulled my head to her tits as I licked them and gyrated her body +against my hard on. She was truly unbelievable. I began kissing downward +along her stomach and slid into a better position. I manuvered between +her legs and brought my mouth to her thighs. I teased her by kissing +around her pubic bone and licking the inside of her thighs. I brought my +hands under her legs and pushed them further apart. Then I dug my tongue +into her pussy. It was as though I had sent an electric shock through +her body. She convulsed and shuddered. She grabbed the back of my head +and pulled my face into her crotch. I dug my tongue deep. I flicked my +tongue in and out and up across her clitorus. She moaned deep throaty +moans. I wondered if I dare hope for her to do the same to me. I half +swung around and she immediately got the picture. She grabbed at my +stiff penis and began to stroke it. This time the shudder was running +through me. My tongue began to probe her twat furiously. She started to +run her tongue along my dick. I almost couldn't take it. I distract- ed +myself in her pussy and managed to fight back an orgasm. When she took +my penis into her mouth my licking and probing sped even more. I was +coming so close to the edge and I didn't want to loose it yet, oh no, +please, not yet! I finally had to pull away from her delectable pussy +and stop all this. I did not want to let her bring me to an orgasm this +way. I, just for a second, watched her lovely face as her mouth worked +up and down my cock, then I stopped her. I moved around and we +embraced, exploring each others mouths once again. I ran my hands along +her body and caressed her flesh. We allowed ourselves a little time to +calm the pressures that were threating to explode as we lovingly kissed +and touched each other. After a few minutes I pulled myself over her and +she spread her legs. I reached down, spread her pussy lips with my +fingers, and pressed the head of my dick up against the wetness. I +began to push the head into her and she wrapped her arms around me and +held on tight. I pushed forward a little more. The moment was here. This +little beauty was all mine, and I was going to have her. I pushed +again. It was getting very difficult to move it in further. I began to +worry if I would be able to get it in without hurting her. I slid it +back a little to allow her juices to lubricate the path. Then I pushed +forward again. This time a little further than the last. The feeling so +far was incredible. Better than I had dreamed! I pulled back again. +Then pushed. I was almost halfway in her and she seemed to be +experiencing nothing but pleasure, so I just braced myself and pushed +hard. My dick slid all the way in. She screamed. As I began to pull out +she pulled me closer and I realized it was the shock of the intense +charge she got and not pain that made her scream. I slowly began to pump +in and out. Her tight pussy was exciting every inch of my dick and I was +loving every second of it all. She wrapped her slender legs around my +waist opening the way even better. I began to pump faster and a little +harder. My balls began to hit against her ass with each inward thrust. +She moaned in rythm with my pumps. Faster and faster. All the way in, +then almost all the way out. Faster. Harder. She was bucking up into me +with each push. It became so intense I could feel the orgasm building. +She started with half moans half screams. My balls slapped harder +against her ass and it drove me into a frenzy. We became so animalistic, +so bent on just achieving the ultimate pleasure that lie just ahead. I +pumped again and again. A shudder began running through my body and I +just kept pumping. Her wonderful moans suddenly became one continu- ous +escalating moan as her climax started through her body. The pressure of +my cum was pushing so hard as I fought to pump just a few more times. My +brain became a ball of flame and after two more thrusts, at the exact +time her legs pulled me hard and deep into her cunt, I blew! I blew hard +right into her own exploding orgasm and together we screamed in blissful +rapture. to go. I looked upon her entire nude form and soaked my mind +in the eleganc + + + + +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X + Another file downloaded from: NIRVANAnet(tm) + + & the Temple of the Screaming Electron Jeff Hunter 510-935-5845 + Burn This Flag Zardoz 408-363-9766 + realitycheck Poindexter Fortran 510-527-1662 + My Dog Bit Jesus Suzanne d'Fault 510-658-8078 + New Dork Sublime Demented Pimiento 415-864-DORK + The Shrine Tom Joseph 408-747-0778 + + "Raw Data for Raw Nerves" +X-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-X diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/18bday b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/18bday new file mode 100644 index 00000000..60d075cb --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/18bday @@ -0,0 +1,184 @@ + + 18th Birthday Celebration + + Since my 21 year old stepdaughter received the camcorder as a +gift last Christmas, it has been her constant companion, traveling +with her wherever she goes. Alternately it has become almost a +permanent fixture on its tripod in the corner of our Family Room, +silently and watchfully recording candid views of our family life +for posterity. Last weekend Carla knocked on my study door for a +short visit before her date, bringing with her a small giftwrapped +package. She asked me not to open the package until after both +her and her 18 year old sister Michelle had left for the evening. +When her fiance Bob arrived, she kissed me goodnight, told me to +enjoy my gift, and they left for their date. + I had been planning to spend the evening working on the +revised blueprints for the Mall we were building, but curiosity +about the package was getting to me. It seemed like hours before +Michelle's boyfriend Mark arrived and they too left for the pool +party at Kim's house (even though it was only 20 min.) but finally +I was alone and I could open the mysterious gift. I poured myself +a glass of wine and proceeded to rip open the wrapping paper. +Inside was a videotape and a note from Carla saying simply +"ENJOY". + Their natural father died when they were very young, +(Michelle was only a year old at the time), and their mother was +killed in a car accident 4 years later so I had to raise the girls +alone, being both mother and father at the same time. It hasn't +been always easy, but we do enjoy a special closeness that only +families that have dealt with death like this seem to have. + I couldn't wait any longer to find out what was on this tape, +so I fed it into the VCR, turned on the television, and sat back +in my recliner to watch. The credits came on. The title was +simply Michelle's 18th Birthday Party. From the opening frames it +was obvious that Carla had recorded it from the tripod in the +corner of our Family Room, also it appeared that no one was aware +the camera was silently watching and recording the proceedings. + I smiled to myself on Carla's thoughtfulness. I had to be +out of town on business the night of the party, so I wasn't +present for the festivities, but it became clear a little later +that it had been planned that way! + The party started quietly enough, it was just Carla, +Michelle, Bob, Mark, Kim and her boyfriend Brian sitting around +drinking punch and eating birthday cake. Then it became time to +open presents. Mark's was the first to be opened, he gave +Michelle a beautiful white lace teddy with pink trim and matching +garter belt, panties and stockings. Bob's was the next to be +opened. His gift consisted of a collection of massage oils and +scents, and a dozen pair of edible panties! Kim insisted that +Shelly open her's next. I almost fell out of the recliner I was +laughing so hard at the reaction on Michele's face to Kim's +present- a whole box of dildos and vibrators, in assorted shapes +and sizes, ranging from somewhat modest dimensions to what can +only be described as the impossible dream! Brian's seemed almost +sedate after it's predecessor, a leather push-up bra, leather +garter belt, whip, and a collection of handcuffs, soft ropes and +other assorted items that the camera couldn't see from it's +vantage point (at least for now I was to find out!). Carla had +saved her gift until last with an aura of mystery surrounding it +(like this tape), as was her style. The mystery did not end even +after Shelly tore open the wrapping paper, enclosed in it's +protective case was a 3.5" computer disk, labeled only with her +favorite signature "ENJOY!". + Carla rolled the girls' computer over and announced +"It's game time everyone!" + She fed the disk into the machine along with some other +information before she would allow anyone else to see the monitor, +including the camera. Then with a flourish she spun the monitor +around to reveal her suprise gift. + "Michele, we have been waiting for this moment for a long +time, you are the last of us to turn 18 and we have prepared a +special suprise to commemorate the occasion. The game is +called INTERSEX, it's played with rules similiar to Monopoly, but +it has a few interesting differences, as you'll see as we play. +Because your the Birthday Girl, you have the honor of going +first." + Bob told her,"Just follow the instructions that pop up on the +screen, Michelle, relax and enjoy the game." + Curious, and obviously a little excited Michelle pushed the +button to start the game. She rolled a 10 to start the game, +landed on an available property, was given a chance to purchase +it, accepted and so play continued for a couple of rounds. On the +fourth round Carla landed on a "Chance" square. It read "You +have been given Wonder Woman's lasso of truth. You can ask each +person a question, and they must answer truthfully!" + Carla decided to ask each person the same question, "Are you +still a virgin?". Bob answered "Of course I'm not, you know that, +Carla." After the giggling died down, the other two boys simply +answered "no", and Kim answered sheepishly, that she was. Carla +looked at her sister and asked "Well, how about it, Michelle, are +you still a virgin?" Almost inaudibly, and with a blush Michelle +answered simply, "Yes, I am." + Carla replied with a smile on her face, "Well, we'll take +care of that problem for you." + Again, things appeared to move along rather sedately for a +few more rounds until Bob landed on a piece of property owned by +Kim and elected to "work" rather than "pay". + Kim drew a card that said "Kim, as owner you are to be the +recipient of the following benefit- your partner will kiss you +deeply for at least 3 minutes, do not let your tongues stay in +your mouths, while doing so let your hands wander all over each +others chests. Your partner is Bob." + Virgin or not, it was pretty aparent that as far as French +kissing was concerned, Kim was not inexperienced. In fact it +looked as if she was trying to climb down Bob's throat! The +action was also having a definite effect on the rest of the +players (as well as ME). Play continued and the directives became +slowly a little more risque each time an action card was drawn, +Carla having to pretend that Brian's big toes were penises and +while she was sucking and licking them (toward orgasm?), Michelle +having to remove Mark's shirt without the use of her hands, etc. + Then things began to heat up a little more quickly. Michelle +picked a card that read "You are receiving INTERSEXION benefits, +Your partners will cut your blouse and bra off, one shread at a +time. Your partners are Kim, Brian and Mark." Blushing she +hesitated, but then sat in the middle of the circle while her +partners took turns slowly and tantillizingly cutting a small +piece of fabric at a time to gradually expose her breasts to +everyone. + She looked at Mark and said, "I can't believe this is +happening, until now I never allowed any boy to see my breasts. +Now here I am sitting here in front of everyone." Carla just +smiled in anticipation of things to come. Gradually the boys lost +their shirts, Bob lost his slacks, Carla and Kim were instructed +to get into a tickle battle, during which they were to remove each +others' tops and bras. And so on it went until Shelly landed on +the square marked simply "ACTION", for the first time. Michelle +picked a card. It read "You are the center of attention. Your +partners will kiss and lick every square inch of your exposed +flesh for at least 3 minutes, at which time your pants or skirt, +but not your underpants, will be removed, and the attention will +continue for at least 3 additional minutes. Your partners are not +allowed to touch any portion of your body still covered. Your +partners are Kim, Carla and Bob." + With a shudder, Shelly moved to the center of the circle and +slowly sank to her knees on the thick carpet. Kim and Carla +started slowly to kiss, lick and suck on her fingers, working up +her hands to her arms, slowly to her shoulders neck and ears, to +her face eyes and one at a time taking turns, her mouth. +Meanwhile, Bob was slowly working each toe of each foot, gradually +working up her ankles and calves, tantillizing her and everyone +else with his ministrations. Kim and Carla began kissing +Michelle's torso, slowly working their hot mouths over the +surface, keeping away from her breasts and nipples. Bob slid her +miniskirt up her thighs as he continued to tease her flesh orally. +Then the girls began to tease Michelle's breasts, flicking at her +nipples, then pulling away as she lifted her torso off the floor +to try to force them into their hot mouths. And so it continued +for at least 10 minutes! It was about all she could stand when +they finally lowered their mouths to her aching breasts and began +to suck and bite them with abandon. Bob had meanwhile removed her +skirt and had his tongue tracing the outline of her panties and +her hips raising off the floor to reach his mouth. Then they +switched places, with Bob hungrilly devouring her luscious +breasts. + My heart was pumping wildly in my chest watching this action +on the screen. It didn't matter that these were my own daughters! +Finally, they stopped. Michelle lay sprawled on the carpet clad +only in her panties, and with her chest heaving wildly. Play +continued with Brian removing Kim's pants with his mouth, Mark +getting a chance to French Carla while allowing his hands to roam +all over her body and remove her cut-offs, and so on. Michelle +landed on the infamous "ACTION" square again. The card she picked +instructed her to leave the room and put on a pair of edible +panties (her choice of flavors) and then return to the center of +the circle where the other players were to eat them slowly and +tantillizingly from her body. She disappeared from the camera's +eye for a short time and then reappeared wearing abright red pair. + Kim asked,"What flavor did you pick, Shell?" + With a sly grin Bob interjected,"That's what we're going to +find out now, Kim!" + As Michele sunk to the carpet, the other players began +caressing her body. Carla licking her ears, nibbling her neck and +locking her lips over Michelle's for a long, deep, French kiss. +Bob and Kim each took control of one of Michelle's breasts, in +turn kneading, licking, nibbling and sucking her nipples with +abandon. Mark positioned himself between Michelle's legs, and +began to lick and nibble at the edible panties. Brian lifted +Micelle's right leg and attacked the panties from the rear, looked +up with a piece in his lips and exclaimed, "I don't believe +it, they're CHERRY flavored, Kim!" + +END OF PART ONE + + \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/19virgin.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/19virgin.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..6fde79e9 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/19virgin.txt @@ -0,0 +1,286 @@ + +I saw a post about two weeks ago on alt.sex from a guy who stated he +probably couldn't (or wouldn't) have sex with an older woman. That struck a +sensitive cord in me and brought back memories of my first sexual experience. +The following story is true. I didn't even change the names to protect the +innocent on account of no one was innocent after it was over ;^). + +Yeah, you could argue how anyone could remember what happened 20 yrs. ago. +Trust me, it made such a fantastic impression that I couldn't forget if I wanted +to! So yes, it really happened, in Newport RI, just like it says... + +Was it really almost 20 yrs ago? Doesn't seem like it. I can remember..... + + Nineteen years old and still a virgin. Now that's something you don't want +to get around to the rest of your shipmates. But hey, I was a little drunk and +looking for sympathy when the subject of "last piece" came up. I was only +temporarily assigned to the ship and wasn't really part of the group. They let +me tag along sometimes and that's why I was there when the subject came up. So +I told them I was a virgin. Got LOTS of sympathy. I'm just glad it was a +small bar. I didn't have a lot of laughter to run through getting out of the +place. + + It was about three weeks later when Bill came up to me on a Saturday night +and asked if I wanted to hit some bars. I was bored and , of course, ever +hopeful Miss Right would be out there and said OK. Since we heading out on a +cruise the following Monday, I figured I better get some shore leave in before +we shipped out. Bill jokingly said "Maybe weUll get you laid tonight." Yeah, +right. In a pigs eye. + + We took off and headed down the 'strip' (every Navy town has one). I was +driving my relatively 'new' 68 Skylark; relative since it was 1973 and the car +was 'new' to me. Bill said "Fuck it, let's try someplace else. Someplace +where there aren't a lot of sailors ruining the place." Sounded good to me so +I let him lead the way. We drove around Newport quite a while with Bill giving +directions. I had a feeling he was looking for someplace in particular but +didn't really care. Finally he directed us into a parking lot and we went into +the adjacent bar. + + "Jesus, this place looks dead" I said. Bill told me to just wait and we +took a couple of seats at the bar. We had a couple of beers while the place +started to fill. Most of the newcomers were older women. At 19, any 'woman' is +older; these looked to be over 30 with an occasional over 40 mixed in. Very +few men which made me wonder if Bill had picked a lesbian bar (I hate that +terminology). It was still kind of early and we were working on our third beer +(I was, Bill was on 4 or 5) when Bill grabbed my arm, lifted it in the air, +turned to the mostly female population at the bar and said "I have a virgin +here, how much do I hear?" All I could think of was "How could I let myself be +embarrassed like this again?" I steeled myself to slink out amongst the +expected laughter when I noticed there wasn't any. Looking around, all I saw +was expectant and, in some cases, hungry looks. I grinned sheepishly at the +wolves and said nothing, just kept sipping my beer. + + Being 19 and not a professional drinker, the beer started having its +effect. I remember talking to a lot of the women there (the beer relieved some +of my inhibitions) but was not 'attacked' by any of them. The band started +playing and I danced with the women I was speaking with. During one dance, I +noticed a new woman enter the bar. Beautiful! About 34, 5'6", brunette, and a +body that would knock you socks off. She was obviously a regular since she +said hi to almost everyone there. I didn't pay much attention to her since she +looked so damn good. Figured my chances, coupled with my inexperience and age, +were nil (typical of ALL my thinking about girls/women at that time). The woman +I was dancing with saw me looking and just smiled. + + After the dance was over, my partner excused herself saying she had to talk +with some friends. I went back to the bar and talked a while with Bill. I +noticed that my last dance partner was talking to the brunette but I didn't +think anything of it. Next thing I new I was being tapped on the shoulder. +Turning around I almost choked on my beer; it was the brunette asking me if I +wanted to dance. Nodding my affirmation (thank God I didn't have to open my +mouth and make a fool of myself) I followed her out to the dance floor. + + We spent the next few hours dancing and drinking until the bar closed. Bill +left with one of the women we had talked to earlier with the parting shot "Give +her hell!" Mary (the brunette) simply smiled at him and leered at me. I +figured she was only flirting and nothing would come of it. When it got down +to us and a few other clients, Mary asked if I would give her a ride home. +Sure, I was hoping but figured my typical luck would hold out and nothing would +happen. + + It didn't take long before I was totally lost. I kept following her +directions figuring "it's her house, she knows the way." Suddenly she said +"turn right here!" I turned the car onto a dirt road and quickly had to hit the +brakes. Before me were rows of corn stalks with no house in sight. She +reached over, turned off the ignition, and said "I understand youre a virgin. +I'd like to do something about that." + + Now, a note of clarification on my virginity. I had dated a girl during my +senior year in high school and we got pretty serious. Without going into +detail on how it happened (another story, perhaps?) we experimented our way +into heavy petting, and graduated to some mild oral sex (no orgasm this way, at +least for me) and mutual masturbation. Both being Catholic and in HS, the +guilt, paranoia, and down right fear of pregnancy kept us from going any +further. The same guilt and paranoia always infected our trysts and made them +less enjoyable. I digress but it is important to the story.... + + I was terrified! I wanted her so bad but my fear of failure, self, etc. +was almost overpowering. She slid over to my side (thank God I didn't have +bucket seats!), put her arms around my neck, and we started kissing. The new +moon, hanging low in the eastern sky, provided a pale surrealistic light to the +situation. She slid her tongue inside my mouth and played with mine in a way +that promised greater things to come. But still, I was petrified. I knew this +was it; it was finally going to happen. Technically I new what to do (I'd seen +pornos, read books, practiced by myself) but I was so nervous I couldn't think +what to do first. She broke the kiss and said "This really IS your first time, +huh?" All I could do was nod. Couldn't even mention the little I had done in +high school. "Well, we'll just have to find something to do to calm you down", +she said. Right, got any phenobarbitol? I'm 19, finally gonna get laid, and +she thinks she can calm me down? Good luck. + + She again started kissing me, that wonderful tongue playing intricate games +in my mouth. Her hands unbuttoned my shirt and started caressing my chest and +occasionally venturing down to my stomach and the start of my pants. My cock +was straining and almost screaming at me to get started. Tentatively I reached +out and cupped her breasts. She moaned, reached both arms behind me and +crushed herself against me. I almost passed out! This was too good to be +true! No begging or pleading, just someone who wanted it as much as I. +Somehow I got her shirt unbuttoned and began caressing her breasts. +MAGNIFICENT! She broke our embrace, reached behind and unsnapped her bra. She +smiled at me as her breasts tumbled free, grabbed my head from behind, and +pulled me down to those globes. I was lost in between them! I kissed and +sucked her tits, going from one to the other, slathering them with my tongue +without touching her nipples. She lay back moaning, crushing my head to her +breasts. Finally, I began running my tongue around her nipples first in large +circles which gradually became smaller until my tongue was flicking across her +nipple. Slowly, I drew the nipple into my mouth and began to suck on it. The +pressure of her hands on my head increased and I tried to suck as much of her +breast into my mouth as I could. I went back and forth between those melons +driving both of us into a frenzy. + + By this time my dick was in extreme pain. I new I had to do something to +relieve the pressure but felt I needed to do more to please her. I remembered +one of my shipmates telling how he preferred cunnilingus before entry to help +excite the woman and reduce the amount of stroking required for her to reach +orgasm. And believe me, I was determined that she would also reach orgasm. I +began running my tongue down her chest to her stomach and back to her breasts. +I was curious if she wanted me or even would let me go down on her. Taking her +louder moans as an un-official endorsement, I began to undue her pants. She +lifted her ass and helped me pull her pants down and off. I began to go lower +toward her cunt when she pulled my head away, looked into my eyes, and asked +"Do you know what you're doing?" Not wanting to spoil the situation by saying +something stupid I simply nodded. "I thought you were a virgin?" she asked. I +mumbled something about reading a lot and she chuckled in a very sexy manner +and said go ahead. + + I again lowered my head to her stomach and continued running my tongue +around the area, occasionally dipping below into her panties and dramatically +increasing her moans. I grabbed her panties and slowly drew them off. She +twisted in the seat so that her head rested on the passenger side arm rest with +her legs spread on the seat (thanks mom for not letting me buy that sports +car!). Starting at her knees, I ran my tongue down her legs to where her cunt +hairs just started tickling my nose. Knowing that I should start at her +clitoris (thanks to "Everything You Wanted To Know About Sex But Were Afraid To +Ask"), and the general location, I used my tongue to explore until I found it. +I started flicking her clit with my tongue and sucking it into my mouth. She +arched her hips, grabbed my head, and crushed it against her cunt. Whatever I +lacked in experience I tried to make up for in effort. I kept sucking gently +on her clit, my saliva mixing with her juices, until she was soaked. Leaving +her clit I moved down and began tonguing her vagina. Taking a deep breath, I +shoved my tongue as far into pussy as it would go. She mashed my head against +her moaning "Jesus, a natural pussy eater!" Hearing that drove me wild! I +began thrusting my tongue in and out with short trips back up to her clit. I +just couldn't get enough of it with her moaning how good it felt and kept +fucking her cunt with my tongue. + + Finally, I'd had enough. Not that I couldn't continue doing that, I just +couldn't take the pressure on my cock. Breaking her iron-like grasp on my +head, I pulled back and began taking off my pants. She smiled at me and said +"Now it's my turn." "NO!" I almost screamed, "I couldn't take it!" She smiled +knowingly at me and laid back down on the seat again spreading her legs. This +was it. The moment of truth! I knelt between her legs and she reached down +and grabbed my cock. I almost died! Just having someone else besides me touch +my cock was fantastic. She stroked it back and forth a few times muttering "it +feels sooo nice!" Grabbing my cock, she pulled me towards her and down to her +pussy. Without letting go of my cock, she slowly worked it into her pussy +grabbing my ass with her other hand. I couldn't believe the sensation! Rosie +Palm and her five sisters NEVER felt like this! When she had all of me in her, +she let go of my cock, grabbed my ass with both hands, and moved her hips up +and down against me. At last I was fucking a woman! I started getting carried +away and thrust with all my strength against her, her hands on my ass pulling +me deeper into her pussy. + + I knew I couldn't take much more of this. Feeling an orgasm start, I +shouted "STOP!" Too late, I started coming inside her but held myself very +still hoping I could control how much I came. She looked up at me and asked +"Did you come?" "A little", I replied. Smiling, she stroked my cheek and asked +"Do you want to stop?" I shook my head no and started stroking my still hard +cock inside her. Now I understood one of the benefits of being 19, healthy, +and incredibly horny: once just wasnUt going to be enough! I also noticed +that the first 'little' orgasm seemed to deaden the sensations in my cock. +Realizing I could now fuck her without worrying about coming too fast, I went +at it with a renewed gusto. She looked at me and moaned "I don't believe it!" +My ego soared! I was Tarzan dominating Jane! I was the fulfillment of the +male image! Marlboro Man look out! I'm riding this mare to the sunset! I +kept up the pace, going in and out, as deep as I could, her writhing and +moaning driving me to animal passion that almost scared me. Her hips thrusting +back at me met my every stroke with equal, passionate force. Suddenly, she +grabbed me around the hips with her legs, and sinking her teeth into my neck, +began to come. Her vagina clamped down on my cock and I could feel it pulsate +in rhythm to her body convulsions as she became lost in the throes of her +orgasm. I couldn't believe that I had actually done that to a woman. + + She held on to me long after the orgasm subsided, my cock still hard inside +her. Finally she relaxed her legs and let me pull out of her. I didn't want +to leave that warm, marvelous cavern but my arms were shaking from holding +myself up. I sat back on the seat with a silly grin on my face. She sat up, +saw the grin, and chuckled "Well, how was it?" Still grinning I replied "WOW, +it's a lot better than I thought!" She laughed and snuggled up to me, her +breasts pressing against my arm. I lit a cigarette for both of us and we sat +there in silence smoking. She finished half of hers and snubbed it out. +Leaning back against me, she started stroking my thigh and said "Well, we can't +go with you only having a little orgasm. How about a big one?" I was shocked! +My high school escapades previously mentioned always ended with one orgasm no +matter how good it was. Now here was a woman asking if I wanted more. I don't +think I can relate the male ego boost that occurs even today upon hearing that! +I looked at her, nodded and said "I don't know if I can come again." She +looked me in the eye and said "Let me worry about that." + + Using both hands she gently forced me back until my head lay on the +driver's side armrest, my legs spread on the seat. Being obviously of a +vengeful nature, she began running her tongue down my legs and around my +stomach being careful to avoid my crotch. I moaned and writhed under her +ministrations, thrusting my hips involuntarily into the air. Finally, after +one tongue excursion down my thigh, she began tonguing my balls. She went back +and forth between them getting the hairs soaked with her saliva. She suddenly +stopped, looked up at me, and took my left testicle into her mouth. She sucked +on it softly and stroked it with her tongue. Letting it slide sensuously out +of her mouth, she repeated with the right testicle. She went back and forth +between them, sometimes using her mouth to 'fuck' my balls, sliding them +individually in and out, in and out. She stopped, and taking a deep breath, +took both balls into her mouth at the same time, gently stuffing them in with +her hands. The sensation was overpowering. My cock felt more engorged with +blood than ever before; bouncing up at the sky with every beat of my heart. I +squirmed repeatedly underneath her which seemed to drive her into a heightened +frenzy. She kept sucking on my balls like she couldn't get enough, her eyes +constantly open and watching my reactions. + + Suddenly, she pulled back slightly and let my balls pop out of her mouth. +She began running her tongue up and down on the underside of my cock. +Occasionally she would wrap her lips as much as possible around the side of my +cock and suck it or stroke her lips up and down, pausing close to the head. +She opened her mouth and placed my cock inside on her tongue rubbing it all +around without closing her mouth. I'd only seen this done in porno movies and +experiencing it was almost unbearable. She grabbed my cock with her hands and +closed her mouth about the head, slowly sucking it in until she had about half +of it in her mouth. She kept it there, sucking on it like a popsickle, her +eyes glued to mine savoring my every reaction. She closed her eyes and started +stroking her head up and down on my straining cock, going deeper and deeper +with every stroke, until finally all of my cock was buried in her mouth. She +ground her face against my stomach, twisting her head back and forth, then +returning to fucking my cock with her mouth. This sure wasn't going to take +too long. Nothing in my previous experience could possibly prepare me for +this! I could feel my balls swelling, getting ready to expel my juices. I +grabbed her head and twisted it up without removing my cock and told her I was +going to come. I thought she would pull away and let me come in the air like +in high school but I was wrong. I removed my hands from her head as she +mumbled a negative and increased her sucking up and down. Again I grabbed her +head and started helping her up and down on my cock. The pressure kept +increasing and increasing until suddenly, I began to come! She thrust her head +down on my cock, taking it as deep as before. I shot jet after jet of come +into her throat while she continued to bob her head up and down on my deeply +engulfed cock. It was like I couldn't stop coming and she couldn't get enough. +As the flow lessened, she pulled her head back and began running my still +spurting cock around her face. The muscles in my body were shaking from my +tensing them. Finally I stopped and she took my softening cock back into her +mouth, gently licking and sucking it. She used her fingers to wipe off her +face and sucked off the collected come. We both fell asleep. + + I woke up about an hour later, saw the time, woke up Mary and said "I've +got to get back on board ship." We dressed and I took her home. I laughed +when it turned out her home was only three blocks away from the bar. I asked +her why we didn't go to her house and she said she didn't want her husband +catching us! I couldn't believe it! I asked her if we could get together +again and she smiled at me and said " Who knows? You can find me at the bar." +She kissed me tenderly and walked into her house..... + + I went back to the bar after we got back into port about 2 months later but +she never showed up. I drove by her house but it was up for sale. Nobody at +the bar knew what had happened to her or when exactly she left. I'm happily +married now with a wife that fulfills my every fantasy and desire so I have no +need to look for another woman. Still, I guess you never forget your first +experience, especially one as wild as that one was. I hated waiting until I +was 19 but in hindsight, it was well worth it! The message? Don't discount +older women. Their capacity to please can be overwhelming and their capacity +to give can be bottomless. + + Thanks Mary, wherever you are. I'll never forget you....... diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/19years.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/19years.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..a5ac2cdd --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/19years.txt @@ -0,0 +1,311 @@ +Subject: 19-year-old virgin +Archive-name: 19yrold-virgin + + + +Was it really almost 20 yrs ago? Doesn't seem like it. I can remember..... + + Nineteen years old and still a virgin. Now that's something +you don't want to get around to the rest of your shipmates. But hey, +I was a little drunk and looking for sympathy when the subject of +"last piece" came up. I was only temporarily assigned to the ship and +wasn't really part of the group. They let me tag along sometimes and +that's why I was there when the subject came up. So I told them I was +a virgin. Got LOTS of sympathy. I'm just glad it was a small bar. I +didn't have a lot of laughter to run through getting out of the place. + + It was about three weeks later when Bill came up to me on a +Saturday night and asked if I wanted to hit some bars. I was bored +and , of course, ever hopeful Miss Right would be out there and said +OK. Since we heading out on a cruise the following Monday, I figured +I better get some shore leave in before we shipped out. Bill jokingly +said "Maybe weUll get you laid tonight." Yeah, right. In a pigs eye. + + We took off and headed down the 'strip' (every Navy town has +one). I was driving my relatively 'new' 68 Skylark; relative since it +was 1973 and the car was 'new' to me. Bill said "Fuck it, let's try +someplace else. Someplace where there aren't a lot of sailors ruining +the place." Sounded good to me so I let him lead the way. We drove +around Newport quite a while with Bill giving directions. I had a +feeling he was looking for someplace in particular but didn't really +care. Finally he directed us into a parking lot and we went into the +adjacent bar. + + "Jesus, this place looks dead" I said. Bill told me to just +wait and we took a couple of seats at the bar. We had a couple of +beers while the place started to fill. Most of the newcomers were +older women. At 19, any 'woman' is older; these looked to be over 30 +with an occasional over 40 mixed in. Very few men which made me +wonder if Bill had picked a lesbian bar (I hate that terminology). It +was still kind of early and we were working on our third beer ( I was, +Bill was on 4 or 5) when Bill grabbed my arm, lifted it in the air, +turned to the mostly female population at the bar and said "I have a +virgin here, how much do I hear?" All I could think of was "How could +I let myself be embarrassed like this again?" I steeled myself to +slink out amongst the expected laughter when I noticed there wasn't +any. Looking around, all I saw was expectant and, in some cases, +hungry looks. I grinned sheepishly at the wolves and said nothing, +just kept sipping my beer. + + Being 19 and not a professional drinker, the beer started +having its effect. I remember talking to a lot of the women there +(the beer relieved some of my inhibitions) but was not 'attacked' by +any of them. The band started playing and I danced with the women I +was speaking with. During one dance, I noticed a new woman enter the +bar. Beautiful! About 34, 5'6", brunette, and a body that would knock +you socks off. She was obviously a regular since she said hi to +almost everyone there. I didn't pay much attention to her since she +looked so damn good. Figured my chances, coupled with my inexperience +and age, were nil (typical of ALL my thinking about girls/women at +that time). The woman I was dancing with saw me looking and just +smiled. + + After the dance was over, my partner excused herself saying +she had to talk with some friends. I went back to the bar and talked +a while with Bill. I noticed that my last dance partner was talking +to the brunette but I didn't think anything of it. Next thing I new I +was being tapped on the shoulder. Turning around I almost choked on +my beer; it was the brunette asking me if I wanted to dance. Nodding +my affirmation (thank God I didn't have to open my mouth and make a +fool of myself) I followed her out to the dance floor. + + We spent the next few hours dancing and drinking until the bar +closed. Bill left with one of the women we had talked to earlier with +the parting shot "Give her hell!" Mary (the brunette) simply smiled +at him and leered at me. I figured she was only flirting and nothing +would come of it. When it got down to us and a few other clients, +Mary asked if I would give her a ride home. Sure, I was hoping but +figured my typical luck would hold out and nothing would happen. + + It didn't take long before I was totally lost. I kept +following her directions figuring "it's her house, she knows the way." +Suddenly she said "turn right here!" I turned the car onto a dirt road +and quickly had to hit the brakes. Before me were rows of corn stalks +with no house in sight. She reached over, turned off the ignition, +and said "I understand youre a virgin. I'd like to do something about +that." + + Now, a note of clarification on my virginity. I had dated a +girl during my senior year in high school and we got pretty serious. +Without going into detail on how it happened (another story, perhaps?) +we experimented our way into heavy petting, and graduated to some mild +oral sex (no orgasm this way, at least for me) and mutual +masturbation. Both being Catholic and in HS, the guilt, paranoia, and +down right fear of pregnancy kept us from going any further. The same +guilt and paranoia always infected our trysts and made them less +enjoyable. I digress but it is important to the story.... + + I was terrified! I wanted her so bad but my fear of failure, +self, etc. was almost overpowering. She slid over to my side (thank +God I didn't have bucket seats!), put her arms around my neck, and we +started kissing. The new moon, hanging low in the eastern sky, +provided a pale surrealistic light to the situation. She slid her +tongue inside my mouth and played with mine in a way that promised +greater things to come. But still, I was petrified. I knew this was +it; it was finally going to happen. Technically I new what to do (I'd +seen pornos, read books, practiced by myself) but I was so nervous I +couldn't think what to do first. She broke the kiss and said "This +really IS your first time, huh?" All I could do was nod. Couldn't +even mention the little I had done in high school. "Well, we'll just +have to find something to do to calm you down", she said. Right, got +any phenobarbitol? I'm 19, finally gonna get laid, and she thinks she +can calm me down? Good luck. + + She again started kissing me, that wonderful tongue playing +intricate games in my mouth. Her hands unbuttoned my shirt and +started caressing my chest and occasionally venturing down to my +stomach and the start of my pants. My cock was straining and almost +screaming at me to get started. Tentatively I reached out and cupped +her breasts. She moaned, reached both arms behind me and crushed +herself against me. I almost passed out! This was too good to be +true! No begging or pleading, just someone who wanted it as much as +I. Somehow I got her shirt unbuttoned and began caressing her +breasts. MAGNIFICENT! She broke our embrace, reached behind and +unsnapped her bra. She smiled at me as her breasts tumbled free, +grabbed my head from behind, and pulled me down to those globes. I +was lost in between them! I kissed and sucked her tits, going from +one to the other, slathering them with my tongue without touching her +nipples. She lay back moaning, crushing my head to her breasts. +Finally, I began running my tongue around her nipples first in large +circles which gradually became smaller until my tongue was flicking +across her nipple. Slowly, I drew the nipple into my mouth and began +to suck on it. The pressure of her hands on my head increased and I +tried to suck as much of her breast into my mouth as I could. I went +back and forth between those melons driving both of us into a frenzy. + + By this time my dick was in extreme pain. I new I had to do +something to relieve the pressure but felt I needed to do more to +please her. I remembered one of my shipmates telling how he preferred +cunnilingus before entry to help excite the woman and reduce the +amount of stroking required for her to reach orgasm. And believe me, +I was determined that she would also reach orgasm. I began running my +tongue down her chest to her stomach and back to her breasts. I was +curious if she wanted me or even would let me go down on her. Taking +her louder moans as an un-official endorsement, I began to undue her +pants. She lifted her ass and helped me pull her pants down and off. +I began to go lower toward her cunt when she pulled my head away, +looked into my eyes, and asked "Do you know what you're doing?" Not +wanting to spoil the situation by saying something stupid I simply +nodded. "I thought you were a virgin?" she asked. I mumbled +something about reading a lot and she chuckled in a very sexy manner +and said go ahead. + + I again lowered my head to her stomach and continued running +my tongue around the area, occasionally dipping below into her panties +and dramatically increasing her moans. I grabbed her panties and +slowly drew them off. She twisted in the seat so that her head rested +on the passenger side arm rest with her legs spread on the seat +(thanks mom for not letting me buy that sports car!). Starting at her +knees, I ran my tongue down her legs to where her cunt hairs just +started tickling my nose. Knowing that I should start at her clitoris +(thanks to "Everything You Wanted To Know About Sex But Were Afraid To +Ask"), and the general location, I used my tongue to explore until I +found it. I started flicking her clit with my tongue and sucking it +into my mouth. She arched her hips, grabbed my head, and crushed it +against her cunt. Whatever I lacked in experience I tried to make up +for in effort. I kept sucking gently on her clit, my saliva mixing +with her juices, until she was soaked. Leaving her clit I moved down +and began tonguing her vagina. Taking a deep breath, I shoved my +tongue as far into pussy as it would go. She mashed my head against +her moaning "Jesus, a natural pussy eater!" Hearing that drove me +wild! I began thrusting my tongue in and out with short trips back up +to her clit. I just couldn't get enough of it with her moaning how +good it felt and kept fucking her cunt with my tongue. + + Finally, I'd had enough. Not that I couldn't continue doing +that, I just couldn't take the pressure on my cock. Breaking her +iron-like grasp on my head, I pulled back and began taking off my +pants. She smiled at me and said "Now it's my turn." "NO!" I almost +screamed, "I couldn't take it!" She smiled knowingly at me and laid +back down on the seat again spreading her legs. This was it. The +moment of truth! I knelt between her legs and she reached down and +grabbed my cock. I almost died! Just having someone else besides me +touch my cock was fantastic. She stroked it back and forth a few +times muttering "it feels sooo nice!" Grabbing my cock, she pulled me +towards her and down to her pussy. Without letting go of my cock, she +slowly worked it into her pussy grabbing my ass with her other hand. +I couldn't believe the sensation! Rosie Palm and her five sisters +NEVER felt like this! When she had all of me in her, she let go of my +cock, grabbed my ass with both hands, and moved her hips up and down +against me. At last I was fucking a woman! I started getting carried +away and thrust with all my strength against her, her hands on my ass +pulling me deeper into her pussy. + + I knew I couldn't take much more of this. Feeling an orgasm +start, I shouted "STOP!" Too late, I started coming inside her but +held myself very still hoping I could control how much I came. She +looked up at me and asked "Did you come?" "A little", I replied. +Smiling, she stroked my cheek and asked "Do you want to stop?" I +shook my head no and started stroking my still hard cock inside her. +Now I understood one of the benefits of being 19, healthy, and +incredibly horny: once just wasnUt going to be enough! I also noticed +that the first 'little' orgasm seemed to deaden the sensations in my +cock. Realizing I could now fuck her without worrying about coming +too fast, I went at it with a renewed gusto. She looked at me and +moaned "I don't believe it!" My ego soared! I was Tarzan dominating +Jane! I was the fulfillment of the male image! Marlboro Man look +out! I'm riding this mare to the sunset! I kept up the pace, going +in and out, as deep as I could, her writhing and moaning driving me to +animal passion that almost scared me. Her hips thrusting back at me +met my every stroke with equal, passionate force. Suddenly, she +grabbed me around the hips with her legs, and sinking her teeth into +my neck, began to come. Her vagina clamped down on my cock and I +could feel it pulsate in rhythm to her body convulsions as she became +lost in the throes of her orgasm. I couldn't believe that I had +actually done that to a woman. + + She held on to me long after the orgasm subsided, my cock +still hard inside her. Finally she relaxed her legs and let me pull +out of her. I didn't want to leave that warm, marvelous cavern but my +arms were shaking from holding myself up. I sat back on the seat with +a silly grin on my face. She sat up, saw the grin, and chuckled +"Well, how was it?" Still grinning I replied "WOW, it's a lot better +than I thought!" She laughed and snuggled up to me, her breasts +pressing against my arm. I lit a cigarette for both of us and we sat +there in silence smoking. She finished half of hers and snubbed it +out. Leaning back against me, she started stroking my thigh and said +"Well, we can't go with you only having a little orgasm. How about a +big one?" I was shocked! My high school escapades previously +mentioned always ended with one orgasm no matter how good it was. Now +here was a woman asking if I wanted more. I don't think I can relate +the male ego boost that occurs even today upon hearing that! I looked +at her, nodded and said "I don't know if I can come again." She +looked me in the eye and said "Let me worry about that." + + Using both hands she gently forced me back until my head lay +on the driver's side armrest, my legs spread on the seat. Being +obviously of a vengeful nature, she began running her tongue down my +legs and around my stomach being careful to avoid my crotch. I moaned +and writhed under her ministrations, thrusting my hips involuntarily +into the air. Finally, after one tongue excursion down my thigh, she +began tonguing my balls. She went back and forth between them getting +the hairs soaked with her saliva. She suddenly stopped, looked up at +me, and took my left testicle into her mouth. She sucked on it softly +and stroked it with her tongue. Letting it slide sensuously out of +her mouth, she repeated with the right testicle. She went back and +forth between them, sometimes using her mouth to 'fuck' my balls, +sliding them individually in and out, in and out. She stopped, and +taking a deep breath, took both balls into her mouth at the same time, +gently stuffing them in with her hands. The sensation was +overpowering. My cock felt more engorged with blood than ever before; +bouncing up at the sky with every beat of my heart. I squirmed +repeatedly underneath her which seemed to drive her into a heightened +frenzy. She kept sucking on my balls like she couldn't get enough, +her eyes constantly open and watching my reactions. + + Suddenly, she pulled back slightly and let my balls pop out of +her mouth. She began running her tongue up and down on the underside +of my cock. Occasionally she would wrap her lips as much as possible +around the side of my cock and suck it or stroke her lips up and down, +pausing close to the head. She opened her mouth and placed my cock +inside on her tongue rubbing it all around without closing her mouth. +I'd only seen this done in porno movies and experiencing it was almost +unbearable. She grabbed my cock with her hands and closed her mouth +about the head, slowly sucking it in until she had about half of it in +her mouth. She kept it there, sucking on it like a popsickle, her +eyes glued to mine savoring my every reaction. She closed her eyes and +started stroking her head up and down on my straining cock, going +deeper and deeper with every stroke, until finally all of my cock was +buried in her mouth. She ground her face against my stomach, twisting +her head back and forth, then returning to fucking my cock with her +mouth. This sure wasn't going to take too long. Nothing in my +previous experience could possibly prepare me for this! I could feel +my balls swelling, getting ready to expel my juices. I grabbed her +head and twisted it up without removing my cock and told her I was +going to come. I thought she would pull away and let me come in the +air like in high school but I was wrong. I removed my hands from her +head as she mumbled a negative and increased her sucking up and down. +Again I grabbed her head and started helping her up and down on my +cock. The pressure kept increasing and increasing until suddenly, I +began to come! She thrust her head down on my cock, taking it as deep +as before. I shot jet after jet of come into her throat while she +continued to bob her head up and down on my deeply engulfed cock. It +was like I couldn't stop coming and she couldn't get enough. As the +flow lessened, she pulled her head back and began running my still +spurting cock around her face. The muscles in my body were shaking +from my tensing them. Finally I stopped and she took my softening +cock back into her mouth, gently licking and sucking it. She used her +fingers to wipe off her face and sucked off the collected come. We +both fell asleep. + + I woke up about an hour later, saw the time, woke up Mary and +said "I've got to get back on board ship." We dressed and I took her +home. I laughed when it turned out her home was only three blocks +away from the bar. I asked her why we didn't go to her house and she +said she didn't want her husband catching us! I couldn't believe it! +I asked her if we could get together again and she smiled at me and +said " Who knows? You can find me at the bar." She kissed me +tenderly and walked into her house..... + + I went back to the bar after we got back into port about 2 +months later but she never showed up. I drove by her house but it was +up for sale. Nobody at the bar knew what had happened to her or when +exactly she left. I'm happily married now with a wife that fulfills +my every fantasy and desire so I have no need to look for another +woman. Still, I guess you never forget your first experience, +especially one as wild as that one was. I hated waiting until I was +19 but in hindsight, it was well worth it! The message? Don't +discount older women. Their capacity to please can be overwhelming +and their capacity to give can be bottomless. + + Thanks Mary, wherever you are. I'll never forget you....... diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/19years2.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/19years2.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..e443cd88 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/19years2.txt @@ -0,0 +1,312 @@ +Subject: 19-year-old virgin +Archive-name: 19yrold-virgin + + + +Was it really almost 20 yrs ago? Doesn't seem like it. I can remember..... + + Nineteen years old and still a virgin. Now that's something +you don't want to get around to the rest of your shipmates. But hey, +I was a little drunk and looking for sympathy when the subject of +"last piece" came up. I was only temporarily assigned to the ship and +wasn't really part of the group. They let me tag along sometimes and +that's why I was there when the subject came up. So I told them I was +a virgin. Got LOTS of sympathy. I'm just glad it was a small bar. I +didn't have a lot of laughter to run through getting out of the place. + + It was about three weeks later when Bill came up to me on a +Saturday night and asked if I wanted to hit some bars. I was bored +and , of course, ever hopeful Miss Right would be out there and said +OK. Since we heading out on a cruise the following Monday, I figured +I better get some shore leave in before we shipped out. Bill jokingly +said "Maybe you'll get you laid tonight." Yeah, right. In a pigs eye. + + We took off and headed down the 'strip' (every Navy town has +one). I was driving my relatively 'new' 68 Skylark; relative since it +was 1973 and the car was 'new' to me. Bill said "Fuck it, let's try +someplace else. Someplace where there aren't a lot of sailors ruining +the place." Sounded good to me so I let him lead the way. We drove +around Newport quite a while with Bill giving directions. I had a +feeling he was looking for someplace in particular but didn't really +care. Finally he directed us into a parking lot and we went into the +adjacent bar. + + "Jesus, this place looks dead" I said. Bill told me to just +wait and we took a couple of seats at the bar. We had a couple of +beers while the place started to fill. Most of the newcomers were +older women. At 19, any 'woman' is older; these looked to be over 30 +with an occasional over 40 mixed in. Very few men which made me +wonder if Bill had picked a lesbian bar (I hate that terminology). It +was still kind of early and we were working on our third beer ( I was, +Bill was on 4 or 5) when Bill grabbed my arm, lifted it in the air, +turned to the mostly female population at the bar and said "I have a +virgin here, how much do I hear?" All I could think of was "How could +I let myself be embarrassed like this again?" I steeled myself to +slink out amongst the expected laughter when I noticed there wasn't +any. Looking around, all I saw was expectant and, in some cases, +hungry looks. I grinned sheepishly at the wolves and said nothing, +just kept sipping my beer. + + Being 19 and not a professional drinker, the beer started +having its effect. I remember talking to a lot of the women there +(the beer relieved some of my inhibitions) but was not 'attacked' by +any of them. The band started playing and I danced with the women I +was speaking with. During one dance, I noticed a new woman enter the +bar. Beautiful! About 34, 5'6", brunette, and a body that would knock +you socks off. She was obviously a regular since she said hi to +almost everyone there. I didn't pay much attention to her since she +looked so damn good. Figured my chances, coupled with my inexperience +and age, were nil (typical of ALL my thinking about girls/women at +that time). The woman I was dancing with saw me looking and just +smiled. + + After the dance was over, my partner excused herself saying +she had to talk with some friends. I went back to the bar and talked +a while with Bill. I noticed that my last dance partner was talking +to the brunette but I didn't think anything of it. Next thing I new I +was being tapped on the shoulder. Turning around I almost choked on +my beer; it was the brunette asking me if I wanted to dance. Nodding +my affirmation (thank God I didn't have to open my mouth and make a +fool of myself) I followed her out to the dance floor. + + We spent the next few hours dancing and drinking until the bar +closed. Bill left with one of the women we had talked to earlier with +the parting shot "Give her hell!" Mary (the brunette) simply smiled +at him and leered at me. I figured she was only flirting and nothing +would come of it. When it got down to us and a few other clients, +Mary asked if I would give her a ride home. Sure, I was hoping but +figured my typical luck would hold out and nothing would happen. + + It didn't take long before I was totally lost. I kept +following her directions figuring "it's her house, she knows the way." +Suddenly she said "turn right here!" I turned the car onto a dirt road +and quickly had to hit the brakes. Before me were rows of corn stalks +with no house in sight. She reached over, turned off the ignition, +and said "I understand youre a virgin. I'd like to do something about +that." + + Now, a note of clarification on my virginity. I had dated a +girl during my senior year in high school and we got pretty serious. +Without going into detail on how it happened (another story, perhaps?) +we experimented our way into heavy petting, and graduated to some mild +oral sex (no orgasm this way, at least for me) and mutual +masturbation. Both being Catholic and in HS, the guilt, paranoia, and +down right fear of pregnancy kept us from going any further. The same +guilt and paranoia always infected our trysts and made them less +enjoyable. I digress but it is important to the story.... + + I was terrified! I wanted her so bad but my fear of failure, +self, etc. was almost overpowering. She slid over to my side (thank +God I didn't have bucket seats!), put her arms around my neck, and we +started kissing. The new moon, hanging low in the eastern sky, +provided a pale surrealistic light to the situation. She slid her +tongue inside my mouth and played with mine in a way that promised +greater things to come. But still, I was petrified. I knew this was +it; it was finally going to happen. Technically I new what to do (I'd +seen pornos, read books, practiced by myself) but I was so nervous I +couldn't think what to do first. She broke the kiss and said "This +really IS your first time, huh?" All I could do was nod. Couldn't +even mention the little I had done in high school. "Well, we'll just +have to find something to do to calm you down", she said. Right, got +any phenobarbitol? I'm 19, finally gonna get laid, and she thinks she +can calm me down? Good luck. + + She again started kissing me, that wonderful tongue playing +intricate games in my mouth. Her hands unbuttoned my shirt and +started caressing my chest and occasionally venturing down to my +stomach and the start of my pants. My cock was straining and almost +screaming at me to get started. Tentatively I reached out and cupped +her breasts. She moaned, reached both arms behind me and crushed +herself against me. I almost passed out! This was too good to be +true! No begging or pleading, just someone who wanted it as much as +I. Somehow I got her shirt unbuttoned and began caressing her +breasts. MAGNIFICENT! She broke our embrace, reached behind and +unsnapped her bra. She smiled at me as her breasts tumbled free, +grabbed my head from behind, and pulled me down to those globes. I +was lost in between them! I kissed and sucked her tits, going from +one to the other, slathering them with my tongue without touching her +nipples. She lay back moaning, crushing my head to her breasts. +Finally, I began running my tongue around her nipples first in large +circles which gradually became smaller until my tongue was flicking +across her nipple. Slowly, I drew the nipple into my mouth and began +to suck on it. The pressure of her hands on my head increased and I +tried to suck as much of her breast into my mouth as I could. I went +back and forth between those melons driving both of us into a frenzy. + + By this time my dick was in extreme pain. I new I had to do +something to relieve the pressure but felt I needed to do more to +please her. I remembered one of my shipmates telling how he preferred +cunnilingus before entry to help excite the woman and reduce the +amount of stroking required for her to reach orgasm. And believe me, +I was determined that she would also reach orgasm. I began running my +tongue down her chest to her stomach and back to her breasts. I was +curious if she wanted me or even would let me go down on her. Taking +her louder moans as an un-official endorsement, I began to undue her +pants. She lifted her ass and helped me pull her pants down and off. +I began to go lower toward her cunt when she pulled my head away, +looked into my eyes, and asked "Do you know what you're doing?" Not +wanting to spoil the situation by saying something stupid I simply +nodded. "I thought you were a virgin?" she asked. I mumbled +something about reading a lot and she chuckled in a very sexy manner +and said go ahead. + + I again lowered my head to her stomach and continued running +my tongue around the area, occasionally dipping below into her panties +and dramatically increasing her moans. I grabbed her panties and +slowly drew them off. She twisted in the seat so that her head rested +on the passenger side arm rest with her legs spread on the seat +(thanks mom for not letting me buy that sports car!). Starting at her +knees, I ran my tongue down her legs to where her cunt hairs just +started tickling my nose. Knowing that I should start at her clitoris +(thanks to "Everything You Wanted To Know About Sex But Were Afraid To +Ask"), and the general location, I used my tongue to explore until I +found it. I started flicking her clit with my tongue and sucking it +into my mouth. She arched her hips, grabbed my head, and crushed it +against her cunt. Whatever I lacked in experience I tried to make up +for in effort. I kept sucking gently on her clit, my saliva mixing +with her juices, until she was soaked. Leaving her clit I moved down +and began tonguing her vagina. Taking a deep breath, I shoved my +tongue as far into pussy as it would go. She mashed my head against +her moaning "Jesus, a natural pussy eater!" Hearing that drove me +wild! I began thrusting my tongue in and out with short trips back up +to her clit. I just couldn't get enough of it with her moaning how +good it felt and kept fucking her cunt with my tongue. + + Finally, I'd had enough. Not that I couldn't continue doing +that, I just couldn't take the pressure on my cock. Breaking her +iron-like grasp on my head, I pulled back and began taking off my +pants. She smiled at me and said "Now it's my turn." "NO!" I almost +screamed, "I couldn't take it!" She smiled knowingly at me and laid +back down on the seat again spreading her legs. This was it. The +moment of truth! I knelt between her legs and she reached down and +grabbed my cock. I almost died! Just having someone else besides me +touch my cock was fantastic. She stroked it back and forth a few +times muttering "it feels sooo nice!" Grabbing my cock, she pulled me +towards her and down to her pussy. Without letting go of my cock, she +slowly worked it into her pussy grabbing my ass with her other hand. +I couldn't believe the sensation! Rosie Palm and her five sisters +NEVER felt like this! When she had all of me in her, she let go of my +cock, grabbed my ass with both hands, and moved her hips up and down +against me. At last I was fucking a woman! I started getting carried +away and thrust with all my strength against her, her hands on my ass +pulling me deeper into her pussy. + + I knew I couldn't take much more of this. Feeling an orgasm +start, I shouted "STOP!" Too late, I started coming inside her but +held myself very still hoping I could control how much I came. She +looked up at me and asked "Did you come?" "A little", I replied. +Smiling, she stroked my cheek and asked "Do you want to stop?" I +shook my head no and started stroking my still hard cock inside her. +Now I understood one of the benefits of being 19, healthy, and +incredibly horny: once just wasnUt going to be enough! I also noticed +that the first 'little' orgasm seemed to deaden the sensations in my +cock. Realizing I could now fuck her without worrying about coming +too fast, I went at it with a renewed gusto. She looked at me and +moaned "I don't believe it!" My ego soared! I was Tarzan dominating +Jane! I was the fulfillment of the male image! Marlboro Man look +out! I'm riding this mare to the sunset! I kept up the pace, going +in and out, as deep as I could, her writhing and moaning driving me to +animal passion that almost scared me. Her hips thrusting back at me +met my every stroke with equal, passionate force. Suddenly, she +grabbed me around the hips with her legs, and sinking her teeth into +my neck, began to come. Her vagina clamped down on my cock and I +could feel it pulsate in rhythm to her body convulsions as she became +lost in the throes of her orgasm. I couldn't believe that I had +actually done that to a woman. + + She held on to me long after the orgasm subsided, my cock +still hard inside her. Finally she relaxed her legs and let me pull +out of her. I didn't want to leave that warm, marvelous cavern but my +arms were shaking from holding myself up. I sat back on the seat with +a silly grin on my face. She sat up, saw the grin, and chuckled +"Well, how was it?" Still grinning I replied "WOW, it's a lot better +than I thought!" She laughed and snuggled up to me, her breasts +pressing against my arm. I lit a cigarette for both of us and we sat +there in silence smoking. She finished half of hers and snubbed it +out. Leaning back against me, she started stroking my thigh and said +"Well, we can't go with you only having a little orgasm. How about a +big one?" I was shocked! My high school escapades previously +mentioned always ended with one orgasm no matter how good it was. Now +here was a woman asking if I wanted more. I don't think I can relate +the male ego boost that occurs even today upon hearing that! I looked +at her, nodded and said "I don't know if I can come again." She +looked me in the eye and said "Let me worry about that." + + Using both hands she gently forced me back until my head lay +on the driver's side armrest, my legs spread on the seat. Being +obviously of a vengeful nature, she began running her tongue down my +legs and around my stomach being careful to avoid my crotch. I moaned +and writhed under her ministrations, thrusting my hips involuntarily +into the air. Finally, after one tongue excursion down my thigh, she +began tonguing my balls. She went back and forth between them getting +the hairs soaked with her saliva. She suddenly stopped, looked up at +me, and took my left testicle into her mouth. She sucked on it softly +and stroked it with her tongue. Letting it slide sensuously out of +her mouth, she repeated with the right testicle. She went back and +forth between them, sometimes using her mouth to 'fuck' my balls, +sliding them individually in and out, in and out. She stopped, and +taking a deep breath, took both balls into her mouth at the same time, +gently stuffing them in with her hands. The sensation was +overpowering. My cock felt more engorged with blood than ever before; +bouncing up at the sky with every beat of my heart. I squirmed +repeatedly underneath her which seemed to drive her into a heightened +frenzy. She kept sucking on my balls like she couldn't get enough, +her eyes constantly open and watching my reactions. + + Suddenly, she pulled back slightly and let my balls pop out of +her mouth. She began running her tongue up and down on the underside +of my cock. Occasionally she would wrap her lips as much as possible +around the side of my cock and suck it or stroke her lips up and down, +pausing close to the head. She opened her mouth and placed my cock +inside on her tongue rubbing it all around without closing her mouth. +I'd only seen this done in porno movies and experiencing it was almost +unbearable. She grabbed my cock with her hands and closed her mouth +about the head, slowly sucking it in until she had about half of it in +her mouth. She kept it there, sucking on it like a popsickle, her +eyes glued to mine savoring my every reaction. She closed her eyes and +started stroking her head up and down on my straining cock, going +deeper and deeper with every stroke, until finally all of my cock was +buried in her mouth. She ground her face against my stomach, twisting +her head back and forth, then returning to fucking my cock with her +mouth. This sure wasn't going to take too long. Nothing in my +previous experience could possibly prepare me for this! I could feel +my balls swelling, getting ready to expel my juices. I grabbed her +head and twisted it up without removing my cock and told her I was +going to come. I thought she would pull away and let me come in the +air like in high school but I was wrong. I removed my hands from her +head as she mumbled a negative and increased her sucking up and down. +Again I grabbed her head and started helping her up and down on my +cock. The pressure kept increasing and increasing until suddenly, I +began to come! She thrust her head down on my cock, taking it as deep +as before. I shot jet after jet of come into her throat while she +continued to bob her head up and down on my deeply engulfed cock. It +was like I couldn't stop coming and she couldn't get enough. As the +flow lessened, she pulled her head back and began running my still +spurting cock around her face. The muscles in my body were shaking +from my tensing them. Finally I stopped and she took my softening +cock back into her mouth, gently licking and sucking it. She used her +fingers to wipe off her face and sucked off the collected come. We +both fell asleep. + + I woke up about an hour later, saw the time, woke up Mary and +said "I've got to get back on board ship." We dressed and I took her +home. I laughed when it turned out her home was only three blocks +away from the bar. I asked her why we didn't go to her house and she +said she didn't want her husband catching us! I couldn't believe it! +I asked her if we could get together again and she smiled at me and +said " Who knows? You can find me at the bar." She kissed me +tenderly and walked into her house..... + + I went back to the bar after we got back into port about 2 +months later but she never showed up. I drove by her house but it was +up for sale. Nobody at the bar knew what had happened to her or when +exactly she left. I'm happily married now with a wife that fulfills +my every fantasy and desire so I have no need to look for another +woman. Still, I guess you never forget your first experience, +especially one as wild as that one was. I hated waiting until I was +19 but in hindsight, it was well worth it! The message? Don't +discount older women. Their capacity to please can be overwhelming +and their capacity to give can be bottomless. + + Thanks Mary, wherever you are. I'll never forget you....... + diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/1buttfly.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/1buttfly.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..813da72f --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/1buttfly.txt @@ -0,0 +1,133 @@ +Archive-name: Family/1buttfly.txt +Archive-author: +Archive-title: My First Button Fly + + + Uncle Marc was an athletic man. He would come over to the + house and make my brothers and Dad go outside play football, + basketball, run or play baseball. I would join in, gladly, + and loved having fun with him and my brothers. + + But the summer I really began to take a sexual interest + in him was when Marc stayed with us. He helped Dad on the + little bit of farmland we had and spent most of the day doing + that while Dad was at the factory. I loved to see him come + into the house shirtless and sweaty. He rarely wore a shirt + in the daytime and that was ok with me. When I or the others + would help him, we'd all strip down just like him and try to + keep up with his pace. + + I remember wrestling with him and the bros in the field + and enjoying the feeling of someone strong grabbing me, lift- + ing me, and so on. + + That summer was the first time I ever saw a grown man + naked too. Marc stayed in the basement where we kept some of + our stuff like weights, balls, bikes and so on. + + I went down there to lift weights and heard the shower + going. Marc emerged totally naked and wet of course. I almost + dropped the barbell when I saw him. + + He stayed naked like that and talked to me about lifting + weights. Then he came over and had me lay on the bench while + he spotted me. Above my head he stood with his man dick hang- + ing down pointed at my face. My own crotch was already hard, + and I think he knew it and smiled at me a lot. + + But it wasn't until that winter when he visited several + times that I noticed how hot he looked in his jeans. After + dinner we'd all sit in the living room to talk or watch tele- + vision. I recall seeing him unbutton his fly, or at least a + couple of buttons and his top button to relax. More then once + I'd look to see his pink skin underneath and became aware he + didn't wear underwear like we did. + + After that I stopped wearing any, too, and felt real sexy + in my own jeans even though they had a zipper fly. + + One night there was only him, me and a couple of brothers + there. I asked him why he wore them and as he looked at me, I + looked at his pink skin showing thru his unbutton fly. He + moved his legs and his dick started to poke out. + + "That's why" he said and laughed. + + I laughed too not knowing exactly why. + + The night I found out was when I drove over to his house + to drop off some paperwork he and my Dad had been discussing. + + Uncle Marc was shirtless and wore his jeans when I ans- + wered the door. He urged me to stay for dinner and called my + Dad to tell him. + + We had thick steaks, and talked about sex, girls, growing + up, and even told a couple of dirty jokes, the kind of stuff + we never did at home around the family. It felt real good, + kind of like having a sudden freedom I never had. + + We watched a television show and glanced at his unbut- + toned fly. + + When I reminded Marc I once asked him about doing that + and admitted I didn't understand his answer. + + He stared at first then unbuttoned the rest of his fly. + His man dick plopped out and was moving around getting hard. + He pulled out his nuts too so they could hang. + + "It feels better. Go on, feel it" + + I didn't know if he meant for me to pull my meat out of + my fly or to reach up and feel his. I opted for the later and + soon his man meat was in my hand. + + "Go ahead and lick it" + + Without even asking if I wanted to, he told me to do it. + + I did. + + "Now put the dick in your mouth and Ill show you some- + thing else" I did and his hands on my head showe'd me how to + move it so I could suck him off. + + His cum eventually shot all over my face and shirt. I was + a mess. He reached down and pulled off my shirt and told me + we'd have to wash it. + + As the shirts soaked, I felt like a new man, me shirtless + along with Uncle Marc. Both of our flys open and our dicks + poking out, although my dick rubbed against the zipper a bit + and hurt. + + He came back from making a phone call and told me that + Dad said I should stay with Marc and come home in the morn- + ing. + + We stripped totally and lay on the couch + together watching television. Uncle Marc told me that later + we would try other things he knew I'd like but for now to + just relax. + + His arms around me, made me horny as hell, but the warmth + of his body against mine, the freedom of being naked like + that, and knowing I was learning things that only a grown up + knew made it feel wonderful. + + Indeed I learned a lot that night. And Uncle Marc bought + me a pair of button fly jeans the next morning which I showed + my brothers the advantage of, too. + + And I kept going over to see my Uncle that winter and + stayed with him all the following summer. + + I still go home to visit the folks, and drive over to his + house. He's older now, hell he was in his twenties then. And + we still get naked, and share our warmth. And he still wears + button fly jeans. + + So do I. + +-- diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/1dad.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/1dad.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..de530868 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/1dad.txt @@ -0,0 +1,265 @@ +Archive-name: Family/1dad.txt +Archive-author: D-man +Archive-title: An Incestual Slumber + + + I had married young, mainly due the fact that I had gotten Janet pregnant. +Things seemed to work out fine for about five years until Janet informed me +that she was leaving me and our little girl Kelly for some rich guy on the +west coast. Twelve years later I still hadn't gotten over it completely. I +truly loved Janet and probably would still take her back today. Now at 35, my +love life is still pretty lame even though I am considered good looking. I am +just not a very good conversationalist. It had been at least 6 months since my +last sexual encounter, a bar slut who I'd rather forget. + + It was Friday night, my poker night over at Stu's house. I was doing pretty +good, both in my beer drinking and card playing. At 12:30, Stu's wife came out +wearing a tight fitting tank top and high cut shorts. I could smell her soft +sensual perfume as she whispered something in his ear, her hand disappearing +below the table. They were both young, Stu about 28 and Sandy 25, although she +barely looked 19. She gave him a quick kiss and stood up. My eyes couldn't +help fixating on her tits, her shirt perfectly outlining them and her +obvoiusly erect nipples. She said "See ya guys" and trotted off. I evied Stu, +I would have given anything to jump in her pants. For obvious reasons the game +ended shortly thereafter and I headed home with my money, a good buzz and a +hardon. + + I arrived home to the sight of a girl being carried out the door by a rather +large guy. I recognized him as Phil and the girl as Lisa. They had been over +many times to go swimming and hang out. "I just got here and found these two +totally wasted", Phil said. "How's Kelly?" I said. "She's pretty out of it +too" he replied. He then laid Lisa in the back seat of his car and drove off. + + I walked into the house and saw my daughter passed out on the couch, many +beer bottles and a near empty Jack Daniels bottle on the coffee table. I tried +to bring my daughter up properly, but without a mother around, it was tough. +She was a good kid and at 18 she seemed to have it together. She didn't drink +that often, but when she did, this was usually the result. She looked much +like her mother since she became a bottle blond she looked more like porn star +Ginger Lynn. In the last year Kelly's body began to fill out quite nicely. Her +dress had become more revealing and so did her sexuality. + + She was passed out all right. She was laid out on the couch, her blue eyes +now shut. Her cropped shirt revealed her trim belly and just barely covered +her noticably adult breasts. I called her name several times and even shook +her shoulder with absolutely no response. I lifted her off the couch and +carried her to her room, laying her on the bed carefully. As I laid her down, +her shirt snagged briefly on my belt, then springing free reveiling much of +her left breast. I didn't think anything of it and instictively reached to +cover her. Just as my hand reached her shirt, Kelly shifted her sleeping body, +totally exposing her tit, pressing it briefly into to my unexpected hand. My +hand quicky pulled away, my pinky catching on her raised nipple. Her breast +shook slightly before returning to stillness. I replaced her shirt correctly +and stood above her. I felt a stirring in my crotch as I gazed over her trim +firm body. + + I left the room and headed for the kitchen for a beer. I was dissapointed but +not surprised to find that Kelly and her friend had drank them all. I +remembered the whiskey bottle on the table where Kelly was passed out. +Reaching for the bottle I found it to be nearly empty. No wonder she was so +fucked up. I poured myself a large shot and downed it quickly. I sat back as +my mind couldn't forget the brief but erotic experience in Kelly's room. My +cock began to get hard at the thought of seeing her bare tit. I thought back +to the other erotic sights I had seen. There was the time I walked into her +room to call her for dinner and found her asleep on her bed. She was laying on +her stomach wearing this same crop top shirt and a pair of tiger striped +panties. She had the nicest ass I had ever seen. Thoughts of tracing that +panty line with my tongue raced through my head. She was my daughter, but how +much can a man take. I thought of this summer when she proudly displayed her +incredible tan to me by pulling her bikini bottoms down slightly for me to +see, "Isn't this the best tan Daddy?". I had nodded agreement still gazing at +the small patch of pubic hair that also was visible. I watched her as she made +some ice tea, noting how nice and rounded her breasts had become, bouncing +slightly with each step. More than once I had come home late and heard the +sounds of her getting fucked by some lucky young stud. I promised each time I +would give her a father daughter talk, but just never got around to it. One +night I had woke up thirsty and headed to the kitchen. Passing her door I +heard a strange buzzing sound and listening closer, her moans. I stood there +awhile, slowly masturbating until I heard her moans increase to the soft cries +of orgasm. I shot my load all over the carpet outside her door. The next day, +while she was at school I found the mystery sound in her panty drawer. It was +a huge vibrating dildo. She hadn't washed it and I could still see by the film +her pussy juices left, how deep she stuck it inside her. I had mastubated that +afternoon at the thought of planting a hidden camera in her room to catch her +on film. + + I had already downed the remaining whiskey while i thought, chugging +straight from the bottle. I found myself in Kelly's room again, giving myself +the excuse that I should check on her again to see if she was okay. I called +her name softly but she remained out cold in the same position I had left her +before. I knelt next to her bed and called her name again, shaking her +shoulder. Nothing. I put my hand on her belly and rub gently in small circles. +I watched her face for any response. She had a little upturned nose that gave +her a 'you'd love to fuck me, but i'm a bitch' look. She had a little mouth +with pursed lips that seemed born to suck cock. My cock was raging hard now +but told myself that I just wanted another brief glance at those gorgeous +tits. My circles were getting bigger so that my hand slipped under her shirt +grazing the bottoms of her breasts. The next time around my hand stopped as it +reached the roundness of her breast. My other hand, which had been stroking my +now exposed cock, lifted her shirt over those beautiful mounds, and quickly +returned to my throbbing cock. My free hand cupped around her breast, feeling +it's fullness. My thumb played with her nipple, which began to harden. I +stared at her creamy white tits which were emphasized by her contrasting +bronze tan. They were so soft in my hand, but practically begged to be sucked. +I leaned over and kissed her trim belly working up to her tits which i began +to suckle almost immediately. I could'nt believe I was sucking my own +daughter's tits. Suddenly I felt my self coming and there was no stopping it. +I stood up just in time to send my first shot of cum across Kelly's cheek and +into her hair. The next load exploded onto her shoulder and neck. I aimed the +third shot lower and it struck her left breast. I continued spraying my +daughter's tits with my cum until my knees got weak. I watch as my cum pooled +between her tits and then slowly oozed its way down her belly, filling her +navel and then running off her side onto the bed. + + I was feeling a little guilty as I went to the bathroom to get a towel to +wipe her off. It wasn't really incest was it? It's not like I fucked her or +anything. I had better clean her up and get to bed. + + As I returned to her room I pictured my cum hitting her tits and felt my cock +begin to grow again. I started to relish the thought wiping her boobs clean of +my white globs. I liked the thought of my jism rubbed into her skin. That had +always been a point of intense erotisism for me. Once after seeing Stu's wife +Sandy give her weekly apperance, this time in an see thru nighty I had gotten +raging hardon. They both obviously enjoyed her exhibitions as did the rest of +the guys. A little later I went to relieve myself and while in the bathroom I +saw her Perfumed body lotion and my cock got hard. I took the bottle and +unscewed the pump top. I began mastubating at the thought of Sandy rubbing my +cum all over her tits, face and ass. I came quickly, shooting a huge load into +the bottle. I replaced the cap and shook it gently to mix it up. Every week +since then I repeated this after seeing her and knowing she had just rubbed my +cum onto her breasts. + + When I entered her room I was suprised to find that Kelly had rolled over on +her stomach, my cum now wiped into her clean sheets. "Kelly? Are you awake?". +She lay motionless. I watched her for a moment, picturing the time I found her +asleep in the same position wearing only her tiger panties. I wonder if she +could be wearing them now. My cock jumped to a full erection at the thought. I +had to see. I walked over to her and shook her gently. "Kelly?". Nothing. I +climbed on the bed kneeling next to her knees. I put my hands on either side +of her nylex bike pants, flipped the top edge over and slid them down slowly, +noting how easily the material slid over itself. If she hadn't been wearing +those same tiger panties I swear I would have stopped there. My hands kept +moving, revealing more and more of those panties as well as her perfectly +rounded ass. I slipped the pants past her knees and then her feet and tossed +them on the floor. I returned my attention to my beautiful daughter, spreading +her legs slightly so that I could lie between them, my elbows on each side of +her legs and face hovering over her firm buttocks. I kissed each cheek and +then fulfilled one of my fantasies by tracing with my tongue along the edge of +her panty line. My cock was raging for attention and my hips accomodated it by +slowly grinding it against the bed. With my hand I moved the panty to the side +so I could get to more of my daughter's lovely ass. What I saw then almost +made me come right then. It was undisputedly a lipstick mark in the shape of +lips. Her girlfriend had already been down here kissing her ass and sucking on +her pussy. Kelly was bisexual! I pictured her spread eagled on the couch with +her friend Lisa's head buried into her bush. I kissed the spot Lisa had been +earlier, sliding her panties further to the side. I then decided that as much +as I loved these panties, I would love them more if they were laying crumpled +on the floor. + + I returned to my knees and carefully removed my daughters panties, totally +revealing her gorgeous ass. I brought her panties to my face, inhaling the +wonderful musky odor that emenated from them. I noticed that they were a +little stiff at the crouch area, most likely from the juices that contiued to +leak even after her cunt licking session with Lisa. After one last sniff I +tossed them to their rightful place on the floor and then resumed my previous +position between her legs. I heard Kelly's deep breathing as I my kisses +covered her entire ass. I could do this for eternity, I thought. I slowly +pulled her cheeks apart as my kisses traveled further into her crack. I zoomed +in on her pink little hole as my face burrowed into her ass. I planted a firm +kiss right on her hole and began to insert my tongue into the tiny opening. I +her totally relaxed state, her asshole accepted my intruding tongue without a +fight. I continued my tongue fucking for a few minutes when Kelly made a noise +and tried to roll over onto her back. I froze in place, my heart skipping a +beat. Geting my wits back, I sat up allowing her body to roll over. She +returned to her heavy breathing and I knew she was still out. She still had +her shirt on, but it was pulled up to her chin, totally exposing her firm +young tits. Her near naked body glistened in the soft light. I saw the +spaterring of dried cum spots stiil on her tits and face. + + I spread her legs and lowered myself down again, this time her pussy only +inches from my face. It was neatly shaven with only a strip of pubic hair +running north to south. Her pussy and inner thighs were covered with lipstick +marks. I only wish I could watch as Lisa spread my little girls legs and +licked her sweet pussy. I began to trace Lisa's lipstick trail all around +Kelly's fragrent snatch. I could feel drops of pre-cum oozing out my cock, +realizing i needed to come soon. With my tongue I parted my daughters pussy +lips, tasting her sweetness. I had to fight the incredible urge to climb up on +her and jam my throbbing cock in and fuck her until I emptied my load. Damn +it, she is my daughter, I shouldn't have touched her in the first place. I +continued licking her slowly, debating whether to screw her or not when +another idea popped into my head. + + I got up off the bed and went quickly to her dresser. I opened her panty +drawer and searched until I found what I was looking for, her 14 inch +vibrating dildo. I returned to the bed and laid on my side next to Kelly, my +face overlooking her bush and my cock up by her cum spattered face. I placed +the end of the huge rubber dick at the entrance of her love hole. I rubbed the +tip up and down her pink slit and around her clit. Kelly then shifted her body +again, spreading her legs a little wider. I let the cock slide in a little +deeper, getting about half the enormous head into her. Kelly began to moan +softly, spreading her legs even wider. She was beginning to wake up. Just a +few minutes longer I thought, risking being caught was worth this pleasure, my +still drunken mind rationalized. I began to slide the head of the dildo in and +out her now very wet pussy. "Lick my pussy Lisa. Oh yeeeesss" she suddenly +moaned out load. I increased the speed and depth of my dildo fucking. "Fuck me +Lisa! Fuck my cunt!" she cried out softly. Her hand reached down between her +legs and began to rub her clit while I pumped her cunt. I was entranced as I +watched her hand take control of the dildo while continuing the pumping +action. I was about to stand up and wack off again onto her lovely body when I +felt an warm wetness around my cock. I looked down to see my daughters lips +wrapped around my cock. I watched unbelievingly as my cock dissappered and +reappeared from Kelly's mouth. I think if my cocked wasn't numbed slightly +from the alchohol I would have shot my load right then. I couldn't come in her +mouth, that would truly be incest, but since she was already sucking I decided +it was alright for her to continue. With my now free hand I began to roam over +her body towards her tits. I began to fondle them alternately, pinching her +erect nipples much rougher than before. The sloshing sound between her legs +increased along with the suction/slurping sounds from her mouth. I pinched +hard and she let out a cry. Her hips began to churn wildly. She threw her head +back on the pillow as her body began to convulse wildly, "Oh god +Ohgodohgodohgodohgod" she cried aloud. She pulled the dildo out of her cunt +and startled me with "Fuck me, Fuck me daddy, please fuck me!!!!!". No, I +can't, I thought. "Please fuck me daddy, your daughter needs your cock now". +Her eyes were closed as she let out a last "Pleeeeeeeeease" I coouldn't take +anymore. I got between her tanned legs, grabbed her tiny ankles and put them +on my shoulders. I took my cock, pointed it at her steamy hole and plunged in. +"Oh yes!!!!!!!! Fuck me daddy! Fuck me hard!" On my knees I held her legs +straight up as I began to pound my daughters pussy. With each slam I watched +her tits bounce back and forth. I thought about pulling out and coming those +creamy white tits when she breathlessly pleaded for me to come inside. When +she said that, I laid over her, pinning her knees back to her shoulders and +fucked for all I was worth. I didn't care anymore, I was going to come in my +gorgeous daughter's sweet pussy. I felt my orgasm building and pumped harder. +Kelly was now crying out in pleasure. + + I felt my cum begin flooding into my daughter's young body as I heard myself +crying out. Wave after wave racked body. I had never come as hard before in my +life. Kelly was still moaning as I let her legs fall back to my sides. I +kissed her neck and gave each breast one final kiss. I sat up on my knees, +moaning slightly as my cock slid out of her tight pussy. She looked so +beautiful laying there, I wish she wasn't my daughter. "don't go daddy" Kelly +whispered, "Stay here with me. Please." I laid on the bed next to her and she +rolled half on top of me, straddling my leg. "Maybe Lisa will join us next +time. Would you like that daddy?" Before I could answer her she was asleep. I +can't believe I just fucked my daughter, I must really be perverted or +something. The thing is is that I would love to do it again, that is, if she +didn't hate me in the morning. + + The next morning I awoke with a hardon and my daughter's lips wrapped around +it. She was slowly pumping my cock with her hot mouth. My cock had gotten all +its sensitivity back, enjoying the wonderful sensation of her tongue swirling +around the head. I watched as her head moved slowly up and down, my cock +dissapearing into her face. She began to go faster as my hips started moving +by themselves. I felt my orgasm building. "Kelly, I'm going to come." She only +pumped harder. I closed my eyes and put my hand on the back of her blond head +and pulled into my body. She relaxed her neck and let me control the pumping +action. I pulled her head down hard on my cock as my hips began to pump into +her face. I thought my cock would explode as my cock slammed into her mouth. I +started shooting cum down my daughter's throat. I felt her sucking harder, +swallowing every drop of my cum. I let go of her head and she sucked me dry. + + "I gotta get going, I'm late for work" she said. I just closed my eyes and +returned to my slumber. I heard the shower and then watched, half asleep, my +daughter get dressed and leave. "I love you daddy!" she chirped as she closed +the door and left. "Me too." I murmered. This was going to be a great day. +-- diff --git a/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/1donna.txt b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/1donna.txt new file mode 100644 index 00000000..fc2fb5f9 --- /dev/null +++ b/textfiles.com/sex/EROTICA/0/1donna.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3623 @@ +From ???@0x00002A6E Mon Sep 15 21:32:44 1997 +Path: newsfeed.san.rr.com!peerfeed!newsfeed1-hme1!newsfeed.internetmci.com!205.252.116.205!howland.erols.net!newshub2.home.com!newshub1.home.com!news.home.com!news.rdc1.sdca.home.com!not-for-mail +From: Story Master +Newsgroups: alt.sex.stories +Subject: story RP- author : Daney Dewitt - Donna's Humiliation 1 - donna01.txt +Date: Fri, 05 Sep 1997 13:22:39 -0700 +Organization: http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ - The Velvet Playground +Lines: 279 +Message-ID: <34106A0F.17F6@znet.com> +NNTP-Posting-Host: cx28316-a.dt1.sdca.home.com +Mime-Version: 1.0 +Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="------------206B3E8875EE" +X-Mailer: Mozilla 3.0 (OS/2; I) +Status: N + + +This is a multi-part message in MIME format. + +--------------206B3E8875EE +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit + +-- + /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ + The Velvet Playground -- http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ + Free Stories & Pics from our BBS, Links & Live Video + \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ + +--------------206B3E8875EE +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii; name="donna01.txt" +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit +Content-Disposition: inline; filename="donna01.txt" + + +WARNING: Standard Disclaimer + +The following story is purely a work of fiction. It contains scenes +of adult nature, so if you are under 18, stop reading now. This story +contains scenes of non-consensual sexual behavior, rape, sodomy, +bondage, bestiality, and incest. If you are offended by such activities, +do not read any further. This is purely a fantasy. Any resemblance to +any person, living or dead is purely coincidental. The author is not +responsible for any damage resulting from reading this work. + +Comments are invited via E-mail to: an376445@anon.penet.fi. + if you want more of this story. +_________________________________________________________ + + +Donna's Humiliation +A Nasty Girl Story + +by Dafney Dewitt +Part 1/12 + + + Breakfeast + Donna has dog breath + +Donna was finished making breakfeast. She was a +tall blonde woman with medium length hair and well +shaped pointed breasts. The early morning kitchen +smelled of coffee, heated maple syrup, and fresh +pancakes. Everything looked perfect. She placed +her left hand over the top of her coffee cup, feeling +the moist heat while her right hand worked rythmically +out-of-sight below the table between her legs. + +In the quiet of early morning, Donna had resorted to +masturbation. It was a act of desperation fueled by +the frustration of sexual failure. Now not even self- +manipulation could stimulate release. + +Her mind flirted with the memories of failure. Like a +moth drawn to light, her mind circled, powerless to +escape the voices. Her love for her husband had been +defaced by the voices like gang members spraying obscene +graffiti on a church wall. She felt defiled. Her +desire waned. + + Her hand trembled. + +She gave up. It wasn't working. The voices had returned. + + "Begin action", the voice said, soft as a whisper, + +She called out to her husband and kids. +"Let's go. Your breakfeast is ready." + +Her husband, Bob was first to the table followed by +Cindy and Tommy, the twin teenagers. The baby, Leslie, +just 8 months old was still being breast fed, and +would be nursed after the others left. + +"Oh, Mom" complained Tommy, "Why does it always have to +be pancakes on Thursday ?" + +"Stop your whining, and eat your pancakes before they +get cold," Donna scolded. + +For Bob, Cindy and Tommy, the voices didn't seem to +exist. They ate breakfeast without concern. Only +Donna was worried. She was anxious to get her husband +off to work and the kids packed onto the school bus +before something bad happened. + +The voices were like seductive whispers. Gentle at +first. Promising to make her happy, to give her new +powers. The power to fill the sexual needs of her +dark side. But this sexual thrill was fulfilled at +he expense of control. Donna was forced to submit. +Without submission she was denied pleasure. Without +pleasure her love was empty, and sex was reduced to +a mechanical act without meaning. + +Before the voices, Donna had understood the difference +between love and sex. Now she wasn't certain of +anything. She loved her husband. Bob, but hadn't had +an orgasm in over six months. In her most intimate +moments, in the privacy of her own bedroom, she had +been unable to climax. + +As if reading her mind, Bob looked up. "A little more +coffee, sweetheart." Donna poured the coffee as Cindy +pushed away her plate, "Sorry, Mom, I have to watch my +weight." + +Donna, her light blond hair pulled back and tied with +a red ribbon, attended to her family like a waitress. +She felt like hired help, a maid. She wore an old pink +bathrobe instead of a white maid's uniform. Underneath +the robe was nothing but her white bra and panties. + +While Cindy headed off to the bathroom, Donna bent down +beneath the kitchen sink to fill the dog's food bowl. + +There was a rushing sound in her ears as she bent over. +It sounded like muffled laughter from a room full of +people. + +Her robe fell open exposing her breasts. As she hesitated +before closing her robe, Donna felt a distinct sexual surge. +She looked up and saw her son Tommy look away and leave +the table as she cinched the blue belt more tightly around +her waist. + +As Tommy turned to leave, he thought "What a slut mom's +turned into, what a tease." He averted his eyes from +his mother's exposed breasts and left the kitchen quickly +before saying something out loud that he might later +regret. Someday he vowed, he would get even. + +"I'm going out to the garage to feed Bowser", Donna said +to no one in particular. Her husband, Bob was in the +bathroom brushing his teeth and Cindy and Tommy were +collecting their school books. + + +Stepping down into the early morning darkness of the +garage the sudden coolness lifted up under her robe +making her nipples harden as she yelled out "Here Bowser +- Breakfeast time !" + +>From then on everything seemed to happen in slow motion. + +A tall skinny teenager with a forehead full of angry red +pimples and pale blue eyes rose from behind the car. His +eyes were blank, empty looking, and he had a faint whisp +of a blond mustache. + +Donna stared at him. It was the eyes that caught her +attention. They appeared dull, lifeless, and even dead. +It was some time, before she noticed the black object in +his right hand. It was a camcorder. + +The voices commanded her "Obey the boy." + +Moments later, Bowser bounded from behind the car. His +penis was red, engorged, and dangling below its belly +almost scraping against the concrete floor. The boy +must have been exciting him. + +"Jerk off the dog," the boy told Donna, raising his +camcorder. + +Bowser, a large black doberman, bounded toward her. +She patted him on the head with her left hand and set +the food bowl down on the roof of the car. With the +food left out-of-reach, Donna proceeded to satisfy the +dog's other hunger. She slid her right hand under his +belly, slowly massaging, rubbing his already engorged +penis. It was warm, red and very stiff. Her hand pumped. +The dog's dick slowly responded to her ministrations. +She jacked it off into the empty water bowl. Her actions +were mechanical and pre-rehearsed. She knew what the +voices wanted. + +Donna watched as the dog's throbbing penis spat out a +stream of yellow white cum into the green plastic water +bowl. It squirted out in a thick gooey ribbon. + +"Breakfeast time, here Bowser !" -the voices, echoing in +her mind, mocking her own voice. + +"I'm not a dog", Donna said suddenly as she voiced her +thoughts out loud. +"Do you like fresh dog cum in the morning ?" -said one of +the voices. +"Well, I never . . . " Donna faltered for a lack of words. +"You never tried dog cum ? Hmm, we can fix that." + +"Take the bowl and slowly pour the dog cum into your +mouth. Keep it there, inside your mouth." + +The voices had spoken. She already knew the consequences +of disobedience. They would humiliate her even more, +debase her, punish her beyond belief, and with no remorse. + +Donna made no response. She seemed frozen in time. Her +eyes glazed over. + +She thought to herself. "How did I ever get myself into +this situation ? +Is there any way out ?" +Her thoughts darted about in confusion. +Her husband was brushing his teeth just a few feet away, +Tommy and Cindy were getting ready for school, and she was +about to drink fresh dog cum. + +"My, God" she gasped. "Please, let me do something else, +anything." + +She instinctively dropped to her knees, begging, looking +toward the blue eyed boy with the red pimpled forehead. +In response, he turned zoomed the camcorder in on her face, +but remained silent. + +She tilted the green bowl toward her open mouth saying +"My God, I'm a slut" and slowly dumped the slimy goo onto +her upturned tongue just as she was saying "I'm a slut" +again. + +It tasted repulsive to her. Hot, wet and slimy it rolled +off her tongue onto the under side of her mouth like a +fat garden slug. She resisted the impulse to vomit by +turning her head down so the cum wouldn't slide down her +throat. + +The voices calmed her. +They were condescending. + +"That's a good girl" +"Now be a good mother, and say goodbye to your husband +and kids." + +She turned automatically toward the kitchen door like a +zombie. + +Back in the kitchen, Donna's world exploded into activity. +Cindy yelled out a quick "Goodbye, I love you Mom !" +while Tommy just said a quick "Bye". +Bob was busy stuffing his cell phone into his briefcase. + +Apparently, no one noticed that Donna was white as a +sheet and appeared to be in shock. For a moment, she +grew angry that no one in her family paid attention to +her. "They don't really care about me at all," she +thought numb-struck by an overwhelming sense of +abandonment. That feeling was quickly replaced by fear. +Bob was at the door expecting a guick goodbye kiss. What +if he stuck his tongue into her mouth and tasted the +thick pungent dog goo ? How could she ever explain it ? +How could he ever forgive her ? Maybe, she really was +a slut. + +"My God" she said silently to herself. She felt confused +and lost as Bob turned his face toward her for a kiss. +She kept her lips tightly pressed together. His tongue +tried to force its way between her lips. + +Breaking out of his embrace she backed up one step and +mumbled, "Sorry, bad breath." + +"Dog breath," the voices whispered. + +Bob left. There was a sound of light laughter in her +ears. + +She felt faint. The moment passed quickly. + + +--------------206B3E8875EE-- + + + +From ???@0x00001C3A Mon Sep 15 21:32:45 1997 +Path: newsfeed.san.rr.com!peerfeed!newsfeed.internetmci.com!newsxfer3.itd.umich.edu!howland.erols.net!newshub2.home.com!newshub1.home.com!news.home.com!news.rdc1.sdca.home.com!not-for-mail +From: Story Master +Newsgroups: alt.sex.stories +Subject: story RP- author : Daney Dewitt - Donna's Humiliation 2 - donna02.txt +Date: Fri, 05 Sep 1997 13:22:55 -0700 +Organization: http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ - The Velvet Playground +Lines: 174 +Message-ID: <34106A1F.221E@znet.com> +NNTP-Posting-Host: cx28316-a.dt1.sdca.home.com +Mime-Version: 1.0 +Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="------------450352802528" +X-Mailer: Mozilla 3.0 (OS/2; I) +Status: N + + +This is a multi-part message in MIME format. + +--------------450352802528 +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit + +-- + /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ + The Velvet Playground -- http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ + Free Stories & Pics from our BBS, Links & Live Video + \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ + +--------------450352802528 +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii; name="donna02.txt" +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit +Content-Disposition: inline; filename="donna02.txt" + +Donna's Humiliation +A Nasty Girl Story + +by Dafney Dewitt + +This story is intended as a satire of erotic submission +tales. If you are not overcome by lust, the lampoon will +become obvious and unavoidable. + +Donna's Humiliation +Part 2 + + Brunch + Donna's Hot Dog Snack + + +Her heart is thumping wildly as she locks the front door +and returns to the kitchen. + +Donna runs straight to the kitchen sink and opens her mouth +over an empty baby bottle. The dog cum and a considerably +amount of saliva drips down into the bottle. It forms a +string between the bottle and her lips which she had to break +with her fingers. + +Donna inhales deeply. She feels as if she's been holding +her breath. She wants desperately to wash the dog cum +flavor out of her mouth with hot coffee, but the voices are +demanding hotdogs. + +Donna opens the refrigerator door. She finds a package of +Oscar Meyer Hotdogs, removes one, and pops it into the +microwave for 1 minute. + +"Exposure time," the voice whisper. + + Donna slips her robe off her shoulder and drops it onto the + kitchen floor. + +She is 32, with a slim youthful looking body, medium sized +pointed breasts that showed no signs of drooping after +nursing 3 kids. The nipples were erect and tender from the +daily sucking given by the baby. She has blond hair tied with +a red ribbon in back and light blue eyes, but was far from +anyone's idea of beautiful. Her nose was too long and her +eyes were set apart too wide on her face. She wore oval +shaped brown glasses that gave her a librarian look. She +had quit her job selling real estate to take care of the +unexpected baby. She thought of herself as a good mother. + +As if in after thought, the voice say, "Oh, and remove +your panties." + +She let the white cotton panties fall to her ankles. + +She pushes open the microwave door. The hotdog feels good +to hold. It is warm. Donna smiles tilting her head a little +to the left. She sits down on the hard cold linoleum floor +holding onto the hotdog with all four fingers to feel the +warmth. Slowly, spreading her legs, Donna mechanically +inserts the hot dog into herself in the same way that she +would insert a tampon in the privacy of her bathroom. + +Naked except for her bra, legs spread wide, her cotton +panties dangling from the ankle of her left foot, sitting +in the middle of the kitten floor with a hotdog protruding +out between her legs, Donna waits. She feels stupid sitting +on the floor. The whole situation seems silly. She tilts +her head to the left in a quirky smile at the absurdity of +it all. + +>From behind Donna comes the sounds of toenails clicking on +the floor as the black doberman walks into the kitchen. Donna +can't turn around, but she imagines the camcorder zooming +in on the dog. Doing a close up comparison between her widely +spread legs, the dog approaching behind her, and then cutting +to her face. + +She is at a disadvantage. + +The doberman has never seen Donna naked or in such an +exposed position with her legs spread wide. His keen nose +immediately catches the scent of her open cuntlips and the +snub of red hot dog protruding between them. + +Bowser pushes his cold nose between her legs. + +Startled by the dog's cold nose in contact with her most +sensitive private parts, Donna starts to push the dog's +head to one side. But the dog is insistant and pushes +back. + + "Bowser, please ... no " she pleads. + +None of this had any affect on the dog. It growls at her, +and barks once before resuming its probing. Donna's +objection to the dog's cold nose is replaced by fear. What +if it bit her ? + +How could she ever explain a dog bite on her private parts ? +What would the pain be like. How much damage would it do ? +Was taking the chance of being bitten worth the resistence ? + +Donna relents to the dog's curiosity. She relaxes placing +both her hands behind her, palms down on the floor to keep +her balance against the dog's head shoving into her open legs. + +It caught the scent of the hotdog and was now licking her +cunt. The licking continues in a methodical way. The rough +rasping pink tongue lapping at her exposed cunt. + + "Oh, no, please stop," Donna continues her pleading, + "No Bowser, please stop" + + But she no longer attempts to push his head away. + +The viewpoint changes. + +It alternates from focusing on the mixture of saliva and +cunt juice dripping from the dog's tongue to close ups of +Donna's humilated face pleading for the dog to stop its +licking. Finally, exhausted by pleading, she goes into a +trance-like state and relaxes, trying to shut her mind off, +to believe that none of this is happening. She gives a +quirky smile thinking about how much she loves her baby, +and taking comfort in the thought that she's a good mother. + +Natural lubrication starts pushing the hotdog out of her +cunt and dog begins taking small bites out of it. Donna's +face twitches involuntarily every time the dog takes a bite, +hoping that those sharp canine teeth will only sink into the +hot dog and not her most precious parts. By the time the +doberman has eaten all of the hotdog, it seems like an +eternity has passed. + +Donna glances up at the kitchen clock. + +It's only 8:15 am. She looks down between her legs. Her open +pussy lips are dripping onto the kitchen floor mixing with +the dogs saliva, making a small wet pool between her legs. +A muscle twitches on the inside of her left thigh from the +exertion of keeping her legs so widely spread wide so the dog +could eat her. It was going to be a long day. + + Donna looks drained. "I'm exhausted," she sighs. + +It is the baby crying that brings Donna out of her +trance. +_________________________________________________________ +Author Note: If you like this story, please send +an E-Mail to the author at: an376445@anon.penet.fi + + +--------------450352802528-- + + + +From ???@0x00001949 Mon Sep 15 21:32:45 1997 +Path: newsfeed.san.rr.com!peerfeed!newsfeed1-hme1!newsfeed.internetmci.com!4.1.16.34!cpk-news-hub1.bbnplanet.com!news.bbnplanet.com!howland.erols.net!newshub2.home.com!newshub1.home.com!news.home.com!news.rdc1.sdca.home.com!not-for-mail +From: Story Master +Newsgroups: alt.sex.stories +Subject: story RP- author : Daney Dewitt - Donna's Humiliation 3 - donna03.txt +Date: Fri, 05 Sep 1997 13:23:10 -0700 +Organization: http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ - The Velvet Playground +Lines: 157 +Message-ID: <34106A2E.4EA5@znet.com> +NNTP-Posting-Host: cx28316-a.dt1.sdca.home.com +Mime-Version: 1.0 +Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="------------412DED5BD" +X-Mailer: Mozilla 3.0 (OS/2; I) +Status: N + + +This is a multi-part message in MIME format. + +--------------412DED5BD +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit + +-- + /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ + The Velvet Playground -- http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ + Free Stories & Pics from our BBS, Links & Live Video + \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ + +--------------412DED5BD +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii; name="donna03.txt" +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit +Content-Disposition: inline; filename="donna03.txt" + +WARNING: Standard Disclaimer + +The following story is purely a work of fiction. It contains scenes +of adult nature, so if you are under 18, stop reading now. This story +contains scenes of non-consensual sexual behavior, rape, sodomy, +bondage, bestiality, and incest. If you are offended by such activities, +do not read any further. This is purely a fantasy. Any resemblance to +any person, living or dead is purely coincidental. The author is not +responsible for any damage resulting from reading this work. + + +Comments are invited via E-mail to: an376445@anon.penet.fi. + if you want more of this story. +_________________________________________________________ + + +Donna's Humiliation +A Nasty Girl Story + +by Dafney Dewitt + +Donna's Humiliation +Part #3/12 + + Donna Feeds the Baby + Rubber Bands + + +Donna gradually became aware of the voice. It was hard to +hear over the crying of the baby. It was repeated several +times before she understood and responded. + +She searched the opened the junk drawer in the kitchen. +It held all the odds and ends that seemed to pile up. It +was filled with an assortment of tacks, screws, paper clips, +rubber bands. Near the front were a pair of scissors, and +a set of very small screw drivers. She grabbed a handful +of the rubber bands. Next she went to the refrigerator door. +On the door were several magnetic fasteners shaped like +clothes pins holding discount pizza coupons. She opened +the fastener and let the coupons fall the to floor. Donna +watched as a Compbell's soup coupon fell into the wet spot +where she had sat and slowly turn dark as it absorbed the +wet goo from the dog's saliva and her pussy juices. + +Breaking free from her fascination with the slowly +darkening coupon, she grabbed the baby bottle out of the +kitchen sink following the sounds of the crying baby into +the nursery. + +The nursery was docorated in pink with pictures of Disney +characters pasted on the walls. A wind up music toy hung +from the ceiling just above the baby's head in the crib. +A diaper changing table and small single bed were to one +side of the crib. + +She gently supported the baby's head with her right hand +and scooped him out of the crib. The baby stopped crying. +She automatically took her right breast out of the bra cup +and offered it to the baby's mouth. + + "Stop action," the voice commanded. + +She abrutptly pulled the baby away from her exposed nipple. + +She layed the baby down on the bed. It began to cry +immediately. + +"Use the rubber bands, the voice suggested. + +She took several rubber bands and put them around her +right breast. The affect was immediate. They constricted +her breast making it bulge. It looked grotesque and +unnatural. Another rubber band, she doubled and tripled +around her right index finger until it was snug. She +pointed the finger at her nipple and used her other hand +to roll the the rubber band off her finger and onto the +base of her nipple. The nipple grew red and turgid. It +was now a minature reflection of her boob. A small red +fleshy bulb constricted at the base. The blood couldn't +circulate so it bulged. It looked grotesque. + + She hesitated. Horrified by her deed. + +"Feed the baby," the voice encouraged her into action. + +She scooped the baby off the bed and put it to her nipple. +It stopped crying at once. It sucked vigorously at her +engorged nipple. It hurt Donna. + She grimaced. "Ouch !," she shouted. "Slow down !" + +The baby was sucking too hard. It was tearing up her +nipple. It would never get any milk. The rubber bands +were too tight. + +"No, please." She begged. +"I don't want to feed the baby" "My nipple, it hurts." + +There was a faint sound of laughter in her ears. +The baby kept sucking. +Donna's face contorted, twisted in pain, but she held +the baby to her bosum allowing it to tear at her raw +much abused nipple. + +After what seemed an eternity, the voices let her stop. + +Donna slid the baby off her chest to a position between +her legs. With the back of the baby's head resting on +her mound, she considered turning it around, letting it +suck on her clit, making the baby suck her off. Donna +tried to dispel these evil thoughts by screwing a nipple +on the baby bottle holding the mixture of dog cum and +her own saliva. She turned the bottle upside down, +watchingg as the slimy mixture sank into the rubber end +of the nipple. + +The baby was crying again. +"Put the rubber nipple in the baby's mouth" +She hesitated, "Please don't make me do this. I'll let +you do anything to me, but just ...." She couldn't even +finish before starting to cry. + + "Do it." the voices repeated. + "Please." + "Do it now." + "I'm a good mother," Donna said before relenting. + +She couldn't stand to hear the baby crying. She pulled +the baby onto her stomach, cradling it in her arms and +offered it the rubber nipple and it eagerly sucked up the +dog cum. The baby smiled at Donna as it sucked up the +vile fluid. + +It was the smile that broke Donna's heart. + + +--------------412DED5BD-- + + + +From ???@0x000031D1 Mon Sep 15 21:32:45 1997 +Path: newsfeed.san.rr.com!peerfeed!newsfeed1-hme1!newsfeed.internetmci.com!205.252.116.205!howland.erols.net!newshub2.home.com!newshub1.home.com!news.home.com!news.rdc1.sdca.home.com!not-for-mail +From: Story Master +Newsgroups: alt.sex.stories +Subject: story RP- author : Daney Dewitt - Donna's Humiliation 4 - donna04.txt +Date: Fri, 05 Sep 1997 13:23:25 -0700 +Organization: http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ - The Velvet Playground +Lines: 321 +Message-ID: <34106A3D.6DEC@znet.com> +NNTP-Posting-Host: cx28316-a.dt1.sdca.home.com +Mime-Version: 1.0 +Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="------------2ED1B7BF90" +X-Mailer: Mozilla 3.0 (OS/2; I) +Status: N + + +This is a multi-part message in MIME format. + +--------------2ED1B7BF90 +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit + +-- + /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ + The Velvet Playground -- http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ + Free Stories & Pics from our BBS, Links & Live Video + \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ + +--------------2ED1B7BF90 +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii; name="donna04.txt" +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit +Content-Disposition: inline; filename="donna04.txt" + +WARNING: Standard Disclaimer + +The following story is purely a work of fiction. It contains scenes +of adult nature, so if you are under 18, stop reading now. This story +contains scenes of non-consensual sexual behavior, rape, sodomy, +bondage, bestiality, and incest. If you are offended by such activities, +do not read any further. This is purely a fantasy. Any resemblance to +any person, living or dead is purely coincidental. The author is not +responsible for any damage resulting from reading this work. + + +Comments are invited via E-mail to: an376445@anon.penet.fi. + if you want more of this story. +_________________________________________________________ + + +Donna's Humiliation +A Nasty Girl Story + +by Dafney Dewitt + +Donna's Humiliation +Part 4/12 + + + Donna Watches TV + With The Brothers + +After the baby had been fed and put back in its crib, Donna +crawled on her hands and knees to the bath room. In the +hallway, she met up with Bowser, her black doberman, who +seemed mystified by the crawling woman with the stinky cunt +juices running down the inside of her thighs. He made a +clumsy attempt to mount her, but she pushed him off. + +She took the rubber bands off her tit and felt instant +relief as the blood rushed back into her breast. + +Unexpectantly, the voices allowed her to take an +uninterrupted shower without molesting her. The hot soapy +water felt good and helped wash away some of the tension +from just having fed her baby dog cum instead of breast +milk. + +After showering, she was allowed to walk back to the +bedroom. + The voices told her how to dress. + + "Put on pantyhose, but no panties, a nursing bra that + opens up exposing the nipples, a white blouse, pleated + black skirt, a string of pearls around her neck, gold + hoop earrings, and high heeled shoes." + +The voices surprised her again by telling her to put on +her brown oval glasses. She looked like a librarian with +or a school teacher with the glasses on. She didn't feel +at all attractive. + +Expecting to go somewhere, Donna headed for the bedroom +door, but the voices told her to sit down on the bed. + + "Cut the crouch out of your pantyhouse" + "Cut the crouch out of your pantyhouse" + +The voices must have repeated this several times before +Donna responded. Taking the sissors off of the bedside +stand, Donna reached beneath her skirt and grabbed the +reinforced crouch section of ther panthose. With just +one quick snip of the sissors shw cut it off leaving her +pussy exposed to the air and whatever else might come +along. + +Lowering her black skirt, she layed down on the bed +smoothing out the skirt so it wouldn't wrinkle. + +It seemed like she had barely closed her eyes when she +heard a voice again. + "Keep your eyes closed and listen. Nod your head if you + hear me." + She noded once. + +"You're going to get up in a few minutes and wall into the +living room." +"Some things may surprise you but you will not talk." +"You will sit on the couch and wait. + + "Do you understand ?" + "Yes" she wispered. + + "Ok get up and walk into the living room." + +The camcorder showed her walking out of the room. + +The living room was dark. The curtains had been draw and +about 7 men were watching something on T.V. No one paid +any attention to her. It was a porno movie of some woman +masturbating, legs spread wide. After her eyes adjusted +to the darkness, she noticed they weren't men at all. They +were just kids. Black teenagers. Their hands were bobbing +up and down. They seemed to be keeping time to the music. +As her eyes adjusted to the dark, she realized they were +masturbating. + +She was sitting in the dark of her own living room with 7 +black teenagers who were watching a porno movie and +stroking their dicks. + +A cold shiver of fear passed over her body. She rubbed her +legs together. She did that when she was nervous. The +feel of the pantyhose rubbing against her thighs comforted +her, made her feel safer. She tried comforting herself with +reassuring thoughts. She could turn on the lights and ask +them all to leave. + + "I'm a well dressed fully grown white woman," she thought. + "I am in my own house." + "I can handle myself," she repeated. + "I will be ok" + +Her confidence level soared, and then abruptly plummeted. + +To divert herself and help maintain composure she +concentrated on the TV screen. There was something +strange about the picture. + +A black doberman walked up to the masturbating woman on the +TV screen. She recognized it instantly. It was her own dog. +All she could see was a close up of the dog's tongue +licking an exposed cunt. + + Her cunt. + +As the camera angle changed it zoomed to a close up of her +own face. + + Her face. + +"My God", she thought. What if the boys turn around and +recognize her ? + +Moments before she was thinking of turning on the lights +and asking them all to leave. Now she was hoping the porno +movie would never stop. They would keep their attention +focused on the TV screen and not notice her. + +She was just starting to rise up off the sofa and leave +the room when the voices spoke. + + "Lights on set," a voice stated. + +The inevitable finally happened. The porno movie came to +an abrupt end. There was the sound of zippers as the kids +put their dicks away. Someone switched on the lights. +Still no one turned around. Donna thought her heart would +burst. + +When the kids did see her, she felt instant relief. + + "Oops, hey guys there's a lady here." + Several of the boys turned toward her looking embarrased. + +Donna looked imposing. Dressed in a black full length +pleated black skirt with white blouse, high heels, panty +hose, pearl necklace hanging to the tops of her breasts. +Her blonde hair carefully combed back. She looked out at +them through her brown oval glasses looking important and +dignified. Not the sort of woman they would even dare +make catcalls to on the streets. This was one of those +wealthy looking white woman with creamy complexions that +they might see naked in Penthouse Magazine. Nice looking, +but clearly untouchable. For them totally out of bounds. + + "You'll have to leave now." Donna told them. + "Ok, lady, were leaving" +They all turned to leave out the back door when one of +them stopped and said, "Wait a minute, I recognize you. +You're the white bitch in the porno video." + +The other kids hesitated, but looked unconvinced. + "Prove it, Jamoke, or we be jettin" + Jamoke took up the challenge. He returned to the + TV set, pushed the rewind button on the VCR remote. + +Suddenly, he hit the pause botton freezing it on a +close up of Donna's face. All the kids heads turned +toward the TV image and back to Donna's face. They +were identical. + +Donna felt her heart accelerate with fear. + +One of the shorter boys took out a switchblade knife. +The group of black teens slowly starting closing in on +her. She was surrounded. The circle kept getting +closer. They were getting ready, but hadn't quite +gotten up the nerve to assault her. It was only a +matter of time. She could smell their body odors. + +Donna's thoughts careened wildly. "If only I weren't +alone" she thought desperately. "There's the baby +and . . ." She suddenly stopped in mid-thought. + +The loudness and authority in her own voice startled +her as she called out, +"Here, Bowser, come here Bowser !" + +Soon there was the sound of a barking dog and toe nails +clicking and sliding on the kitchen floor. In an +instant, 150 pounds of black muscle came bounding into +the living room. + +The circle of boys drew back as if they had been pushed +by an invisible hand. They backed off as the dog came +to Donna. The look of malicious intent in their eyes +was replaced by fear and uncertainty. + +Then the dog did something that destroyed Donna's soaring +confidence. It barked once again and quickly ducked it's +head beneath Donna's black skirt before she could close +her legs together and started licking her pussy. + +"Look at dat dog eat the white bitch," said one of the + black teens. +"Yeah, we's going to have us a show, said another. + +Donna heard the sound of someone's zipper opening as she +felt the dog's wet tongue licking the crotch of her +pantyhose torn pantyhouse, seeking out the exposed lips +of her pussy. + +The gang of black boys stood over her stroking their dicks +while the dog buried its nose into her exposed crouch. Its +tongue relentlessly working its way deeper into her pussy +aided by her cunt juices making the passageway slippery. +Blood rushed to her pussy engorging the lips into an open +hole like the puckered lips of a girl getting ready to kiss. + +The camcorder zoomed in on her open legs and the slurping +noises of the dog's tongue. + +Donna had made a half-hearted attempt to lower her skirt +over the dog's head, covering herself, regaining at least +a little dignity, the skirt kept riding up over her thighs. +It was hopeless. She gave up. The dog's will won out over +her own. A brute dumb animal, controlling her, having its +way with the most intimate parts of her body, while she was +fully dressed surrounded by a group of black teenage boys +stroking their dicks off in her face. + +Donna's thoughts were confused. At first she fought the +dog's efforts to arouse her. She had her pride. How could +she allow an animal to sexually excite her in front of +others ? She had expected the black teenagers to gang rape +her, but they seemed content to watch the dog. As long +as they watched, she was safe. By sacrificing her pride, +she could save herself from the debasement of rape. It was +a last desperate attempt to regain control. She was out +numbered, surrounded by a group of sex crazed teenage blacks. +Donna had a choice to make. Allowing herself to be debauched +by a dog might save her from a worse fate. If she could make +the black kids jack off completely while they were watching, +there would be no rape. Could she divert them into shooting +off their wad's prematurely ? + +Donna made a decision. + +She would let them watch. She would make a show. +She would moan and groan. + +"Ooh, aahh", Donna sighed, throwing her head back on the +sofa, pushing to dogs head into her pussy. + +"Eat me baby", she begged. + +Stimulated, to a fever pitch by the strange sensations of +the rasping dog's tonuge sloshing within her tremulous cunt, +Donna lifted her hips, threw her head back exposed her +vagina in the most abandoned manner she knew. The dog +encouraged by her actions increased its licking with a +series of rapid and deeply gratifying strokes. + +"Fuck my pussy with your tongue", she gasped. + +Donna closed her eyes and concentrated on the sensations +emanating between her legs. It no longer was a dog, or +a tongue. Not even the black dicks jerking off in front +of her face mattered. Her entire world was focused on +just one spot, the wet hot spot. The spot which would +make her climax. He legs shot out stiff and straight, +she arched her back forward, as the orgasm shuddered, +rippling through her tummy. Her cunt spasmed several times +before she dropped back down into the sofa and relaxed. +Donna closed her legs, the dogs head slipped out, the +licking stopped. + +Donna opened her eyes. + +The boys were gone. +She was alone. + + +--------------2ED1B7BF90-- + + + +From ???@0x00002612 Mon Sep 15 21:32:45 1997 +Path: newsfeed.san.rr.com!peerfeed!newsfeed1-hme1!newsfeed.internetmci.com!205.252.116.205!howland.erols.net!newshub2.home.com!newshub1.home.com!news.home.com!news.rdc1.sdca.home.com!not-for-mail +From: Story Master +Newsgroups: alt.sex.stories +Subject: story RP- author : Daney Dewitt - Donna's Humiliation 5 - donna05.txt +Date: Fri, 05 Sep 1997 13:23:42 -0700 +Organization: http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ - The Velvet Playground +Lines: 240 +Message-ID: <34106A4E.2B4A@znet.com> +NNTP-Posting-Host: cx28316-a.dt1.sdca.home.com +Mime-Version: 1.0 +Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="------------1F3AA2355A3" +X-Mailer: Mozilla 3.0 (OS/2; I) +Status: N + + +This is a multi-part message in MIME format. + +--------------1F3AA2355A3 +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit + +-- + /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ + The Velvet Playground -- http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ + Free Stories & Pics from our BBS, Links & Live Video + \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ + +--------------1F3AA2355A3 +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii; name="donna05.txt" +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit +Content-Disposition: inline; filename="donna05.txt" + +WARNING: Standard Disclaimer + +The following story is purely a work of fiction. It contains scenes +of adult nature, so if you are under 18, stop reading now. This story +contains scenes of non-consensual sexual behavior, rape, sodomy, +bondage, bestiality, and incest. If you are offended by such activities, +do not read any further. This is purely a fantasy. Any resemblance to +any person, living or dead is purely coincidental. The author is not +responsible for any damage resulting from reading this work. + + +Comments are invited via E-mail to: an376445@anon.penet.fi. + if you want more of this story. +_____________________________________________________ + + +Donna's Humiliation +A Nasty Girl Story + +by Dafney Dewitt + +Donna's Humiliation +Part 5/12 + Tommy Gets Out of School + + +Donna smoothed out her skirt, sat up straight, and +listened. She didn't move. There were no noises in the +house, only the sound of the clock ticking, and the +whimpering of her dog. She was alone. + +After several minutes, she rose unsteadily to her feet, the +lingering after affects of the orgasm making her stomach +feel queasy. Walking into the kitchen, resumed her +domestic duties. She scrapped the remains of the pancake +breakfeast into the garbage + +Picking up her son Tommy's plate, she rolled one his +uneaten pancakes up like a burrito. She grabbed it, +holding it like a cock, and squeezed softly, feeling the +softness of the pancake, letting it squish slowly between +her fingers, thinking of her young son Tommy's cock and +what she would like to do with it. + +A sudden picture flashed before her. It was Tommy. Her son. + +"Hi, Mom." said Tommy lunging into the kitchen, "I'm home +early". + +"Well, this is an unexpected surprise," Donna said abruptly +dropping the curled pancake from her hand into the garbage, +"What happened ?" + +"Our teacher was sick. Are you sick too Mom ?",Tommy asked +unexpectedly. + +"No, I feel fine, thanks." + +"Then why do you have a wet spot on the back of your skirt ?" +leered Tommy suggestively as he rubbed the tight crouch of +his jeans. + +Ashamed beyond belief. Donna turned quickly, headed for +the bathroom and looked at herself in the full length +mirror on the door. She did have a wet spot. A dark, +irregular stain, clearly visible on the black pleated +skirt. It was a blacker black strategically located below +her buttom, the result of her dripping pussy, leaking +through her skirt, being soaked up by the cotton material +of her dress. + +Her fingers fumbled with the button on the side of her +skirt, trying to remove it, when Tommy appeared at the +door. + +"It's ok, mom. Leave the skirt on." he commanded. + +Donna whirled around incensed that her son had invaded +her privacy in the bathroom, angry that he was telling her +what to do, ashamed that he had noticed the spot at all. +"Mind your own business," she shouted with all the +authority of a mother toward her kids. + +She looked him directly in the eyes, "You are going to +behave yourself," she added confidently. + +"I am your mother," she continued as her eyes slid down +his body noticing his fly was unzipped and the tiny pink +head of his flaccid penis peaking out. + +Her first reaction was to laugh out loud, to relieve the +tension she felt building up inside her, but she realized +instinctively that something horrible was wrong, a barrier +broken. Her status as a parent, the relationship between +a mother and her son, something was terribly wrong. How +could Tommy dare expose himself like this in front of her +unless he knew she wouldn't report it to her husband who +would punish him severely for the indiscretion. + +She looked up into his eyes again. His eyes locked onto +hers. She knew that he knew. + +"The VCR," was all he said, turning his back on her with +that supreme confidence of males everywhere knowing that +as a woman she would follow. + +The TV was on. + +Donna's eyes stared at the screen image of herself dressed +in white blouse and black pleated skirt laying back on the +couch, legs splayed apart, skirt hiked up to her waist, the +dog licking her, and a closeup shot of black dicks being +stroked off in front of her face twisted into an odd scream +of silent ecstasy. + +Tommy suddenly hit the remote control sound. + +An obscene blare of amplified sound burst into the living room. + +"Oohh, that's it suck me, lick me," Donna's image shouted from +the T.V. screen. "Fuck me with your tongue," she screamed. + +Between shouts could be heard the sounds of the dog's tongue +lapping into the juices of her cunt magnified to separate each +individual slurp, lick, and sucking sound. The amplified sound +making it even more obscene, vulgar, and pornographic then the +mere visual image. + +Tears of shame welled up in Donna's eyes. +"Turn off the sound," she ordered Tommy +"No Mom." +"Turn it off," she begged him. +"No." +"Please, turn it off," she gave up. +"Ok." Tommy flicked off the sound, but the muted picture +continued. + +"What do you want ?" Donna asked turning her eyes away +from the lurid pornographic images on the TV and looking +into the calm, innocent blue eyes of her son Tommy. + +In answer, his eyes flicked down toward his open fly. +Donna shook her head silently from side to side in protest. +"I'm your mother," she objected. +"On your knees Mom," Tommy commanded. + +Donna sank to her knees onto the living room carpet in +front of her son unsure of what would follow. Her mind +numb with the possibilities. She was kneeling in front +of her own son, only 16 years old, staring into his +unzipped fly with unfocused eyes. Not really seeing, not +really believing that any of this could be happening. She +waited helpless, hoping for a reprieve, maybe her son would +not use the video tape to blackmail her. Maybe he would +laugh, tell her to change her skirt; hand her the tape; +tell her to forget about the whole thing. Hoping against +hope, Donna prayed on her knees. She prayed to God that +he would not force her into this ultimate degradation. This +incestuous obscenity. Her hands at her sides. She waited +hoping for a miracle that never came. + +"Do it Mom," Tommy finally ordered. +"Do what ?" she answered innocently. +"Do me Mom," he repeated. + +Donna's lower lip trembled. She bit into it with her upper +teeth. Maybe the pain would wake her up, deliver her from +this nightmare. Tommy saved her from the making the moral +choice. He hastened the debasement. He placed both his +hands on the back of her head, forcing her mouth forward onto +the head of his penis. + +"Suck me, Mom" Tommy encouraged her. +Donna pulled him into her mouth. + +"That's it suck me, hard." +She started sucking. + +"I always knew you were a slut." +Her head bobbed back and forth. + +"Suck me off like the whore that you are." +Her tongue swirled around the head of his cock. + +"Tommy's little Mommy whore." +Donna made a series of slurping sounds. + +Tommy kept up a steady stream of vile, debasing comments +as Donna sucked off her son's cock making it grow long and +hard in her mouth. Suddenly, much sooner then she ever +would have expected, it was all over. Inexperienced with +the strong sensations produced from Donna's tongue circling +his cockhead and the hot silky smooth suction of her mouth, +he climaxed almost immediately. Tommy started spurting into +her mouth, she gagged, he pulled his cock from her mouth +dripping saliva onto her white blouse, and continued spurting +onto her face. + +A large glob of cum landed on her hair and slid down the +left side of her face onto her eyebrow. Tommy grabbed his +dick with one hand and wiped the dripping head of his cock +against her hair, using it like a dish towel. + +"Thanks, Mom" Tommy said zipping up his pants. +"I'm going to go shoot some hoops." +"See you later." + +Donna was left kneeling on the living room floor as her +son went out the front door with a basketball. Even before +the door had closed, the pale pimple faced boy with the +dead pale blue eyes appeared with the camcorder. He zoomed +in on her face capturing the still dripping strings of cum +sliding down her cheeks. The exposure was too much for +Donna, the debauchery by her own son too personal, her lip +trembled and she broke into tears. She cried shamelessly. + +The camera zoomed in on her eyes, relentlessly. + + +--------------1F3AA2355A3-- + + + +From ???@0x00001F68 Mon Sep 15 21:32:46 1997 +Path: newsfeed.san.rr.com!peerfeed!newsfeed.internetmci.com!newsxfer3.itd.umich.edu!cpk-news-hub1.bbnplanet.com!news.bbnplanet.com!howland.erols.net!newshub2.home.com!newshub1.home.com!news.home.com!news.rdc1.sdca.home.com!not-for-mail +From: Story Master +Newsgroups: alt.sex.stories +Subject: story RP- author : Daney Dewitt - Donna's Humiliation 6 - donna06.txt +Date: Fri, 05 Sep 1997 13:23:59 -0700 +Organization: http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ - The Velvet Playground +Lines: 195 +Message-ID: <34106A5F.26A8@znet.com> +NNTP-Posting-Host: cx28316-a.dt1.sdca.home.com +Mime-Version: 1.0 +Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="------------635246257588" +X-Mailer: Mozilla 3.0 (OS/2; I) +Status: N + + +This is a multi-part message in MIME format. + +--------------635246257588 +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit + +-- + /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ + The Velvet Playground -- http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ + Free Stories & Pics from our BBS, Links & Live Video + \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ + +--------------635246257588 +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii; name="donna06.txt" +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit +Content-Disposition: inline; filename="donna06.txt" + +WARNING: Standard Disclaimer + +The following story is purely a work of fiction. It contains scenes +of adult nature, so if you are under 18, stop reading now. This story +contains scenes of non-consensual sexual behavior, rape, sodomy, +bondage, bestiality, and incest. If you are offended by such activities, +do not read any further. This is purely a fantasy. Any resemblance to +any person, living or dead is purely coincidental. The author is not +responsible for any damage resulting from reading this work. + + +Comments are invited via E-mail to: an376445@anon.penet.fi. + if you want more of this story. +_________________________________________________________ + + +Donna's Humiliation +A Nasty Girl Story + +by Dafney Dewitt + +Donna's Humiliation +Part 6/12 + + Donna Takes Out the Garbage + +Gradually, Donna regained her composure. Her legs were +numb from kneeling. Her left leg had fallen asleep. She +was forced to sit on the floor until the blood rushed in +reviving it sufficiently so she could stand. + +Looking at her cum covered face in the bathroom mirror, +Donna thought, "What a slut I've become. I've got to get +a grip on myself. I've got to clean up." She washed off +her face, but not the mess in her hair. + +Donna hurried into the kitchen, finished emptying all the +plates and started the dishwasher. She grabbed the garbage +bag from under the sink and walked out the back door. + +When she first spotted the large white man with the potbelly, +and dirty undershirt at her garbage can, Donna thought it +must be garbage day. She had already started to hand him +the bag in her hand before she realized her mistake. + +"Here, wait, I have some more garbage," shouted Donna. + +Startled, the man looked up. His first instinct had been +to flee until he noticed a string of semen hanging from +Donna's hair just above her left ear. + +"Lady, don't worry, I'm not going to take your garbage, +I was just looking at it." the man mumbled in a low voice. + +"Looking at what ?" asked Donna suspiciously realizing her + mistake. This was no garage man. He smelled like a wino. + +"Looking at this," answered the man removing a discarded +aluminum TV Dinner tray from the top of the garbage can. +Underneath was a swarming mass of large black flies. + +"Watch this," said the man, waving his hands to disperse +the flies from the rotten hamburger underneath. + +Donna watched the hamburger move. At first, she didn't +understand what she was seeing. Then she realized that +the hamburger was maggot infested with small worms +wriggling in and out of the putrid meat. There were so +many worms that the entire lump of hamburger meat appeared +to be alive and move. The flies soon returned hiding the +worms from view again. Donna felt nauseated. + +"You're sick," said Donna. +The wino stared at the cum in her hair. +"Stop messing with my garbage." " +The wino backed up. +"Get out of here." +The wino hesitated. +"Leave now," Donna insisted shaking her head so hard that +the string of cum fell off. + +The wino watched it fall to the asphalt before he slowly +took a large rusty kitchen knife out of his back pocket +pointing it directly between Donna's breasts, the tip +almost touching her blouse. + +"Lady, don't tell me what to do." +Donna backed up. +"I'm tired of everyone telling me what to do." +Donna continued walking backwords. +"No bitch is going to tell me anything." +The point of the knife followed Donna all the way to the +back door of her house. + +With the knife at her throat, the wino mumbled something +which Donna didn't understand. +"What ?" she asked. +"On your knees, bitch" +"Please, don't hurt me," she begged as she knelt on the +hard concrete pad at the back door. Small bits of sandy +grit ground into her knees. + +"Unzip me." +She unzipped his pants. +"Take it out." +She reached in and withdrew a wrinkled, smelly penis that +was uncircumsized and bent to the left. It looked and +smelled as if it hadn't been washed in years. + +"Suck on it, bitch." + +She took the vile piece of flesh peeling back the foreskin +over the pale white head of the penis and stared at it. +The full light of the morning sun shining on it, made it +look like pale anemic appendage that wasn't even a part +of the wino's body. The rest of his skin was either dirty +or tanned. + +Desperate for some escape, Donna hesitated. + +"Someone might see us, wouldn't it be better to go inside +the house ?" suggested Donna. + +The wino paused for a minute, grabbed Donna by the back of +her hair and forced her mouth onto his hardening cock. He +used his handhold on her hair like an extension of his own +hand, he fucked her mouth without any cooperation from +Donna. She was just a object to be manipulated. After +ten good thrusts into her open mouth, he pulled back on +her hair, releasing his still semi-limp cock from her +mouth. It dripped her saliva down onto her black dress. + +He pulled up on her hair until she was standing and forced +her into the house. He took her directly to the bathroom, +forcing her onto her hands and knees in front of the +toilet bowel. + +"Bitch, you suck good, but I've been drinking too much +wine. I've gotta pee," mumbled the wino. + +He grabbed her hair again forcing her head over the toilet +bowel and let loose. + +A hot steamy stream of yellow urine flooded over Donna's +face and hair dripping down into the toilet. + +"Open your mouth bitch" + +Donna opened her mouth just a little and urine flowed in +onto her tongue. It was warm, yellow, vile, and smelled +of ammonia. Donna gagged and was on the verge of vomitting. +She wanted to vomit. It would redeem her, make her pure +again, redeem some of her lost dignity. If she couldn't +even puke when a wino pissed all over her face, maybe she +really was a slut, incapabble of redemption, beyond saving. +To be saved, she must feel enough shame, enough innocence to +vomit. However, the gag susbsided. The momment passed. +Donna did not vomit. She was a slut beyond salvation. + +For some reason, the wino left her there with her head over +the toilet bowel. Her hair soaked with his urine. In a +way it was the ultimate degradation. Even a garbage +scrounging wino did not think her worthy of fucking. He +would let her wash his dick off by sucking, or urinate on +her, but couldn't bother to screw her. He didn't flush the +toilet. He left the toilet seat up. Donna was disgusted. + +Exhausted by the ordeal, she stripped off her clothes, +showered, put on a nightgown, crawled into bed, and fell +asleep instantly. + +_______________________________ +Continued in Donna7.txt + +--------------635246257588-- + + + +From ???@0x00005097 Mon Sep 15 21:32:46 1997 +Path: newsfeed.san.rr.com!news1.rto!newsfeed1-hme1!newsfeed.internetmci.com!205.252.116.205!howland.erols.net!newshub2.home.com!newshub1.home.com!news.home.com!news.rdc1.sdca.home.com!not-for-mail +From: Story Master +Newsgroups: alt.sex.stories +Subject: story RP- author : Daney Dewitt - Donna's Humiliation 7 - donna07.txt +Date: Fri, 05 Sep 1997 13:24:25 -0700 +Organization: http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ - The Velvet Playground +Lines: 520 +Message-ID: <34106A79.BDB@znet.com> +NNTP-Posting-Host: cx28316-a.dt1.sdca.home.com +Mime-Version: 1.0 +Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="------------513965C5118D" +X-Mailer: Mozilla 3.0 (OS/2; I) +Status: N + + +This is a multi-part message in MIME format. + +--------------513965C5118D +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit + +-- + /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ + The Velvet Playground -- http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ + Free Stories & Pics from our BBS, Links & Live Video + \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ + +--------------513965C5118D +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii; name="donna07.txt" +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit +Content-Disposition: inline; filename="donna07.txt" + +Donna's Humiliation +Part 7/13 + + Donna's Bondage Torture + +Her nose itches. + +Donna tosses her head from side to side without waking up. +A large black fly circles slowly around her head several +times before landing on her nose again. + +Donna tries to raise her right hand to her nose. She tries +to move her left hand. Neither hand will move more then a +few inches. Suddenly, she opens her eyes, seeing the fly on +her nose. She shakes her head vigorously and it flies off. +The fly is the least of her problems, for she soon discovers +that she's tied up. Both hands and feet bound, spread out on +her own bed. The bedspread is covering her, tucked under her +chin, so she can't see the ropes, but she can feel them. + +Her mind races with fear. +"Who tied her spread-eagle to her own bed?" she wonders. +"Could it be a burglar? Could it be a rapist? + Could it be ..." + +Donna's thoughts are interrupted with the answer. + +"Good afternoon, Mom" greets her son Tommy. +"Tommy, untie me, now" +"Not quite yet, Mom." +"Tommy, please, let me loose" she softens her tone. +"That's much better, but not good enough, Mom" + +Tommy bends over the bed, looks directly into his mother's +eyes, and deftly flips off the bedspread in one quick +stroke. + +Donna gasps, "Ooh, noo" as the warm protective cover of +the bedspread is whipped off her exposing her to the +cooler air of the bedroom. Donna feels a distinct sexual +thrill flow through her body like an electric current. At +first blush, she thinks she is naked, but sighs with relief +to see she is wearing her blue nightgown. + +"Tommy, don't," Donna warns, although she has no idea what +he is going to do. + +"Please don't touch me," she adds in her nicest voice. + +Tommy smiles. + +"I wont touch you. I have a surprise for you Mommy. Don't +you want to know what's in the box?" + +Tommy rests a small cardboard box lightly on her stomach. +It doesn't weigh much. + +Donna's heart pounds. She doesn't want to know what's in +the box. Seeing the gleam of mischief in her son's eyes, she +knows that whatever is in the box is repulsive. Tommy wants +his mother to suffer, be degraded, debased, in the most vile +manner imaginable. + +"You're a big tease, Mom." +"No, I'm not." +"Your a slut." +"I'm not." +"You're not my sex slut, are you?" +"No, I'm not." +"But you will be after I'm done with you." + +Donna stops answering. She's confused. She denied everything +her son Tommy has said. Yet, she feels tricked by his +questions, as if he has forced her to say something she has +not intended. He could force her to have sex, tie her up, +rape her, but he could not control her thoughts, her +feelings. Donna feels proud. She is a victim, tied up, in +a situation out of her control. + +She is blameless. + +Whatever happens is not her fault. As long as she is master +of her own mind, she feels good about herself. Tommy may +have her at a temporary disadvantage, he may tease her, he +may tickle her, he may spank her, he may even molest her just +a little bit, but as soon as the ropes are untied he will +loose his control. He doesn't own her. He can't force her to +do things against her will. Once Donna is unbound, she will +be free to soar like a bird. He will be powerless to prevent +it. All these thoughts evaporate as if they never existed +when Tommy opens the box. + +Inside are two quart mason canning jars. One is filled with +a swarming mass of black flies. The other has a fist sized +lump of maggot infested hamburger. Both jars are tightly +covered with metal lids. Donna knows that Tommy has collected +them from the garbage can. She takes no comfort from this +knowledge. The insects seem even more repulsive inside her +bedroom. They are out-of-place, obscene, dirty looking, and +disgusting. + +"Mommy, tell me you want to be my sex slut." +Donna stares at the two jars on her tummy. +"Talk to me, Mommy." +"I'll tell you whatever you want, just get those jars off me." + +Tommy sets the two jars down on the night stand to the right +of the bed. + +"Ok, lets start talking dirty. Do it just like one of those +sexy telephone services." Tommy unzips his pants and picks +up an imaginary telephone with his left hand, and starts +stroking his cock with the other hand. + +"Hello," he talks into the phone while staring at his mother. + +"Hi there sexy boy. I'm your phone fuck slut. I'd love to + suck your cock. Do you want me to suck your cock?" + +"I'm stroking my cock. Do you want me to put it in your + mouth ?" + +"No. I mean yes, but not now or I can't talk." + +Tommy smiles are her. "Maybe, I can do something for you, he +suggests with a lewd wink. + +"Oh, yes, you could fuck me, screw me senseless" Donna says +without passion or enthusiasm. + +The mechanical, passionless nature of this conversation is +not lost on Tommy. He is not amused. + +"Goodbye, sex slut." he hangs up the telephone. + +His dime has been wasted. + +Donna looks worried. She watches her son open her bottom +dresser drawer where she keeps her underwear. He reaches to +the back of the drawer and pulls out her battery powered +Magic Fingers vibrator. Donna is mortified. How did her +teenage son know about this most intimate instrument of +sexual satisfaction. She had deliberately hidden it away +out of sight underneath her lingerie. + +Tommy quickly attaches the vibrator to his wrist and fingers +with the velcro straps. Donna knows what it's capable of +doing. She has used it many times to reach orgasm. + +Slowly, savoring the moment, Tommy lifts Donna's blue night +dress up around her waist exposing her trembling thighs. She +has on white cotton panties. For the first time, Donna is +relieved that she is tied up spread-eagle. The panties will +stay on. They can't be removed without untying her. + +Undeterred by this problem, Tommy turns on the Magic Fingers +confident in its ability to achieve his goals. First he +gently cups her pubic mound with the vibrations on low +intensity, it feels good but far from the intense sensations +Donna is use to experiencing. Privately, she begins to doubt +that her son will have the knowledge or ability to bring her +to a excite her. The vibrator will help, but it's still in the +hands of a child. A tool is only as good as the person using +it. + +Slowly, inexorably, the vibrator is having its affect on +Donna. As much as she denies it, her pussy is getting wet. +Not so much from the vibrations, as from the thoughts of all +the previous times the Magic Fingers has been used to bring +herself to climax. It is a proven electro-mechanical orgasm +aid. + +Before long, her white cotton panties are soaked through, +shamelessly revealing the outline of her pussy lips. Donna's +sex is now totally exposed to her tormentor. Tommy, switches +the vibrator knob to intermittent pulse. He places his index +finger directly on Donna's clit, pressing down relentlessly. + +Buzz. +Release. +Buzz. +Release. + +It is sexual torture. + +Donna's back starts to arch up and her legs stiffened as she +feels an orgasm building deep inside her loins. + +"Oh, yes," she moans +"Do you like that, Mom?" +"Yes, Oh, God yes." +"Can I fuck you, Mom?" +"Yes, yes, anything, just don't stop." + +Donna's hips are bucking wildly trying to increase contact +with the vibrating finger giving her so much pleasure. +Suddenly, the buzzing noise stops Tommy turns off the Magic +Fingers. + +"You bastard, turn it back on" +"Sorry, Mom" +"You can't leave me like this." + +Donna's hips are bucking wildly trying to regain some friction +on her swollen clit, but it is hopeless. She begs her son for +release. + +"Please, Tommy, I'll be good, I'll be your sex slut," she moans +with a convincing sigh. This is the kind of lust Tommy tried +to arouse with his sexy telephone call. Good vibrations fill +words with passion. Shaken by the depth of his mom's sincerity, +Tommy relents. + +"Ok, Mom, I'll get you off." + +Tommy turns the vibrator back on. The first touch of his +finger is electric. Donna shudders violently. Her pussy lips +are soaked with moisture. Tommy keeps his promise. Donna's +body is racked by a powerful series of earthquakes. + +"Ooh, fuck me," shouts Donna as she orgasms. +Tommy watches as her pussy lips spasm repeatedly from the +rolling waves of the climax. + +Her heart hammering, the vein in her neck pulsing furiously, +Tommy waits impatiently for her to calm down. Exasperated by +his mother's selfishness, Tommy finally interrupts. + +"Ok, Mom, it's my turn." + +Tommy pulls Donna's cunt soaked panties to one side and +slips two fingers into her wet pussy. He wonders what it +will be like to slide his dick into that wet hole. Sliding +his fingers in and out, he notices that her cunt lips, +engorged with blood, stay wide open. They are puckered +together like a porno star's lips in a pornographic movie, +mugging for the camera, all poised to kiss. + +"It's wet," Tommy confides to his mother, smiling as she +involuntarily shakes from an orgasm aftershock. + +Tommy knows he's turning her on. He takes his time. He +enjoys watching. Beneath him is his own mother, someone +much smarter, older, and bigger then he is, but totally +under his control. This is the same mother who use to +spank him for misbehaving. She use to control him through +pain. Now he controls her through pleasure. Beneath him, +Donna is shaking, quivering, and waiting for him to stick +his cock into her pussy. + +"It's wet," he says again maneuvering into position. +His mother waits. + +Without warning, he plunges his cock into his mother, +thrusting deeply into her hot clinging pussy, making moist +obscene sucking sounds each time he withdraws. He is +amazed at the pressure her cunt exerts on his cock. It +adheres to his cock like a sucking mouth. Which gives him +an idea. Tommy withdraws entirely, crawling over his +mother's helpless prostate body until his cock dangles in +front of her face. + +"Suck your pussy juices off my cock," he commands. + +Donna looks up at the enormous cock hanging over her face, +dripping with her own bodily secretions. Helpless, tied +hand and foot, her body spread out before him, she has no +choice. Impotent to say no, defenseless against her son's +sexual demands, Donna complies. + +She opens her mouth and sucks on his wet, syrupy cock. + +Again, Tommy suddenly withdraws and lowers himself down +into her open cunt, plunging in deeply and pulling out +with a satisfying sound of sucking liquids. From then +on he alternates quickly between fucking his mother's +cunt and thrusting into her open mouth. + +Cunt. +Mouth. +Cunt. +Mouth. + +He builds up a steady rythum until he cums. His climax +starts just as he withdraws from her pussy. He spurts a +heavy load of cum on the outside of her open cuntal lips, +moving up quickly to dump another load on her open mouth. + +"Spit it out," Tommy commands. + +Grateful for her son's concern for her welfare, Donna +spits out the cum immediately. It dribbles down the side +of her mouth into the hollow in her neck. Donna is relieved. +She hasn't been forced to swallow. Tommy has climaxed. +Sex is such a simple thing for men. Just a spurt or two +and it's finished. Now her torment is over. Tommy will +untie her and she will regain a partial semblance of +dignity. + +"Ok, you can untie me now," sighs Donna expectantly. + +"Sorry, Mom you promised to be my sex slut." + +"But, I did ...." Donna sputtered in protest clearing her +throat of the last of Tommy's jissum. + +"Not good enough, Mom," Tommy answers coldly reaching for + the glass jars. + +His dad, Donna, ruefully laments, would have been completely +satisfied with her performance. Donna's heart bursts with +pride that her son, Tommy holds her to a higher standard. + +He raises the fly filled jar, rolling it along the left +side of her face. Donna can hear the buzzing of the flies, +she can see the green iridescent bodies out of the side of +her eyes. The flies are trying desperately to escape their +glass prison. Tommy leaves her like that, in the company +of flies, with goo on her lips, jissum in her cunt, and a +furious buzzing in her hears. + +When he returns, Tommy is fully dressed again followed by +the pimple faced boy with the pale dead eyes. As always, +he carries a camcorder and starts filming. + +Tommy slowly unscrews the top of the mason jar containing +the flies. He sets the jar down on Donna's stomach and +watches. For a while nothing happens. The flies act as +if they are still trapped. Gradually, one fly escapes, +quickly the other flies follow. They disappear into the +vastness of the bedroom searching for an open window, +looking for an escape. It isn't long before the flies +return. They start settling on the nether parts of the +hapless female, tied spread-eagled to the bed. Flies are +naturally attracted to a freshly fucked vagina. They land +directly in the glistening white slime. The flies have a +green iridescent band around abdomens of their segmented +bodies. One fly walks over the edge of Donna's gaping red +pussy lips and into the love canal. It buzzes furiously, +bumping against the sides of her pussy going in deeper while +trying to find the way out. + +The video camera zooms in as the flies cluster between +Donna's legs. Climbing around her cunt lips, they tickle. +Another large fly walks over the edge, dropping into the +dark hole of the open gaping lips of Donna's vagina. It +buzzes against the walls furiously, trying to get out. Other +flies land directly in the sticky goo of the jissum, spreading +it around. Flies fly directly from Donna's cunt up to her +face. They crawl fearlessly over her face, her lips, her eyes. +At first, they fly away briefly when Donna tosses her head to +shake them off. Gradually, they stop flying off when their +tiny brains realize that this woman is helpless. Like men +they take advantage of the weaker sex. Donna's eyes shift +rapidly from side to side in panic. She hates flies and now +they are crawling all over her body, invading her most private +parts, spreading goo from her pussy to her mouth. Donna starts +begging. + +"Please, get the flies off," tossing her head to no avail. +"Help me, heaven help me," she pleads. + +Heaven looks down with benign indifference. All God's creatures +being equal. Only Tommy provides succor. + +Finally, Tommy relents. "Ok, Mom, whatever you say." + +He lifts a fly swatter and holds it over her head. + +"Noo, Nooo," Donna moans. + +She imagines the sting of the fly swatter hitting her directly +in the face. The flies smashed against her cheeks, pushed +into her lips, the crushed bodies of the flies clinging to +the filthy swatter as it descends once again toward her +reddening cheeks, being slapped by the wire meshed swatter +smearing the dead remains of the flies across her face. Her +face stinging, the beating will continue with her helpless +to prevent it. Who will want to tenderly kiss her lips? +Who will love her? Who will save the flies? + +None of this happens. + +Donna's entire body spasms involuntarily as if she has been +struck. Struck by an inopportune orgasm aftershock, she feels +debased and abandoned. Her body shudders before the first +blow is struck. She shakes uncontrollably. Tommy hesitates +confused by Donna's shaking, but is undeterred. + +Without warning, Tommy brings the fly swatter down with a +resounding smack. + +It lands directly between her legs. + +Donna screams. The fly swatter stings her most intimate +parts, repeatedly smashing the flies into her cunt, crushing +the flies into the pools of jissum, pushing the flies into +her open pussy lips. The fly swatter descends over and over. +Donna tries to brace herself for the impact, but it always +seem to catch her unprepared, vulnerable, exposed, pitiful. +Donna weeps openly, pleading, beseeching, imploring her son, +her Tommy, to stop. + +Gradually, as the flies are killed, the whipping stops, the +pain subsides, Donna collapses onto the bed. Her whole body +has broken into a sweat from the whipping between her legs. +Never in her life has she felt such exquisite pain in such +a small area of her body. Never had she expected to be +repeatedly lashed with a dirty fly swatter on her most +intimate private parts. Donna looks exhausted as if she +were recovering from a fever. + +Tommy pats Donna's sweat soaked face with a bath towel. He +soothes her sympathetically, calming her. + +"It's over Mom." +He whispers in her ear. + +"The whipping is over." +He pats the sweat from her face. + +"It's all on video." +He wipes the cum off her face and removes the dead flies +smashed between her legs. + +"You will be my sex slut," +He whispers gently patting her face. + +Once Donna's breathing slows, Tommy introduces a new horror. + +Tommy pulls a white latex glove over his right hand as if +preparing for a gynecological exam. Exhausted by screwing, +he starts unscrewing the top of the other glass mason jar. +Reaching into the jar, he slowly massages the squirming mass +of maggot infested hamburger. Keeping it inside the jar, he +brings it close to his mother's face. + +"Watch the maggots, Mommy" + +"Please don't, I'll do everything... anything, I'm your + sex slut." + +"I could take these maggots and jamb them up your cunt. + If these worms crawl through raw meat like hamburger, + just imagine how they would thrive inside your warm + wet pussy." + +Tommy squishes the infested hamburger letting it squeeze +out between the fingers of his latex glove covered hand as +worms fall back into the jar. + +"I could fist fuck you, slam these worms all the way to + your womb. You'd never get them out. Imagine Dad + withdrawing his dick after fucking you and finding a + worm on his cock." + +Donna is out of control, her whole body trembling, shaking, +like an uncontrollable epileptic seizure. She is +incoherently babbling. + +"I'll suck, fuck, you, your friends.... lick cum off +the floor...swallow your loaded condoms.... suck Donkey +Dicks .....please, I'll get you other women, let you watch +me fuck other men...." + +"What about my sister, Cindy?" interrupts Tommy. + +"Cindy ?" says Donna confused. +"Yes, mom, Cindy" +"Cindy, what ?" cries Donna +"You know...." +"You want to fuck Cindy, your own sister?" +"No, Mom, I want you to fuck Cindy." + +Tommy is joking. He had no way of knowing that his mother +will take it seriously. Under stress, Donna's mind is +receptive to any suggestion. A joke unravels the key to +her heart and mind. + +Donna collapses. How can she fuck Cindy? She isn't a man. +Only men have the power to fuck. She is pathetic, she is in +a semi-psychotic state of incoherent blubbering. Only men can +rape, not women. She is his. + +Her mind has shattered like a dish. +She will never be in control again. + +Donna has broken. + +_________________________________________________________ +This story is intended as a satire of erotic submission +tales. If you are not overcome by lust, the lampoon will +become obvious and unavoidable. + +Author Note: If you like this story, please send +an E-Mail to the author at: an376445@anon.penet.fi +_________________________________________________________ + + +--------------513965C5118D-- + + + +From ???@0x00003BFA Mon Sep 15 21:32:46 1997 +Path: newsfeed.san.rr.com!news1.rto!newsfeed1-hme1!newsfeed.internetmci.com!205.252.116.205!howland.erols.net!newshub2.home.com!newshub1.home.com!news.home.com!news.rdc1.sdca.home.com!not-for-mail +From: Story Master +Newsgroups: alt.sex.stories +Subject: story RP- author : Daney Dewitt - Donna's Humiliation 9 - donna09.txt +Date: Fri, 05 Sep 1997 13:24:57 -0700 +Organization: http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ - The Velvet Playground +Lines: 353 +Message-ID: <34106A99.1B29@znet.com> +NNTP-Posting-Host: cx28316-a.dt1.sdca.home.com +Mime-Version: 1.0 +Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="------------60F331A5271A" +X-Mailer: Mozilla 3.0 (OS/2; I) +Status: N + + +This is a multi-part message in MIME format. + +--------------60F331A5271A +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit + +-- + /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ + The Velvet Playground -- http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ + Free Stories & Pics from our BBS, Links & Live Video + \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ + +--------------60F331A5271A +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii; name="donna09.txt" +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit +Content-Disposition: inline; filename="donna09.txt" + +_________________________________________________________ +Author Note: If you like this story, please send +an E-Mail to the author at: an376445@anon.penet.fi + +I am attempting to improve the level of erotic literature +in Alt.Sex.Stories. Let me know specifically what types +of scenes you would like and they will be included in the +next story. +_________________________________________________________ + + +Comments are invited via E-mail to: an376445@anon.penet.fi. if you + want more of this story.. +_________________________________________________________ + +Donna's Humiliation +A Nasty Girl Story + +by Dafney Dewitt + +Donna's Humiliation #9 + + The Family Revenge + + +Donna doesn't want Bob to go hunting. She's afraid of being left +alone with her own children. Tommy and Cindy are like two demon +kids, just waiting for the right opportunity, the chance to get her +alone, the time to extract their revenge. Donna knows what she has +to do. It is desperation that forces her to lock the bedroom door, +confronting her husband with a choice. + +"Please, Bob," Donna begs, "Please don't leave me alone." +"But I like hunting." +"You like me too don't you," Donna says dropping her panties to her +ankles and suggestively lifting up her dress showing him her blond +thatch of pubic hair. + +"Yes, but hunting is a man thing." +"I'll show you a man thing," Donna says unzipping his pants. + +She gently fondles his dick, bending down to take it into her mouth. +Donna runs her tongue around the tip of his cock until it swells. +She pops it into her mouth with a series of quick short strokes +until it's rigid. She can feel it pulsing in her hand. Then she +lets Bob thrust it into her mouth. She has never allowed Bob oral sex +before. She wants him to know that he can use or abuse her sexually +in exchange for staying home. Bob face fucks her with a vigor Donna +hasn't felt since they were first married. Her wanton willingness +to please him, her need for him to stay, her sexual surrender, has +ignited his passions. + +Donna denies him nothing. Bob can do whatever he wants with her body. +He can fuck her face, take her from the rear, twist her nipples, +ejaculate on her face. He can do it all, if only he will stay. If he +won't abandon her for the weekend, she will sexually submit to his +desires. + +Sensing the submissive change in his wife, Bob decides to abuse her +verbally while he fucks her. + +"You're a whore" +With his meat filling her mouth, Donna shakes her head in denial. + +"You're my slut whore," Bob repeats taking advantage of her silence. +Donna opens her eyes, but can only see his pubic hair pushing into +her face. + +"Suck my cum, slut," Bob insists. With a quick jerk he withdraws +and spurts a small load of hot jizzum onto her face. + +"Turn over bitch," Bob tells her. +Donna turns, letting his cock slide a trail of cum across her face. +Bob leaves her on the bed, heading for the bathroom. + +Donna is relieved. She had been ready to submit sexually to any +demands, any perversion, as long as Bob stayed with her, as long as +he didn't leave her for a weekend of hunting, but now she is +comforted that his lust has apparently been shortlived. She is +still exhuasted from the sexual abuse inflicted on her by her son, +Tommy. She can use the rest. + +Just as Donna's body is relaxing Bob returns. +"I'm back, slut." + +Donna turns her head to see him holding a jar of Vic's Vapor Rub. +Bob plunges his index finger into the open jar of mentholated +petroleum jelly and gently inserts it into Donna's asshole. He +repeats this several times. + +Poke the jar. +Poke her anus. + +Poke the jar. +Push his fingers into her asshole + +Poke the jar. +Slide his hand into her hot ass. + +Every repetition makes her ass burn more. It keeps getting hotter, +burning like a fire inside. Gradually, Bob increases the insertion +to include all of his fingers. After he has plunged all five fingers +in and out repeatedly, he attempts pushing his entire fist into her. + +Donna screams. + +"Aaah !" she shrieked as Bob's fist buries itself into her virgin ass. +"Oh, No ! Oh, No ! She wails. + +His fist, hard and unyielding plunges into her asshole, stretching it +without relenting. It is no longer poking, sliding, or plunging into +her. Bob's fist is punching into her. His fist is being swallowed +by her enlarged anus with each blow. It makes an obscene sucking sound +with each withdrawal. Bob notices his fist making a wet "slurp" sound +on each withdrawal and a "splat" sound with each insertion. Within a +short time, he develops it into a study rythum of sound. + +"Slurp" goes his fist coming out. +"Splat" goes his fist going in. + +"Slurp" +"Splat" + +"Slurp" +"Splat" + +For Donna it quickly develops into an unrelenting rythum of sound +and pain. + +Pinned to the bed by the pumping fist, Donna feels waves of fear +ripple through her belly. This is a hard long piston, churning up +her insides. There will be no quick climax. There will be no +climax at all. Her entire ass is on fire. + +After an eternity of torment, the hand withdraws for the last time. +Donna's asshole spasms, the sphincter muscles contracting arythmically. +When they stopped her ass remains open. There is a black hole the +size of a dime. Noticing this hole, Bob reachs into his pocket, +extracts 4 dimes and 2 quarters. He flips a quarter onto her ass. +It's bigger then the opening. He slides the quarter aside and +flips a dime, but it catches on the grease of the Vic Vapor's Rub. +Grabbing the hem of Donna's dress, he uses it like a towel to wipe +the grease off her butt. The next dime flops onto her ass and slides +directly into the hole entirely disappearing. Bob flips in the +remaining 3 dimes before leaving on his hunting trip. Exhuasted by +her ordeal, Donna falls asleep. She slept dreaming that Bob is +laying on the bed beside her. She slept thinking she is safe from +harm. + +After Bob leaves, Cindy and Tommy spring into action. + +It's the pale boy with the lifeless blue eyes and angry red pimples +on his forehead who gives them the implements for their revenge. In +exchange, the boy will be allowed to videotape the torture. A modified +cattle prod with a remote control is slipped into Donna's open asshole +as she sleeps. It is a self-protection device for women called +"The Defender" capable of delivering over 100,000 volts of painful but +harmless electric shock. After the severe ass pounding by her husband's +fist she never even feels the four inch long thin metal tube slip inside +her. + +Tommy wants to activate the remote immediately, waking his mother up +with a jolt of 100,000 volts of low amperage electric shock. It will +feel as if her insides are on fire. Her body will convulse with +pain. She will be under their complete control. The boy with the +angry red pimples restrained him. If they wait, Donna's anus will +slowly contract until the prod is firmly embeded inside. By waiting, +Donna's own body will work against her, sealing the prod inside her +bowels, preventing it from accidentally being expelled. To help hurry +the process, Cindy hunted through the spice cabinet in the kitchen. +Armed with a small can of alum, she sprinkles it inside Donna's open +hole. Within a short time, the alum has puckered her anus until it +closes into a tight puckered depression. + + +"Mommy, Mommy, get up you sleepy head" +"Mommy, Mommy, it's time to get dressed" + +Donna hears the voice in the distance. It sounds familiar. She's +so tired, so exhausted that she ignores it. She feels safe and warm, +the burning in her buttom has susbsided. She feels good and just +wants to keep on sleeping. She is safe. Her husband Bob will keep +her from harm. Her husband who has pumped his fist into her ass will +stay by her, asleep at her side, until he needs more sex. She will +give it to him. + +"Mommy, Mommy, it's time to get up," the voice repeats itself until + Donna drifts into consciousness. + +It's Cindy. She's shaking her Mom's shoulder trying to wake her +up. Donna's eyes fill with fear as soon as she sees the empty bed +space beside her. + +"Where's Bob ?" +"Oh, Daddy's gone hunting." +"But he promised me he'd stay home." +"Sorry, Mom, but he's gone." + +Donna sits up in the bed. Maybe everything will be all right. +Cindy certainly doesn't look threatening. Donna decides to get +dressed and take control. + +"I'm going to get dressed, would you please give me some privacy ?" +"Ok Mom," Cindy relents leaving the bedroom. + + +Once alone, Donna quickly gets out of bed. She selects a plain +blue dress with colorful flower print. It buttons down the front +for easy access. Donna needs easy access for breast feeding the +baby. Her breasts are swollen and heavy with milk. She needs to +breast feed 5 or more times per day to reduce the swelling and +even then sometimes her breasts become so painfully full of milk +that she needs to use a breast pump to siphon off the excess. + +Donna wants to breast feed the baby but she is puzzled by the +actions of her son Tommy and daughter Cindy. It's her custom to +breast feed the baby sitting on the sofa in the living room so she +can watch the local news. Tommy is running the vacum in the living +room. This in itself is unusual. Tommy never cleans house unless +he's forced to do it. Donna is suspicious and uncertain. + +She certainly can't listen to TV over the noise of the vacum cleaner. + +"Tommy, turn off the vacum, please" Donna shouts. + +To her surprise, Tommy shuts the machine off immediately. +In the silence that follows she hears the first squeals. + +"What's that noise ?" Donna asks. +"What noise ?" Tommy answers vaguely. +"That squealing noise. +"Just some new pets." + +Curious and intrigued, Donna follows the sound of the squeals into +the kitchen. In a box shoved in the corner next to the door, she +finds a batch of squirming baby pigs. They look too small to be +away from their mother. Thye're just a bunch of cute little piglets, +the same size as a guinea pigs, but all pink, hairless, and +harmless. + +"Do you like them ?" Cindy asks +"They certainly are cute " Donna answers non-commitally. +"They're for you," says Tommy. +Donna looks at him and notices a strange gleam of mischief in his eyes. + +"Well that's nice," Donna answers, wondering what they are up to, +"But right now I have to feed the baby." + +Donna returns to the living room, turns on the TV with the remote, +unbuttons the front of her blouse, and shoves the babies puckered +lips toward her the erect nipple of her right breast. A short time +later, she would switch to the left breast. + +Just as the baby begins feeding, Tommy turns on the vacum cleaner. +"Turn it off," yells Donna, feeling at a disadvantage making +commands while her nipple is being sucked. + +Tommy twists off the rug attachment at the end of the long metal +vacum tube as if he is going to disassemble it, but he doesn't turn +off the motor. + +"Turn it off," Donna yells again. +Tommy points the metal vacum tube at her like he's holding a rifle. + +This act of defiance infuriates Donna. + +Tommy is toying with her. + +She lays the baby down carefully, covering her breast before +turning to confront Tommy. She reaches out to grab the metal +vacum tube. Donna is furious. She's going to grab his gun. She's +going to teach him a lesson. She is going to take control. + +She never sees her daughter Cindy standing behind her with the +remote control. Just as her hand closes around the metal cylinder, +Cindy presses the button. A terrible electric shock emanates from +the very bowels of Donna's body knocking her off her feet. Donna's +first thought is that the vacum cleaner has developed a short +circuit. It is total unexpected. + +The power of the shock takes her breath away. + +"Take your breasts out, Mommy," Tommy leers at her. +Donna shakes her head in refusal. + +Tommy touches the vacum tube to her left knee just as Cindy hits the +remote control button for the electro shock tube imbeded in her anus. + +Donna jerks back like she's been slapped by an invisible hand. + +An accidental short circuit does not explain Tommy's actions. + +"Take out your tits, Mommy," Tommy repeats + +With trembling fingers, Donna unbuttons her dress and scoops both +her breasts out, letting them hang over the top of her bra cups. +They hang out on top of the bra, obscenly swollen looking. The +nipple of the right breast is still turgid and red from the baby's +sucking. + +"Your breast looks swollen. Would you like some help ?" +"No, please, don't do this to me," begged Donna. + +Tommy ignores her pleas. + +He waves the vacum cleaner tube back and forth in front of her like +a python, a snake bobbing from left to right waiting to strike. + +Tommy pushes it closer and closer to her chest until she can feel +the suction. Suddenly, without warning the end of the vacum sucks +up her right nipple. Donna braces herself expecting another heart +rendering shock, but none comes. The only change is in the hum of +the vacum cleaner motor switching to a high pitched wine as the +machine attempts to suck up her breast. + +"Vooom, Varoom," + +The sound of the vacum changes to a high pitched wine as it tries +to suck in Donna's Breast. Pulling back on the vacum, Tommy +stretches the breast until the suction connection breaks off +allowing the unobstructed flow of air to return the normal deep +humming sound of the engine. + +Donna looks at Tommy with a new fear, a new respect. He seems to +possess a strange unknown power that totally unerves her. This is +something new and different. A strange force that she doesn't +understand. He can administer an electrifying pain, a pain so +intense it appears to originate from deep within her bowels. The +cause of the pain is a mystery. It's the unknown that makes it +all the more fearful. +__________________________________________________ + +--------------60F331A5271A-- + + + +From ???@0x00002D83 Mon Sep 15 21:32:46 1997 +Path: newsfeed.san.rr.com!news1.rto!newsfeed1-hme1!newsfeed.internetmci.com!205.252.116.205!howland.erols.net!newshub2.home.com!newshub1.home.com!news.home.com!news.rdc1.sdca.home.com!not-for-mail +From: Story Master +Newsgroups: alt.sex.stories +Subject: story RP- author : Daney Dewitt - Donna's Humiliation 10 - donna10.txt +Date: Fri, 05 Sep 1997 13:25:19 -0700 +Organization: http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ - The Velvet Playground +Lines: 258 +Message-ID: <34106AAF.7B52@znet.com> +NNTP-Posting-Host: cx28316-a.dt1.sdca.home.com +Mime-Version: 1.0 +Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="------------366C139DEEE" +X-Mailer: Mozilla 3.0 (OS/2; I) +Status: N + + +This is a multi-part message in MIME format. + +--------------366C139DEEE +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit + +-- + /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ + The Velvet Playground -- http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ + Free Stories & Pics from our BBS, Links & Live Video + \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ + +--------------366C139DEEE +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii; name="donna10.txt" +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit +Content-Disposition: inline; filename="donna10.txt" + +_________________________________________________________ +Author Note: If you like this story, please send +an E-Mail to the author at: an376445@anon.penet.fi + +I am attempting to improve the level of erotic literature +in Alt.Sex.Stories. Let me know specifically what types +of scenes you would like and they will be included in the +next story. +_________________________________________________________ + +By Dafney Dewitt +A Nasty Girl Story + +Donna's Humiliation #10 + The Family Revenge + + +Tommy rehearses his actions as if he's engaged in some sport. +He concentrates on his efforts. He keeps repeating himself. + +"They need to be longer." +"They need more stretching." + +She watches as Tommy pulls back on the vacum cleaner like he's +reeling in a fish. The hum of the motor lowering each time the +suction is broken leaving a nasty red ring around her nipple where +the vacum has sucked in her flesh. Her milk heavy breasts stretch +a little longer with each wave of the metal wand. + +"Spread your legs" +Donna hesitates. + +Like an alien intruder, the metal wand of the vacum swings between +her knees. The threat of electric shock hangs heavy in the air. In +a gentle arc that gradually widens, the tube swings back and forth, +forcing Donna to spread her legs wider and wider. Fearful of being +shocked again, Donna spreads her legs until they are fully open. + +"Lift your dress." +Donna lifts her dress up to her waist exposing her panties. +"Push your panties to one side" +Donna catches the edge of her panties with two fingers and pulls to +the left exposing the lips of her vulva." + +Tommy lowers the vacum tube between her legs. He is careful not +to touch her. The power of the sucking air makes her pussy lips +flutter with an intense vibration. + +"Please, don't do that" Donna moans. +Tommy keeps the tube between her legs. + +"Blurrp, Slurrp," The obscene sucking sound continues unrelentingly. + +"Oh, my God," Donna yells, on the brink of orgasm. + +Just before she can climax, Tommy withdraws the vacum pointing it +at her left breast sucking up her nipple, extending both breasts +and nipples out to new lengths. + +Tommy alternates between vibrating her pussy lips to sucking the +milk out of her breasts. The vacum cleaner abusing her body like +some strange snake. With every withdrawal it drips milk onto her +dress and leaves bright red rings around her nipples. + +Donna's body shudders into an involuntary climax forced to orgasm +by the double sucking action on her breast and pussy. + +Tommy turns off the vacum cleaner when he notices Donna's body +stiffen with a climatic spasm. He has no intention of giving her +further pleasure. + +"Button up your blouse and walk into the living room." Tommy tells + her. + +Donna stuffs her swollen breasts back into her bra and buttons her +blouse. She rises from the sofa as if she were resigned to her +continued humiliation. Carefully concealing her anger, Donna walks +toward the dining room. She glances back at Tommy willing him with +her mind to follow her. Donna draws him away from the instrument +of torture. She draws him away from the vacum cleaner. + +Tommy follows Donna until he is five feet, seven feet, and finally +10 feet away from the vacum torture machine. + +Without warning, Donna turns on Tommy. + +"You little bastard," she shouts grabbing Tommy by the neck. + +Cindy watches with the remote control in her hand curious as to +what her mother will do next. Tommy tries ducking to escape his +mother's grasp. He is too slow, totally taken by surprise. + +Both of Donna's hands tighten around his neck. + +"I'm going to strangle you," Donna threatens. + +Both her hands tighten around Tommy's neck and begin throttling +him. Donna's body surges with a power she didn't know she had. +Tommy can't break his mother's grip. It feels as if she's been +possessed with the power of demons. + +Cindy is enjoying herself. She feels powerful like she's holding +the remote control for some advanced 3-D Holographic Television Show. +She wants Tommy to suffer. She wants him to remember this attempt +to strangle him. Later, when he remembers how Donna has choked him, he +will show her no mercy. Cindy waits to press the button. + +Tommy is certain that his mother intends to kill him. He can't +breathe. The room is starting to spin. His legs are wobbly. + +The electric shock hits Donna just before Tommy starts to pass out. + +"Aargh !," Donna screams totally taken by surprise +Donna's hands fly from Tommy's neck. + +Tommy rubs his neck gasping for breath. +"On your feet bitch," he gasps. + +Donna staggers to her feet. + +"Take out both your breasts." +Donna unbottons her blouse and takes both breasts out of +their cups letting them hang out over the top of her bra. +She stands there until Tommy's ragged breathing calms down. + +"You will not touch me again, bitch" Tommy shouts slapping +her exposed breasts with his hand like you would slap a face. + +Donna confused, and demoralized by what seems to have been a +unexpected return of Tommy's power over her, stands before him +without resistence. Her eyes are focused on the vacum cleaner +with a look of hopeless incomprehension. + +"You will never touch me again, bitch," says Tommy, slapping + her first with the front of his hand and then returning the + slap with the back of his hand. + +Tears well up in Donna's eyes from the breast pain. +"Not my breasts, hit me anywhere, not my breasts ...," she begs. + +Tommy keeps slapping until Donna's breasts are red. The red welts +left by his fingers are clearly visible on her breasts. Donna's +eyes fill with tears from the beating on her milk swollen breasts. + +Carried away by his anger, Tommy slaps at the breasts repeatedly +until they are swaying in rythum back and forth like a punching +bag. He continues hitting her until his hand gets tired. + +Tommy finally relents. +"Crawl into the Dinning Room like a cow and lay down on the table" + +Donna heads for the dining room, on all fours, like a cow. She +is totally subdued. Her breasts sway back and forth as she crawls +on all fours. After crawling into the living room, she makes one +last inadequate attempt to preserve the remnants of her dignity as +a mother, and as a woman, by unconsciously tucking her painful +breasts back into her bra and buttoning up the front of her dress. All +thoughts of resistence literally beaten out of her. Her entire +world is focused on her aching breasts. + +The dining room table has been pulled apart to make room for a +center leaf. Instead of inserting another leaf three of the leaves +have been shoved to one end leaving a 5 inch gap on the far end. +Donna is forced to lay on the table so her breasts hang through +the gap between table leaves. Her body is full supported except +for her breasts. + +Cindy crawls under the table and unbuttons her mother's dress. +Gently, she removes both breasts from the bra cups and lets the +heavy mounds jiggle out hanging freely. + +What new torture will they subject her to? she wonders. Will +they try to smash her milk heavy hanging breasts by closing the +table together like some gigantic clothes pin ? + +Despite Donna's speculations, no attempt is made to close the +table. Her breasts hang freely, unpinched, unbeaten, and +unmolested. Donna rests. + +Cindy moves the card board box into the living room beneath the +dinner table. Donna can hear the squealing piglets but can's see +them. Tommy takes a large dictionary down from the bookshelf and +several other large books. He places them on the floor beneath +the table. It takes some adjusting before the cardboard box is +the right height. + +The hungry piglets soon discover the two mounds hanging down into +their box and the two nipples. They begin a frenzy of sucking to +get at the milk. There are 8 piglets and only two nipples to suck. +On an adult mother sow, they would have a choice of up to 12 tits +to suckle on. They fight each other. + +Donna feels them pulling, bitting on her nipples, sucking out the +milk meant for her baby. The constantly changing mouths of the +piglets struggling to suck the milk from her intensifies into a +wild feeding frenzy. The competition between the piglets continues +for hours. Donna has nothing to mark the time except the squealing +sounds of the pigs and constant pulling on her nipples. She passes +out in an attempt to escape the horrible reality. + +Donna's dreams are filled with sounds of barn animals. She is +laying on a pile of hay in the corner of a barn surrounded by a +mass of squealing pigs. Her breasts are fully exposed to the +mindless hungry animals. She has been reduced to a human suck +station for pigs. + +The pale blue eyed boy films the dreamy far off look on her face, +dropping the camera below the table for shots of the piglets +swarming over her hanging breasts. The close up zoom shots are +almost unrecognizeable. The pink hairless pigs, squirming over +the mounds, pulling their bodies out of the box suspended only +by their sucking mouths attached to the nipples, it is a surreal +scene. It is not clear at all if you are looking at the magnified +nipples of some animal or if they are human breasts. Only the +clear shots of Donna's face make it obvious. + +The contented cow look on Donna's face is too much for Cindy. She +goes into the kitchen, takes a can of with a picture of fried +chicken on it out of a cupboard, and puts in on the floor. It's a +can of Crisco. She takes the mop from behind the door, turns it +upside down, smashing the handle into the white Crisco lard. + +Tit torture is not enough for Cindy. She repeatedly jabs the mop +handle into the can of Crisco until it is coated white with goo. +and shoves it up Donna's cunt while asking Tommy to unzip and +force Donna to suck his dick. + + +Tiring of this, Tommy suggests that they make the torture automatic. +They blindfold Donna and lightly very gently, tickling her with +some sort of leaves. It feels good. She doesn't know they're +using clear plastic gloves on their hands to hold it. She can't +see them. She doesn't know that in about a half hour her breasts +will feel like they're on fire. She doesn't know they are brushing +her breasts with poison ivy. + + +--------------366C139DEEE-- + + + +From ???@0x00003460 Mon Sep 15 21:32:46 1997 +Path: newsfeed.san.rr.com!news1.rto!newsfeed1-hme1!newsfeed.internetmci.com!205.252.116.205!howland.erols.net!newshub2.home.com!newshub1.home.com!news.home.com!news.rdc1.sdca.home.com!not-for-mail +From: Story Master +Newsgroups: alt.sex.stories +Subject: story RP- author : Daney Dewitt - Donna's Humiliation 11 - donna11.txt +Date: Fri, 05 Sep 1997 13:25:35 -0700 +Organization: http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ - The Velvet Playground +Lines: 337 +Message-ID: <34106ABF.1063@znet.com> +NNTP-Posting-Host: cx28316-a.dt1.sdca.home.com +Mime-Version: 1.0 +Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="------------625868564F12" +X-Mailer: Mozilla 3.0 (OS/2; I) +Status: N + + +This is a multi-part message in MIME format. + +--------------625868564F12 +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit + +-- + /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ + The Velvet Playground -- http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ + Free Stories & Pics from our BBS, Links & Live Video + \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ + +--------------625868564F12 +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii; name="donna11.txt" +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit +Content-Disposition: inline; filename="donna11.txt" + +Donna's Humiliation +A Nasty Girl Story + +by Dafney Dewitt + +Donna's Humiliation + +______________________________________________ + Part 11 + + Donna's Gang Bang Rape + +Bob's hunting trip has been unsuccessful. Somehow he feels less +a man for returning without a deer. It is a man's job to hunt, +to track down the prey. Women stayed at home or became prey +themselves. There is a sensual thrill to the hunt. It isn't just +in the killing. The kill is actually a disappointment. There is +a connection, an invisible bound of fear between hunter and prey. +You can see it in the eyes of the prey. It's a quick flick of +the eyes, a slight movement of the head. If you don't know what +your looking for, it's easy to miss, but once you experience the +thrill of the hunt you can never forget it. It's the fear of being +pursued. The fear of being tracked by a force more powerful then +yourself, the fear of being caught, and the ultimate fear of +submission. It is these intimate moments when the prey conects +with the hunter that Bob savors the most. He understands the bond +between hunter and prey. He enjoys the torture of pursuit. + +Tonight, Bob is going to make his dear Donna the prey to make up +for his disappointment with deer. + +This isn't a conscious decision. Somewhere in the back of his +mind, he knows that Donna is taunting him, thinking him less a +man for returning empty handed. He intends to teach her a lesson, +to show her just how very wrong she is by ravaging her sexually. +He will go a bit beyond the normal limits. + +Bob always feels in control, able to handle any crisis. + +That is why the rape comes as such a surprise. + +Bob is a bit old fashioned. He feels that his home is his castle, +and his wife is part of his property. He is quick to defend her +from the catcalls of other men on the street. He loves Donna. He +loves his kids. He thinks of himself as her protector and provider. +Maybe he doesn't always bring home the bacon, but he could still +feed her the pork. + + +It is late. A dark and moonless night. Cindy & Tommy have already +gone upstairs to bed. The doorbell rings a little after 11:30 pm. + + "Honey, would you see who's at the door ?" asks Donna. + "I'm going," said Bob always willing to act as the protector. + Bob turns on the porch light before opening the front door. + + "Step back," said the stranger. + + Bob slowly steps back into his house. + + A black teenager walks toward Bob. A thin short boy wearing a + white T-Shirt and blue jeans. He couldn't have weighed more then + 135 pounds. Bob could easily pick him up and toss him out of his + house. He doesn't care much for blacks. He isn't prejudiced or + anything. He just doesn't like the way they smell. He doesn't + like the way they sniff after white women on the streets downtown + like dogs following a sexual scent. He doesn't like the way they + date white women. They're like animals. Bob would have never + invited blacks into his house. + + The sawed off shotgun pointed at his face serves as the black + boy's invitation. + + Bob forces himself to move his eyes from the barrel to the base + of the gun. The safety is off and the black finger is inside + the trigger guard. + + Bob is almost ready to take the risk, to grab the end of the + shotgun shoving it to oneside, but as he takes the second step + backwards a huge man dressed like a Hell's Angel Biker steps + through the front door. It's at this moment that Bob realizes + he is no longer a hunter, but merely prey. + + They waste no time in tying Bob up to a kitchen chair, and gagging + him. No attempt is made to blindfold him. They position his chair + so that he is facing away from the bedroom. + + "Bob, is that you ?" + + He can hear the uncertainty in his wife's voice as she calls out + from the safety of their marital bedroom. His wife is like a + deer bedded down in the brush feeling safe but uncertain. + + This strange salt and pepper combination of the huge white biker + and the slim black teenager has Bob puzzled. He imagines they + are an odd residential robbery team. The biker and black teenager + watch him. What happens next totally takes Bob by surprise. + + A uniformed police officer walks through his front door, tips his + hat in greeting toward the biker, and continues on into the + bedroom. Bob hears the bedroom door open. He is tied up facing + away from the door so he can see nothing, but hear everything. + + "Excuse me, Miss, Police Department." + + "What are you doing in my bedroom ?" + + Donna is worried. She sits up in bed clutching her nightgown + around her breasts. The voices have not returned. She is + uncertain what to do next. + + "We got a call of a disturbance." + + "Where's my husband ?" + + "I'm sorry, but in all cases of domestic disturbance . . ." + + "No, Ooh, noo," + + ". . . we are forced to detain the husband." + + "What do you want with me ?" + + "Just a statement." + + "Like what ?" + + "Well...like, was he hitting you ?" + + "No, he wasn't." + + "Not so fast," says the policeman. + + He pulls out a black nightstick from his duty belt. Using it + for a pointer, the policeman resumes his questioning. + + "Did he hit you here ?" says the policeman pointing to Donna's + left breast. + + "No." + + "Are you certain ?" + + Bob's concentration on the conversation coming from his bedroom + becomes obsessive. He wants to see; he wants to know; he doen't + want to be reduced to just listening like a sex telephone freak. + + "Yes." + + "Are you telling me that it's not even sore ?" + + The police officer pushes his nightstick into Donna's breast in + a circular motion, pressing hard to make his point. + + "No, I mean yes. Yes, it is sore." + + To be truthful, Donna's breasts ached. They were sore and tender + beyond belief. The probing motions of nightstick make Donna's + breast throb. + + "Oh, so he didn't hit you, but now you admit that you're sore." + + "Well, I, I'm .... I"m a mother," Donna finally replies in way of + explanation. + + She is embarrassed. She doesn't want to tell the police officer + that her breasts are sore because of pigs sucking on them. + + "Well, now we're getting to the truth." + + "No, you don't understand." + + "Are you sore down here ?" The officer suddenly thrusts the + nightstick into the covers between Donna's legs. + + "Oooh, yeesss." Donna yelps out moving back toward the headboard + of the bed to avoid the hard probing actions of the nighstick. + + Outside the bedroom door, Bob is absolutely livid. He is tense + beyond belief, straining against the ropes, waiting for the + inevitable, hoping for a rescue, concentrating on each word + and every sound. + + "Now, I'm starting to understand. + + "No, the truth is, it wasn't Bob." + + "Who's Bob ?" + + "My husband." + + "If it wasn't your husband, who was it ?" + + Donna shakes her head silently from side to side refusing to + answer. The police officer jerks the protective bedcovers off + Donna and jabs the nightstick between her legs until it hits + home leaving Donna gasping. + + "Who was it ?" + + "It was my son, Tommy," Donna pants whincing with pain. + + Outside, Bob can't believe what is happening. Is Donna lying to + protect him ? Is she saying this so he won't go to jail for + Domestic Abuse ? Maybe, the police officer is forcing her to + say these things. Or maybe, Donna did have an incestuous affair + with her own son. With a pride reserved for men, Bob wants to + believe that he is the one who made Donna sore. He remembers + the fist fucking he gave his wife. It has to have been him who + made her sore. No one could have devastated Donna like he did. + He is convinced she is lying. She has to be lying. + + "You're lying," says the policeman. + + "No, I'm telling the truth." + + "You're lying to save your husband." + + "Yes, I want to save my husband, but only the truth can save + a marriage." + + "Prove it." + + "There's a video tape hidden in the bookself behind the TV set." + + Unseen by Donna the small black boy goes into the living room + searching behind the books and finds the video tape. He turns + the sound on the TV off and puts the tape in the VCR machine. + The biker lifts up Bob, chair and all and positions him so he + can view the television. + + After a long silent pause, the police officer answers slowly + pronouncing each word with special emphasis. + + "I.. think ..you're.. lying.. because.. you.. love.. your.. husband." + + "I do, I do love my husband," Donna nods vigorously in agreement. + + Bob stares at the TV screen with betrayed eyes watching his own + wife, Donna suck the dripping cum off her son Tommy's cock. He + notices the smile on Donna's face. The same smile quirky, tilt + of the head, smile she gives him when they finish making love. + This is no faked video. His wife was getting off on sucking + Tommy's cock. At the same time, he can hear Donna in the next + room saying that she loves him. + + "Do you love your husband enough to prove your love ?" + + "I don't need to prove my love, Bob knows I love him." + + Bob watches the TV as Tommy's hand enters Donna's cum smeared + pussy carefully cupping the jissum with his fingers, Tommy brings + it up to Donna's mouth, and she licks his fingers clean. + + "Are you sure you don't need to prove your love ?" says the + police officer pushing the nightstick beneath the strap of + Donna's nightgown and forcing it down over her shoulder exposing + the top of her breast. + + "Yes, I'm sure," says Donna thinking of how she submitted to her + husband fist fucking her in the ass so he wouldn't go hunting. + Donna is certain that her actions prove she loves her husband. + + "You would never betray your husband by degrading him ?" + + "Oh, no, I would never do that," Donna shakes her head innocently. + + Bob watches the TV as Donna jacks off their dog, Bowser, tips the + waterbowl to her lips and drinks the dog cum. Donna goes directly + to the front door and kisses him goodbye with her mouth full of + dog goo. Bob's reaction is visceral. He almost vomits into the + gag. + + "You're sure you would never betray your husband ?" + + "Yes, I'm positive." + + Bob watches the TV as Donna eats out the pussy of his daughter + Cindy who is tied to a chair in the kitchen while Bowser, their + dog, humps Donna from behind. He sees the dog's toenails leave + scratches on Donna's sides. The dog humps her with a glassy-eyed + stare, panting from the exertion, his tongue drooling saliva down + Donna's back. + + "Well, ok." The police officer relents. + + "Is that all ?" Donna asks re-assuming an assertive attitude. + + Not all of Bob's body is tied. He notices that despite himself + his cock seems to have a mind of its own. It is growing hard. + He has a raging hard-on from watching the dog fuck his wife. + + "Yes, but we'll need to confirm your answers with your husband." + + The black boy hits the remote control shutting off the TV. Bob's + mind is devastated by what he has seen and heard. + + The biker removes the gag from Bob's mouth. + + Bob remains silent. Just ten minutes earlier, before the TV had + been turned on, Bob could think of a million things to say, and + warning to shout. Now, he was stunned speechless. He was in + shock from seeing too much, seeing an unimaginable evil beyond + any husband's worst nightmares, and hearing his wife's denials. + + Bob no longer looks upon the black boy and biker as enemies. + True they forced their way into his house. Housebreaking is a + vicious act, but it seems to have been for a greater good. This + odd couple is opening up his eyes to the greater evil of his + wife, Donna. + +______________________________________________________ +Author Note: If you like this story, please send +an E-Mail to the author at: an376445@anon.penet.fi + + +--------------625868564F12-- + + + +From ???@0x00001C8E Mon Sep 15 21:32:46 1997 +Path: newsfeed.san.rr.com!news1.rto!newsfeed1-hme1!newsfeed.internetmci.com!205.252.116.205!howland.erols.net!newshub2.home.com!newshub1.home.com!news.home.com!news.rdc1.sdca.home.com!not-for-mail +From: Story Master +Newsgroups: alt.sex.stories +Subject: story RP- author : Daney Dewitt - Donna's Humiliation 12 - donna12.txt +Date: Fri, 05 Sep 1997 13:25:56 -0700 +Organization: http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ - The Velvet Playground +Lines: 190 +Message-ID: <34106AD4.797D@znet.com> +NNTP-Posting-Host: cx28316-a.dt1.sdca.home.com +Mime-Version: 1.0 +Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="------------6A44626C4A4D" +X-Mailer: Mozilla 3.0 (OS/2; I) +Status: N + + +This is a multi-part message in MIME format. + +--------------6A44626C4A4D +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit + +-- + /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ + The Velvet Playground -- http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ + Free Stories & Pics from our BBS, Links & Live Video + \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ + +--------------6A44626C4A4D +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii; name="donna12.txt" +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit +Content-Disposition: inline; filename="donna12.txt" + +____________________________________________________ +Author Note: If you like this story, please send +an E-Mail to the author at: an376445@anon.penet.fi + +I am attempting to improve the level of erotic literature +in Alt.Sex.Stories. Let me know specifically what types +of scenes you would like and they will be included in the +next story. +____________________________________________________ + +Donna's Humiliation +A Nasty Girl Story + +by Dafney Dewitt + +This story is intended as a satire of erotic submission +tales. If you are not overcome by lust, the lampoon will +become obvious and unavoidable. + +Donna's Humiliation +Part #12 + + Donna's Gang Bang Rape + + + Unable to lift him, the police officer drags Bob into the + bedroom still bound to the chair to continue the questioning. + + "Well, Bob, your wife Donna has made a number of allegations." + + "Yes," says Bob staring at Donna. + + "She claims that your son Tommy took advantage of her, but + that she truly loves you, and does not need to prove it." + + "Yes," says Bob staring at his wife with a blank numbness. + + "Well, do you agree ?" + + "Agree ?" Bob's mind is clearly not tracking the thread + of conversation. + + "Yes, don't you think the burden of proof lies with your wife ?" + + "Untie me." + + "That's not the answer. Only the truth will set you free." + + "Untie me, now." + + "Ok." + + Donna's eyes flicker with fear. First she was afraid when + she heard her husband had been detained. Now she's afraid + because the police officer is releasing him. As the ropes + drop away from her husband, Donna shrinks farther and + farther away to the far side of the bed. Donna knows Bob + has a bad temper. She isn't certain what Bob might do. She + is certain she doesn't want to be around when he does it. + + Bob stands up. He walks over to the bed, grabs Donna by + the wrist and drags her off the bed forcing her to stand. + + "The police officer's right. We need proof." + + Donna's mind races with fear. Her eyes flick unexpectedly + to the police officer's fly. It is partially unzipped. + Donna sinks to her knees in front of the police officer, + thinking the worst, expecting no better. Thinking she will + be forced to suck the policeman's cock, she assumes the + position. Before she can reach for his zipper, Donna is + stopped. + + "We need proof," repeats Bob jerking Donna to her feet. + + "I thought ...." begins Donna, clearly so embarrassed by + her thoughts that she fails to complete them. + + "Where is the video tape ?" asks Bob pushing Donna out + of the bedroom. + + Donna stumbles into the living room followed by the + police officer and her husband. She gets on her knees a + second time, but this time she is facing the bookshelf. + She searches this wall of knowledge frantically for the + tape, her hands working the books like she would a cock, + jerking them off onto the floor. + + "Where's the evidence ?" asks the police officer. + + Without thinking, Donna jerks off the best of men. + Shakespeare, Aldous Huxley, Betrand Russell . . . all + these books fall out onto the floor as Donna continues + her mindless pursuit of truth. + + "Where's the tape ?" asks her husband. + + Surrounded by fallen books, her legs splayed out on + the floor, Donna looks up at her tormentors who remain + unsatisfied by her efforts. + + It would be easier for Donna to simply suck the + officer's cock. She is in an impossible position, + forced to prove she engaged in an incestuous affair + with her own son, or viewed as a liar by her husband. + In her heart, Donna knows she's a slut. What pains + her is to be thought of as a lying slut. The least + she can do is cling to the dignity of honesty. She + truly wants to be an honest slut. Like women + everywhere, she sees a way out. + + Donna suddenly changes her mind. + + "I was lying. There is no tape. I never did anything + bad with Tommy," Donna says. + + Bob looks down on Donna with contempt. He can no longer + believe anything. Unknown to Donna, he has already viewed + the tapes. He has already seen the evidence. All he is + left with is the chance to teach Donna a lesson. She is + much to big to spank. The punishment must fit the crime. + He looks to the police officer for help. + + Pulling up on his duty belt, the police officer swaggers + over to Donna rubbing his big black nightstick. + + "You're lying Donna. You're lying, aren't you ?" + + "No, I'm telling the truth," lies Donna attempting to hide + her legs underneath her inadequate nightgown. + + "Did you enjoy sucking Tommy's cock or ... ?" + + To illustrate his question, the police officer takes the + black baton, placing it between his legs, and makes a + gesture like he's masturbating in Donna's face. + + "No, Noo, Noooo," says Donna shaking her head. + + "...or would you rather suck a black cock ?" + + As if on cue, the black teenager walks out of the kitchen + and stands in front of Donna. A black silence fills the + room. + + "Sit back on the sofa Bob, you're going to enjoy this." + says the police officer. + + The silence is replaced by the sound of a zipper, by black + hands slapping the jiggling flesh of Donna's breasts, of + her nightgown tearing, and the wet fluid sounds of sucking. + + "Suck that black cock you bitch," says the police officer + as he plunges his nightstick into Donna's pussy. She is + positioned on all fours sucking on the black teenager's long + thin cock and being impaled from the rear by the long hard + baton. + + The policeman times his thrusts to coincide with Donna's + sucking. Each time the black penis is fully buried in her + mouth, the officer jabs the nightstick all the way into her + cunt. + + Bob watches from the sofa. + + The rape proceeds in stages. It is not quick, brutal or + predictable. +________________________________________________________ + +--------------6A44626C4A4D-- + + + +From ???@0x000035BF Mon Sep 15 21:32:46 1997 +Path: newsfeed.san.rr.com!news1.rto!newsfeed1-hme1!newsfeed.internetmci.com!205.252.116.205!howland.erols.net!newshub2.home.com!newshub1.home.com!news.home.com!news.rdc1.sdca.home.com!not-for-mail +From: Story Master +Newsgroups: alt.sex.stories +Subject: story RP- author : Daney Dewitt - Donna's Humiliation 13 - donna13.txt +Date: Fri, 05 Sep 1997 13:26:12 -0700 +Organization: http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ - The Velvet Playground +Lines: 407 +Message-ID: <34106AE4.5E93@znet.com> +NNTP-Posting-Host: cx28316-a.dt1.sdca.home.com +Mime-Version: 1.0 +Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary="------------4BE269A546E8" +X-Mailer: Mozilla 3.0 (OS/2; I) +Status: N + + +This is a multi-part message in MIME format. + +--------------4BE269A546E8 +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit + +-- + /\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\ + The Velvet Playground -- http://sd.znet.com/~velvet/ + Free Stories & Pics from our BBS, Links & Live Video + \/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/\/ + +--------------4BE269A546E8 +Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii; name="donna13.txt" +Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit +Content-Disposition: inline; filename="donna13.txt" + +Author Note: If you like this story, please send +an E-Mail to the author at: an376445@anon.penet.fi + +I am attempting to improve the level of erotic +literature in Alt.Sex.Stories. Let me know +specifically what types of scenes you would like +and they will be included in the next story. +___________________________________________________ + + +Donna's Humiliation +A Nasty Girl Story + +by Dafney Dewitt + +Donna's Humiliation + +The End Of the Begining + + Part 13 (The Unlucky Last Part) + + +The rape proceeds in stages. It is not quick, brutal +or predictable. A total of 13 hundred men abuse Donna +before it is over. This is an unlucky number, but not +an unusual number for Donna part #13. + +Sitting on the sofa, Bob experiences a wide range of +emotions. He wants Donna punished. He feels betrayed. +He knows she has lied to him. He wants her to pay +for being a slut. Donna belongs to him. Bob feels it +is his choice, his duty, to put her in her place. +He will show her who's the boss. + +Bob watches as the police officer removes the baton +from Donna's ass allowing the Biker to approach Donna +from the rear. He has a huge member. Donna begins to +moan. The bitch is getting aroused. + +"Stop it ! Stop ! Stop ! Stop !" Bob yells from the +sofa. + +Bob is torn by conflicting emotions. +The Biker freezes. + +He is outraged at the invasion of his privacy, of his +home, of his wife. At first, he wants to fight, to +kill the policeman, the biker, and the black kid, and +stop the assault, but the video tapes have revealed +to him an unknown darker side of his wife. He is +thankful to the black teenager, the biker, and the +policeman for revealing the true nature of his wife. + +"Stop ! Stop ! Stop !" Bob yells. + +"This is Wrong !, wrong !, wrong !," He repeats his +words like he is talking to children to get his point +across. + +Bob knows that sexually excited men have shrunken +brains centered in their other little heads. They +are pleasure driven and have trouble thinking. +Repetition is the cure. Climax is the end. Bob has +seen, heard, and been down this path himself many +times before. It is a road to boredom. Fun and +pleasurable while making the trip but ultimately +too predictable. + +A predictable punishment is no fun, is not true +punishment. Donna knows the begining, middle, and +end. True punishment would confuse all these. A +real punishment for the slut will be to scramble her +sense of order, make her loose her balance, take away +the sexual roadmaps, push her into the unknown, a +sexual TwiLight Zone of dread, suspense, and total +surprise. An unending punishment would be best. + +"First we plug her ears," Bob says + +On all fours, waiting for the biker to plunge his +giant cock into her rear, Donna turns her head +staring at her husband with a newly found respect. + +"I've had all my holes plugged, but never my ears," +Donna tells Bob. "Even when I was made airtight +with men in my mouth, ass, and cunt my ears weren't +plugged. I've even been blindfolded, but no one has +fucked my ears." + +"Shut up bitch," says the biker who is clearly + frustrated. He gets up off the floor and joins + the other men in a huddle. + +"I can't wait for you to stick it in my ears," says + Donna oozing with expectation for the kinky and + bizarre. + + "You stupid cunt," says the police officer. + "No one is going to insert anything in you." + +"Here you go," says Bob grabbing the sound protector + ear muffs he uses during target practice, and + slipping them over Donna's Head. + + Donna's world falls silent. + +She watches as the men talk about things that women +never hear. Ignoring her. She raises her nightgown +exposing her thighs to get their attention back. The +Biker smiles. She raises it higher. + +Then she notices that the biker is smiling at the +other men not at her. All the men are smiling now. +Donna drops her nightgown. + +Let's leave Donna's world and return to the world +of men, sound, and fury. + +"What we need to do," says Bob carefully, "is the + unexpected." + +"Lookat tha bitch, she's beggin' for it." + The Biker smiles at Donna. + +"We're gonna mind fuck her," says Bob returning +the biker's smile. Suddenly, all the men smile +together like small boys at a circle jerk. + + Donna drops her nightgown. + +"Like a reverse gang bang ?" asks the police + officer. + +"Yes," says Bob "No woman would ever expect a + reverse gang bang." + +"Do that mean she fucks us ?" asks the black +teenager still inexperienced in ways of the +flesh. + +"No," says Bob "That means that we fuck with +her mind and not her body." + +"Yeah," says the policeman jumping into the +stream of the conversation "Deep brooks run +silently". + +"Don't go Freudian on me," says Bob. "We need +lots of hard cocks, not soft words." + +Bob gets on the telephone. +He makes a silent call. + +Donna never hears the plan, never knows she will +be the victim of a reverse gang bang, she only +knows what she can see, shortly after Bob hangs +up the phone more men pour through the front door +of her home. + +Whatever is going to happen will involve lots and +lots of men. + +Bob removes the ear protectors from his wife +Donna, and turns the television on to MTV Music. + +"Okay, slut let's see what you can do." + +Donna is frozen, confused by the sudden blaring +of noise. She looks out at the faces of men +crowding her home. There's old wrinkled men, +young muscular guys, heavy fat men, skinny +middle aged fellows. All shapes, all sizes, +and all colors. + +"Come on slut, strut your stuff, get us off," + Bob encourages her. + +The men unzip, taking out their cocks. + +Donna feels intimidated looking at this sea of +cocks. Whatever happens, Donna wants to meet +this challenge head on. She plunges in bravely. +It is a time to sink or swim. Donna can't +afford to sink. If she drowns, it won't be +from water. + +Other men's voices join in. + +"Com'on slut take it off" + +"Dance for us bitch !" + +"Juice me up baby !" + +Donna starts dancing like she's wading through +water. In slow motion, out of sync with the +music, her motions are in counterpoint to the +quick tempo of the MTV music. Her arms spread +out to the sides like she's doing a breast +stroke pushing her tits into the faces of the +admiring men. + +Dancing is not enough. +Men always demand more. She starts stripping. +Slowly, Donna lowers the straps on her night- +gown down over her breasts. She wiggles it +down to her waist letting it fall to her feet. +Donna tries to enflame the minds of men. She +will seduce them with her charms. + +Nudity is not enough. +Donna strips buck naked. Showing her all. Giving +everything. Letting the men's eyes feast on her +nakedness. She even spreads her pussy lips with +her fingers so they can see inside. + +Words are not enough. +Jerking them off with words, Donna tries teasing +them into fucking her. She begs them to fuck her, +to let her suck their cocks, to fill her up like +a camper van stopping at a gas station. + +Nothing is enough. +Nothing Donna does can get the men to fill her +with their cocks. Donna does not get to suck or +fuck. In the end, she gets nothing. + +The men tease her with their cocks. + + "Beg for it, bitch," a fat man sneers. + Donna begs. + + "Please... please give it to me," she whimpers. + "Give you what, slut?" + + "Please, please fuck me," Donna pleads. + "Fuck you? You want me to fuck you slut ?" + + "Please," she sobs. + "Say it, bitch, say fuck me !" + + "Please fuck me ! Please fuck me !" + "Tell me where you want it, you whore." + + "In... in my hot pussy. I want it in my pussy !" + "You want me to fuck your juicy cunt ?" + + "Yes," she moans. "Stick it in my cunt! + +Donna collapses onto the floor shivering with +desire. + +A tall black man with bad teeth walks over +to her. He bends down close to her face +like he's going to kiss her. He's so close +Donna can smell his sour breath. He whispers. + +"Wanna suck my cock ?" + +A shiver trickles down Donna's back from the +feel of his hot sour breath. She can feel +the air of each word against her ear. She lures +the man over into a corner. Her knees go weak +with desire. The mans long black cock dangles +in front of her face. She can see it, smell it, +taste it. Donna opens her mouth and closes her +eyes. She wants to inhale it into her body. She +is ready to suck it off like no cock has ever +been sucked. Her lips are open wide surrounding +the tip of the cock. She can feel the heat +radiating from the cockhead. She's ready to +clamp down on it with a silky smooth suction +that will make him blast his load into her mouth. +Just as her lips close, the cock withdraws, the +man backs up. Donna's lips close on empty air. +She opens her eyes in shock. + +Donna watches at the tall thin man jerks his cock +off into a familiar looking plastic mixing bowl. +She sees the hot white ejaculate explode into the +bowl, dripping down the edges, the last few drops +of cum dropping like molten lead. + +Spurt by spurt. + +Other men follow the lead of the tall man. They +spit their sperm into the plastic mixing bowl. +Forming a line, taking their turn, they let go +with streams of stringy white jissum. + +Spurt by spurt. + +Donna watches the line of men move forward. The +contents of the bowel rise as the line dwindles. +It reminds her of something. Maybe egg whites, +maybe fondue. She can't take her eyes off the +bowl. + +Spurt by spurt. + +Donna is allowed to hold the bowl while the men +jack off. She can feel the warmth rising along +the sides. She can feel the weight of the bowel, +she can smell it, she can hear wet spurts of cum. + +Spurt by spurt. + +Her hands grow sweaty. She fears dropping the +bowel, spilling out millions of sperm upon the +carpet. She grips it more tightly. This isn't +just some inert liquid. This is live sperm. She +can almost feel the bowl vibrating. The bowl is +vibrating, but Donna realizes she is shaking, +nervous with anticipation wanting to soak her +face into the goop, wanting to drink it, pour +it into her pussy and dump it onto her breasts. + +Spurt by spurt. + +Donna no longer trusts herself to hold the +bowl without dropping it. She carefully, and +reluctantly sets it down on the table. This is +too important for a woman to ruin. + +Spurt by spurt. + +The men exit the house after dumping their +loads. Donna is sad to see them go, but glad +to see the bowl filling up. This will ber cum +to drink, pour into her mouth, spread on her +breasts, dump into her aching cunt. When all +the men are gone the bowl will be hers. + +Spurt by spurt. + +The hours pass. As the line of men decreases, +the volume of the bowl increases and the +reverse gang bang come to end. Donna puts +back on her white bra and panties. She slips +into her old pink bathrobe in resignation that +her efforts to excite men have failed. Her mind +flirts with the failures of the past like a moth +drawn to a light. + +Spurt by spurt. + +As the last man leaves, Bob closes the front door. +He turns off MTV and turns on the VCR and goes to +bed. The house returns to normal. The video tape +of Donna flickers to life. Like an old porno movie, +Donna's life is caught in a loop. + +Donna watches the TV which becomes her reality. + +Donna, her light blond hair pulled back and tied +with a red ribbon, attends to her family like a +waitress. She looks like hired help, a servant. +She wears an old pink bathrobe instead of a white +waitress's uniform. Underneath the robe is nothing +but a white bra and panties. + + +Donna dunks a wooden spoon into the thick white +goo, letting it drip slowly from the spoon. She +is making breakfeast, but the bowl forces her to +think of sex. Donna daydreams that she's mixing a +large bowl of cum. + +Donna has never been comfortable being tall. She is +sitting down. The early morning kitchen smells of +coffee, heated maple syrup, and fresh pancake batter. +Everything looks perfect. Donna covers the top of her +coffee cup with her left hand, feeling the moist heat +while her right hand works rythmically out-of-sight, +between her legs. She tilts her head slightly to the +left in a quirky smile. + + Her hand trembles. + +She gives up. It isn't working. The voices have returned. + + "Begin action", the voices say, soft as a whisper ..... + +________________________________________________________ + + +--------------4BE269A546E8-- + + +